I.K. Amanova, A.T. Kamzanova
PSYCHOLOGY
Almaty 2016
1
Approved by the Ministry of Education and Science, Republican scientific
and practical center "Textbook"
Reviewers:
O.H. Aimagambetova – Doctor of Psychological science, Professor of Department of
general and applied psychology of the Kazakh National University named after Al-Farabi;
A.K. Satova - Doctor of Psychological science, Professor of the Institude of Pedagogy and
Psychology of the Kazakh National Pedagogical University named after Abai;
N.S. Ahtayeva – Doctor of Psychological science, Professor of department of General and
applied psychology of the Kazakh National University named after Al-Farabi.
I.K. Amanova, A.T. Kamzanova
Psychology: Textbook. – Almaty, 2016. – 331 p.
ISBN
The textbook is written for the discipline "Psychology" in accordance with the
standard curriculum for the group of specialty "Education". In the Textbook was
included latest achievements and general issues of psychology, mental and
cognitive processes, problems of personality, activity and communication,
properties of emotion and volition, individually-typological features of personality
and problems of human intelligence. The textbook is richly illustrated, has a
glossary of basic psychological terms.
The textbook is designed for students, lecturers of universities and a wide
range of readers who interested in the problems of modern psychology.
2
CONTENTS
PREFACE
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
1.1 Subject and Tasks of Psychology
1.2 History of Psychology
1.3 Psychic Phenomena
1.4 Branches of Psychology
1.5 Methodological Principles of Psychology
1.6 Methods of Psychology
CHAPTER 2 PSYCHE AND CONSCIOUSNESS
2.1 Brain and Mind
2.2 Development of Psyche
2.3 Difference between Human Psyche and Animal One
2.4 Consciousness as the Highest Form of Mental Development
2.5 Structure and Content of Consciousness
2.6 Functions of Consciousness
2.7 Consciousness and Unconscious
2.8 Consciousness and Self-awareness
CHAPTER 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF ACTIVITY
3.1 Concept of Activity in Psychology
3.2 Psychological Theory of Activity
3.3 Motivational and Personal Aspects of Performance
3.4 Relation between Motives and Personality
3.5 Structure and Types of Activity
3.6 Types of Activity
3.7 Psychological Theory of Learning Activities
3.8 Motivation and Activity
3.9 Personality Types of Motives
CHAPTER 4 SENSORY-PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES. SENSATION
4.1 Sensation as a Basis of Cognition
4.2 Properties of Sensations
4.3 Types of Sensations
CHAPTER 5 PERCEPTION
5.1 Measurement of Sensation
5.2 Perception and its Features
5.3 Types of Perception
5.4 Involuntary and Voluntary Perceptions
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CHAPTER 6 ATTENTION AND MEMORY
6.1 The Concept of Attention
6.2 Types of Attention
6.3 Basic Properties of Attention
6.4 Theoretical Models of Attention Research
6.5 The Concept of Memory
6.6 Types of Memory
6.7 Main Mnemonic Processes
6.8 Theories of Memory
CHAPTER 7 IMAGINATION
7.1 The Concept of Imagination
7.2 Functions of Imagination
7.3 Physiological basis of Imagination
7.4 Types of Imagination
7.5 Basic Properties and Techniques of Imagination
7.6 Theories of Imagination
7.7 Development of Imagination
CHAPTER 8 THINKING AND LANGUAGE
8.1 General Characteristics of Thinking
8.2 Main Types of Thinking
8.3 Forms of Thinking
8.4 Theories of Thinking
8.5 Intelligence and Thinking
8.6 The Problem of Artificial Intelligence
8.7 Language and speech. Thinking and Speech Development
8.8 Types and Functions of Speech
8.9 Applied aspects of Using Speech
8.10 Violations of Speech Function
CHAPTER 9 REGULATORY PROCESSES OF MIND
9.1 Concept of “Emotion” in Psychology
9.2 Types of Emotional States
9.3 Theories of Emotion
9.4 Psychology of Stress
9.5 Will and Volition
9.6 Volition and its structure
9.7 The Will as Activity
9.8 Psychological Features of Emotional Intelligence
CHAPTER 10 PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONALITY
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10.1 Introduction to Personality Psychology
10.2 Structure of Personality
10.3 Orientation of Personality and Activity
10.4 Theories of Personality
CHAPTER 11 TEMPERAMENT
11.1 Historical Ideas about Temperament
11.2 Types and Properties of Temperaments
11.3 Individual Style of Activity
11.4 Temperament and Education Issues
CHAPTER 12 PSYCHOLOGY OF CHARACTER
12.1 The Concept of Character
12.2 Structure of Character
12.3 Typology of Character
12.4 Forming of Character
CHAPTER 13 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND TALENT
13.1 Introduction to Psychology of Abilities
13.2 Types and Levels of Ability
13.3 Psychology of Giftedness, Talent And Genius
13.4 Correlates of Abilities
CHAPTER 14 COMMUNICATION PSYCHOLOGY
14.1 Introduction to Communication Psychology
14.2 Features of Effective Communication
14.3 Effective Communication and Current Technology
14.4 Culture and Communication
CHAPTER 15 PSYCHOLOGY OF CONFLICT
15.1 Introduction to Psychology of Conflict
15.2 Classification of Conflict
15.3 Stages of Conflict
15.4 Conflict Behavior
15.5 Conflict Management
TEST QUESTIONS OF THE SUBJECT "PSYCHOLOGY"
GLOSSARY
THE RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
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PREFACE
The textbook presents a holistic view on psychological science, which
integrates huge knowledge about mechanisms of human mind development and its
functioning. The textbook is also prepared for the purpose of systematization
students' knowledge about psychological science, its history, psychological
theories and concepts, reflecting different views on the functioning of the various
mental phenomena; to create understanding about methods and principles of
psychological science. Applied objectives of the course psychology is to form
skills of students to apply psychological knowledge in their future professional
activities for its efficient implementation, as well as to better understand
themselves and others, to form harmonious relations with others.
The textbook covers substantive content of the course of "Psychology" in
basic areas: Mind and Consciousness, Human Behavior and Activity, main
classification of Cognitive Processes and its’ psychophysiological and
psychological characteristics, individual differences of Personality and general
knowledge about Interpersonal Communication as important areas of Social
Psychology. Each of these chapters reviews main pertinent sources of information
in domestic and foreign scientific literature that contain main classical and current
understanding of psychophysiological and psychological features of behavior and
mind. Also in the textbook were included information about current research areas
and scientific findings in Psychology, description of basic practical applications of
psychological knowledge.
This textbook helps reader to get scientific knowledge about current
theoretical approaches in psychology, understand main directions in applied
psychology and to create ability to distinguish scientific psychological knowledge
from unscientific one.
The textbook presents main concepts and ideas of worldwide known classical
psychologists, such as R. Descartes, W. Wundt. E. Thorndike, B. Skinner, S.
Freud, M. Wertheimer, W. Keller, K. Koffka, K. Dunker, J. Piaget, E.Kretschmer
and W.H. Sheldon, A. Maslow, U.Neiser, J.Bruner, Russian scientists I.M.
Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov, L.S.Vygotsky, S.L.Rubinstein, B.G.Ananiev, B.M.Teplov,
A.N. Leontiev, Kazakhstani scientists like K.B.Zharikbaev, S.M.Dzhakupov and
others who developed methodological basis of psychological science. In addition,
this textbook was prepared for educating readers to make analysis of present
research areas in Psychology with its classical theoretical knowledge.
The authors address this textbook for needs and interests of undergraduate
students of pedagogical specialties, lecturers of Psychology Departments and all
other professionals who is interested in the theoretical and applied aspects of
Psychology.
The structure of the textbook consists of 15 chapters. At the end of each
chapter, the authors included several questions and tasks for independent work of
6
students and list of recommended literature. The glossary of psychological terms
and full bibliography list are included at the end of the textbook.
The content and structure of the textbook complies with worldwide standards
and requirements of writing of educational and methodical literature. The authors
try to do their best in order to update the classic educational material on the subject
of "Psychology" by taking into account the latest achievements of psychological
science.
The textbook is prepared in accordance with the standard curriculum of
discipline “Psychology” for students of group of specialities "Education".
7
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
1.1 Subject and Tasks of Psychology
Psychology is a science that can answer many questions that have intrigued
humanity about human being, what kind of features distinguish human from other
species, even more why humans differ from each other. More over Psychology
addresses in depth to philosophical issues like the nature of consciousness and
soul. But it’s also a field that addresses to applied issues such as how to cope with
psychological problems, how to raise children, or even how to make people
happier.
The term "Psychology" is formed from two Greek words “psyche” meaning
“soul” and “logos” meaning “knowledge” or “explanation”. This construction of
words reflects traditional name of any science, where one part denotes an object of
science, and the other the method of its attainment. Thus, Psychology is the science
of soul or in current version is the science of mind.
Definition
Psychology is the study of the mind, including
consciousness, perception, motivation, behavior, the
biology of the nervous system in its relation to mind,
scientific methods of studying the mind, cognition, social
interactions in relation to mind, individual differences,
and the application of these approaches to practical
problems in organization and commerce and especially to
the alleviation of suffering1.
According to Y.B. Gippenreiter, psychology is the complex science that is
known to mankind. After all, the mind is the property of highly organized matter.
If we keep in mind the human psyche, that to words "highly organized matter"
must be added the word "most": because the human brain is the most highly
organized matter, known to us.
One of the founders of Russian psychology A.N. Leontiev gave the following
definition: "Psychology is the science of the laws of development and functioning
of mental reflection during lifespan and human activities".
The main object of psychology is the person who is included in the set of
relations with the physical, biological and social world by acting as the subject of
activity, cognition and communication. Psychology examines the inner conscious
or unconscious world of subjective (psychic) phenomena, processes and states, as
well as behavior. Thus, current Psychology can be defined as the scientific study of
1
All definitions in the Textbook were taken from The Cambridge Dictionary of Psychology. General Editor David
Matsumoto. Cambridge University Press 2009
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behavior and internal mental processes, as well as the practical application of
acquired knowledge about mind.
Psychology covers a lot of important topics about psychological issues,
concerned with human feelings, beliefs, actions, and biological issues, examines
how we act in groups, including how we treat each other and feel about each other,
concerned with the functioning of the nervous system in order to understand the
diversity within our field, understand each person as an individual.
Why do we do the things that we do? Why do we feel the things we feel, or
say the things we say? Why do we find one person attractive and another person
obnoxious? Why some people are happy most of the time, while others seem
unhappy? Why do some children behave properly, or learn easily, while others do
not? Questions like these all fall within the scope of psychology. Thus, Psychology
defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Key Takeaways
about Psychology
• Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behaviour.
• Though it is easy to think that everyday situations have common sense answers,
scientific studies have found that people are not always as good at predicting
outcomes as they think they are.
• The hindsight bias leads us to think that we could have predicted events that we
actually could not have predicted.
• People are frequently unaware of the causes of their own behaviours.
• Psychologists use the scientific method to collect, analyze, and interpret
evidence.
• Employing the scientific method allows the scientist to collect empirical data
objectively, which adds to the accumulation of scientific knowledge.
• Psychological phenomena are complex, and making predictions about them is
difficult because of individual differences and because they are multiply
determined at different levels of explanation.
1.2 History of Psychology
Main role of historical development of scientific psychology is to extend the
subject of psychology and create scientific knowledge about mind and behavior.
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Table 1 illustrates main historical background of development of Psychological
science.
Table 1 Main stages of History of Psychology
Date
Psychologist (s)
570-500 BC Pythagoras
460-377 BC Hippocrates
Main psychological ideas, contribution etc.
Ancient period
The soul, immortal, indestructible and
repeatedly incarnate in living beings in
accordance with certain numerical laws.
Orderly arrangements Pythagoras saw in
human society as well as in the universe.
Pythagoras believed the body was a container
for the soul whose object was eventually to
purify itself so it could become free of the
body. Meanwhile, human shortcomings
resulted in climbing backwards down what
was called the evolutionary scale in each
successive re-incarnation.
The doctrine of temperaments
According to his description, type of
temperament depends on the balance in the
human body of various fluids: blood, bile and
lymph.
469-399 BC Socrates
Established epistemology, the branch of
philosophy that investigates the origin, nature,
methods, and limits of human knowledge.
Socratic dialogues
428-348 BC Platon
Role of nature in psychological
development. Plato describes the soul as
divided into three parts, labeled appetitive,
spirited, and rational. He offers this division
partly as a way of explaining our
psychological complexity and partly to
provide a justification for philosophy as the
highest of all pursuits, because it corresponds
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to the highest part of the soul—the rational
part.
384-322 BC Aristotle
In Para Psyche, Aristotle's psychology
proposed that the mind was the 'first
entelechy, or primary reason for the existence
and functioning of the body. He proposed that
there were three types of souls defining life;
the plant soul, the animal soul and the human
soul, which gave humanity the unique ability
to reason and create. This human soul was the
ultimate link with the divine and Aristotle
believed that mind and reason could exist
independently of the body.
Development of psychological thought in the Middle Ages and the
Renaissance
350-430
The First Western Psychologist considered
St. Augustine
introspection as a method of study the soul. As
a neo-platonist, Augustine touched upon many
psychology-based areas, blending them with
philosophy and theology. For example, he
touched upon the motivations of infants, as
well as memory, the origins of grief, and the
unconscious desires and motivations of
dreams.
1225-1274 St. Thomas
St. Thomas Aquinas is considered a great
contributor to psychology with his focus on
Aquinas
the reconciliation of supernaturalism with
rationalism He also developed the teachings of
the Church and recovered the works of
Aristotle. Specifies the term "reflection" by
describing it as the successive phases of
getting knowledge about world.
1452–1519
Leonardo
Vinci
da
Leonardo da Vinci considered the system
of basic emotional states such as affects that
person can experience
11
1642-1726
1561-1626
1596-1650
Development of Psychology in Modern Period
Main requirement of experiment in science.
Newton
The physics of relationships. He explained
how several aspects of the law of motion also
apply to interpersonal relationships. He has
applying that equation to a relationship, think
of the F as the emotional impact, the m as the
person, and the as the content and delivery of a
feeling. The Emotional Impact is the product
of a Person and the Feeling Delivered by that
person.
The traditional division of a rational soul
Francis Bacon
and unsustainable irrational soul Francis
Bacon offers two accounts of the nature and
function of the human mind: one is a medicalphysical account of the composition and
operation of spirits specific to human beings,
the other is a behavioral account of the
character and activities of individual persons.
Both of Bacon's theories of human nature fall
under his general notion of systematic science:
The soul was associated with thinking
Rene Descartes
ability. Reflex as a basis of behavior. He
arrived at the conclusion that the one thing he
could be sure of was his own act of
doubting—a mental process. "I think,
therefore I am," he built a philosophy that
gave to the workings of the individual mind
priority over both immediate sensory
experience and received wisdom. Descartes
postulated a radical mind-body dualism,
claiming that the universe consisted of two
utterly distinct substances: mind ("thinking
substance" or res cogitans) and matter
("physical substance" or res extensa). Thus, he
separated mental phenomena from the
comprehensive mechanistic explanation he
gave for the workings of matter and material
things, including the human body, which he
divided into ten physiological systems.
12
1646-1716
G.V. Leibniz
The unity of all mental processes. Leibniz
was one of the great Rationalists (Descartes,
Spinoza). He rejected Cartesian dualism and
denied the existence of the material world. He
developed the theory of monads, which means
that which is one. This was a redefinition of
the substrates of reality and the universe. He
was one of the first philosophers to analyze the
importance of the "unconscious" in a person's
mental life (Little Perceptions).
Monads are the fundamental existing
things or units of reality in the universe and are
indivisible. They are like atoms, but differ
because while atoms (at the time) were the
smallest units out of which larger things are
built - monads are non-extended (Leibniz saw
space as an illusion). A monad both exhibits
properties but also contains all of the
properties it could exhibit in the future. It is all
folded up within itself, and unfolds when it has
sufficient reason to do so. It also contains
within itself all of its relations to all other
monads in the universe, so it is self-sufficient.
This means that it does not need to be related
or influenced by other monads.
This view of the universe then supports his
idea that cause and effect is an illusion:
Example. There are two clocks on different
sides of a room with the same time on both. A
person may believe that one clock is the master
clock and keeps the other correct. If two things
behave in a corresponding way, then it is
assumed (with no evidence) that there is
causation.
However,
someone
who
understands clocks can verify that the two
clocks have no influence on the other, but have
a common cause (the last person to wind/set
the clock).
Monads are like the clocks, behaving
independently but synchronized with each
other by God (according to His concept of a
perfect universe). Leibniz states that every
monad mirrors the whole of the universe in
13
1632-1704
1588-1679
that it expresses every other monad. This
means that one's soul will have an infinite
number and complexity of perceptions, but one
is not aware of these. Consciousness of a
perception is always a blurred composite of
perceptions.
The theory of monads also impacted the
nature of empiricism, which was an important
philosophical concept at the time.
“Tabula Rasa”: The mind is a blank slate
J. Locke
written on by experience. Locke is thus an
environmentalist on the nature/nurture
question. He stressed the importance of
rewards, punishments and imitation (social
learning), and is thus a forerunner of 20thcentury behaviorism. Locke believed that
children were innately curious (as did
Rousseau and Piaget).
Locke is also known for his emphasis on
early experience. (Freud is another historical
figure who emphasized early experience.)
Locke believed that children are most open to
environmental influences when they are
young. He is generally optimistic about
changing humans for the better, but early
intervention is best: "As the twig is bent, so
grows the tree."
“Association” as the link between mental
Thomas Hobbes
images and representation. Hobbes believed
that understanding the psychology of individuals
was necessary before one could develop an
understanding of the state and government. He
believed that humans are fearful and predatory,
and must submit completely to the supremacy of
the state in both secular and religious concerns.
Hobbes asserted that there is a difference
between knowledge and faith, which resulted in
charges of atheistic tendencies. He is considered
the first modern social psychologist because of
his emphasis on the relationship between the
individual and society. (Microsoft Encarta)
Hobbes attempted to explain human
motivation by applying mechanistic principles
(a philosophy that attempts to explain the
14
1801-1887
universe as mechanical processes or movement),
thereby contributing to psychology and laying
the foundations of sociology. He also stressed
the role of experience as the source of human
knowledge. He theorized that all human actions
are based on material phenomena. Hobbes
concluded that humans were stimulated by
"appetite" or movement toward an object,
similar to pleasure and "aversion" or movement
away from an object, similar to pain. Hobbes's
doctrine that human behavior is directed by selfinterest is now known as psychological
hedonism.
Hobbes rejected supernaturalistic beliefs
and utilized the materialistic explanation of
mechanistic
principles
to
explain
all
phenomena. He believed that the mental
processes were the result of the motion of brain
atoms activated by motions in the external
world. He maintained that sensations lead to
simple ideas, and simple ideas merge to form
complex ones. Basically, all cognitions are
transformed sensations. (Zusne)
Hobbes clearly stated the principle of
association of ideas in terms of temporal
sequences or "trains" of thought, "coherence"
(i.e., contiguity) as a factor in association, habit
and desire as guides of attention, repetition as a
factor in association, and distinguishes between
free and controlled association of ideas.
Hobbes stressed the motivational aspects of
passions and desires, especially the desire for
power. He mentions the fact that passions may
distort reason, distinguishes between innate and
acquired emotions, and even outlines a theory of
humor and laughter.
German philosopher, physicist and experiGustav Fechner
mental psychologist. An early pioneer in
experimental psychology and founder of
psychophysics. He is also credited with
demonstrating the non-linear relationship
between psychological sensation and the
physical intensity of a stimulus.
Fechner's epoch-making work was his
15
1832-1920
W. Wundt
1833-1911
W. Dilthey
Elemente der Psychophysik (1860). He starts
from the monistic thought that bodily facts and
conscious facts, though not reducible one to
the other, are different sides of one reality. His
originality lies in trying to discover an exact
mathematical relation between them. The most
famous outcome of his inquiries is the law
known as the Weber–Fechner law which may
be expressed as follows:
"In order that the intensity of a sensation
may increase in arithmetical progression, the
stimulus must increase in geometrical
progression"
Psychology as a science
He established the first experimental
psychological laboratory. This event marked
the emergence of the experimental method in
psychology, and in 1879 was the birth year of
scientific psychology. Then criticism of
introspection as a method was developed
because by introspection it was impossible
simultaneously perform an action and to
analyze it.
In his work Ideas Concerning a
Descriptive and Analytic Psychology he
introduced a distinction between explanatory
psychology (explanative psychology) also
and descriptive psychology (also analytic
psychology): in his terminology, explanatory
psychology is the study of psychological
phenomena from a third-person point of view,
which involves their subordination to a system
of causality, while descriptive psychology is a
discipline that attempts to explicate how
different mental processes converge in the
"structural nexus of consciousness.
The distinction is based on the more
general
distinction
between
explanatory/explanative, on the one hand, and
descriptive/interpretive sciences, on the
other—see below. In his later work, he used
the alternative term structural psychology for
descriptive psychology.
16
1842-1910
W. James
1850-1909
H. Ebbinghaus
1878-1958
J. Watson
1880-1943
M. Wertheimer
The Principles of Psychology is an 1890
book about psychology by an American
philosopher and psychologist. There are four
methods from James' book: stream of
consciousness
(James'
most
famous
psychological metaphor); emotion (later
known as the James–Lange theory); habit
(human habits are constantly formed to
achieve certain results); and will (through
James' personal experiences in life). SelfEsteem formula
A German psychologist who pioneered
the experimental study of memory, and is
known for his discovery of the forgetting
curve and the spacing effect. He was also the
first person to describe the learning curve
An American psychologist who is
considered the father of the psychological
school
of
behaviorism.
Behaviorism,
according to Watson, was the science of
observable behavior. Only behavior that could
be observed, recorded and measured was of
any real value for the study of humans or
animals. Stimulus – Reaction formula of
behavior
An Austro-Hungarian-born psychologist
who was one of the three founders of Gestalt
psychology, along with Kurt Koffka and
Wolfgang Köhler. He is known for his book,
Productive Thinking, and for conceiving the
phi phenomenon as part of his work in Gestalt
psychology.
Max Wertheimer began the formal
founding of Gestalt psychology in 1910 as he
began experiments on the phi phenomenon. He
published these experiments in a paper titled
"Experimental Studies on the Perception of
Movement". The phi phenomenon is apparent
movement caused by alternating light
positions. He illustrated this phenomenon on
17
1856-1939
S. Freud
an apparatus he built that utilized two discrete
lights on different locations. Although the
lights are stationary, flashing the lights at
succeeding time intervals causes the retina to
perceive the light as moving. Wertheimer
worked with partners Koffka and Köhler to
collect data which ultimately led to their
launch of the Gestalt movement. Their
findings further demonstrated that the quality
of the whole is different from the sum of the
parts. The explanation of the phi phenomena
was that movement is perceived because the
eye itself moves in response to the successive
flashes of light. The movement an observer
experiences is based on feedback from the
moving eye.
An Austrian neurologist and the founder
of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for
treating psychopathology through dialogue
between a patient and a psychoanalyst.
Freud developed therapeutic techniques
such as the use of free association and
discovered transference, establishing its
central role in the analytic process. Freud's
redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile
forms led him to formulate the Oedipus
complex
as
the
central
tenet
of
psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of
dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with
models for the clinical analysis of symptom
formation and the underlying mechanisms of
depression. On this basis Freud elaborated his
theory of the unconscious and went on to
develop a model of psychic structure
comprising id, ego and super-ego. Freud
postulated the existence of libido, an energy
with which mental processes and structures are
invested and which generates erotic
attachments, and a death drive, the source of
compulsive repetition, hate, aggression and
neurotic guilt. In his later work Freud
developed a wide-ranging interpretation and
critique of religion and culture.
18
XX
century
They are the founders of cognitive
psychology. Cognitive psychology is the
scienitific study of the mind as an information
1915-2016
processor. Cognitive psychologists try to build
up cognitive models of the information
processing that goes on inside people’s minds,
including perception, attention, language,
memory, thinking and consciousness.
Cognitive psychology became of great
importance in the mid 1950s. Several factors
1928-2012
were important in this:
• Dissatisfaction with the behaviorist
approach in its simple emphasis on external
behavior rather than internal processes.
• The
development
of
better
experimental methods.
• Comparison between human and
computer processing of information.
The emphasis of psychology shifted away
from the study of conditioned behaviour and
psychoanalytical notions about the study of the
mind, towards the understanding of human
information processing, using strict and
rigorous laboratory investigation.
Russian and Soviet psychology (beginning of XX century)
A Russian physiologist known primarily
1849-1936 I. Pavlov
for his work in classical conditioning. Pavlov
won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or
Medicine in 1904, becoming the first Russian
Nobel laureate. Pavlov contributed to many
areas of physiology and neurological sciences.
Most of his work involved research in
temperament, (citation needed) conditioning
and involuntary reflex actions.
1889—
He formulated the principle of "Unity of
S.L.Rubinshtein
1960
Consciousness and Activity." and actively
developed methodological principles of
consistency and determinism in psychology
Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein (1889–1960)
was a soviet psychologist. In 1921 he became
the professor of the department of philosophy
and psychology in Novorossiysk university.
He
is
known
for
discovering
D. Bruner and
U. Neisser
19
1896-1934
L.S. Vygotsky
1903-1979
A.N. Leontiev
fundamentally new and highly promising
trends in the development of psychological
science and philosophy. For his work “The
principles of general psychology” he was
awarded the Stalin Prize in 1942. 1962 Monograph "The Principles and the
development of psychology" was published.
The Cultural-Historical Approach in
Psychology. Theory of Higher Mental
Functions. L.S. Vygotsky was a Soviet
psychologist, the founder of a theory of human
cultural
and
bio-social
development
commonly referred to as cultural-historical
psychology, and leader of the Vygotsky Circle
(also referred to as 'Vygotsky-Luria Circle').
Vygotsky's main work was in
developmental psychology, and he proposed a
theory of the development of higher cognitive
functions in children that saw reasoning as
emerging through practical activity in a social
environment. During the earlier period of his
career he argued that the development of
reasoning was mediated by signs and symbols,
and therefore contingent on cultural practices
and language as well as on universal cognitive
processes. He identified play, especially for
young children, as the leading source of
development in terms of emotional, social,
physical, language or cognitive development.
Developer of Activity Theory in
psychology. Conducted analysis of the
microstructure of activity. Leont'ev's early
scientific work was done in the framework of
Vygotsky's
cultural-historical
research
program and focused on the exploration of the
phenomenon
of
cultural
mediation.
Representative of this period is Leontiev's
study on mediated memory in children and
adults the development of higher forms of
memory, 1931. Leont'ev's own research school
is based on the thorough psychological
analysis of the phenomenon of activity.
Systematic development of the psychological
20
1904-1984
D.B. Elkonin
1930- 1998 V.V. Davidov
1910-1962
foundations of activity theory was started in
the 1930-s by Kharkov group of psychologists
headed by Leont'ev and included such
researchers as Zaporozhets, Gal'perin,
Zinchenko, Bozhovich, Asnin, Lukov, etc. In
its fullest form, activity theory was
subsequently developed and institutionalized
as the leading psychological doctrine in the
Soviet Union.
He is a Soviet psychologist, the
developer of periodization of mental
development of the child. The concept of
types of leading activity on the different age
stages. The Psychology of Preschool
Children. The main monograph “Psychology
of Play”, In his opinion the complex process
of mastering social experience requires his
participation in certain activities at each stage
of development: for an infant, the
manipulation of objects; for a preschool child,
games; and for a school-age child, learning
combined with various types of mutually
useful tasks.
The author of the Theory of
Developmental Education and The Formation
of Learning Activity. The main thesis: The
present conditions in the primary school age
can solve specific educational goals, provided
the development of students' abstract
theoretical thinking and arbitrary behavior
management
Psychology in Kazakhstan
T. T. Tazhibaev will become the first Kazakh
T. Tazhibayev
professional psychologist, defended candidate
and doctoral thesis in Leningrad. It Tazhibaev
will lay the Foundation for the development of
local psychological science, opened in 1947
the Department of Psychology and Logic in
the Kazakh State University. In the
fundamental scientific work "the story of the
development of pedagogy and psychology in
the late XIX century in Kazakhstan", he wrote
21
1920-1985
1929-
about the systemic linkages and the continuity
of psychological-pedagogical concepts of the
traditional "folk pedagogy" and pedagogy,
based on the results of scientific researches of
great Kazakh scientists and educators of the
Abai Kunanbaev, Ch. Valihanov and
I.Altynsarin
M.M. Mukanov Founder of scientific psychological school in
Kazakhstan, the developer of the historical and
ethnic concepts in modern psychology.
Created psychological direction of rational and
systematic study of human intellectual
activity, taking into account the ethnic
determinants of its behavior, activities and
communication
K.B. Zharikbaev Problems of History of psychology in
Kazakhstan, Ethnic psychology and ethnic
pedagogy
of
Cognitive
Activity.
1950- 2014 S.M.Dzhakupov Psychology
Psychological structure of the learning
process, The author of Theory of JointlyDialogic Cognitive Activity, Experimental
Ethnic Psychology
Let us analyse general stages of extending psychological knowledge and
changes of subject of Psychology during the sciences’ historical development:
First stage is accumulating non-scientific knowledge about human and his
relationship with the world surrounding him.
Second stage is considering the soul as the subject of Psychology during the
time of philosophical and religious thought.
Third stage - regarding Descartes' ideas consciousness became as the subject
of Psychology.
Fourth stage - knowledge about deep area of the psyche and human desires
change the subject of Psychology to unconscious
22
Fifth stage - conducting experiments contributed Responses of the body as
Subject of Psychology.
Understanding of psychology as science was not formed at once. The process
of its formation took place in four stages.
1st stage (V century BC) the subject of study was soul. Ideas about the soul
were both idealistic and materialistic. The idealist Platon believed the soul was
immaterial, invisible, immortal, and the materialist Heraclitus and Democritus
believed that soul depends on material substrate. Further, materialism was
prohibited by foundation of the religion (until the XVII century). During this
period, the soul came as a distinct entity which was independent from body. René
Descartes (1596-1650) developed dualistic approach where the soul was associated
with thinking ability and rreflex as a basis of behavior.
The 2nd stage (XVII century) was marked by the rapid development of
psychology as a science. Such concepts were understood as ability to feel, to
desire, to think. Method of studying consciousness was introspection, as selfobservation. Within introspective psychology in 1879 in Leipzig Wilhelm
Wundt (1832-1920) established the first experimental psychological laboratory.
This event marked the emergence of the experimental method in psychology, and
in 1879 was the birth year of scientific psychology. Then criticism of introspection
as a method was developed because by introspection it was impossible
simultaneously perform an action and to analyze it.
The 3rd stage (XIX century) the subject of psychology was changed to
behavior. American scientist John Watson (1878-1958), Clark Hall (1884-1952)
developed powerful scientific direction in American psychology, which was called
behaviorism. The behavior was explained by the nature of the stimulus that causes
a reaction (behavior). At this time, there were several attempts to explain the
behavior by not only stimuli, but also other factors. Therefore, other basic
psychological concepts were developed:
John Broadus Watson, who lived from 1879 to 1958, was an American
psychologist who is considered the father of the psychological school
of behaviorism.
The Roots of Behaviorism. By the time, Watson began teaching at Johns
Hopkins, the official discipline of psychology was barely 30 years old, having
started in Europe in 1879. Watson was one of the early American psychologists to
break the Freudian notions that our unconscious mind was behind most of our
behavior. These ideas were quickly gaining acceptance among psychologists in
Europe and later in the United States. Watson made his most memorable
declaration against Freud's theory at a lecture he delivered in 1913 at Columbia
University titled 'Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It.' This lecture established
Watson as a pioneer of a new school of thought that would later become known as
behaviorism.
Behaviorism, according to Watson, was the science of observable behavior.
Only behavior that could be observed, recorded and measured was of any real
23
value for the study of humans or animals. Watson's thinking was significantly
influenced by the earlier classical conditioning experiments of Russian
psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his now infamous dogs.
Watson's behaviorism rejected the concept of the unconscious and the internal
mental state of a person because it was not observable and was subject to the
psychologist's subjective interpretation. For example, Freud would ask his patients
to tell him their dreams. He would then interpret the dreams and analyze what
these dreams were indicating in the person's life. Watson found this emphasis on
introspection and subjective interpretation to be very unscientific and unhelpful in
understanding behavior.
Watson is best known for taking his theory of behaviorism and applying it
to child development. He believed strongly that a child's environment is the factor
that shapes behaviors over their genetic makeup or natural temperament. Watson is
famous for saying that he could take a 'dozen healthy infants... and train any one of
them to become any type of specialist he might select - doctor, lawyer, artist,
merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief.' In other words, he believed
that you can expose the child to certain environmental forces and, over time,
condition that child to become any type of person you want. As you might
imagine, this was radical thinking and a type of behavioral control that many
people were not comfortable with at that time.
Skinner and Operant Behavior. Thorndike initiated the experimental study of
instrumental behavior; but, unquestionably, the psychologist who shaped the way
most modern learning theorists think about the subject was B. F. Skinner (1904–
1990). Skinner was one of the first theorists to insist on a sharp distinction between
classical and instrumental condition- ing. He noted that in classical conditioning,
the animal’s behavior is elicited by the US. Salivation, for example, is set off by an
event outside the organism. But in instrumen- tal conditioning, Skinner argued, the
organism is much less at the mercy of external factors. Its reactions are emitted
from within, as if they were what we ordinarily call “voluntary.” Skinner called
these instrumental responses operants: They operate on the environment to bring
about some change that leads to some consequence. And, in Skinner’s view, these
consequences are crucial. Like Thorndike, Skinner argued that an operant followed
by a positive consequence was more likely to be emitted in the future, while an
operant followed by a negative consequence was less likely to be emitted again
(Skinner, 1938).
Skinner believed, however, that Thorndike’s procedure for studying learning
was inefficient. Rather than placing animals in a puzzle box (which required many
minutes for each learning trial), Skinner sought a procedure in which the
instrumental response could be performed repeatedly and rapidly, so that data
could be gathered more easily. Many of his studies therefore employed an
experimental chamber (popularly called the Skinner box) in which a rat presses a
lever or a pigeon pecks at a lighted key in order to gain a reward. In these
situations, the animal stays in the chamber for a set interval—perhaps an hour at a
24
time—and during that interval, we track the animal’s behavior by recording its
response rate—the number of lever presses or key pecks per unit of time.
The founders of Psychoanalysis are Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), Carl Gustav
Jung (1875-1961), and Alfred Adler (1870-1937) (the subject of psychology is
unconscious).
Psychoanalysis is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques related to the
study of the unconscious mind, which together form a method for the treatment of
mental-health disorders. The discipline was established in the early 1890s by
Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud and stemmed partly from the clinical work
of Josef Breuer and others.
Freud first used the term psychoanalysis (in French) in 1896; his book Die
Traumdeutung (The Interpretation of Dreams), which he saw as his "most
significant work", appeared in November 1899. Psychoanalysis was later
developed in different directions, mostly by students of Freud such as Alfred
Adler and Carl Gustav Jung, and by neo-Freudians such as Erich Fromm, Karen
Horney and Harry Stack Sullivan. Freud retained the term psychoanalysis for his
own school of thought. The basic tenets of psychoanalysis include:
1. a person's development is determined by often forgotten events in early
childhood, rather than by inherited traits alone;
2. human behaviour and cognition is largely determined by irrational drives
that are rooted in the unconscious;
3. attempts to bring those drives into awareness triggers resistance in the form
of defense mechanisms, particularly repression;
4. conflicts between conscious and unconscious material can result in mental
disturbances such as neurosis, neurotic traits, anxiety and depression;
5. unconscious material can be found in dreams and unintentional acts,
including mannerisms and slips of the tongue;
6. liberation from the effects of the unconscious is achieved by bringing this
material into the conscious mind through therapeutic intervention;
7. the "centerpiece of the psychoanalytic process" is the transference, whereby
patients relive their infantile conflicts by projecting onto the analyst feelings of
love, dependence and anger.
During psychoanalytic sessions, which typically last 50 minutes and ideally
take place 4–5 times a week, the patient (the "analysand") may lie on a couch, with
the analyst often sitting just behind and out of sight. The patient expresses his or
her thoughts, including free associations, fantasies and dreams, from which the
analyst infers the unconscious conflicts causing the patient's symptoms and
character problems. Through the analysis of these conflicts, which includes
interpreting the transference and countertransference (the analyst's feelings for the
patient), the analyst confronts the patient's pathological defenses to help the patient
gain insight.
Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German: Gestalt (ɡəˈʃtalt) "shape, form")
is a philosophy of mind of the Berlin School of experimental psychology. The
25
founders of this branch of psychology are Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967), Max
Wertheimer (1880-1943).
Gestalt psychology is an attempt to understand the laws behind the ability to
acquire and maintain meaningful perceptions in an apparently chaotic world. The
central principle of gestalt psychology is that the mind forms a global wholewith
self-organizing tendencies. The assumed physiological mechanisms on which
Gestalt theory rests are poorly defined and support for their existence is
lacking. The Gestalt theory of perception has been criticized as being descriptive of
the end products of perception without providing much insight into the processes
that lead to perception. In the introduction of a recent special issue of the
journal Vision Research on Gestalt perception, the authors concluded that "even
though they study the same phenomena as earlier Gestaltists, there is little
theoretical coherence. What happened to the Gestalt school that always aspired to
provide a unified vision of psychology? Perhaps there is, in fact, little that holds
the classic phenomena of Gestalt psychology together."
This principle maintains that when the human mind (perceptual system) forms
a percept or "gestalt," the whole has a reality of its own, independent of the parts.
The original famous phrase of Gestalt psychologist Kurt Koffka, "The whole
is other than the sum of the parts" is often incorrectly translated as "The whole
is greater than the sum of its parts," and thus used when explaining gestalt theory,
and further incorrectly applied to systems theory. Koffka did not like the
translation. He firmly corrected students who replaced "other" with "greater".
"This is not a principle of addition" he said. The whole has an independent
existence.
In the study of perception, Gestalt psychologists stipulate that perceptions are
the products of complex interactions among various stimuli. Contrary to
the behaviorist approach to focusing on stimulus and response, gestalt
psychologists sought to understand the organization of cognitive processes
(Carlson and Heth, 2010). The gestalt effect is the capability of our brain to
generate whole forms, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of global
figures instead of just collections of simpler and unrelated elements (points, lines,
curves, etc.).
In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism. Gestalt theory, it
is proposed, allows for the deconstruction of the whole situation into its elements.
Cognitive psychology by Ulrich Neiser, Jerome Bruner (subject is study of
cognitive processes).
Behaviorism provided little if any insight into these matters and it was the
work of Donald Broadbent, integrating concepts from human performance research
and the recently developed information theory that forged the way in this area.
Developments in computer science would lead to parallels being drawn
between human thought and the computational functionality of computers, opening
entirely new areas of psychological thought. Allen Newell and Herbert Simon
spent years developing the concept of artificial intelligence (AI) and later worked
26
with cognitive psychologists regarding the implications of AI. The effective result
was more of a framework conceptualization of mental functions with their
counterparts in computers (memory, storage, retrieval, etc.).
Noam Chomsky's 1959 critique of behaviorism, and empiricism more
generally, initiated what would come to be known as the "cognitive revolution".
Formal recognition of the field involved the establishment of research
institutions such as George Mandler's Center for Human Information Processing in
1964. Mandler described the origins of cognitive psychology in a 2002 article in
the Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences.
Ulric Neisser is credited with formally having coined the term "cognitive
psychology" (as regards its contemporary usage) in his book Cognitive
Psychology, published in 1967. Neisser's definition of "cognition" illustrates the
then-progressive concept of cognitive processes:
The term "cognition" refers to all processes by which the sensory input is
transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is concerned with
these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as
in images and hallucinations. ... Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent
that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that
every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon. But although
cognitive psychology is concerned with all human activity rather than some
fraction of it, the concern is from a particular point of view. Other viewpoints are
equally legitimate and necessary.
Dynamic psychology, which begins with motives rather than with sensory
input, is a case in point. Instead of asking how a man's actions and experiences
result from what he saw, remembered, or believed, the dynamic psychologist asks
how they follow from the subject's goals, needs, or instincts.
Genetic psychology by Jean Piaget (1896-1980) (subject is development of
thinking).
The foundations of scientific psychology are also laid in the late XIX - early
XX centuries by establishment of "Reflexology" (V.M. Bekhterev (1857-1927),
B.G. Ananyev (1829-1905) etc.).
4-th stage (XX century) is marked by the emergence of the dialectical
materialist concept in domestic psychology, which was based on the philosophical
theory of reflection of P.P. Blonsky (1884-1941), K.N. Kornilov (1879-1957).
One of the most important trends that emerged in since 1920 till 1930 years,
was the "cultural-historical theory", developed by L.S. Vygotsky (1896-1934), then
the psychological theory of activity developed by A.N. Leontiev (1903-1979)
(subject is psychic activity).
Humanistic Psychology was developed by the Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) (subject of psychology is personality).
Currently, there is integration of different areas. Psychologists use concepts
and methods of one or another direction depending on the peculiarity of problems
and challenges. A unified view on the subject of psychology does not exist.
27
The subject of domestic psychology is psyche and mental activity. However,
definitions of this concept are formulated in different ways.
Thus, subjects of psychology are:
1) The mind as a property of highly organized matter (the brain) to reflect the
objective reality and regulate individual’s activities and his behavior;
2) Patterns, trends, peculiarities of development and functioning of the human
psyche;
3) Facts, regularities and mechanisms of the psyche;
4) Structure of individual’s mental activity and the processes of its
relationship with reality.
Today the subject of Psychology is not the concept of the soul, but the
scientific study of the Psyche, Mind and Activity. Moreover, the current objects of
Psychology are patterns of occurrence and development, as well as the
manifestations of the Human Psyche. In addition, the objects of Psychology also
are cognitive processes and the mental qualities of human as a biosocial system.
The current definition of the psyche: the Psyche is a property of highly
organized matter that is actively and adequately reflects objective reality.
The founders of psychology
Who is considered the "father of psychology"? This question does not
necessarily have a cut-and-dry answer since many individuals have contributed to
the inception, rise, and evolution of modern day psychology. We'll take a closer
look at a single individual who is most often cited as well as other individuals who
are also considered fathers of psychology.
The Father of Modern Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt is the man most commonly identified as the father of
psychology.
Why Wundt? Other people such as Hermann von Helmholtz, Gustav Fechner,
and Ernst Weber were involved in early scientific psychology research, so why are
they not credited as father of psychology?
Because Wundt's formation of the world's first experimental psychology lab is
usually noted at the official start of psychology as a separate and distinct science.
By establishing a lab that utilized scientific methods to study the human mind and
behavior, Wundt took psychology from a mixture of philosophy and biology and
made it a unique field of study.
In addition to making psychology a separate science, Wundt also had a
number of students who went to become influential psychologists themselves.
Edward B. Titchener was responsible for establishing the school of thought
known as structuralism, James McKeen Cattell became the first professor of
psychology in the United States, and G. Stanley Hall established the first
experimental psychology lab in the U.S.
Other Thinkers Also Considered "Fathers of Psychology"
A number of other influential thinkers can also claim to be "Fathers of
Psychology» in some way or another. The following are just a few of these
28
Individuals who are noted in specific areas of psychology:
 William James: The Father of American Psychology; he helped establish
psychology in the U.S. and his book, The Principles of Psychology, became an
instant classic.
 Sigmund Freud: The Father of Psychoanalysis; his theories and work
established psychoanalysis as a major school of thought in psychology.
 Hugo Münsterberg: The Father of Applied Psychology; he was an early
pioneer of several applied areas including clinical, forensic and industrialorganizational psychology.
 John Bowlby: The Father of Attachment Theory; he developed the theory of
attachment.
 Kurt Lewin: The Father of Social Psychology; his work pioneered the use
of scientific methods to study social behavior.
 Edward Thorndike: The Father of Modern Educational Psychology; his
research on the learning process helped establish the foundation for educational
psychology.
 Jean Piaget: The Father of Developmental Psychology; his theory of
cognitive development revolutionized how research thought about children's
intellectual growth.
 Ulric Neisser: The Father of Modern Cognitive Psychology; the cognitive
movement in psychology received a major boost from the publication of his 1967
book, Cognitive Psychology.
 Lightner Witmer: The Father of Modern Clinical Psychology; he founded
the world's first journal devoted to clinical psychology, The Psychological Clinic,
in 1907.
 Gordon Allport: The Father of Personality Psychology; he was one of the
first psychologists to study personality.
Obviously, not everyone is going to agree with these generalized titles. A few
people might suggest that Freud is the father of psychology, since he is perhaps
one of its most "known" figures.
Others might suggest that Aristotle is the true father of psychology, since he is
responsible for the theoretical and philosophical framework that contributed to
psychology's earliest beginnings. Still others might argue that those earliest
researchers such as Helmholtz and Fechner deserve credit as the founders of
psychology.
No matter which side of the argument you are on, one thing that is easy to
agree on is that all of these individuals had an important influence on the growth
and development of psychology.
While the theories of each individual are not necessarily as influential today,
all of these psychologists were important in their own time and had a major impact
on how psychology evolved into what it is today.
29
Key Takeaways
about History of Psychology
• The first psychologists were philosophers, but the field became more empirical
and objective as more sophisticated scientific approaches were developed and
employed.
• Some basic questions asked by psychologists include those about nature
versus nurture, free will versus determinism, accuracy versus inaccuracy, and
conscious versus unconscious processing.
• The structuralists attempted to analyze the nature of consciousness using
introspection.
• The functionalists based their ideas on the work of Darwin, and their
approaches led to the field of evolutionary psychology.
• The behaviourists explained behaviour in terms of stimulus, response, and
reinforcement, while denying the presence of free will.
• Cognitive psychologists study how people perceive, process, and remember
information.
• Psychodynamic psychology focuses on unconscious drives and the potential to
improve lives through psychoanalysis and psychotherapy.
• The social-cultural approach focuses on the social situation, including how
cultures and social norms influence our behaviour.
1.3 Psychic phenomena
Psychology studies a wide variety of psychological phenomena. All mental
phenomena are divided into three groups:
1) mental processes (memory, attention, perception, etc.)
2) mental state (fatigue, agitation, frustration, stress, etc.)
3) mental properties (traits, temperament, focus, values, etc.).
1. Mental processes are elementary psychic phenomena, providing the
primary reflection and awareness of environment stimulus, lasting from fractions
of seconds to tens of minutes or more. As a rule, they have a clear beginning and a
definite ending. In general, mental processes characterized as a living, very plastic,
30
continuous, emerging and evolving process, which generates certain results (for
example, feelings, images, mental operations, etc.).
Mental process is an act of mental activity that has its object of reflection and
its regulatory function. Mental processes are roughly regulative components of
activity.
Mental reflection is the formation of an image of the conditions in which the
activity it carried out. Mental processes are roughly regulating components of
activity.
Mental processes are always included in the more complex types of mental
activity. All mental States are divided into four types:
1. Motivational (desires, aspirations, interests, desire, passion).
2. Emotional (the emotional tone of sensations, emotional response to reality,
mood, conflict emotional state —stress, affect, frustration).
3. Volitional state —initiative, dedication, determination, perseverance (their
classification is associated with the structure of a complex volitional action).
4. State different levels of organization of consciousness (they are manifested
in various levels of care).
Mental processes are shorter than mental states. They are short-term responses
to the situation and are determined by the content of consciousness.
2. Mental states are longer in comparison with the mental processes (this may
take several hours, days or even weeks) and more complex in their structure and
formation. They determine the level of health and quality of human mental
functioning in each time. These include, for instance, active or passive states,
cheerfulness or depression, health or fatigue, irritability, absent-mindedness, good
or bad mood.
Mental state is a temporary peculiarity of mental activity, as determined by
its content and the relation of man to this content.
Mental conditions are relatively stable integration of all mental
manifestations of a person at a certain interaction with reality. Mental States are
manifested in the General organization of the psyche.
General functional level of mental activity is one of the most important
parameters of mental status is. This level is influenced by many factors. For
example, it may be the conditions and duration of activity, level of motivation,
health, strength and even character traits. A hardworking man is able much longer
to maintain a high level of activity.
Mental status is a common functional level of mental activity, depending on
the conditions of human activity and his personal characteristics.
Mental states are the results of long-term effects on the psyche of any external
or internal stimulus. They can cause, for example, painful emotional sphere
changes such as lethargy, depression, or alternatively, the state of the affect.
Therefore, self-regulation is very important for human, which allows him to
control his mental state.
31
Mental state is a temporary peculiarity of mental activity, as determined by its
content and the relation of man to this content.
Mental status is a common functional level of mental activity, depending on
the conditions of human activity and his personal characteristics.
The mental state can be transient, situational, and stable.
All mental states are divided into four types:
1. Motivational (desires, interests, passion).
2. Emotional (the emotional tone of sensations, emotional response to stimuli,
mood, conflict emotional state —stress, affect, frustration).
3. Volitional state is initiative determination of behavior. Its classification is
associated with the structure of a complex volitional action.
4. Different levels of consciousness organization.
3. Mental formations are psychic phenomena, which generated during life
experience. Mental formations form as the result of the human psyche activity and
include the acquisition of knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and
others.
4. Mental properties of the person are such phenomena that differentiate the
behavior of one person from the conduct of another for a long period of time. If we
say that such and such a person loves the truth, then believe that he very rarely
fails, in a variety of situations he tries to get to the truth. If we say that man loves
freedom - assume that he doesn't like the restrictions of their rights. And so on.
Mental properties are most stable and consistently manifested personality
features and provide specific qualitative and quantitative level of human behavior.
These include orientation (What does human want?), temperament and character
(How human manifested?) and capacity (What human are able to do?). They exist
at least a sufficiently long period.
Mental properties of individual are sustained mental phenomena that
significantly affect human activities and mainly characterize socio-psychological
side. In other words, they are mental phenomena that are implemented in a
particular society (or social group in relationship with other people). Their
structure consists of orientation, temperament, character and abilities.
Orientation is a complex mental property, which is a relatively stable unity of
needs, motives and goals of the individual, defining the nature of its activities. Its
content based on internal motives. This is because human activity always
subjectively defined and expressed everything that requires satisfaction.
As a complex mental property of the individual, the orientation has its own
internal structure, including the needs, goals and motives.
5. Social-psychological effects are psychological phenomenon is caused by
the interaction, communication and mutual influence of people on each other and
their belonging to a certain social community (classes, ethnic groups, small and
large groups, religious denominations etc.).
Types of Psychic phenomena is illustrated in the Figure 1.3.1.
32
Psyche includes many subjective phenomena
Cognitive Processes
For instance, sensation
and perception, attention
and
memory,
imagination, thinking and
speech
Mental Properties and
Personality States
such as needs, motives,
goals, interests, will,
feelings and emotions,
abilities
Human Interaction and
Behavior
which depend on Psyche
processes
Figure 1.3.1 Psychic phenomena
Cognitive processes help to search, detect and memorize environment stimulus.
Human lives and works, performs certain actions in order to meet their own
physical, social and other needs. It becomes possible to understand and explain
human behavior regarding concepts of “Cognitive Processes”, “Personality” and
“Communication” (Figure 1.3.2).
Cognitive Processes
Communication
Personality
HUMAN ACTIVITY
Figure 1.3.2 Human activity
All three concepts closely connected with each other in human activity in order
to adapt to the environment.
However, it is necessary to study each concept in Psychology separately to
understand their psychological features and structure. That is why main chapters in
the content of the Handbook named by these main parts of human activity.
Psyche is also a subjective image of the objective environment, which arises
during the process of human and environment interaction. It exists because of the
function of the brain that allows reflecting the impact of surrounding objects on
human.
Content of Psyche is determined by environment stimulus that reflecting in
the mind of people in the form of Mental Processes, Mental States, Mental
Formations, Mental Properties and Social-Psychological Effects, thereby making
the world of psychic phenomena.
33
Mental Processes
Mental States
Mental Formations
Individual form
Group form
Internal mental
External behavioral
Figure 1.3.3 Types of psychic phenomena studied by Psychology
Mental Processes, Mental States, Mental Formations, Mental Properties and
Social-Psychological Effects are allocated only for study purposes in Psychology.
In fact, they act as a system unit and are mutually transformed into each other. For
example, Mental Processes that often manifest can become as a habit of
Personality trait. The states of cheerfulness and activity sharpen attention and
sensation, while depression and passivity lead to distraction, or even cause
premature fatigue.
Thus, Psychology is the science about consistent pattern of human mind
development and manifestations.
Psyche is a property of the brain, providing human ability to reflect the impact
of environment stimulus. It is also a subjective image of the objective world, which
arises in the process of human interaction with its environment and other people.
Psyche is inherent not only too human, but also to animals. It varied in its
forms and manifestations and includes, firstly, conscious, i.e. sensation and
perception, attention and memory, representation and imagination, thinking,
feelings and experiences, communication and behavior, motivations and intentions
that are compose subjective, completely controls human's inner world and which
are manifested in actions, in the relationship and interaction with other people. In
general, human consciousness is the highest stage of psyche development. It is the
product of social-historical development of people interaction and the result of
psyche improvement during activity and performance.
Psychology also studies the phenomena such as the unconscious,
consciousness, personality, activity and behavior.
Definition
Unconscious relating to any process or content of the
mind of which the individual is not aware at a particular
moment in time. 2. In Freudian psychology, the region of
the mind, which contains actively repressed materials
such as memories, impulses, desires, and conflicts, which
are not accessible for the conscious portion of the mind?
3. In Jungian psychology, the unconscious is divided into
the collective unconscious, which contains the inherited
structures and potentialities of mind, and the personal
unconscious, which contains weak and repressed
34
memories, thoughts, and feelings as well as personal ways
of understanding created by the individual during his/her
lifetime in the form of complexes. 4. In general usage, any
part of the mind outside the awareness of the individual.
The Unconscious is a form of automatically reflection of environment, which
is not available to introspection. Reflecting environment merges with human
experiences in unconscious.
Definition
Consciousness the phenomenon of personal, subjective
experience. The experience is sensory, remembered, or
imagined in nature and interacts with environment and
physiological states so as to produce changes in the state
or aspects of subjective experience.
Behavior is the external manifestations and immediate actions of human
mental activity.
Definition
Behavior all the activities that living organisms exhibit.
Some research strategies limit the definition of behavior
to those fitting a priori categories, which may be more or
less well defined.
The main tasks of Psychology as a science are the following:
1) The study of the formation of lows and regularity about development and
manifestations of psychic phenomena and processes as a reflection of immediate
effects of objective reality and human interaction;
2) The study of qualitative (structural) characteristics of psychic phenomena
and processes;
3) The study of the physiological mechanisms underlying mental phenomena;
4) Systematic applying of scientific psychological knowledge in order to
improve humans’ activity and their interaction with other people (development of
scientific and practical methods of training and education, rationalization of the
labour process in different types of human activity).
5) Development of scientific recommendations to improve human stress
stability skills and reliability of its certain mental functions in solving professional
and other tasks in different circumstances of life and activity.
The purpose to study Psychology is to understand the human internal (mental)
world with its all diversity and dynamics.
In modern conditions, Psychological knowledge enables people to understand
better himself, promotes effective communication, improves the quality of training
and education, strengthens family relationships, etc.
35
1.4 Branches of Psychology
Academician B.M. Kedrov put Psychology in the centre of "Triangle of
Science" (Fig. 1.4.1). On the top of the triangle are placed the natural sciences, on
the lower left and lower right corners are placed the social sciences and
philosophical sciences (logic and epistemology) respectively. In this triangle, Math
is located between natural and philosophical sciences. Between natural and social
sciences is placed the Technical science. Psychology also occupies a central place
that combines all three groups of sciences. Therefore, Psychology on the one hand,
acts as a product of all the other sciences, and on the other hand acts as a possible
source of explanation of development these sciences.
Psychology is closely linked with the social sciences that study human
behavior. The social sciences include Psychology, Social Psychology, Sociology,
Political Science, Economics, Anthropology and Ethnography. With this group of
sciences related other disciplines: Philosophy, History, Cultural Studies, Pedagogy,
Aesthetics etc. They all belong to the Humanities sciences. Among the Humanities
disciplines, Pedagogy has most profound connection with the Psychology.
Psychology is also closely related to the natural sciences, especially Physiology,
Biology, Physics, Biochemistry, Medicine and Mathematics. At their junction the
related areas are: Psychophysiology, Psychophysics, Bionics, Medical Psychology,
Neuropsychology, Pathopsychology, etc.
Natural sciences (physics, biology, chemistry, mathematics, etc.)
Psychology
Social sciences
(sociology, history,
cultural studies, etc.)
Philosophy
(epistemology, ethics,
dialectic and logic)
Figure 1.4.1 "Triangle of Science" by B.M. Kedrov
Thus, Psychology is a science, which is related to the socio-humanitarian and
scientific knowledge that determines its role in the foundation of the sciences.
Psychology integrates data from these branches of scientific knowledge and, in
turn, affects them. In this case Psychology is giving a general explanation model of
36
Human. Nowadays, the historical mission of Psychology is to be the integrator of
all spheres of Human knowledge and the basis of developing general Human
theory. Mission of Psychology is combining natural and social sciences into a
single concept in order to study Human being.
Recently Psychology enhanced relation with the Technical sciences, which
gives related subjects: Engineering Psychology, Ergonomics, Space and Aviation
Psychology, etc.
Psychological science combines both theoretical and applied disciplines, and
has been developing between the Natural Sciences, Social Sciences and
Humanities. The reasons for this development may be different. On the one hand,
applied practical issues of human activity encourage the development of new
psychological disciplines, such as Engineering Psychology, Space Psychology,
Educational Psychology, etc. There are practical (empirical) reasons for the
development of Psychology. On the other hand, the Psychology includes new
methods of research and knowledge. In particular, the use of physical methods in
Psychology gave rise to the emergence of Experimental Psychology,
Psychophysics. In turn, the application of Physiology methods in Psychology
formed Psychophysiology; the introduction of mathematical methods resulted in
development of Mathematical Psychology, Engineering Psychology, and Bionics.
This cognitive (epistemological) causes branch of psychological sciences. Modern
psychological science is a multidisciplinary field of knowledge and includes about
100 relatively independent areas.
Common to all branches of Psychology is that they learn the facts, patterns
and mechanisms of the Psyche in different conditions and at different levels of
development.
General Psychology is the core branch of modern Psychology, which studies
the most general laws, regularity and mechanisms of the Psyche that includes
theoretical concepts and experimental studies.
General Psychology includes four main areas:
1. General theoretical area that helps to understand the origin and functions of
psychic;
2. Cognitive Psychology (Psychology of main cognitive processes, such as
sensation and perception, memory, thought and speech, imagination);
3. Psychology of the Regulatory Process (Psychology of Emotion and
Motivation, Psychology of Will);
4. Personality Psychology.
General psychology is the fundamental basis for all branches of Psychology.
Branches of Psychology are classified and differentiated according to several
criteria:
1. By studying the psychological problems of Personality Development:
Development Psychology studies the psychological characteristics, patterns
and mechanisms of the human being changes during lifespan. It also examines
current problems of cognitive, social personality changes across time, Personality
37
development dynamics, relation between human age and possible assimilation of
knowledge, Psychology of old age or Gerontopsychology. Development
Psychology relates and includes number scientific areas of Psychology such as:
a) Individual Differences and Differential psychology examine individuals
differences in their behavior, age and gender differences among people, as well as
the differences in biogenetic and social-cultural factors of human development;
b) Comparative psychology studies similarities and differences in psyche
development of many different species from insects, animals, primates, to Human.
One of the areas of Comparative Psychology is Animal Psychology.
c) Genetic psychology studies the hereditary mechanisms of human mind and
behavior, their dependence on genetics.
d) Health Psychology studies psychological and behavioral processes in
health, illness. Also Health Psychology is related with Stress Psychology and
Psychology of Stress Management.
e) Psychology of Abnormal Development deals with unusual patterns of
human behavior, emotion and thought in clinical context. This area includes
Medical psychology as application of psychological theories, psychotherapy to the
practice of medicine, studies psychological features of patient behavior, issues of
developing psychological treatment and Psychopharmacology, ways of correcting
violations and disturbances. Medical psychology also includes areas of scientific
knowledge from Neuropsychology. Neuropsychology studies relationship between
behavior, emotion, thought, mental disorders and brain functions.
f) Clinical psychology integrates clinical knowledge for the purpose to
understand dysfunctions in psyche and human behavior, as well as occurring
during various mental changes of disease. Clinical Psychology as a separate area
includes Path psychology that studies variations in mental development, mental
decay in various forms of brain pathology.
2. By studying the psychological problems of Human learning:
Educational psychology studies cognitive and behavioral patterns during
Personality learning and educational processes. This branch of Psychology
studying the problems of individual differences of intelligent, gifted learners,
classroom management, active learning techniques and effective methods of
individual education, training activities, relation between improve learning
outcomes and learning skills, ascertain the psychological factors that influence on
learning process’s success, Educational psychology includes for instance areas
such as:
1) Teaching psychology deals with the problem of the relationship in the
system of “Teacher and Student”, teacher characteristics and student learning.
2) Learning Psychology examines effects of experience, learning
environments on long-term changes in behavioral potential.
3. By studying relationship between the individual and society:
Social psychology studies how Human Mind, Behavior and Personality at all
with its’ self-esteem processes, individual attitudes and others traits that are
38
influenced by society with its’ social processes and social norms, relationships of
individuals with other people existing in large and small social groups. Social
psychology examines also social-psychological phenomenon in large groups,
problems of mass communication, mechanisms of media influence on different
people communities, the problems of psychology classes, nations, and the public
mood. In Social Psychology, there are a lot of scientific research of socialpsychological phenomena in small groups, problems of psychological
compatibility, interpersonal relationships in groups, cohesion of the group,
leadership problem, conflict relationship and its’ management.
a) Forensic and Legal Psychology as one of the parts of Social Psychology
studies relation between Psychology and justice system in society. Legal
psychology studies the psychological features of criminal human behavior.
4. By studying the psychological problems of specific types of human activity:
Industrial/Organizational
Psychology
examines
the
psychological
characteristics of work motivation and attitudes, work place and well-being,
effectiveness of performance. Industrial/Organizational Psychology divided in
number areas such as:
1) Engineering Psychology studies human interaction with technology and
also defines psychological features of human behavior and its capabilities applied
to equipment and computer technologies;
2) Aviation Psychology challenging by improving flight performance,
performance of pilots etc.
3) Space Psychology examines the psychological characteristics of human
spaceflight.
Psychodiagnostics (gr. «psyche» - the soul, «diagnostikos» - able to
recognize) a field of psychology, developing methods for detecting and measuring
individual psychological characteristics of personality. Psychological testing
associated with quantitative assessment and precise qualitative analysis of
psychological properties of personality using the scientifically proven methods that
give reliable information about them. Psychological testing involves the diagnosis,
prediction, correction and prevention.
Psychotherapy is the process of therapeutic effects on individuals’ mind or
group behavior. According to V.N. Myasishev main task of psychotherapy is to
change the individual's personality by awareness of causes of his psychological
issues and restructuring his relationship in order to get well-being.
Counselling psychology aimed to identify, clarify and resolve individual’s
problems in exact situation. The business initially focused on mentally healthy
people, able to take responsibility for their actions.
Psychocorrection relates to mental functions in order to treat them by
rehabilitation psychological training.
Parapsychology (gr. para - near) is the designation of hypotheses related to
mental phenomena, which explanation is not strictly scientific. Parapsychology
describes so-called extrasensory perceptions, such as telepathy, clairvoyance, etc.
39
There are a lot of other current areas of Psychology which have been
developing in such huge paths like Cognitive Science and Neuroscience. These
paths are related with new psychophysiological equipment such as FMRI, EEG,
Eye Tracking and others and with computer technology. Today Psychology
becomes a part of the Cognitive Science (see Figure 1.4.2).
Figure 1.4.2 Cognitive science and its branches2
Definition
Definition
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary science of mind
which includes and attempts to integrate approaches
from psychology, linguistics, philosophy, anthropology,
computer science, and physiology.
Neuroscience is an interdisciplinary approach to the
study of the nervous system that includes anatomy,
biochemistry, cognitive modeling, pharmacology, and
physiology.
Nowadays is still existing one of the discussion area like Parapsychology,
which studies mechanisms of unusual "paranormal" human abilities, such as
telepathy, precognition, telekinesis.
Thus, modern Psychology is characterized by differentiation process, it
generates substantial branching in the individual sectors, which are often various
2
http://www.ncku.edu.tw/~iocs/en_US/about/background.php
40
far apart and are quite different from each other, although they retain a common
subject of study - the facts, laws, mechanisms of the psyche.
Figure 1.4.3 Branches of Psychology3
1.5 Methodological principles of Psychology
Each science is developing dynamically and progressively because scientists’
creative ideas put forward by using sufficiently objective, accurate and reliable
methods which allowing testing these ideas. Before considering the general
features of the methodology, consider the concept of fact. What is a psychological
fact?
According French scientist Claude Bernard, a fact has value only through the
idea which it is associated with. For example, as a psychological fact it may be a
specific act of the child's behavior, which manifests the characteristics of his
personality. If we observe a group of children, then as a psychological fact there
may be acts of group work, communication between children etc.
However, the observation of certain psychological fact is not enough. It is
significantly necessary to interpret scientific data in psychology by methodology of
scientific research. In this regard, the question of development of the
methodological basis of psychology still has been developing as one of the most
important for the science. Methodology (as methods — way of research, logos —
science) is a system of principles and ways of organization and construction of
3 http://www.slideshare.net/GenPsyche/1-ba-branches-of-psychology
41
theoretical and practical knowledge, as well as teaching about this system.
Methodology is the doctrine about the scientific method and about the methods of
particular Science.
The study of modern psychology is based on several principles that allows
describing the object of study, processing empirical data, and interpreting it.
As the main methodological principles of psychology are:
1. The principle of unity of consciousness and activity. Consciousness and
activity are in continuous unity, but they are not identical to each other.
Consciousness effects activity, forming its inner plane and vice versa. The
implementation of this principle in psychological research is as follows: the psyche
is invisible; therefore, it must be identified by any indicators such as actions of the
subject, speech, behavior, facial expressions, pantomime, which are the
manifestations of consciousness.
2. The principle of development (genetic conditions). Psyche can be
properly understood only by process of continuous development of it and by result
of such activities. In each scientific psychological research of mental phenomena
must include a description of this principle.
3. The principle of determinism. Application of this principle in
psychological research means that the mind is caused by external and internal
conditions of existence. This principle exists especially in empirical research,
because it is related with necessity to explain the causal relationships of variables
with other certain internal or external factors.
4. Systemic principle in psychology (from the Greek, «systema» is composed
of parts, Union) is a methodological approach to analyze of psychic phenomena,
when the phenomenon is considered as a system, irreducible to the sum of its
elements with the structure. Regarding this principle developed the Gestalt
psychology and psychoanalysis.
The most important postulate of the systemic principle in psychology states that
all mental processes are organized in a system, where elements acquire new
properties, set its integrity.
Systemic analysis consists with searching structure-function relationship
between system components and elements, studying of its levels and systemic
factors, unity of organization and functions, stability etc.
5. The principle of objectivity means that researcher and research methods do
not effect research results. The implementation of this principle in experiment
means that it is necessary for example, to safe anonymity of objectives and
outcomes of study make research in natural test conditions.
1.6 Methods of Psychology
By Methods, scientists receive scientific data in order to use it for further
construction of scientific theories and applied knowledge.
42
Method gives possibility to achieve scientific goal, solve a particular
psychological problem etc.
Methods of Psychological research very by sources of data, tools that are used
to get scientific information, collect way of qualitative or quantitative data or both
etc.
The main basic methods in Psychology are observation and experiment.
Observation. It is purposeful and systematic description of behaviors, events,
chosen for psychological research.
Definition
Observational method is any scientific approach which
involves recording information without interference with
the subject or process under scrutiny. This approach is
often used in developmental psychology, ethology, and
social psychology
Main features of scientific observation are:
1. Focusing on scientific goal;
2. Selectivity in observing of certain behaviors and activities;
3. Balanced by certain scientific plans;
4. Systematic.
There are also different types of observation:
- Short-term observation;
- Longitudinal observation (sometimes it takes several years);
- Continuous observation by monitoring all mental processes, personality traits
etc.;
-selective observation by monitoring one or several mental processes,
personality traits etc.;
-Participant observation when observer becomes a member of the study group;
-Nonparticipant observation when observer externally studies an object of
observation;
- Introspection by observing ones’ own psychological features;
- Non standardized observation has no pre-established plan of study, flexible
possibility to change the subject or object of observation etc.;
- Standardized observation has scientific scheduled plan of study etc.
Observation procedure consists of the following processes:
1) Set goals and objectives of observation;
2) Find object and situation for observation;
B) Select type of observation and collect necessary information;
4) Define methods of registration of observation data;
5) Data processing and interpretation of observation data.
Experiment. It is manipulating of independent variables to determine their
effect on dependent variables in psychological research.
43
Definition
Experiment isan
arrangement of conditions and
procedures which allows observations of the
relationships between the controlled circumstances
(independent variables) and the uncontrolled outcomes
(dependent variables) with an intent to make inferences
about causal relationships between the independent and
dependent variables.
Types of experiments:
1. Laboratory experiment. It takes place in labs with special conditions by
using special equipment.
2. Natural Experiment. This type of experiment proposed by Russian scientist
Alexander F. Lazursky in 1911. A natural experiment allows studying individual
behavior in real environment. A natural experiment is widely used in different
fields of Psychology. For instance, in the Social Psychology, Educational
Psychology etc. Natural experiments allow getting accurate information about
individuals’ behavior, but cannot be carried out repeatedly since losing their
naturalness and secrecy from subjects.
3. Psychological-Pedagogical Experiment. In this experiment conducted
directly processes of training or education by which examine for example
individuals’ learning characteristics.
Psycho-pedagogical experiment usually consists of three stages and types:
1. State experiment. It is aimed to study actual state and the level of certain
features of mental development at the time of the experiment.
2. “Forming” experiment. During this experiment, training or educational
situation is organized for active developing of hypothesized behavioral patterns.
3. Control experiment allows checking the efficiency of learning processes,
by analysis and comparison of results.
Auxiliary methods:
Conversation. It is collecting data about psychic phenomena by direct or
indirect, oral or written form of receipt of information.
Types of conversation:
 Standardized conversation is related with setting goal of study with strict
instruction and exact order of conversation questions.
 None standardized conversation. In this type of conversation, an
experimenter has only a general plan and order of conversation questions
depending on conversation process.
The conversation requirements:
1) Develop questions related with exact research aims;
2) Ease
2) Necessary to create a friendly environment
44
Psychologist plays an active role in organizing and conducting the
conversation and control process of taking clear, complete answers on each
question from participant.
Psychological test is standardized instrument used to measure individual’s
psychological characteristics such as traits, intelligence, certain conditions, feelings
etc. Each standardized psychological test includes such parameters as validity and
reliability.
Psychological analysis of activities’ products such as drawing, writing
essay etc. allow getting quality information about psychological characteristics of
individuals, their motivation, skills, attitude, and sometimes the level of knowledge
and ability.
Projective test as a type of psychological analysis of products of activity is
aimed to study individuals’ characteristics. Ambiguous stimulus of the test reveals
hidden motives, emotions and other traits of personality. Traditionally, projective
tests are most reliable, but their standardization parameters are not as great as
personality questionnaires or psychological test. For many projective techniques is
fundamentally important role of a psychologist-diagnostician. Ppsychologist has a
certain freedom in its interpretation. Therefore, for such techniques value the
experience and professionalism, impartiality is difficult to overestimate.
Biographical method is aimed to identify the key factors of individual’s
development and life experience, the crisis periods of development, socialization
features. By this method also analyse current life events and psychological time of
individual etc.
Biographical method of research aimed at identifying the lifestyle of the
individual, the type of adaptation in the environment. It used path life of
personality for both analysis and correction.
In recent years, method of psychological simulation becomes widely used in
psychological research. Psychic phenomena are expressed by models as artificially
constructed objects or even environment. By computational modelling, it is
possible to create models of social behavior, model of each cognitive processes etc.
Thus, only the integrated use of various methods of psychological research
can provide a complete, objective data about psychological characteristics of
psyche. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, so in order to get
significantly true information they must be used in certain number of tests. Only in
this case, researcher can get objective assessment of mind, behavior and
personality.
Control questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Describe theoretical background of modern psychology
Explain subjective phenomena of Psyche
Analyze subject of psychology
Give your example of unconscious and consciousness
45
5. Describe a human behavior
6. Explain branches of Psychology
7. Explain definition of “Psychology”
8. Explain why Psychology became as science?
9. Describe main methodological principles of psychology
10. Analyse differences between observation and experiment in Psychology
46
CHAPTER 2 PSYCHE AND CONSCIOUSNESS
2.1 Brain and Mind
Psyche is a property of highly organized living matter, consisting in the active
reflection of the objective world by the subject through the construction
inseparable from his worldview and the regulation on the basis of behavior and
activities.
Function of the psyche providing adaptation of a living organism to the
environment through reflection of reality, providing the integrity of the body,
regulation of behavior and activities.
Domestic physiologist I.M. Sechenov explained functioning of the Psyche
by Reflex Activity of the Brain. He believed that the brain by Reflex Activity (lat.
"Reflection") arise organism’s response on stimuli coming from the external
environment and the internal organs. All the facts of conscious and unconscious
life are reflexes. Thus, mental activity occurring in the brain is the result of
converting the signals from the external and internal environment.
Domestic psychologist A.R. Luria based on own research data suggested the
theory of Vertical Brain Regulation, which explains peculiarities of the psyche.
He identified three brain units:
1. The First Block is called an Energy Block or Tone Block. It is located
deep in the brain, and includes particularly hypothalamus, thalamus and reticular
formation. Processes occurring in neurons of the Block provide irritation in order
to get wake. If irritation disappears, individual falls into a drowsy state, and then
falls asleep. So, the First Block provides energy and brain power of the organism.
2. The Second Block of the human brain is located in the posterior portions
of the cerebral hemispheres (the occipital area, parietal and temporal divisions).
This is Reception Block which is processing and storing external information.
Different parts of the Second Block perform certain functions. For instance, the
occipital area is responsible for the visual work; parietal area is responsible for
tactile-motor activity, and temporal area is responsible for auditory vestibular
activities.
3. The Third Block is located mostly in frontal lobe of the brain. This Block
responsible for programming, regulation and control of human activity. The Third
Block allows building and maintaining individual’s intention, to create a program
of actions and regulate them.
Thus, mental activity occurring in the brain is the result of converting the
signals from the external and internal environment.
For the first time the role of the frontal lobes was noted by scientists after
the incident with the senior team master Gage. He injured his head with a
crowbar, which has passed through the left cheek and came around the crown.
There were damaged frontal lobes. Within an hour, Gage was in a stunned state,
and then was taken to the hospital. After recovering from an injury, Gage lived
47
during 12 years. All this time, he remained as capable person. However, there
have been observed personality changes. Before the accident, he was considerate,
well-balanced man, after accident, he became unrestrained, rude, stubborn and
indecisive. In this regard, most researchers believe that frontal lobes damage
relates to personality change.
Some features characterize functional organization of the human brain. The
idea is that the human right and left hemispheres perform different functions. This
was revealed in 1960, in laboratory of Roger Sperry was carried a surgery which
called "Split Brain". During the surgery, fibers of the corpus callosum connecting
the two hemispheres were separated. The result was discovered so-called
“functional asymmetry of the brain” that allows to define functions that are
performed by the left and right hemispheres separately.
Thus, the main functions of the left hemisphere of the brain are speaking,
reading and counting. The main functions of the right hemisphere are orientation
in space, recognition of complex objects (human faces), musical tones and
melodies. Also, dreams are a product of right hemisphere of the brain. The left
hemisphere of the brain is the basis of logical thinking and the right hemisphere
determines intuitive thinking. Hemispheric dominance, which exists in human
brain, is characterized by activity of one of the hemispheres. Hemispheric
dominance determines thinking processes and individual behavior.
Pavlov and the Conditioned Response
Figure 2.1.1 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936) Pavlov (center) in his
laboratory, with some colleagues and his experimental subject.
48
Pavlov’s early work, for which he earned the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1904,
was not in psychology. Instead, his research was concerned with digestive
physiology, and many of his laboratory studies focused on the secretion of saliva in
dogs. Pavlov knew from the start that salivation is triggered whenever food
(especially dry food) is placed in the mouth. During his experiments, however, a
new fact emerged: Salivation could be set off by a range of other stimuli as well,
including stimuli that were at first totally neutral. Dogs that had been in the
laboratory for a while would salivate in response to the mere sight of meat, or the
sight of the dish that ordinarily held the meat, or even the sight of the person who
usually brought the meat. Pavlov was intrigued by these effects because he realized
that in these cases, the organism seemed to be developing new reflexes and
changing its behavior in a fashion directly shaped by learning. He decided to
refocus his research program to study this learning.
In his experiments, Pavlov created simple patterns for the animal to detect. For
example, he would ring a bell and then give the animal food. Then, after a short wait, he
would present another pair of stimuli: bell, then food. After another wait, he
presented yet another pairing: bell, then food. After several such pairings, Pavlov
observed what happened if the bell was sounded alone, without any food being given
(Pavlov, 1927). The result was clear: The dog salivated in response to the bell.
Harness
Salivating
(CR)
Collecting tube from
salivary glands
Meat powder can
be delivered to
dish (US)
Measuring cup
for saliva
Figure 2.1.2 Experiment of Pavlov
To describe this pattern, Pavlov distinguished two types of responses: An
unconditioned response (UR) was a biologically determined reflex, triggered by a certain
stimulus independent of any learning. In Pavlov’s terms, the trigger for an unconditioned
response was an unconditioned stimulus (US). In the procedure described, the
unconditioned stimulus (the US) is food in the animal’s mouth; the unconditioned
response (the UR) is salivation. The linkage that makes the US trigger a UR is something the
animal brings into the situation, and so (in Pavlov’s terms) is not a product of the learning
49
process called “conditioning”; that’s why the stimulus and response are said to be
unconditioned. The second type of response is a conditioned response (CR), and it is a
product of learning. Like the UR, the CR is triggered by a specific stimulus, but it’s a stimulus
that was neutral at the start of learning. In our example, this neutral stimulus is the bell, and it
came to elicit the CR (salivation) only after several presentations in which this stimulus was
followed by the US (food in the mouth). In Pavlov’s terms, the bell is a conditioned stimulus
(CS)—a stimulus that’s initially neutral but becomes associated with the US during the
experiment.
The relationships between US and UR, CS and CR, are summarized and form the
basis of the learning studied by Pavlov. In his honor, this type of learning is sometimes
called Pavlovian conditioning but it’s more commonly known as classical conditioning.
Early research on classical conditioning focused on one conditioned response—
salivationbydogs—andanarrowrangeof conditioned stimuli (the sound of bells—or in
other experiments, the ticking of metronomes). Subsequent research, however, has made
it plain that this form of learning occurs in a remarkable range of species and
circumstances. Indeed, classical conditioning can be documented not just in humans but
in species as diverse as ants and anteaters, cats and cockroaches, wolves and worms. By
using the appropriate US, researchers have conditioned crabs to twitch their tail spines,
fish to thrash about, and octopuses to change color. Responses conditioned in studies with
humans include changes in heart rate or blood pressure (where the US is typically a loud
noise or rap on the knee) and the reflexive eye blink (using a US of a puff of air on the open
eye).
Outside of the laboratory, classical conditioning touches many aspects of our lives.
We all tend to feel hungry at mealtime and less so in between; part of the reason is a
conditioning process in which the CS is a particular time of day and the US is the
presentation of food (which normally is paired with that time of day). Our emotional
responses to certain songs, or certain smells, or even certain social situations can be
understood in similar terms, and the response is likely to be the result of some previous
pairing between these stimuli and some emotional experience. This type of learning is, for
example, a plausible basis for some forms of anxiety as well as some phobias. Yet another
example is sexual arousal, which can often be produced by an initially neutral word or
gesture that has—through learning—acquired an erotic association. Clearly, then,
classical conditioning is a process with wide application and great importance.
Conditioned response (CR)
A response elicited by an initially neutral stimulus—the conditioned stimulus
(CS)—after it has been paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus (US).
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a new response due to pairings
with the unconditioned stimulus.
Classical conditioning
A form of learning in which one stimulus is paired with another so that the
organism learns a relationship between the stimuli.
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2.2 Development of Psyche
The stages of development of psyche in phylogenesis.
According to A.N. Leontiev, psyche occurred through several stages during
biological evolution:
1) The Stage of Elementary Sensory Psyche
Reflection of objects separate properties. This type of reflection exists
among amoebas and insects. The main form of behavior is instinct.
The origin of sensitive living organisms is associated with complication of
their vital activity. This complication consists in a differentiation of the processes
of external activity that mediate organism's relations with those properties of the
environment on which... their life depend.
The differentiation of these processes is due to the (evolutionary)
development of (a specialized) irritability to effects that perform a signaling
function (i.e., sensitivity). So a capacity arises for organism's reflection of the
effects of surrounding reality in their objective connections and relations, i.e.
psychic reflection.
These forms of psychic reflection are developed along with complication of
the organism's structure and depending on the development of the activity together
with which they originate. Scientific analysis of them is therefore impossible other
than on the basis of a survey of the activity of animals itself.
What then is the activity of animals with which the simplest form of their
psyche is associated? Its main feature is that it is induced by some property or
another affecting the animal to which it is at the same time directed, but which
does not coincide with the properties that the animal's life directly depends on. It is
governed, consequently, not by the affecting properties in themselves but rather by
them in their relation with other properties.
We know, for example, that as soon as an insect gets caught in a spider-web,
the spider immediately moves toward it and begins to enmesh it with... thread.
What is it that causes this activity of the spider's, and to what is it directed… It has
been established experimentally... that what stimulates the spider's activity, and
that to which it is directed, is the vibration produced by the wings of the insect...
transmitted along the spider-web. As soon as the vibration ceases, the spider stops
moving toward its victim. It is enough, however, for the insect's wings to begin
vibrating again, for the spider to move toward it again and once more enmesh it in
its web. Is it, however, in fact the vibration that evokes the spider's activity and at...
what (evolutionary end is) this activity... directed? This is demonstrated by the
following experiment. A resonating tuning fork is attached to the spider-web. In
response the spider runs to the tuning fork, climbs on to it, spins a web around it,
and tries to strike it with its mandibles (Rabaud ((1924))). This means that it is a
matter here of the fact of vibration; for, apart from vibration, there is nothing in
common between a tuning fork and an insect that has been trapped in a spider-web.
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Why is the spider's (sensory-motor) activity associated precisely with the
effect on it of vibration which in itself, of course, plays no (directly assimilative)
role in its life? Because, in normal conditions, the effect of vibration has a certain
association, a certain stable relation with the nutrient matter of the insect that has
been caught in the web. We shall call this relation of an influencing property to
satisfaction of a biological need the biological sense of this influence. Employing
this term we can say that the spider's activity is directed to a vibrating body
because the vibration has acquired a sense of food for it in the course of the
species' evolution.
The biological sense of any influence is not constant for an animal, but on the
contrary varies and develops during its activity in accordance with the objective
associations of the corresponding properties of the environment.
If, for example, a hungry toad is first systematically fed with worms and then
an ordinary matchstick and round bit of skin (are) put in front of it, it will pounce
on the match stick, which has an elongated form like worms, and not touch the
skin; elongated form has acquired the biological sense of food for it. If, on the
contrary, we feed the toad first with spiders, it will then pounce on the skin (or on a
piece of moss), similar in shape to a spider, without touching the matchstick; the
round form of the object has now acquired the sense of food for it.
The sense connections that arise in the activity of animals, it must be noted,
are conditioned reflexes with a specific, and (one can even say) extraordinary
character. They differ markedly from the conditioned associations that form the
mechanism of behaviour itself, i.e., connection by which behaviour is realised.
When an animal, seeing food, moves toward it, i.e. when we are concerned
with the sense association 'sight of food- food', this association arises and changes
quite differently from those that arise in it, for example, during the formation of a
(bodily) habit of avoiding obstacles in its path (an association 'obstacle-by-passing
movement').
Links of the first kind ((even at the stage of elementary sensory psyche)) are
formed very quickly, as research has shown, from 'scratch', and are broken down
just as quickly; one or two combinations are sufficient for that.
Links of the second kind arise and fade slowly, on the contrary, and gradually.
Chicks, for example, already begin to peck selectively at chopped egg yolk after a
single success. For two-day-old chicks it is sufficient to peck once or twice at a bit
of bitter orange peel instead of egg yolk for its food behaviour toward yolk to be
wiped out (Morgan, et al). On the other hand, it takes dozens of trials to develop a
quite satisfactory adoption of pecking movements in chicks to the external
conditions in which they are given food.
Buytendijk ((1930)), studying the forming of habits in toads, gave one of
these animals, in one of a series of his experiments, insects whose substance
caused a sharp negative biological reaction. A single experience was enough for
the toad to refuse for many hours afterward to try and eat these insects, or any
other outwardly resembling them. In other experiments he separated the bait (an
52
earthworm) from the toad by glass; in those conditions, the toad on the contrary,
displayed great persistence, in spite of its striking the glass each time; it made
many attempts before its reaction faded. Even intensifying the moment of
'punishment' (negative reinforcement) did not stop movements in such cases. In
Abbot's experiments the frog continued for 72 hours to pounce on bait surrounded
by needles, until the skin of its upper jaw was seriously lacerated. The biological
significance of the difference in rate of formation of both kinds of association is
quite understandable if we allow for the species' life conditions. If a toad
(Buytendijk says) approaches an anthill during its evening hunt and catches a
poisonous ant, the rapid formation of an association protects it from swallowing
other such insects harmful because of the acid they have. When a toad, on the
contrary, tries to catch an earthworm but does not succeed in doing so, a second
attempt may help it all the same, in ordinary circumstances, to get food.
Another feature of (such) sense connections is their sort of 'bilateral'
character, which is expressed not only in the effect of a given stimulus beginning
to evoke a certain reaction... (or) ... behaviour, as a result..., but also in a
corresponding need now (for the organism) to 'recognize itself' as it were in the
object-stimulus, ... and to evoke active, search activity in relation to it.
Darwin (1885) had already stressed the special nature of these sense links, in
citing, for example, the following observations:
Thus it is asserted that if a calf or infant has never sucked its mother, it is very
much easier to bring it up by hand than if it has sucked only once. So again Kirby
states that larvae after having 'fed a time on one plant, will die rather than eat
another, which would have been perfectly acceptable to them if accustomed to it
from the first' (Posthumous essay on instinct, in Romanes, 1885).
In the classic works of Pavlov and his associates, the formation of such 'rapid'
sense associations (in the early work of Tsitovich, and later in the experiments of
Narbutovich and others) was also demonstrated, although their special role in
behaviour was not... stressed.
An animal's reflection of its environment forms a unity with its (externally
observable) activity, which means that, although there is a difference between
them, they are at the same time inseparable from one another. This means,
furthermore, that there are reciprocal transfers between them, ...; (in any particular
(naturalistic or experimental) case) whether the object's property affecting (an
individual) animal is reflected in its sensations, and how exactly, thus depends on
whether the animal is really linked with the object in the course of its adaptation to
its environment and how precisely it is linked with it. On the other hand, any
activity of an animal's mediated by an influence sensed by it is performed in
accordance with how the given influence is reflected in its sensations. The animal's
activity, that links it in practice with objective reality, is understandably basic in
this complex unity of reflection and activity; psychic reflection of the affective
property of this reality is secondary and derivative.
53
The activity of animals in the earliest, first stage of the evolution of the
psyche is characterised by its corresponding to some one separate... property (or
aggregate of separate properties) by virtue of the property's essential connection
with the influences on which performance of their basic biological functions
depends. The reflection of reality connected with this structure of activity
correspondingly has the form of sensitivity to separate affective properties..., the
form of elementary sensation. We shall call this stage in the evolution of the
psyche the elementary sensory psyche. It covers a long series of animals, and it is
possible that certain higher infusoria possess elementary sensitivity.
We can say that with much greater confidence in relation to such animals as
certain worms, crustaceans, insects, and of course in relation to all (lower)
vertebrates (e.g., fish).
Variability of behaviour in consequence of established new connections has
been demonstrated in worms by many researchers. Annelids, for example, as the
experiments of Copeland and Brown ((1934)) have shown, either do not react at all
to being touched by a glass rod, or react negatively. When, however, the touch of
the rod is associated with feeding, then the worm's reaction alters: touching now
evokes a positive reaction to food in it.
Changes of this kind can acquire a more complicated character in crustaceans.
When, for example, the abdominal part of a hermit crab is lightly stimulated
mechanically when it is in a shell that will evoke certain movements in it, as Ten
Cate-Kazejewa's ((1934)) work has shown. If, however, the stimulation is
continued, the animal will quit the shell and run away. That fact is of little interest
in itself; what is interesting is the crab's subsequent behaviour. If the experiment is
systematically repeated, it turns out; the animal's behaviour becomes different.
Now it removes its abdomen from the shell at the first touch, but never deserts it
and almost immediately takes up its former position. The touch has now acquired a
quite different meaning -it has become a signal for withdrawing the abdomen from
the shell.
The material basis for the development of animal's activity and sensitivity is
understandably their anatomical organization. The common pattern of changes in
organisms with which evolution at the stage of elementary sensory psyche is
linked, consists on the one hand in animal's organs of sensitivity becoming more
and more differentiated at that stage of evolution, and their numbers increasing;
correspondingly their sensations are also differentiated. Cells irritable in relation to
light in lower animals, are scattered over the whole surface of the body so that
these animals can have only very diffuse light sensitivity.
Light-sensitive cells are gathered together at the anterior end of the body later,
for the first time, in worms, and, on becoming concentrated acquire the form of
plates (B); these organs already provide a possibility of quite precise orientation in
the direction of light. Finally, at an even higher stage of evolution (mollusks), an
internal, spherical light-sensitive cavity arises through bending of these plates that
54
operates like a camera lucida (C) that enables the movement of objects to be
(sensed).
On the other hand, organs of locomotion are also evolved, organs of animal's
external motion. Their evolution occurs especially noticeably in connection with
the following two main alterations: on the one hand in connection with the
transition to life in a terrestrial environment, and on the other hand, in hydrobionts
(animals living in an aquatic environment) in connection with transition to active
pursuit of prey.
Along with development of organs of sensitivity and organs of locomotion, an
organ of connection and coordination of processes -a nervous system- also evolves.
Originally the nervous system is a simple network the fibres of which running
in various directions unite sensitive cells located on the surface directly with the
animal's contractile tissue. This type of nervous system is not found in
contemporary species. In jellyfish or medusae the nerve net leading from sensory
cells is connected with muscular tissue already by means of motor nerve cells.
In such a reticular nervous system excitation is diffusely transmitted; the
nerve fibres forming the network have two-directional conductivity, and inhibitory
processes do not apparently exist. The next step in the evolution of the nerve
system is represented in the differentiation of neurons that form central ganglia
(nerve junctions). Along one line of evolution (among echinoderms) the nerve
ganglia form an apipharangeal ring with nerve columns running off from it. This is
already a nerve centre that enables relatively very complexly coordinated
movements to be performed, such as a starfish's movements to open the shells of
bivalves. Along two other major lines of evolution (from the primitive worms to
crustraceans and spiders, and from primitive worms to insects) a more massive
anterior... ganglion becomes formed which subordinates the working of lowerlying ganglia to itself.
The origin of this type of nervous system is conditioned by differentiation of a
leading organ along with other sense organs, which thus becomes the main organ
mediating the organism's vital activity. The evolution of such a ganglial nervous
system took the direction of increasing differentiation, which was associated with
segmentation of the animal's body.
The change of activity within this stage of evolution consisted in its ever
greater complication, which occurred along with the evolution of animal's organs
of (sense) and action and nervous system. Both the general type of structure of
activity, however, and the general type of reflection of the environment did not
alter greatly throughout this stage of evolution. Activity is stimulated and
controlled by the reflection of a number of separate properties; (their reciprocal
sensitivity toward) reality is consequently never perception of the wholeness of
things. In the least organised animals (e.g., worms) activity is always stimulated by
the effect of one property of some sort, so that, for example, a characteristic feature
of their search for food is that it is always made (as Wagner ((1928)) says) 'by
55
means of some one sense organ, without the assistance of other sense organs:
touch, more rarely smell or vision, but always only one of them'.
The complicating of activity within the limits of this common type takes two
main directions, one of which is most clearly expressed in the line of evolution
leading from worms to insects and spiders. It is manifested in the activity of
animals acquiring the character of sometimes very long chains consisting of a great
number of reactions corresponding to separate consecutive influence. A vivid
example is the often cited behaviour of the larva known as the ant lion.
The ant lion buries itself in sand just so deep that grains of sand begin to
touch the surface of its head, which causes a jerking backthrusting of the head and
anterior part of the body that throws the sand upward. As a result a funnel of
regular shape is formed in the sand at the centre of which the ant lion's head juts
out. When an ant gets into the funnel it inevitably causes a few grains of sand to
slide down. These, falling on the ant lion's head, trigger off the 'throwing' reflex
described. Some of the sand thrown up hits the ant, which slides down to the
bottom of the funnel with the falling sand. Then, as soon as the ant touches the
jaws of the ant lion, they shut on it and the victim is sucked dry.
The mechanism of this activity is one of elementary (sensory-motor) reflexes
-innate unconditioned and conditioned.
Activity of this kind is particularly characteristic of insects in which it attains
its highest degree of development. This line of the complicating of activity is not
progressive and does not lead to its subsequent qualitative alteration.
The other line followed by the complicating of activity and sensitivity, on the
contrary, is progressive. It leads to a change in the structure of the activity itself
and on that basis to the rise of a new form of reflection of the environment
characterised by an already higher, second stage in the evolution of animal's
psyche, namely that of the perceptive psyche. This... trend is linked with the
progressive line of biological evolution (from wormlike animals to primitive
chordates and then to vertebrates).
The (transitional) complicating of animal's activity and sensitivity is
expressed here in their behaviour being governed by a combination of many
simultaneous influences. Examples can be drawn from the behaviour of fish. A
marked contradiction is distinctly observable in them between an already relatively
very complex content of processes of activity and a high development of separate
functions on the one hand, and a still primitive structure of this activity on the
other hand.
Let us turn again to special experiments.
In an isolated aquarium in which live two young American catfish, a white
cheesecloth partition is fixed that does not stretch as far as one of the walls, so that
there is a free space between it and the wall.
When the fish, which usually keep together, are in a certain end of the
aquarium (always the same one), a bit of meat is dropped to the bottom of the other
end. Attracted by the spreading flavour of meat the fish make directly for it along
56
the very bottom. In doing so they come up against the gauze partition; having
approached to within a few millimetres of it, they remain for a moment seeming to
regard it, and then swim along it from one side to the other, until by chance they
find themselves opposite that gap at the side, through which they can penetrate into
the part of the aquarium where the meat is.
The fish's observed behaviour is due to two main influences. It is excited by
the scent of meat and develops in the direction of this main, dominant influence.
On the other hand the fish (see) (visually) a barrier, so that their movement toward
the spreading scent takes on a complicated, zigzag character. This is not, however,
a simple chain of movements: at first there is a reaction to the stretched gauze and
then a reaction to the scent. There is also no simple merging of these two
influences giving rise to a resultant movement. It is complexly coordinated activity
in which a twofold content can be objectively distinguished: (1) a definite direction
of (approach) activity leading to an appropriate result (this content arises under the
influence of the scent, which has the biological sense of food for the animal); (2)
turning movements proper (the content of which is associated with a definite
influence -the barrier- but this influence is distinguished from the effect of the
smell of food, and cannot independently excite the animal's activity; the gauze in
itself does not cause any reaction in the fish). This second effect is not associated
with an object that excites activity and toward which it is directed, but with the
conditions in which this object is presented. This is an objective difference
between the two effects and is their objective relationship. Is the objective
relationship, however, reflected in the activity of the fish being studied? Does the
one operate as associated with the object, i.e. with what stimulates activity? And
the second as relating to the conditions of the activity, in general as an other?
To answer that let us continue with the experiment.
As the experiments in feeding the fish in the presence of a barrier on their
path to the food continued, there is a kind of gradual 'melting away' of surplus
movements so that finally the fish immediately move toward the gap between the
gauze and the wall of the tank, and then to the food.
Let us now pass to the second part of the experiment. In it we remove the
barrier before feeding the fish. Although (p. 168) it was located quite close to the
initial point of the fish's movement, so that they could not help noticing its absence
in spite of their relatively weak vision, nevertheless the fish fully followed the
roundabout path, i.e. moved as they would if the barrier had been in place.
Subsequently their path straightened, but that happened only gradually.
Thus the effect governing the roundabout movement was firmly associated in
the studied fish with the effect of the food itself, with its smell. That means that it
(the barrier) was (sensed) by the fish... not as... another thing (but “from the start
continuously with the smell of food”).
Thus, as the result of a gradual complicating of... (motor) activity and
sensitivity, we observe the rise of a... (preadaptive) nonconformity, a (objective)
contradiction in their behaviour.... In other words... (the observable) activity (of the
57
“fish (and seemingly of certain other vertebrates)") is governed in fact by an
influence already coming from separate things (food, a barrier), while the
reflection of reality remains a reflection in them of the (sensory) aggregate of its
different properties.
During subsequent evolution this nonconformity (between sensory reflection
and preadaptive leading activity) was resolved through a change in the
(predominant) form of reflection and a further restructuring of the animal's general
type of activity; there was a transition to a new, higher ((qualitatively different))
stage of development of reflection (i.e., the “perceptual stage” of psyche).
Before we start to examine this new stage, however, we must first dwell on
yet another special problem that arises in connection with the general issue of the
variability of animal's activity and sensitivity.
This is the matter of so-called instincts, i.e. of innate, unconditioned reflex
behaviour and of behaviour that is altered by the effect of an animal's external
conditions of existence, and by its individual experience.
Views that link the successive stages in the evolution of the psyche with these
different mechanisms of animal's adaptation to their environment are very common
in psychology. The lowest stage in the evolution of the psyche is pictured, from
this point of view, for instance, as behaviour based on animal's so-called tropisms
or instincts; higher stages of evolution are formed by individually alterable
behaviour, i.e. behaviour built on conditioned reflexes.
These views are based on the indisputable fact that the higher we go up the
ladder of biological evolution, the more and more perfected is... adaptation to
variability of the environment, the more dynamic their activity becomes, and the
easier it is for animals to 'learn'. The concrete understanding of the development of
animal's behaviour, however, advanced by the holders of this point of view, is
extremely simplified and is, in essence, incorrect.
First, of all, there is no foundation for counterposing (i.e., to place in
opposition), as different genetic stages of behaviour, (a) inherited behaviour,
allegedly unalterable by external influences, and (b) behaviour built up in the
course of an animal's individual development, in the course of its individual
adaptation. 'Individual adaptation', Pavlov ((1949)) said, 'exists throughout the
animal world.'
The counterposing of innate and individually adapted behaviour came about,
on the one hand, from incorrect reduction of the mechanisms of animal's behaviour
to its innate mechanisms, and on the other hand from the old idealist understanding
of the term 'instinct'.
Tropism is usually considered the simplest form of innate behaviour. The
theory of tropism in relation to animals was developed by Loeb. According to him
((1918)) a tropism is a forced, automatic movement caused by a dissimilarity of
physico-chemical processes in the symmetrical parts of an organism as a
consequence of the one-sidedness of influences affecting it.
58
An example of this forced and invariable movement is the growth of the roots
of a plant, which is always downward no matter in what position we place the
plant. Similar phenomena can also be observed in animals; it does not follow from
that, however, that the activity of these animals boils down to a mechanism of
tropisms and that it is not plastic, altering through the effect of experience.
We know, for example, that most Daphnia possess positive phototropism, i.e.
that they perform forced movements toward light. The behaviour of Daphnia,
however, as the special experiments of Blees ((1919)) and of Soviet workers
(Leontyev and Basin) have shown, in no way resembles the 'behaviour' of plant
roots.
Blees's experiments were made as follows.
A small, flat aquarium, illuminated from one side only, was used. A glass
tube, bent at a right angle, was fixed in the centre of the tank so that one end lay
horizontal under the water and the other end projected vertically out of the water.
At the start of the experiments the horizontal limb pointed toward the
illuminated wall of the tank, i.e. toward the light source (positioned as shown in.
Water fleas (Daphnia) were pipetted and put into the tube; they quickly
passed down the vertical part of the bend and began at once to move along the
horizontal limb toward the light. On emerging from the tube they then swam freely
to the illuminated wall of the tank. Their behaviour thus remained strictly
controlled by the effect of light.
In the next experiments the tube was rotated by 45 degrees from the direction
of the light. In these conditions the water fleas came out of the tube as before but
more slowly.
That fact is also easily explainable from the angle of tropism. It can be
supposed that we have a summation of two directions here, the influence of the
light and the influence (p. 171) of the wall of the tube, obstructing direct
movement, and now pointing a bit to one side. The summation of these two
directions is also expressed in the fleas' slow passage through the tube. Repetition
of (exposure to this condition)..., however, demonstrated that the fleas' passage
through the tube was quicker and quicker (across trials), until finally it was close to
the speed needed to negotiate the tube when it pointed directly to the light. A
certain training was consequently observed in Daphnia, i.e. their behaviour was
gradually adapted to the given conditions.
In the next experiments the tube was turned to 90 degrees, then to 135
degrees, and finally to 180 degrees. In all these positions the water fleas also
gradually learned to pass quite quickly out (p. 172) of it, although they were forced
in the last two cases to move away from the light in a direction opposite to their
tropism (Fig. 21).
That fact can also be shown at first glance not to contradict the 'forced
character' of phototropism in Daphnia; it can be supposed that their positive
tropism is converted into negative tropism by an influence unknown to us. That
59
supposition, however, is refuted by the fact that after emerging from the tube the
fleas again moved toward the light.
Thus, as follows from the facts adduced, the behaviour of water fleas by no
means consists in machinelike, forced movements or tropisms. The tropisms of
animals are not elements of a wholly mechanical behaviour, but mechanisms of
elementary behaviour processes, behaviour that is always plastic and capable of
being reorganised in accordance with the environment's changing conditions.
Another concept with which the notion of animal's innate, rigorously fixed
behaviour is linked in psychology is that of instinct. There are various views about
what constitutes an instinct. The most common is the idea of instinctive behaviour
as behaviour that is inherited and does not require learning of any kind, behaviour
that is performed through the effect of certain stimuli and always in a certain way,
and that is completely identical in all members of a given species. It is therefore
'blind' and does not take into account the features of the individual animal's
external conditions, and is capable of being altered only in the long run of
biological evolution. That is the view of instinct held for example, by the famous
naturalist Fabre ((1910)).
In fact, we can quite definitely distinguish, in most highly developed animals,
between processes, on the one hand, such as are manifestations of consolidated
behaviour built up during the species' history and inherited (e.g. the innate 'ability'
of certain insects to build honeycomb), and on the other hand, such as arise during
animal's 'learning' (e.g. bees learning to choose correctly a feeding dish of syrup
marked by a figure of a certain shape). (p. 173)
.... Animal's behaviour is... species behaviour, but it is at the same time very
plastic.
Rigorously fixed instinctive behaviour is thus by no means the initial stage in
the development of animal's behaviour. That is the first point.
The second point is that there is also no instinctive behaviour in... activity at
higher stages of evolution such as is unalterable by the effect of an animal's
individual living conditions. That means, strictly speaking, that there is no
behaviour in general that is fixed once and for all, and that follows only a readymade pattern laid down in advance.... (p. 174)....
Even more obvious is the fact that animal's so-called individual behaviour is
shaped in turn on the basis of species instinctive behaviour and cannot otherwise
arise.... We can only affirm that innate mechanisms play a greater role in some
animals and mechanisms of individual experience in others. This (merely
quantitative) difference, however, also does not reflect the real... (i.e., essential,
proper, generally useful, or differentiating) character of the evolution of the psyche
in the animal world. Rather it indicates a peculiar... characteristic of (some rather
limited) lines of animal evolution. Innate behaviour is most clearly manifested. in
insects, which are known to be located on a side branch of evolution.
A difference in the type of mechanisms that implement animal's adaptation to
changes in the environment (e.g., the relative preponderance of reflex, instinct, or
60
reason) thus (p. 175) cannot serve as the sole criterion of the evolution of their
psyche. It is not only in what main way... behaviour is altered that is important but
(more) primarily what its content itself and inner structure are and what are the
forms of reflecting reality that are naturally associated with them.
2) The Stage of the Perceptive Psyche
A holistic reflection of objects and phenomena. Vertebrates are characterized
by this type of reflection. Individually acquired form of its behavior are skills and
imprinting, which serves for adaptation to changing conditions. Imprinting exists
among some species of animals from birth due to genetic program, which depends
on the environment in which the animals fall.
The next stage after that of the elementary sensory psyche, the second stage of
evolution, can be called that of the perceptive psyche. It has the capacity to reflect
external, objective reality already in the form of a reflection of things rather than in
the form of... sensations evoked by separate... or a combination of properties.
The transition to this stage in the evolution of the psyche is associated with a
change in the structure of animal's activity already prepared for in the preceding
stage. This change consists in the content of this activity already mentioned above,
which is (in the sensory psyche)... related to the conditions in (i.e., properties of)...
the environment, rather than to the object itself toward which the animal's activity
is directed....
When a mammal is separated from food by an obstacle, it will, of course, go
around it. Between the activity of fish (in the obstruction tank) described (above)
and that of mammals, however, there is a great difference, which is expressed in
this, that while the content of the fish's activity (roundabout movements) was
retained after removal of the barrier and disappeared only gradually, higher
animals usually make directly for the food in such a case. This means that the
influence to which mammal's activity is directed no longer merges with influence
from the barrier in them, but both operate separately from one another for them.
The direction and end result of the activity depends (p. 176) on the former, while
the way it is done, i.e. the mode in which it is performed (e.g. going around the
obstacle) depends on the latter. This special (modal) make-up or aspect of activity,
which corresponds to the conditions in which the object exciting it is presented, we
shall call operation.
It is this (selective and observable) distinguishing of (appropriate) operations
in activity that indicates that properties affecting an animal. (are beginning) to fall
into groups: on the one hand... properties. that characterise the object to which the
activity is directed, while on the other hand properties. that determine the mode of
the... operation (performed). Whereas differentiation of the affecting properties
was linked at the stage of the elementary sensory psyche with their. uniting
around the dominant stimulus, the integrating of the affective properties into a
single integral image, and their unification as the properties of one and the same
thing now arise for the first time. The surrounding reality is now reflected by the
animal in the form of more or less separated images of separate things.
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The majority of now existing vertebrates are at various levels of that stage of
the perceptive psyche. The transition to this stage was seemingly linked with the
passage of vertebrates to a terrestrial mode of life.
The rise and development of a perceptive psyche... were governed by several
essential anatomical and physiological changes. The main one was the
development and change of role of distant sense organs (i.e. ones operating at a
distance), primarily of vision. Their development was expressed in an alteration
both of their significance in the general system of activity and in the form of their
anatomical interconnections with the central nervous apparatus. Whereas
differentiation of sense organs in the preceding stage of evolution had led to the
singling out of dominant organs among them, among vertebrates the leading
organs more and more became those that integrate external influences. That
became possible because of the simultaneously occurring restructuring of the
central nervous system and the formation of a forebrain, and then of a cerebral
cortex (for the first time in reptiles). Originally (among fish, amphibians, and
reptiles) the forebrain was a purely olfactory formation constituting a sort of
continuation of their central olfactory apparatus. In subsequent evolution (among
mammals) the importance of the olfactory centres in the cerebral cortex was
greatly reduced through the representation of other sense organs. This is clearly
seen when we compare the place occupied by the olfactory cortex... in a hedgehog
and a monkey.
Vision, on the contrary, whose 'corticalisation' occurred initially with the
reptiles, occupies a relatively ever greater place in the cortex. In birds the eyes
become the main receptor. Vision also plays the main role in many higher
mammals.
The organs of external movement developed simultaneously, i.e. animal's
'natural tools' enabling them to perform the complicated operations demanded by
life in a terrestrial environment (running, climbing, pursuing prey, overcoming
obstacles, etc.). Animal's motor functions were also more and more corticalised
(i.e. transferred to the cortex of the brain), so that full development of operations
proceeded in animals in connection with the evolution of the cortex.
Thus, whereas the activity of lower vertebrates was still mainly linked with
lower-lying centres (subcortical ganglia), it subsequently became more and more
dependent on the cortex, changes in whose structure also reflect all its subsequent
evolution.
Differentiation of the operations that characterise the stage of the perceptive
psyche laid the basis for the evolution of a new form of fixing animal's experience,
for fixing it in the form of motor habits (i.e., automatic motor operations) in the
narrow sense of the term.
Any connections arising in individual experience (whether automatic or
intentional) are sometimes called habit (e.g., see William James on Habit as “the
enormous flywheel of society", Vol. 1, p. 121)). In the wide conception, however,
the concept of habit becomes blurred, embracing a vast circle of quite different
62
processes, beginning with changes in the reactions of infusoria and ending with
man's complicated actions. In contrast to that, in no way justified broadening of the
concept of habit, we shall call only fixed (i.e., acquired and then automated)
operations habits.
That definition of habit coincides with the understanding... first advanced in
Soviet psychology by Protopopov ((1935)), who demonstrated experimentally that
motor habits are formed in animals from the motor elements of overcoming
obstacles, and that the content of habits is determined by the character of the
obstacle itself, while the stimulus (i.e. main exciting influence) only affects a habit
dynamically (the speed and firmness of its forming) and is not reflected in its
(modal) content.
The motor elements forming part of the habits of animals may be different in
character; they may be both species, innate movements and movements acquired in
previous experience; finally they may be movements fixed (i.e., in sequence or
structure) in the course of the chance motor trial and error made by the animal
during the formation of the given habit.
Clearly expressed habits in the (higher) sense (i.e., those acquired by way of
initial effort or practice and only then automated into 'habitual' operations) are
observed at first only in animals that have a cerebral cortex. The mechanism of the
formation and fixing of systems of precisely cortical conditioned nerve
connections must therefore be considered the physiological base of the formation
of (such adaptive and preadaptive) habits.
(What Leontyev is hinting at here is that the cortex initially arose and
continues to function not only adaptively (i.e., in the role of allowing the organism
to be more attentive to important environmental contingencies) but is also
preadaptive of further psychical evolution because it provides a physiological
means by which learned perceptually attentive or motor “behaviours” -i.e., actions
with respect to biologically significant “objects” or “obstacles"- become automated
into “operations” controlled by the basal ganglia. This “habitual” automation
thereby frees the cortex to attend to other and newer significant contingencies
(whether they be “represented” in immediate perceptual experience, remembered,
or anticipated).)
The problem of the existence of (reflective) representations in animals is still
a matter of dispute. A vast number of facts, however, convincingly indicate that
animals (at the perceptual level of psyche and beyond) have representations.
Tinklepaugh... ((1928)) ... showed fruit to an animal (monkey) and then,
behind a board, surreptitiously replaced it (with) lettuce, which is much less
attractive. The animal was then allowed to move behind the partition; though
finding lettuce there it nevertheless continued to look for the fruit...
Similar experiments made with a fox by Voitonis and Kreknina ((1935))
yielded the same results.
The observations on a dog described by Beritov ((1934)) are of great interest
in this respect. In his experiments with conditioned reflexes, the dog was put in a
63
certain (starting place) and then given a conditioned signal in response to which it
ran to a simultaneously uncovered feeding dish, and received food. During these
experiments the following test was made: before the dog was brought into the
laboratory, it was walked to the far end of the corridor and shown food lying there,
without however being signaled to take it. Then it was led back to the laboratory
and given the conditioned signal. When it ran to the feeding dish, however, there
was no food there. (T)he dog did not return as usual to its (starting) place but ran
out into the corridor to the spot where it had previously seen food.
Buytendijk and Fischel's ((1930)) experiments with dogs were of a more
specialised character. They were able to demonstrate... that in contrast to lower
vertebrate organisms (fish), a dog is (able to remain persistently) oriented (toward
a) previously experienced... (rewarding lure)... ((now)... concealed from. sight)
(during its new) reactions to (experimentally presented objects)...
Thus, together with a change in the structure of animal's activity and a
corresponding change in the form of their reflection of reality there is also a
restructuring of the function of memory. Earlier, at the stage of elementary sensory
psyche, this (retentive) function was expressed in the motor sphere... under the
impact of external influences, ...and in the sensory sphere in... the links between
separate effects. Now, at this higher (perceptive psyche) stage (and beyond)..., the
mnemonic function operates in the motor sphere in the form of motor habits, and
in the sensory sphere in the form of a primitive, image memory.
The main change in the processes of differentiation and generalisation during
the transition to a perceptive psyche is expressed in the rise in animals of (the new
reflective capacity to utilize)... the images of (biologically significant) things (i.e.,
as unified though distinguishable entities). (Organisms at the stage of perceptive
psyche can differentiate between objects (as things) and reflect upon their
respective biological significance. It is by way of this new perceptual means that
these organism's ability to learn (i.e., to make generalizations and to adapt those
generalizations according to new environmental circumstances) is broadened in
scope.)
The origin and evolution of (such) generalised reflection of things is already a
much more complex problem, on which we must dwell specially.
The (perceptual) image of a thing is not a simple sum of individual sensations
or the mechanical product of many simultaneously operating properties belonging
to objectively different things. If, for instance, we have two (objects) of whatever
sort A and B that possess properties a, b, c, d and m, n, o, p, then for an image to
arise, these. properties must function as part of two separate entities (A and B), i.e.
they must be differentiated in precisely that respect. This means, also, that when
the given influences are repeated among others, their previously differentiated
unity must be perceptible as the thing itself. Given the inevitable variability of the
environment, however, and of the conditions of perception itself this is only
possible when the image of the thing arising is generalised.
64
In the cases described we see dual interconnected processes: those of the
transfer of operations from one concrete situation to another, objectively similar to
it, and those of the forming of a generalised image of a thing. The generalised
image of the thing, in arising together with the shaping of an operation in relation
to, and on the basis of, this thing, enables the operation to be transferred
subsequently to a new situation; in this process the previous operation comes into a
certain disharmony with the... conditions of (the new) activity... and... is altered
and reorganised. The generalised image of the thing is correspondingly
reorganised, made more precise, and absorbs the new content as it were, which in
turn leads to the possibility of a further transfer of the (mastered) operation to
new... conditions (again) calling for... even fuller... reflection by the animal.
Perception is thus still fully included... in the animal's external motor
operations. Generalisation and differentiation, synthesis and analysis take place in
a single process.
The evolution of operations and generalised perception... finds its reflection in
a further complicating of the cerebral cortex. There is further differentiation of the
integrative fields, which occupy an ever bigger place in the cortex.
The function of these higher integrative fields is, ... to integrate separate
influences.
3. The Stage of (Animal) Intellect
Intelligent behavior is characterized by reflection of the relationship between
objects among Apes. Intellectual action as a form of behavior. Hand intelligence
(working with his hands), the ability to solve two-phase objectives by:
1) The preparation of phase;
2) Performance.
The psyche of most mammals remains at the stage of the perceptive psyche,
but the most highly organised mammals have risen to an even higher stage of
(mental) evolution. (p. 184) (Organisms at the stage of Animal intellect can reflect
upon objects and relations (including social relations) between other organisms. It
is by way of this new intellectual means that their ability to learn these relations
(i.e., to make generalizations and to also adapt those generalizations to new
circumstances) is broadened in scope.)
This new, higher stage is normally called the stage of intellect (or 'manual
thinking').
The intellect of animals, of course, is not quite the same as human reason; as
we shall see, there is an immense qualitative difference between them.
The stage of (animal) intellect is characterised by very complex... forms of
reflecting reality. Therefore, before we deal with the conditions for the passage to
this stage, we must describe the activity of animals that are at this stage... in its
external expression.
The (externally observable) intellectual behaviour of the most highly
developed animals -the anthropoid apes- was first systematically studied in the
experiments carried out by Köhler ((1925))....
65
The apes (chimpanzees) were housed in a cage. Outside the cage, just far
enough away that the ape's arm could not reach it, bait was placed (bananas,
oranges, etc.). Inside the cage there was a stick. The ape, attracted by the bait,
could only bring it closer to itself in one way, by using the stick. How did the ape
behave in this situation? As it happened, it first began to try and snatch the bait
directly with its hand. The attempts were unsuccessful. The ape's activity seemed
to fade for a time. It turned away from the bait and stopped its attempts. Then
activity was resumed, but now took another path. Without trying to grab the fruit
directly by its hand, the ape picked up the stick, thrust it toward the fruit, touched
it, drew the stick back, again thrust it out and again drew it back, with the result
that the fruit was drawn closer and the ape snatched it up. The problem was solved.
The many other problems set anthropoid apes have been built on the same
principle; their solution also required the adoption of a mode of activity such as
could not be formed during solution of the problem set. For example, bananas were
hung from the upper lattice of the enclosure where the apes were kept, out of their
direct reach. Nearby was an empty box. The only possible way of reaching the
bananas in this case was to drag the box over to the spot above which the bananas
hung, and to use it as a stand. Observations showed that apes solved this problem
without noticeable preliminary learning.
Thus, while operations are formed slowly at a lower stage of evolution, by
way of many trials during which successful movements are gradually fixed (i.e.,
established, mastered), and other, unnecessary movements are gradually inhibited,
and fade out, in the case of apes we observe first a period of complete failure many attempts not leading to accomplishment of the activity, and then suddenly, as
it were, the finding of an operation that almost immediately leads to success. That
is the first characteristic feature of the intellectual activity of (such) animals.
A second characteristic feature is that when an experiment is repeated once
more, the (previously successful) operation concerned is reproduced (i.e.,
selected), in spite of its having been performed only once, i.e. the ape solves a
similar problem... without any preliminary trials.
A third feature of this activity is that ...(a given) solution... is... (selectively)
transferred by the ape to... conditions only (suitably) similar to those in which (it)
was first found. If an ape, for example, is now deprived of the stick, it easily
employs some other suitable object in place of it. If the position of the fruit is
altered in relation to the cage, or if the situation is altered slightly... the animal all
the same finds the necessary solution. The solution, i.e. the (appropriate) operation,
is (selected,) transferred... and adapted to this new situation...
We must note.... that anthropoid apes are capable of uniting two different
operations into a single (problem solving action).
For example, bait is placed outside the cage in which the animal is housed, at
a certain distance from it. Rather nearer to the cage but also beyond the animal's
reach is a long stick. Another shorter stick that can reach the long one but not the
bait is put into the cage. To solve this problem the ape must first pick up the short
66
stick, draw the long stick to itself, and then pull the bait to it with the long stick.
Apes usually cope with such 'two-phase' tasks without special difficulty. So a
fourth feature of (their) intellectual activity consists in a capacity to solve twophase tasks.
Subsequent experiments by other researchers have shown that these
characteristic features are preserved as well in (p. 186) the more complicated
behaviour of anthropoid apes (Ladygina-Kots and Vatsuro (, 1928)).
An example of the solution of a very complicated task by an anthropoid ape
is the following experiment . In the enclosure where the apes lived a box was set
one side of which was a (barred) cage ((b1)) while the other side had a narrow,
longitudinal slit ((a1)). Fruit ((B)) was put near the back of this box, clearly visible
both through the bars at the front, and thorough the slit behind. The bait was too far
away from the bars for the ape to reach it. It was also impossible to reach the bait
from the rear wall itself because the slit ((aperture)) was too narrow to admit the
ape's arm. A strong stake ((Tree)) was driven into the ground near the rear wall,
and a stick fastened to it by a not very long chain.
The solution of this problem consisted in pushing the stick through the slit in
the rear wall and shoving the fruit forward to the front bars, through which it could
then be pulled out simply by the hand.
How did the ape behave in this situation? On coming up to the cage and
noticing the fruit, it first tried to reach it thorough the bars. Then it went round the
box and looked at the fruit thorough the slit at the back. It tried to pull the fruit
through the slit by means of the stick, but that (p. 187) was impossible. Finally, the
animal pushed the fruit away with the stick, and went round the box so as to pull it
out through the bars.
How were all these complicated operations, observed in the experiments
described, formed? Did they really originate suddenly without any preliminary
preparation, as it seemed from the first outward impression? Or were they built up
in the main in the same way as in the preceding stage of evolution, i.e. through
gradual, albeit much faster, selection and fixing of movements leading to success?
The answer to that is clear from an experiment describe by French workers,
which was carried out as follows. An anthropoid ape was housed in a cage. A
small box was fixed on the outside of the bars with an opening on the side opposite
the bars. An orange was put close to the wall of the box. To get it in this situation
the animal had to knock it out of the box by a blow. Since such a blow could be
made accidentally, the researchers adopted the following clever device (p. 188) in
order to avoid such a possibility. They fastened a fine-meshed net above the box,
with a mesh being so fine that the ape could only poke a finger through it; the
height of the box was so calculated that the ape, while able to touch the orange,
could not hit it with force. Each touch could therefore only move the fruit a few
centimetres forward. Chance was thus excluded from the solution. On the other
hand this gave a possibility of studying exactly how the fruit was knocked out.
Would the ape move the orange anyhow, so that its path would accidentally take it
67
to the edge of the box? Or would it guide the fruit by the shortest path to the exit
from the box, i.e. would its action be built up of movements directed in a definite
way rather than from chance ones? The animal itself gave the best answer to the
question posed. Because the business of gradually shifting the orange took much
time, and apparently tired the animal, it already, halfway through impatiently made
a searching movement of the arm, i.e., tried to grab the fruit; having discovered
that it was impossible to do so, it again began slowly pushing it until the orange
was within range of its hand (Guillaume & Meyerson, 1930).
Köhler (1925/57) considered that the main attribute distinguishing the
behaviour of these animals from that of other members of the animal kingdom, and
which brought it closest to the behaviour of man, was precisely that their
operations were not shaped gradually through trial and error but arose suddenly,
independently of previous experience, by insight as it were. A second attribute of
intellectual behaviour, derived from the first, he considered to be a capacity to
remember the found solution 'once and for all', and to transfer it broadly to other
conditions similar to the original ones. As regard the fact of ape's solving twophase problems, Köhler and other following him consider that a combination of
two moments underlies it: the animal's 'insight' and the transfer of a solution earlier
found. They thus did not consider (the two-phasedness of the experimental tasks
set for the apes -i.e. the necessity of calling upon previously established operations
in order to perform a novel, larger, problem-solving action) to have any
fundamental (theoretical-explanatory) significance.
From (their) point of view, it is sufficient to explain the main fact, i.e. the fact
of an animal's sudden finding of a way to solve the first, initial problem, in order to
understand the whole peculiarity of ape's intellectual activity.
Köhler tried to explain (the fact of insight) by (appeal) to the apes having a
faculty of correlating separate things, distinguishable from one another, in
perception, so that they were perceived as part of a single 'integral situation'
(Gestalt).
This property of perception itself, its structured character, is only a partial
case, in Köhler's view, expressing the general 'Gestalt principle' that allegedly
underlies not only the psyche of animals and man and their vital activity, but also
the whole physical world.
From that point of view the 'Gestalt principle' can serve as an explanatory
principle, but itself is then inexplicable and does not require explanation. The
attempt to bring out the essence of intellect starting from this idealist 'Gestalt
theory' is, it goes without saying, unsound. Quite clearly it is not sufficient to enlist
the structured character of perception to explain the peculiarity of higher animal's
behaviour. For, from the standpoint of the adherents of the 'Gestalt principle',
structured perception is not only peculiar to the higher apes but is also peculiar to
much less developed animals; intelligent behaviour, however, is not observed in
the latter. (Stated plainly, the failure of the Gestalt account to recognize the
68
importance of two-phase actions blurred the observable dividing line between
perceptive psyche and higher animal intellect.)
This (Gestalt form of) explanation is also unsatisfactory from another aspect.
By stressing the suddenness of the intellectual solution and isolating that fact from
the content of an animal's (prior) experience, Köhler left a whole number of
circumstances out of account that characterise the behaviour of apes in their natural
environment. (Furthermore, in its isolated emphasis on the suddenness of the ape's
problem-solving skills, a false dividing line is laid down by the Gestalt theory.
Buhler (1930) it seems was the first to draw attention to the fact that there is
something in common between an ape's drawing a fruit to itself by means of a
stick, and pulling a fruit growing on a tree to itself by means of a branch. Attention
was then drawn to the fact that the roundabout path observed in apes could also be
explained by... these animals, living in forests and passing from one tree to
another, must constantly 'orient themselves' to the route in advance, or else they
would find themselves in an impasse of the natural labyrinth formed by the trees. It
is not accidental, therefore, that apes display a developed faculty for solving
problems in a 'roundabout way'.
The idea that the explanation of ape's intellectual behaviour must be sought
above all in its link with their normal species behaviour in their natural
environment has been expressed more and more definitely of late in the works of
psychologists and physiologists.
From that (additive, reductionist,) point of view (, however,) an intellectual
'solution' is nothing more than the application in new conditions of a mode of
activity phylogenetically developed. (According to their theoretical portrayal of the
data collected in animal experiments)... this transfer of a mode of action differs
from the ordinary transfer of operations in other animals only in happening within
(quantitatively) wider limits.
Thus, according to this conception of the intellectual behaviour of apes (e.g.,
Skinner's "operant” behaviorism),.... the sudden solution of an experimental
problem must itself be understood as the result of the animal's capacity for a broad
transfer of operations.
That (additive) conception... has the virtue that it does not counterpose the
animal's intellect to either its individual or species experience, and does not
separate intellect from habit. But it also comes up against serious difficulties. First
of all it is clear that neither the moulding of operations nor their transfer to new
conditions of activity can serve as distinguishing attributes of the behaviour of
higher apes, because both... are common to animals at a lower stage of evolution.
We observe both.... in many other animals as well, viz., among mammals and
birds. (This aspect of the) difference in activity and psyche between the latter and
apes, it turns out, is a purely quantitative one: a slower or quicker moulding of the
operation, and narrower or broader transfers. But the behaviour of apes differs
qualitatively as well from that of lower mammals. Their use of instruments and the
special character of their operations are quite clear evidence of that.
69
Furthermore, the conception of animal's intellect cited above leaves the main
thing undisclosed, namely what is the wide transfer of actions observed in apes and
what is the explanation of it.
To answer these questions we must... make a... characteristic fact that in
(Köhler's) opinion is of no fundamental importance the starting point of (our)
analysis, namely ape's capacity to solve two-phase problems.
In (the first phase of) two-phase problems.... it is necessary... to push the fruit
away.... Touching the stick by itself leads to taking hold of it but not to seizure of
the fruit that attracts the animal.... Unconnected with the next phase it lacks any
biological sense whatsoever. It is a phase of preparation. The second phase -use of
the stick- is already the phase of the realisation of (action) toward a goal, directed
to satisfying a given biological need of the animal. Thus, if we approach the ape's
solution of any of the problems given them by Köhler from this point of view it
proves that each of them required two-phase (actions): to pick up a stick-to pull the
fruit to itself, to move away from the bait-to possess the bait, to turn the box overto reach the fruit, and so on.
What is the essence of these two phases of the ape's (actions)? The first,
preparatory phase is apparently not stimulated by the object to which it is directed,
for example not by the stick itself. If the ape sees a stick in a situation that does not
require its use, except, for example, a roundabout way, it will not, of course, try to
take hold of it, which means that the ape does not associate this phase of the
activity with the stick but with the stick's objective relation to the fruit. The
reaction to this (goal-oriented) relationship is nothing other than preparation for the
next, second phase of the activity, i.e. the phase of realisation.
What is this second phase? It is already directed to(ward) the object ((i.e.,
biologically satisfying goal)) that immediately stimulates the animal, and is built
up according to definite objective conditions, and consequently includes some
operation or other that becomes a quite firm habit.
(In this)... highest stage of animal (psyche)... we thus observe a new
complication in the structure of activity. The activity previously merged in a single
process (of relatively immediate sensory or perceptual orientation toward
biologically significant information) is now differentiated into two (intellectual)
phases, one of preparation and one of accomplishment. Intellect arises for the first
time, consequently, when preparation of the possibility to perform some operation
or habit commences.
An essential attribute of two-phase (actions) is that new conditions no longer
evoke simply trial movements in the animal but trials of previously developed
ways or operations. How, for example, does a hen behave when driven out of an
enclosure? It rushes blindly from side to side, trying to find a way out, i.e. simply
increases its motor activity, until finally a chance movement leads to success.
Higher animals behave differently in face of a difficulty. They also make trials, but
these are not trials of separate movements but are primarily trials of various
operations or modes of activity. Thus an ape, faced with a locked box, first tries the
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habitual operation of pressing on the lever; when that does not work, it tries to
gnaw a corner of the box; then it employs a new method, to get into the box
through the slit in the door. Then follows an attempt to gnaw off the lever, which is
succeeded by an attempt to pull it off by its hand; finally, when that does not work,
it employs the next method, to try and turn the box over (After Buytendijk, 1930).
This feature of ape's behaviour, which consists in their being able to solve (a
novel)... problem in many ways, is most important evidence of their (repertoire of
operations)... having ceased to (be) connected in (a) fixed way..., and (of their) not
requiring the new problem. to be directly similar to an earlier one.
Let us now consider (this) intellectual activity from the aspect of animal's
reflection of their environment.
In its outward expression the first, phase of intellectual activity is directed to
preparing for its second phase, i.e. is objectively governed by the next...
(realisation phase)... itself. Does that mean, however, that the animal has its next
operation in mind, i.e. that it is capable (p. 193) of imagining it (from the outset)?
There is nothing to (unequivocally) justify such a supposition. The first phase
corresponds to (both) the objective (perceptual) relation between things (and to the
ongoing, active, consideration of the special situational relations of the particular
problem itself). This (situational) relation... must also be reflected by the animal...
(for it to assess the success of the operations it is currently carrying out and for the
selection of any other potential operation).....
...The transfer of an operation is now a transfer not only on the principle of
the similarity of things (e.g. obstacles), with which the given operation was
(formerly) associated, but also on the principle of the similarity of (situational)
relations... to which (the animal) responds (e.g. branch-fruit). An animal (at the
intellectual stage of psyche) now generalises the (perceptual) relations and (the
ongoing situational) connections of things. Its (intellectual) generalisations are
formed. exactly like the generalised, perceptual reflection of things, i.e. during the
activity itself. (In other words, the preparatory activity elicited by the object of
biological interest leads the psychic understanding of the animal. They understand
the special situational relations better by way of doing. Activity leads
understanding. Thus, by recognizing the goal-oriented aspects of the ape's twophase actions without appealing to either an omnipresent, undifferentiated 'Gestalt
principle,' or to the old arguments from 'preordained teleology,' the activity theory
approach answers the methodological concerns of reductionist theory without
falling prey to it.)
The origin and evolution of animal's intellect has its anatomical and
physiological basis in a further development of the cerebral cortex and its
functions. What are the main changes in the cortex observable in the higher stages
of the evolution of the animal kingdom? The new thing that distinguishes the brain
of higher mammals from that of lower animals is the relatively much greater place
occupied by the frontal lobe, which is developed through differentiation of its
prefrontal fields.
71
Study of the intellect of higher apes indicates that man's thinking has its real
preparation in the animal kingdom, and that in this respect, too, there is no
insuperable gulf between man and his animal ancestors. While noting the natural
continuity in the evolution of the psyche in animals and man, however, one must
not exaggerate their similarity in any way, as certain contemporary
zoopsychologists do who try in their experiments with apes to demonstrate the
alleged antiquity and naturalness of such 'intellectual behaviour' as working for pay
and money exchange.
Attempts to counterpose the intellectual behaviour of apes sharply to the
behaviour of the higher mammals are also wrong. We now have many facts at our
disposal that indicate that two-phase (actions) can be discovered in many higher
animals including dogs, raccoons, and even cats (in the last named, which belong
to the 'lurking' animals, it is true only in a very special expression).
Intellectual behaviour, which is proper to higher mammals, and which attains
especially high development in apes, is thus the upper limit of the evolution of the
(animal) psyche, after which the history of the evolution of a psyche of a quite
different, new type begins, peculiar only to man, i.e. the history of the evolution of
human consciousness.
2.3 Difference between human psyche and animal one
The difference between the animal psyche and human psyche consists
primarily in terms of its development. The animal develops according to the laws
of biological evolution. However, humans’ psyche development depends on social
and historical laws.
Table 2.3 Differences between human and animal psyche
Comparison Settings
1. Phylogenesis
Animal Psyche
Biological evolution
2. The factors of
mental development Biological
in ontogenesis
3. Form of Activity
4. The nature of the
activity
5. Regulators of
Human Psyche
Cultural and historical
development
Socio-cultural and
socio-psychological
The purposeful and
Instinctive and search behavior conscious activities,
general or individual
Directly connected to the
Indirect socio-cultural
biological needs of the
experience
organism and the particular
characteristics of the situation
Instincts, unconditioned and
Knowledge, social
72
activity / behavior
6. The nature of
self-regulation
conditioned reflexes
Mostly involuntary,
unconscious self-regulation
norms, traditions and
cultural values, and
symbolic sign systems.
Voluntary: Conscious
self-control, will
7. Information
exchange with the
environment
The first signal system in the
form of sensations: the
information about the world
enter to the brain from the
senses system
The second signal
system: external
information comes in
the form of words;
signals are signs of
language.
8. The form of
communication
between the same
species or between
individuals
Nonverbal: expressive
movement, sound signals
9. The level of
development of
mental functions
Higher / indirect (due to
Lower / natural (genetically
culture) mental
programmed) mental functions
functions
10. The nature of
the intellectual /
mental activity
The beginnings of visual-motor
and
spatial
visualization
ability, the ability to solve
complex (duplex) activity in
specific problem situations
Verbal and sign
language, a system of
signs and meanings.
Verbal and logical
(verbal and indirect)
conceptual thinking, the
ability to generalization
and abstraction
2.4 Consciousness as the highest form of mental development
Consciousness is the highest level of mental reflection of objective reality,
as well as the highest level of human self-regulation as its’ social being.
It is a generalized by purposeful reflection of reality, in the meaningfulness of
human behavior and pre-vision of its results, as well as controlling. The psyche is
formed from the first days of life, constantly evolving, enriched, improved by
external social experience. For example, if the animal grows isolated from the
usual conditions, it will save all own species’ quality, but if Human from his birth
is isolated from society, he will not get any qualities inherent in people. History
has a few cases, when the human child was fed by animals. There were no signs of
consciousness (thinking and speaking) among such children. Even more they had
no human physiological properties such as walking erect. Human psyche is
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significantly affected by social consciousness, which includes science, morality,
religion, art, law, ideology etc. Changes in society consciousness also reflected on
individual consciousness.
The main characteristics of consciousness are:
1. Consciousness contains the external information and internal knowledge.
2. Knowledge as a basis of consciousness is related with a complex of
emotional experiences, intentions and interests.
3. The distinction between subject and object, separate self-condition from
not-self one (self-presence).
4. The human consciousness is active. Activity is not only the form of
reflection, but also the ability to transform and change the environment.
5. Human consciousness directly is related with the language as a system of
signs and with ability to speak.
6. Ability to self-assessment, assessment of its actions. According to Hegel,
"man is an animal, but he was not an animal, because he knows that he is an
animal. Self-consciousness manifests itself in Informative (well-being, selfobservation, self-reflection, self-criticism), emotional (mood, self-esteem,
humility) and volitional (self-restraint, self-control) forms.
7. The provision of purposeful human activity. Due to ahead reflection
human get ability to reveal causal relationships, provides future aims, motives
and takes into account strong-willed decisions, making the necessary adjustments,
to overcome difficulties. The presence of emotional evaluation of external and
internal stimulus, event etc. Emotional experiences enhance the clarity of
information comprehension come from environment.
2.5 Structure and content of consciousness
One of the first ideas about the structure of consciousness belongs to Sigmund
Freud. According his Psychoanalysis approach, mind has a hierarchical structure
and includes the unconscious, pre-conscious and conscious states. The first two
states are part of the Nonconscious. S. Freud’s idea about mind is one of the types
of structuring of consciousness.
By studying the structure of individual consciousness, A.N. Leontiev
identified its three components:
1. Sensual basis of consciousness is a form of sensual composition of inner
images about concrete objects from the environment. Inner images vary in their
modality, sensuous tone, degree of clarity, a greater or lesser stability, etc.
2. Meaning is content which associates with a particular expression (word,
sentence, diagrams, maps, drawings, sign etc.) of a language belong to one human
culture with similar historical path.
3. Personal Meaning reflects the subjective importance of certain events for
the human interests and needs. It creates a bias of human consciousness.
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For example, all children would like to get a good mark. The mark "Five" is
common to all of them because of evaluation standards of learning process.
However, for one of them the “five” is an indicator of his knowledge and abilities,
for another child the “five” is a fact that he is better than others, for the third is a
way to achieve the promised gift from the parents, etc.
The discrepancy between personal meanings creates difficulty in
understanding. According L.S. Slavina, so called "Semantic Barrier" exists in cases
of misunderstanding among people, that arising due to different personal
meanings.
By studying younger students, L.S. Slavina was looking for reasons why some
children are impervious to influences from the teacher. Studying younger pupils,
she was looking for reasons why some children are completely immune to the
influences of the teacher. It turned out that this is largely due to the fact that the
requirements for the child requirement are for a completely different personal
meaning than for the teacher.
For example, the teacher asks question, trying to figure out what he knows, or
even "pull" student for the best mark, but the student believes that teacher finds
fault with him. The semantic barrier can occur not only between teachers and
students, but also between the parents and their children, between adults etc.
All of these individual consciousness components together create the complex
human mind.
The content of consciousness:
- Direct images that get from the environment;
- Emotional experience;
- Thoughts;
- Ideas.
2.6 Functions of consciousness
There are the following functions of consciousness:
1) Cognitive functions are the formation of representations of reality by
means of thinking, memory, and feelings;
2) Cumulative functions follow from the cognitive one. In the human
consciousness over time are accumulated knowledge, experience, emotions, and
experiences, acquired because of their own experiences;
3) Evaluation functions allow comparing human needs and interests with
those of the outside world and developing self-knowledge and self-esteem;
4) Focus function is related with human desire to identify individual goals
and ways of achieving them;
5) Creative functions help to form new ideas and concepts by thinking and
imagination;
6) Communicative functions serve for communication between people.
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According to A.N. Leontiev, the human language meanings and collective
activity play a major role in the formation of human consciousness.
L.S. Vygotsky, exploring the mechanisms of formation of higher mental
functions (thinking, consciousness, self-awareness), noted that the consciousness
development in human society was carried out in the course of social interaction
between people.
L.S. Vygotsky suggested the cultural-historical theory of the human psyche
in order to find scientific solution to the problem of human psyche development.
In this theory analysed the reasons of significant differences between the human
psyches from animals psyche. In his opinion, human has learned to create
inventions by cultural tools. Regarding this human psyche is developed and
human learned to master their own mental functions, to govern themselves. The
most common system of signs is human speech and language.
Consciousness as the highest form of mental activity allows the individual to
maintain internal integrity and consistency, irrespective of changes in the
situation. Moreover, consciousness is expressed in the continuity of time a person
experiences. He remembers the past, experiencing the moment, plans.
Motivations and results of human actions are comprehensible to him due to this
form of the psyche. Personality is able to assess themselves and others, engage in
self-improvement and self-development, if it is necessary.
Human activity and communication dictate the structure of consciousness. In
psychological terms, consciousness serves primarily as a process of human
understanding of the world and himself. Consciousness and self-consciousness
are inherent only to human, but not in any condition. Self-consciousness is absent
in the new-borns, in some categories of individuals with mental disorders etc.
Consciousness and self-consciousness are active that gives for individual the
ability to voluntary control its’ behavior. With regard to the consciousness of the
people, it does not passively reflect the surrounding reality, but also changes the
world.
2.7 Consciousness and Unconscious
Conscious human activity does not exclude the presence in it of the
unconscious. As a rule, the individual is aware of own motives and goals, but often
performs this activity automatically.
Walking, speaking, writing, reading, counting are the most organized
automatic mental activity. First, these acts are carried out by direct consciousness
activity, and then these acts turn to automatically base without consciousness
control.
However, the automation is relative. Consciousness at any moment can take
control of any automated action. In such cases, the unconscious becomes an
important mechanism for adaptation to the environment.
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Subjective reactions are also mostly unconscious because they are predefined
subliminal stimuli, such as hallucinations, dreams, etc.
Unconscious manifestations in the human psyche are incomparable with the
animal psyche, because they, like consciousness, are determined by social
conditions of human existence.
There are various explanations of the unconscious manifestations. So, S.
Freud believed that the unconscious is repressed, unrealized human needs. He
introduced the concept of "Id" caused by the pleasure principle and "Ego" based on
principle of reality. Actions of "Ego" correspond to reality and social attitudes. The
"Id" is guided by the subjective needs of the biological and affective nature.
There is no clear line of separation between the "Id" and the "Ego", because
mental activity is characterized by constant transitions through the conscious to the
unconscious, and vice versa.
Figure 2.7 Structure of mind by S. Freud
Dream is an example of such transition between the conscious and the
unconscious. There are three kinds of sleep: the daily sleep; sleep deprivation
which leads to the destruction of neuron cells; sleep, which occurs under the
influence of a uniform stimulus (for example, during a monotonous lecture); and
sleep habits.
Sleep is a special state of the cerebral cortex, which is accompanied by
complex biochemical transformations.
Sleep occurs when the higher parts of the central nervous system (cortex), and
even mid-brain are slowed. Sleep plays an extremely important protective function
of preventing exhaustion.
The dream is a kind of state of mind of individual who is asleep, which is
characterized by the appearance of more or less bright images. They arise because
of uninhibited areas of the cerebral cortex. Therefore, dream is based on the
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experience that already has been experienced before, which are connected to each
other in different ways, even fantastic or absurd connection. M.I. Sechenov
figuratively defined dreams as an unprecedented combination of already
experienced impressions.
External stimuli are also included in a dream, without disturbing sleep. For
example, if it is hot in bedroom, individual can see summer in dream.
The brain continues to work during sleep. For instance, D.I. Mendeleev during
sleep discovered the periodic system in chemical science, Kepule sow in his dream
a formula of benzene etc. However, these discoveries are not accidents but the
results of previous hard work of the brain.
During sleep, there are so-called "sentry points" as uninhibited or less
inhibited areas of the brain cortex, which are in a state of activity in order to
communicate with the outside world.
Neuron cells of "sentry points" not completely inhibited, and they are in socalled paradoxical phase in which they are more sensitive to weak stimuli than to
strong one. The animals also have a "sentry points". Regarding them, for example,
bats sleep upside down and do not fall.
The interesting thing is that there is no correspondence between the duration
of the events that unfold in his sleep and duration of sleep. Individual can see the
long dream during sleep just a few seconds, and vice versa.
Definitely, dream interpretations which are given in the dream books,
primitive, but at the same time, the content of dreams often give for psychologists,
psychotherapists, neuropsychiatrists valuable information about individual, his
condition, needs and problems. Analysis of the nature of dreams helps to
understand the cause of nervous disorders, to identify trauma etc.
An individual can also sleep by suggestion or self-hypnosis (hypnotic sleep).
A state of deep hypnotic sleep, during which individual performs a variety of
unconscious movement, called somnambulism. In connection with certain
abnormalities in the brain individual also can sleep for a long time (even decades).
This type of dream is called as lethargic dream.
The transition from sleep to active wakefulness is the transition from
unconscious to conscious mental activity. Thus, the human mental activity is a
unity of conscious and subconscious states.
Human behavior is determined not only by its consciousness. Individual’s
psychic self-organization as adaptation pattern to the environment is realized by
three relatively autonomous levels of mental regulation:
1. Evolutionary formed unconsciously instinctive level.
2. Unconscious-subjective and emotionally impulsive level.
3. Conscious, arbitrary, logical-semantic level.
In the socialized behavior dominated arbitrary, value-categorized program.
Two other, lower levels of self-control in his behavior perform background role. In
extreme conditions, and also in conditions of individual de-socialization, these
lower levels of self-control may go offline mode of operation.
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The presence of these levels of regulation in the human psyche causes the
relative independence of the following types of human responses and actions:
1. Unconscious, instinctive, innate reactions (fear response, fear, and
avoidance of physical hazards).
2) Habitually automated subconscious action.
3) conscious-volitional actions.
Thus, consciousness plays significant role both in external and internal
balance.
Altered states of consciousness
• hypnosis;
• meditation;
• drug action;
• state before death.
Traditional Western psychology distinguishes two states of consciousness.
They are sleep and wakefulness. The way we are aware of the outside world, varies
throughout the day, change the ability to perceive and process signals. The
relationship between the activation level and effectiveness is described by the
Yerkes-Dodson law: behavior will be effective if the excitement level will be close
to optimal, it should be neither too high nor too low. At a low level of activation
readiness of individual to action gradually reduced, and soon he falls asleep, at
high level of activation, individual’s behavior can be disorganized.
2.8 Consciousness and Self-awareness
The essential feature of human consciousness is self-consciousness. By
realizing the items of own activities and its relationship to other people, individual
becomes aware of own self.
Awareness about own behavior, physical features, mental characteristics are
related with the content of consciousness. By separating from objective reality,
individual starts to change own behavior in accordance with the society
requirements in order to develop Self-awareness.
Self-awareness is manifested in self-observation, critical attitude to
themselves, self-control and social responsibility for own behavoir.
Self-awareness - a holistic integrative, conceptual reflection of individual
about own personality.
Human directs and regulates their activities based on their self-concept, which
is due to the social conditions of existence of individual’s social identity (reference
of itself to a particular social group).
Self-awareness is the capacity for introspection and the ability to recognize
oneself as an individual separate from the environment and other individuals. It is
not to be confused with consciousness in the sense of qualia. While consciousness
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is a term given to being aware of one's environment and body and lifestyle, selfawareness is the recognition of that awareness.
There are questions regarding what part of the brain allows us to be selfaware and how we are biologically programmed to be self-aware. V.S.
Ramachandran has speculated that mirror neurons may provide the neurological
basis of human self-awareness. In an essay written for the Edge Foundation in
2009 Ramachandran gave the following explanation of his theory: "... I also
speculated that these neurons can not only help simulate other people's behavior
but can be turned 'inward'—as it were—to create second-order representations or
meta-representations of your own earlier brain processes. This could be the neural
basis of introspection, and of the reciprocity of self awareness and other awareness.
There is obviously a chicken-or-egg question here as to which evolved first, but...
The main point is that the two co-evolved; mutually enriching each other to create
the mature representation of self that characterizes modern humans.
An early philosophical discussion of self-awareness is that of John Locke.
Locke was apparently influenced by René Descartes' statement normally translated
'I think, therefore I exist' (Cogito ergo sum). In chapter XXVII "On Identity and
Diversity" of Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) he
conceptualized consciousness as the repeated self-identification of oneself through
which moral responsibility could be attributed to the subject—and therefore
punishment and guiltiness justified, as critics such as Nietzsche would point out,
affirming "...the psychology of conscience is not 'the voice of God in man'; it is the
instinct of cruelty ... expressed, for the first time, as one of the oldest and most
indispensable elements in the foundation of culture. John Locke does not use the
terms self-awareness or self-consciousness though.
According to Locke, personal identity (the self) "depends on consciousness,
not on substance. We are the same person to the extent that we are conscious of
our past and future thoughts and actions in the same way as we are conscious of
our present thoughts and actions. If consciousness is this "thought" which doubles
all thoughts, then personal identity is only founded on the repeated act of
consciousness: "This may show us wherein personal identity consists: not in the
identity of substance, but ... in the identity of consciousness. For example, one may
claim to be a reincarnation of Plato, therefore having the same soul. However, one
would be the same person as Plato only if one had the same consciousness of
Plato's thoughts and actions that he himself did. Therefore, self-identity is not
based on the soul. One soul may have various personalities.
Locke argues that self-identity is not founded either on the body or the
substance, as the substance may change while the person remains the same.
"Animal identity is preserved in identity of life, and not of substance", as the body
of the animal grows and changes during its life. Describes a case of a prince and a
cobbler in which the soul of the prince is transferred to the body of the cobbler and
vice versa. The prince still views himself as a prince, though he no longer looks
like one. This border-case leads to the problematic thought that since personal
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identity is based on consciousness, and that only oneself can be aware of his
consciousness, exterior human judges may never know if they really are judging—
and punishing—the same person, or simply the same body. Locke argues that one
may be judged for the actions of one's body rather than one's soul, and only God
knows how to correctly judge a man's actions. Men also are only responsible for
the acts of which they are conscious. This forms the basis of the insanity
defense which argues that one cannot be held accountable for acts in which they
were unconsciously irrational, or mentally ill — In reference to man's personality,
Locke claims that "whatever past actions it cannot reconcile or appropriate to that
present self by consciousness, it can be no more concerned in it than if they had
never been done: and to receive pleasure or pain, i.e. reward or punishment, on the
account of any such action, is all one as to be made happy or miserable in its first
being, without any demerit at all.
Self-awareness has been called "arguably the most fundamental issue in
psychology, from both a developmental and an evolutionary perspective.
Self-awareness theory developed by Duval and Wicklund in their 1972
landmark book a theory of objective self awareness, states that when we focus our
attention on ourselves, we evaluate and compare our current behavior to our
internal standards and values. This elicits a state of objective self-awareness. We
become self-conscious as objective evaluators of ourselves. However selfawareness is not to be confused with self-consciousness. Various emotional states
are intensified by self-awareness. However, some people may seek to increase their
self-awareness through these outlets. People are more likely to align their behavior
with their standards when made self-aware. People will be negatively affected if
they don't live up to their personal standards. Various environmental cues and
situations induce awareness of the self, such as mirrors, an audience, or being
videotaped or recorded. These cues also increase accuracy of personal memory. In
one of Demetriou's neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, selfawareness develops systematically from birth through the life span and it is a
major factor for the development of general inferential processes. Moreover, a
series of recent studies showed that self-awareness about cognitive processes
participates in general intelligence on a par with processing efficiency functions,
such as working memory, processing speed, and reasoning. Albert Bandura's
theory of self-efficacy builds on our varying degrees of self-awareness. It is "the
belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to
manage prospective situations." A person's belief in their ability to succeed sets the
stage to how they think, behave and feel. Someone with a strong self-efficacy, for
example, views challenges as mere tasks that must be overcome, and are not easily
discouraged by setbacks. They are aware of their flaws and abilities and choose to
utilize these qualities to the best of their ability. Someone with a weak sense of
self-efficacy evades challenges and quickly feels discouraged by setbacks. They
may not be aware of these negative reactions, and therefore do not always change
their attitude. This concept is central to Bandura's social cognitive theory, "which
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emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal
determinism in the development of personality.
Developmental stages
Individuals become conscious of themselves through the development of selfawareness. This particular type of self-development pertains to becoming
conscious of one's own body and mental state of mind including thoughts, actions,
ideas, feelings and interactions with others. "Self-awareness does not occur
suddenly through one particular behavior: it develops gradually through a
succession of different behaviors all of which relate to the self. The monitoring of
one's mental states is called metacognition and it is considered to be an indicator
that there is some concept of the self. It is developed through an early sense of
non-self components using sensory and memory sources. In developing self–
awareness through self-exploration and social experiences one can broaden his
social world and become more familiar with the self.
According to Emory University's Philippe Rochat, there are five levels of
self-awareness which unfold in early development and six potential prospects
ranging from "Level 0" (having no self-awareness) advancing complexity to
"Level 5" (explicit self-awareness).
Level 0: Confusion. At this level the individual has a degree of zero selfawareness. This person is unaware of any mirror reflection or the mirror itself.
They perceive the mirror as an extension of their environment. Level 0 can also be
displayed when an adult frightens himself in a mirror mistaking his own reflection
as another person just for a second.
Level 1: Differentiation. The individual realizes the mirror is able to reflect
things. They see that what is in the mirror is different from what is surrounding
them. At this level they can differentiate between their own movement in the
mirror and the movement of the surrounding environment.
Level 2: Situation. At this point an individual can link the movements on the
mirror to what is perceived within their own body. This is the first hint of selfexploration on a projected surface where what is visualized on the mirror is special
to the self.
Level 3: Identification. The individual finds out that recognition takes effect.
They can now see that what's in the mirror is not another person but it is actually
themselves. It is seen when a child refers to them self while looking in the mirror
instead of referring to the mirror while referring to themselves. They have now
identified self.
Level 4: Permanence. Once an individual reaches this level they can identify
the self beyond the present mirror imagery. They are able to identify the self in
previous pictures looking different or younger. A "permanent self" is now
experienced.
Level 5: Self-consciousness or "meta" self-awareness. At this level not only
is the self seen from a first person view but it’s realized that it's also seen from a
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third person's view. They begin to understand they can be in the mind of others.
For instance, how they are seen from a public standpoint.
Infancy and early childhood
By the time an average toddler reaches 18 months they will discover
themselves and recognize their own reflection in the mirror. By the age of 24
months the toddler will observe and relate their own actions to those actions of
other people and the surrounding environment. There are multiple experiments
that show a child's self-awareness. In what has come to be known as The Shopping
Cart Task, "Children were asked to push a shopping cart to their mothers but in
attempting to do so they had to step on the mat and in consequence, their body
weight prevented the cart from moving".
Around school age a child's awareness of personal memory transitions into a
sense of one's own self. At this stage, a child begins to develop interests along with
likes and dislikes. This transition enables the awareness of an individual's past,
present, and future to grow as conscious experiences are remembered more often.
As a child's self-awareness increases they tend to separate and become their
own person. Their cognitive and social development allows "the taking of another's
perspective and the accepting of inconsistencies. By adolescence, a coherent and
integrated self-perception normally emerges. This very personal emerging
perspective continues to direct and advance an individual's self-awareness
throughout their adult life.
Adolescence
One becomes conscious of their emotions during adolescence. Most children
are aware of emotions such as shame, guilt, pride and embarrassment by the age of
two, but do not fully understand how those emotions affect their life. By age 13,
children become more in touch with these emotions and begin to apply them to
their own lives. A study entitled "The Construction of the Self" found that many
adolescents display happiness and self-confidence around friends, but hopelessness
and anger around parents due to the fear of being a disappointment. Teenagers
were also shown to feel intelligent and creative around teachers, and shy,
uncomfortable and nervous around people they were not familiar with.
Control questions:
1. Identify Three Brain Units
2. Compare Stages of Psyche development
3. Explain main Differences between Human and Animal Psyche
4. Describe main characteristics of Consciousness
5. Define structure of individual consciousness
6. Analyse Structure of Mind by S. Freud
7. Analyse Structure of Consciousness
8. Describe functions of Consciousness
9. Describe the Yerkes-Dodson law
10. Describe factors that determine a person's behavior
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CHAPTER 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF ACTIVITY
3.1 Concept of Activity in Psychology
The "Activity" also is significant scientific category with other basic
psychological concepts such as "consciousness", "person", "communication". The
"Activity" has the status of scientific concept and even interdisciplinary categories.
Activity is the subject of study of many sciences: philosophy, sociology,
physiology, engineering disciplines, psychology.
Activity is a form of active relationship between human and environment in
order to achieve goals, create of socially significant values and get social
experience.
Activity is related with purpose connected with individual needs.
There are other also important general psychological features of activity:
Objectiveness of activity. The objects of the external world do not act directly
on individual, but merely being transformed during activity.
Subjectivity of activity. Activities are always socially determined. Therefore
activity is linked to the language, social roles and norms. Subjectivity of activity is
expressed by all human experience, motives that determine the direction and
selectivity of action.
Adaptability of activity is a feature, which gives possibility for individual to
transform activity due to several changes in its conditions.
Systematic activities. The activity appears not only by sum of its components,
but also by its organized integrity.
According to S.L. Rubinstein, individual and his psyche are developed by
activities. Mind objectively exists primarily as extremely dynamic, plastic,
flexible, continuous, never initially and not fully defined process.
Psyche always formed only in individual interactions with the external world.
Therefore, psyche in this condition is constantly changing and evolving, ever more
fully can reflect the dynamism of reality and thereby participating in the regulation
of all activities.
3.2 Psychological Theory of Activity
In science, there is no single approach to the disclosure of the concept and
structure of human activity. Traditional psychology has made a major contribution
to the methodological and psychological solution to this problem.
Activity is a specific form of social life of people, by which transform the
natural and social reality.
The problem of activity is linked with the problem of personality and
consciousness. Personality is formed only in the activity. The activity defines
psychological features of individual, but only individual chooses the form
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activities which determines its development (A.G. Asmolov). During the activity
individual interacts with the environment, and this process is not passive, but
active and controlling by consciousness.
"Activity approach" is a theory considering psychology as a science of the
functioning and structuring of mental reflection during activities.
The psychological theory of activity was created in Soviet psychology and
has been developing for over 50 years. It is fully revealed in the works of
domestic psychologists such as L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev,
A.R. Luria, A. Zaporozhets, P.J. Halperin and many other psychological theory of
activity began to be developed in the 1920s - early 1930s. By this time, the
psychologies of consciousness were at the peak of new foreign theories such as
behaviorism, psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology, and several others. Thus, Soviet
psychologists could already take into account the positive aspects and
disadvantages of each of these theories.
But the main thing was that the authors of the theory of activity have adopted
the philosophy of dialectical materialism such as the theory of Karl Marx, and
especially its main thesis for psychology that is not the human mind which
determines its existence and activity, but on the contrary, the existence and
activity is determined by consciousness. This general philosophical thesis found
specific psychological development in the theory of activity.
The most complete theory of activity is presented by of A.N. Leontiev,
particularly in his latest book "Activity. Consciousness. Personality".
For Leont'ev, “activity” consisted of those processes "that realise a person’s
actual life in the objective world by which he is surrounded, his social being in all
the richness and variety of its forms" (Leont’ev 1977). The core of the Leont'ev's
work is the proposal that we can examine human processes from the perspective
of three different levels of analysis. The highest, most general level is that of
activity and motives that drive it. At the intermediate level are actions and their
associated goals, and the lowest level is the analysis of operations that serve as
means for the achievement of the higher-order goals.
The concept of activity’s structure not completely exhausts the theory of
activity, but constitute its foundation. Human activity has a complex hierarchical
structure. It is composed of several layers or levels. There are levels of activity,
moving from top to bottom:
1) The level of action;
2) The level of operations;
3) The level of psycho-physiological functions.
The level of action is the basic unit of analysis of any activity. By definition,
the action is a process aimed to achieve a goal of activity. Thus, the definition of
the action includes another concept that it is necessary to define. It is a “Goal”.
What is the goal? It is an image of result that must be reached in the process
of action. Note that goal is an image of a conscious result. Image of result held in
the minds of all time, while the action is carried out, so goal is always conscious.
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Is it possible to do something, without imagining the result of activity? Definitely
it is impossible.
The following four points are describing the concept of "action".
1. The action includes an essential consciousness component by setting goals
and retention of it. However, this act of consciousness is not close in it, but
revealed in action.
2. Action also is an act of behavior. Consequently, the theory of activity also
keeps achieving of behaviourism about study of external activity in animals and
humans. However, unlike behaviorism it regards external movement in
indissoluble unity with the consciousness, because the movement without a goal is
failed behavior.
Thus, the first two points are made in the recognition of indissoluble unity of
consciousness and behavior. This unity lays in the main unit of analysis the
“Action”.
3. Concept of “Action” in activity theory asserts the principle of activity,
contrasting it with the principle of reactivity. The two different principles are
starting points of activity analyses:
a) According J. Watson, reactivity exists in the external environment of
organism (subject). The reaction (from the Latin “actio" - action) means a
response. J. Watson believed that through reactions, psychologists can describe
human behavior, but evidence showed that many of the behavioral acts or actions
cannot be explained solely on the basis of the analysis of environmental
conditions. Any reaction on external stimuli is mostly an action aimed to achieve
the objectives by taking into account external conditions. It is appropriate to recall
the words of Marx that man for the purpose is the law that defines the method and
nature of his actions. Therefore, the psychological theory of activity affirms the
principle activity through the concept of action.
b) The concept of action allows manifestation of human activity in the
objective and the social environments. Anything can be as results of action. For
example, not only biological objects can be as results of action. For example,
obtaining food, avoiding danger, and so on. In this case, it could be the production
of a material and social products, for instance, social contact establishing,
acquiring knowledge etc.
Thus, the concept of “action” makes possible to come up with a scientific
analysis of human activity. Such an opportunity could not be provided by the
concept of response, which came from J. Watson. Human in the light of the
Watson’s system acted mainly as a biological entity.
The concept of action reflects the basic assumptions or principles of activity
theory, the essence of which is as follows:
1) Consciousness cannot be regarded as closed system itself: it must be
displayed in the activity of the subject (it is necessary for "opening" the circle of
consciousness);
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2) The behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness.
In examining the behavior of the mind must not only be preserved, but also define
its fundamental functions (principle of unity of consciousness and behavior);
3) Activity is an active, purposeful process (active principle);
4) Human actions are objective one; they implement social and cultural aims
(the principle of objectivity of human activity and the principle of its social
conditioning).
Next lower layer of activity is operation. The operation is a way to perform an
action. A few simple examples will help to illustrate this concept.
1. Multiply two-digit numbers in the mind, or in written form. These are two
different ways to perform the same arithmetic operation, or two different
operations.
2. "Female" way of threading a needle thread is that the thread is pushed into,
but men tend to bearing down eye of a needle on the thread. This operation is also
different, in this case the motor.
3. To find a specific place in a book, usually we use a bookmark. However, if
the tab is dropped, it is necessary to resort to another method of finding the right
paragraph: either try to recall the number of exact page, or leafing through the
book’s pages in order to find right paragraph etc. There are again, a number of
different ways to achieve the same purpose.
Operations describe the technical side of the implementation of action, and
what is called "appliances", agility, dexterity, that refers almost exclusively to the
level of the operation. The nature of the operations depends on the conditions in
which the action takes place. Thus, the conditions intended to be external
circumstances and opportunities or the internal funds of individual.
Speaking about the psychological characteristics of the operations it should be
noted that their main feature is that they are little understood or not understood at
all.
Thus, according to the theory of activity:
1) Operations are of two kinds: one arises by adaptation of applying or direct
imitation; others are from actions by their automation;
2) The operation of the first kind is practically not recognized and cannot be
called in the mind even when apply special efforts. Operations of the second kind
are on the border of consciousness and can be easily understood if they are
important for us;
3) Every complex action consists of actions and operations.
Last, the lowest level in the structure of the activities constitutes a psychophysiological function. Speaking of that entity operates, we must not forget that
this subject is at the same time is an organism with a highly nervous system,
developed senses and complicated musculoskeletal system.
Under the psycho-physiological functions in the theory of activity understood
the physiological maintenance of psychological processes. These include a
number of abilities of the human body: ability to feeling, formation and fixing
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traces of past actions, motor ability, etc. According this in active theory are
distinguished sensory, mnemonic and motor functions respectively. This level also
includes innate mechanisms enshrined in the morphology of the nervous system,
and those that mature during the first months of life. The boundary between
operations, automatism and psychophysiological functions is conditional enough,
however, despite this, the last stand in a separate level because of their organismic
nature. They exist in activity at the beginning.
The psychophysiological functions at the same time make the necessary
prerequisites and means of action. Physiological features are the foundation of
organic basis of activity. Without relying on them, it was impossible to perform
the actions, operations, but also the formulation of the tasks.
Thus, the three main levels in the structure of activity such as actions,
operations and psycho-physiological functions are operational and technical
aspects of the activity.
3.3 Motivational and Personal aspects of Activity
The stream of consciousness and all its contents includes emotions, images,
and the perception of the external and internal worlds. There are the processes,
which underlie behavior and all the phenomena of experience. Any product of the
mind, such as judgments, attitudes, knowledge, opinions, and beliefs is the
original form of the activity of living organisms.
Definition
Need is anything necessary for the survival of an
organism. The desire for anything necessary for the
survival of an organism. A desire for some particular
thing, activity, or state necessary to the experienced wellbeing of an organism, as in the need for creativity or play
Needs analysis is best to start with their organic forms. Periodically there are
certain states of tension associated with the lack of an objective substance of
living body, which are necessary for the continuation of the normal functioning of
the body. These states are the objective needs of the organism in something lying
outside his constitute a prerequisite for its normal functioning. Therefore, these
states called as needs. These are the need for food, water, oxygen, etc. When it
comes to the requirements with which a person is born (and not only man, but also
the higher animals), then this list is necessary to add at least two more basic
biological needs: social need (need to contact with others,) and especially with
older individuals, and the need for external impressions (cognitive demand).
The subject needs are often defined as a motive. Motive is something for
which the action takes place.
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Definition
Motive reasoning for doing something. Motive causing
movement or action.
Set of actions, which are caused by one motive, is called as “activity”, and
more specifically is called as special activities or special activity.
As examples of special activities usually give a game, learning, labour. The
word "work" was fixed for these forms of activity, even in everyday speech.
However, the same concept can be applied to a host of other human activities,
such as caring for the child's upbringing, sportsmanship or solving major scientific
problem.
Level of activity is clearly separated from the action level, since one and the
same motive can be satisfied with a set of different actions. However, the same
effect can be encouraged by different motives.
Actions specific subject is usually encouraged by several motives. Multi
motivation human action is typical phenomenon. For example, a person may work
well for high quality results, but simultaneously satisfies his other motives such as
social recognition, financial rewards etc. in this case or function, not all motives,
"converging" on one activity equivalent. As a rule, one of them is major, others minor. The main motive is called leading motive, secondary motive is called
motive-stimulus. Motive-stimulus not so much "launch" as further stimulates this
activity.
Due to the problem of the relation of consciousness and motives, it is
necessary to note that the motives generate action, or lead to formation of goals
and objectives, which usually aware. Therefore, all motives can be divided into
two classes: the conscious motives and the unconscious motives. Conscious
motives can serve important life goals, which guide human activities over long
periods of his life. These motives are goals. Such motives characterize mature
individuals. Class unconscious motives are much more, and before attaining a
certain age, there are almost all the motives exist in personality.
Work on the realization of self-motivation is very important, but at the same
time is very difficult. It requires not only great intellectual and life experience, but
also a lot of courage. In fact, this is a special activity that has its motive such as
motive of self-knowledge and moral self-perfection.
Unconscious motives, as well as conscious motives appear in consciousness,
but in special forms. Such forms are at least two: the emotions and personal
meanings.
Emotions arise only in relation to such events or results of actions that are
associated with the motives. If a person is worried about something, then it is
"something" involves his motives.
The theory of activity emotions are defined as a reflection about the results of
its activities to the motive. If the terms of motive activity is successful, there are
positive emotions if unsuccessful - negative.
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Emotions are very important indicators that serve as the key to unlocking
human motives (if they are not understood). It is only necessary to notice exact
reasons of their appearance. Sometimes, for example, a person who commits an
altruistic act, feels a sense of dissatisfaction. It is not enough that he helped
another, because his act has not yet received the expected recognition from others
and it is disappointing. It tells the true sense of frustration, and, apparently, the
main motive by which he was guided.
Another form of manifestation of the motives in the consciousness is personal
meaning. This experience raised the subject of subjective significance, actions or
events, caught up in the action of leading motive. It is important to emphasize that
the only leading motive express personal meaning. Secondary motives (motives,
incentives) act as additional motivators; they generate only emotions, but not the
meaning.
Personal meaning is well-observed phenomenon in the transition of process,
when a neutral object suddenly begins to be experienced as subjectively
important. For example, boring geographical information is important and
significant, if you plan to hike and choose the route for it. Discipline in the group
begins to worry you much more if you are appointed as advisor.
3.4 Relation between Motives and Personality
Human motives form a hierarchical system. If we compare the motivational
sphere of the person with the building, then the building will have a different form
in different people. In some cases, it will be like a pyramid with a single vertex of
leading motive, in other cases, the vertices or semantic motives may be several.
The entire building can rest on a small base of egoistic motive or rely on a
foundation of public interest motives, which include terms of human life.
Depending on the strength of leading motives, the building can be high or low,
and so on. The motivational sphere of a person is determined by the scale and
nature of his personality.
Typically, hierarchical relationships motives are not fully understood by
individual. They are clarified in situations of conflict between motives. It is
common of confronts between different motives, requiring a person to make a
choice in favour of one of them: the material benefit or interests of the case, selfpreservation, or honour.
Development of motives. In the analysis of the activity, only one formula
exists: need to motive, then motive forming to the purpose and activity of need motive - purpose - activities. In real activity constantly the reverse is true: in the
course of activity formed new motives and needs of “activity - motive – need”.
By the theory of activity was found a motives’ formation mechanism, so
called “mechanism of shift of motive on target" (another option - a "mechanism of
turning the goal to the motive"). The essence of this mechanism is that the goal
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previously encouraged to implement it in some motive, eventually becomes selfmotivating force. By another words, goal becomes a motive.
It is important to emphasize that the transformation goal to motive can only
happen in the accumulation of positive emotions: it is well known that it is
impossible to create positive attitudes towards work by only punishments and
coercion. The subject cannot become motive by the order even with very strong
desire. He must go through a long period of accumulation of positive emotions.
The last act is to enter into existing system of motives a new motive. An example
would be a situation. The student begins to willingly engage in some subject,
because he enjoys communicating with favourite teacher. But over time, it appears
that the interest in the subject deepened, and now the student continues to have
them for its own sake, and maybe even choose it as their future profession.
Internal activity. Development activity theory began with an analysis of
human external, practical activity. But then it became necessary to analyse
internal operations.
What is the internal activity? Imagine the contents of the inner work, which is
called intellectual and which people are constantly engaged. This work is not
always a proper thought process such as the solution of intellectual or scientific
purposes. Often during these thoughts individual produces in the mind of the
upcoming actions.
The function of these actions is that domestic actions prepare external action.
They save human effort, giving him the opportunity, firstly, accurately and
quickly select the desired action, and secondly, to avoid grave and sometimes fatal
mistakes.
With respect to these extremely important forms of activity theory put
forward two main points:
1. Internal activity is an activity that has essentially the same structure as the
external activity, and differs from it only in the form of leakage. In other words,
the internal activities, as well as external, inducement, accompanied by emotional
experiences, has its operational and technical support. The only difference is that
the operation is performed with real objects and their images, and instead of the
actual product obtained the result of a thought.
2. Internal activity occurred from the external, practical activities through a
process of internalization, which is understood as the transfer of appropriate
action in the mental plan. It is clear that for a successful product of the action "in
the mind," it is necessary to master it in material terms and get first real result. For
example, thinking through chess move is possible only after the real mastered the
moves of figures and perceived their actual consequences.
It is also clear that the internalization of external activity, without changing its
fundamental structure, greatly transformed. This applies especially to its
operational and technical part: individual actions or operations are reduced, and
some of them drop out at all; the entire process is much faster.
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Can mental processes and functions to be described by means of concepts and
theory of operations? Is it possible to discern them in the structural features of the
activities? Definitely, it is possible. Soviet psychology for decades engaged in the
development of the activity approach to these processes.
3.5 Structure and Types of Activity
The activity is a system that includes several components. A.N. Leontiev
allocated such components as steps, operations, objectives, and other parameters of
activity. Each of these components is presented at a particular level of activity.
According to the Picture 1 there are four main stages of activity:
Needs
Motives
and goals
Actions,
operations
and
psychophysiological
functions
Results of Activity
Emotions
Figure 3.5 Stages of Activity
1. Need is basis of any activity. Needs is a situation in which individual must
do something which is important for him. Regarding needs activity starts.
According Maslow’s classification fundamental human needs are physiological
needs, safety needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs and self-actualization
needs.
2. Motives. One of the tasks of psychological analysis of activity is to clarify
the motives for which it is carried out. Motive explains individual psychological
differences between people in the course of activities under similar conditions.
3. Goal of activity is achievement towards which efforts directed by motives.
4. Action and Operations are main body of performance of activity by human.
5. Results are outcomes of activity.
In this schema action is one of the key components of human activity, which
is formed under the influence of a conscious result or goal. That action, its genesis,
structure and function are the main subject of study in the psychological theory of
activity. The structure of the action includes not only reactive and executive
elements, but also the expression elements, such as sensitivity, memory, foresight
and evaluation. In general, the action consists of three parts: the indicative,
executive and controlling.
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There are several reasons for the isolation of types of action. The form of
mental reflection distinguishes sensory, perceptual, mnemonic, and other types of
action. In compliance with various activities, such as emit gaming, education, work
and other activities. According to the degree of development of action distinguish
external and internal actions. The actions of the historical experience of mankind
are fixed, the transfer is carried out in the process of communication between child
and adult, as well as two or more adults are together.
The operation is one of the components of the activity defined by the terms of
an action. The operation is a way to perform an action. The same operation can
enter the structure of different actions.
The level of psycho-physiological foundations is different mental process
forms of activity.
3.6 Types of Activity
Traditionally, the main types of activity include differentiation of activity on
labour, training and playing activities. Work experience is different from the other
two types that involve getting any socially significant product result. For playing
and learning activities such result is not socially and individually significant.
Finally, the most specific feature of the playing activity is that main motive
appears in the process of activity, rather than in its result. These activities follow
each other in ontogeny, and are indicated by the term "leading type of activities"
for each of stages of age. Leading activity determines the new formation in the
human basic psychological development at each stage of age.
The separation of individual and joint activities is also equally fundamental
and common for psychology. Joint activity implemented so-called “collective
subject”, where two or more people have a common motive and common purpose.
Another important feature of the joint activity is spatial and temporal presence of
the participants, their instrumental role differentiation, and availability manager
who organizes joint activity. Joint activity is also internally heterogeneous and
divided into sub-types: for example, directly joint activity "work together" and
indirectly joint activity where exist "the separate activities of each number of
group".
The most traditional classification of activity is due to its subject area such as
professional affiliation. So, there is a classification of professional activity
developed by E.A. Klimov: "Human - Technology", «Human-Human," "HumanNature," "Human - Sign," "Human- Artistic image".
There are also distinguishing performing activity and management
(organizational) activity. First is characterized by individual’s directly effects on
object of activity, even if he is in contact with the other subjects. The second
management activity usually does not provide such direct exposure. It is, however,
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necessarily involves organizing a stakeholder other people, as well as the hierarchy
of subordination.
Activity is also classified to direct and indirect types regarding its applied
features. In the first case, individual directly effects on object and immediately gets
information from it. In the second case, information is transmitted to individual
through the intermediate link: in tabular form on the screen or in any other form of
signs. For example, the operator activity.
In Child Psychology, it is widely spread concept of leading activity. A certain
type of dominant activity characterizes each age period.
The leading activity is an activity that defines development of the human
major mental new formations in exact age stage. Leading the activity corresponds
to the basic needs of the child.
Table 3.6 The periodization of child mental development
Period
Infancy
Leading activity
Childhood
The emotional communication with the
mother
Subject-manipulative activity
Pre-school age
Role-playing games
Primary school age
Learning activity
Adolescence
Senior school age
Communication with peers
Learning-professional activity
The concept of leading activity was created by A.N. Leontiev, who singled
out three features of leading activities.
Firstly, under the leading activity arise and differentiate new activities. Thus,
in the role-playing game elements appear pre-schooler exercises - activities that
will lead in the next primary school age.
Secondly, in the leading activity formed and rearranged some mental
functions. For example, in the game there is a neoplasm pre-schooler as
"imagination".
Thirdly, the observed changes in personality depend on the leading activity.
When a child plays in a game situation the relationship of adults, he develops
peculiar adult standards of behavior.
The concept of leading activity and its determining role was developed by
D.Elkonin in order to build periodization of mental development. The development
is based on the sequential change of the leading activity, which in one age period
provides the priority development of motivational and needs sphere. Changing the
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dominant activity is the transition to a new stage. The main mechanism in this case
is shift motif on target, converting that acted as one of the goals of an independent
motive.
Playing activity. Role-playing is an expression of the growing child's
communication with the public. In the role-playing game expressed child desires in
his future adult life that cannot be immediately implemented because of the
complexity of tools and their unavailability for the child (D. Elkonin).
Ethnographic studies have shown that in primitive societies where children can
take part in the early work of adults, there are no objective conditions for the
emergence of the role-play the story. With three or four years, children learn tools
and working with adults. By role-playing game, child develops its needmotivational sphere. Analysis of playing activities performed in the works of L.S.
Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, D.B. Elkonin and others.
Consequently, there is a role-playing game in the course of historical
development of society as a result of changes in the child's place in the system of
social relations.
The special sensitivity of the game to the sphere of human activity and human
relations shows that the game is not only draws subjects from life; the game is
social in its inner content, origin and nature (Elkonin).
During preschool childhood game becomes the dominant activity of the child
not because of the game, but because it causes a qualitative change in the psyche of
the child.
Game relation of children. During playing activity the child is not only
replaces objects, but also takes on a role and begins to act in accordance with this
role. Most often the child plays the role of adults such as mothers, educators,
driver, and seller. The child tends to perform duties towards the people around
him. Other children expect and require that he is properly performed this role.
The game's plot is reflected the reality of children's games. If the spheres of
reality more wider, the games wider and more. Therefore, the younger pre-schooler
has a fairly limited number of subjects. With age increases the duration of the
game. For kids it is important the action itself, and for the older children is
especially important social hierarchy (who is more important), for the most senior
is more important moral considerations.
The content of the game. The content of any game is the fact that the child
stands out as the highlight of adult activity. For the first year of a child's life is
typical trial game. It is finding, tentative actions with toys.
At the beginning of the second year there is another type of game. Child in
their gaming actions with objects start to reproduce what he has learned by
imitating adults (for example, feeding a doll).
In the middle of pre-school age (three to four years), relationships between
people become the content of the game. The game becomes a subject-role one.
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Subsequently, the content of the plot-role-playing game developed and
enriched. Therefore, children of this age especially meticulously relate to the
implementation of the rules.
Thus, the content of the game varies from subject to the action of human
relations, and then proceeds to the rules governing the relationships between
people. Age four to five years is considered the age of the game flourish. In six or
seven years, the role is replaced, giving way to the rule; when children are able to
organize their own game. Thus, the development of the game at the preschool age
comes from games with a clearly defined role and covert rules to games with
clearly defined rules and a hidden role.
The role of the game in the child mental development
Mental qualities and personal characteristics of the child develop intensely in
the game activity. In the game are added other activities, which then acquire
independent significance. Games activity influences the formation voluntary
(conditional purpose) psychological processes. Therefore, the game begins to
develop in children’s attention and arbitrary memory. Conscious purpose, focused
attention, memorization is easy to grow during the child's play. The very
conditions of the game require the child to concentrate on the things that are
included with the game, played out on the content of acts and scenes.
Game situation permanent impact on the development of child mental
activity:
- Based on the action with the Vice-objects (spoons can play the role of a
simple stick);
- Experience of real relationships gaming by child in the plot-role-playing
games is the basis for develop a unique kind of thinking, allowing to stand the own
point of view from other people, to anticipate their future conduct, to build their
own behavior;
- Role-playing game is crucial for the development of imagination. The ability
to replace items other objects to take on different roles is the basis for the
development of imagination is the main new formation of pre-school age;
- The game promotes feelings and volitional regulation of behavior, as the
game follows the rules. Fun activities impact entirely on the child's personality
development.
Learning activities.
Admission to the school is the beginning of a new period for primary school
age children. A child of six to seven years by expansion of cognitive interests,
generated the need for training activities, and there is a need in the assimilation of
theoretical knowledge. In the early school years learning activity is the main and
leading among other types of children's activities. Performance of younger students
determines the development of their major psychological new formation, primarily
based on theoretical thinking. In the course of educational activity the child has a
relationship to reality, which is associated with the formation of his relevant skills:
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reflection, analysis, planning. These abilities are psychological new formation of
primary school age.
The result of learning activities is not to obtain the finished product, and the
mastery of techniques and knowledge, which in future will provide any product.
The main task of the primary school is to teach a child to learn.
3.7 Psychological Theory of learning activities
Historically there was created separate theory of learning and theory of
professional activity of a teacher. Thus, to distinguish between:
— Learning is individual’s efforts to assimilate the material;
— Education is participation of others (teachers) in the organization of the
learning process.
In Russian psychology, there are several psychological theories of learning
developed by the leading psychologists of the mid XX century.
1. Associative theory (P. A. Shevarev).
The concept of associative learning is based on the concept of "Association".
The term "Association" means that one view entails the appearance of another
associated with him in the past. In relation to learning this means: students should
be familiar with relationships between objects and properties of data items, and
then teach them to associate these items with a defined response. For example,
three closed lines indicate the triangle; if the wolf is a predator, it follows that he
eats meat, etc. P. A. Shevarev identified the following stages of the learning
processes to think:
1) To familiarize the student with the General properties of objects;
2) Selection of significant properties to solve certain types of problems;
3) Disclosure of methods of problem solving;
4) Formulation of generalized associations.
2. The theory of analytical syntetical foundations of learning (S.L.
Rubinstein, I. A. Menchinskaya, D. N. Epiphany).
The authors of this theory in search of the best descriptions of the process of
learning come to the concept of "mental operations":
 mental operations are composed of analysis and synthesis;
 to teach thinking means above all to teach people how to exercise mental
operations in relation to a certain class of problems;
 the system of mental operations is called receiving mental activity;
 handle all mental operations so to shape the reception of mental activity on
the example of a specific task. In the course of this training occurs the relationship
between the theoretical knowledge and ability to apply them in practice.
3. The theory of gradual formation of mental actions (P. Ya. Galperin).
This theory is based on the psychological theory of Activity (L.S. Vygotsky,
A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein).
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P. Ya. Galperin considered three main forms of action: the material, external
speaking and mentally.
The material form of the action is original. These are models, drawings, plans.
The material form of the action allows opening the operations action and sequence
of these actions. External speaking action means that the object is presented in the
form of oral speech. It is a form of reasoning aloud or orally explanation. It follows
that the speech act is a reflection of the material activity.
Mentally form is the action that takes place in the mind of the individual.
Mental action is also a reflection of material actions.
4. The theory of developmental education (V. Davydov and D. Elkonin).
This theory was developed in line with the basic ideas of scientific school of
L.S. Vygotsky and simultaneously developed and characterized these ideas.
The hypothesis of L.S. Vygotsky on the role of education in the mental
development of man takes the form of the scientific concept of "developmental
education" that was introduced in psychological science and has been reflected in
new educational practice. This concept is implemented in practice through the
implementation of a pupils specific learning activities. Training is based on the
idea of L.S. Vygotsky that learning should lead to mental development and to
occur within a period determined by the zone of proximal development.
In the theory of developmental education, the concept of "zone of proximal
development" acquired the function total actual training activities, in which
mastering students of theoretical knowledge occurs in the form of constant dialogdiscussion cooperation and communication between themselves and the teacher.
Educational activity is characterized by collective actions of groups of children,
whole class in which the dialogues, debates and discussions, constant and detailed
"social interaction" between students, students and teachers. Educational
discussions lead to the assimilation of certain concepts, values, expressing
universal cultural norms. In collective activities among schoolchildren, there is a
desire and ability to learn, which goes to the individual educational activity.
The theory of L.S. Vygotsky has developed into a method of a formative
experiment, or genetic-modeling method. The essence of the experiment consists
in the following. The students tested the productivity of some of the model origin
(the Genesis of any concepts and skills), and their appearance is possible only
when they perform their learning activities, which are various mental actions and
operations.
Permanent full assimilation of concepts and skills in the implementation of
training activities contributes to the development of pupils ' thinking and
consciousness theoretical type. According to the famous expression by V.
Davydov, "the school should teach children to think theoretically". According to
this theory the theoretical thinking is opposed to the empirical. Theoretical
thinking is not equal to the abstract; this is a "special method of human approach to
the understanding of things and events by analyzing conditions of their origin and
development".
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For the full development of learning activities, students need systematically
solve educational tasks. The main feature of the solution of educational tasks is
that in its decision, the student searches for and finds a common method or
principle of approach to many particular problems of a certain class, which then
does not present for it special difficulties.
The learning problem is solved by a system of training actions:
1) adoption learning objectives from the teacher or self-formulation of
learning objectives;
2) transformation of the problem to detect general relationships of the studied
object;
3) simulation of selected relations in the subject, graphical and alphanumeric
form;
4) construction of a system of sub-problems to be solved in the common way;
5) monitoring the implementation of previous actions;
6) evaluation of understanding of general method by solution of this
educational problem.
First, the student needed the teacher's help, but then the student can work
independently in the acquisition of necessary skills.
Educational actions aimed at the search for such a genetic relationship to the
original subject of the conditions of the situation. This concept of meaningful
generalizations is developed by V.V. Davydov, which is based on all training
activities.
Based on the theory of developmental education are created training manuals
that have been used in school practice.
The success of learning activities
Psychologists have identified several factors that affect the success in training
activities. So, with all the variety of motives, which form the motivational sphere
of the person, highlights the actual motives of the doctrine. L.I. Bozhovich
identifies two broad categories of educational motives. The first is the cognitive
interests of children, the need for intellectual activity and mastering new skills and
knowledge is a cognitive explanation. The second category of social motives are
related to the need of the child's communication with others, in their evaluation and
approval, the need of the student to occupy a certain place in the system of
available public relations. The motives coming from the activity itself have a direct
impact on the subject, while social motives of the teachings can encourage activity
through consciously set goals and decisions.
Other researchers of motivational sphere distinguished among the major
motivation of achievement and strong-willed qualities of individual. Having
considered in detail these concepts, we will be able to answer the question: "What
motivates a child to learn?".
1. Achievement motivation. It is known that motivation is a psychological
condition that involves desire, affection and the desire to satisfy some need. To be
successful, it is necessary to form the achievement motivation. Achievement
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motivation is the desire of the child for accomplishments, results in his learning
activities. Achievement motivation is divided into external (learning, not because it
is interesting, but because it is necessary) and internal (learning because it is fun, I
like to learn).
The factors of external motivation of achievement
Most of these factors are pedagogical:
1) Educators, teachers, friends should have the motivation to achieve;
2) It is necessary to teach the child by the tasks that are in the zone of
proximal development. Zone of proximal development is a concept developed by
L. S. Vygotsky. Profitable to determine the child's mental development;
3) ability to clearly assign tasks to the student;
4) required reinforcement of pupil achievement;
5) formation of a positive self-evaluation of the student (in a situation of
failure, the child needs to know that it happened because of a lack of will,
perseverance, and not due to the fact that he was "stupid");
6) the education of morality, responsibility and sense of duty.
The factors of intrinsic motivation achievement;
Most of these factors are psychological:
1) the presence of internal motivation in others;
2) creative variety of activities;
3) lack of strict control;
4) the lack of haste, the ability of a child to understand what he's doing with
interest;
5) free choice of jobs among those prepared by the teacher;
6) lack of transparency in activities;
7) focus on the activity itself and its success;
8) the child's confidence in himself;
9) the balance of opportunities and constraints;
10) emotional and friendly atmosphere.
2. The formation of volitional qualities of personality.
Volitional qualities of personality directly affect the training activities. To
develop them is another task of the student and the teacher. To the strong-willed
qualities are perseverance, autonomy, discipline, organization, precision,
punctuality, commitment, diligence, determination, self-control. Factors of
formation of the will also divided into external and internal.
External factors of formation of will:
1) the identity of others should be willed;
2) need an average degree of custody and control, custody and care. In other
words, you need to help the active person;
3) should be given exercises on planning and taking responsibility; exercise
how to keep self-control in conflict situations;
4) must have a sequence complexity of actions — from simple to complex;
5) the teacher should evaluate volitional behavior of the student and praise
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him in the case of a decision or other manifestations of will.
6) internal factors of formation of will:
7) the development of a certain level of ideology, ideals and aspirations;
8) morality and sense of duty;
9) clarity and specificity of the goals that a person puts in front of you, and
understanding ways to achieve them;
10) reflectivity;
11) emotion;
12) the correct ratio of far and near motives.
Skills
1. Skill is automated element of conscious action, which is produced during
the execution of these actions.
Any professional activity is a complex process and requires processing large
amounts of information. For the effective implementation of activities must be
derived from the field of consciousness of the information and implement a series
of actions automatically. This function performs the skill.
The formation of any skill begins with information on the state of the
environment in the form of any sensor signal. The General scheme of developing
skill consists in the following:
- in the process of the activity for individual that is repeatedly exposed
similar stimuli (for example, run the same type of Production operation);
- under the influence of stimuli the subject is formed according to a certain
program behavior in response to these stimuli, which is fixed and is "transferred"
to the level of subconscious control. This program is not identical with a single
response in the schema of reflex. It represents the ability to act in a certain
situation with a high degree of adaptability to the situation;
- formation of professional skills is not passive, but under the influence of
specially organized exercises included in the system of vocational training.
Exercise is the main way skill is fixed. One of the most important practical
issues is the question of the amount of exercise required to complete skills training.
The number of exercises depends on the speed of formation of the psychological
system of action. The sooner formed the psychological system of action, the fewer
exercises. The presence of the student psychological system of action is
determined by such characteristics as:
1) a clear sense of purpose of the action and a clear motive for its execution;
2) the presence of an indicative basis of the action in the form of necessary
and sufficient information signs, which focuses on the learner while performing the
action;
3) partial automation of the action;
4) a system of feedback and formed on the basis of internal self-control of the
implementation of the action;
5) "the launch" of the regulatory system of actions aimed at elimination of
shortcomings and correction of errors;
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6) systematic improvement of quality and increase in pace of activity.
The presence of these signs allows considering the skill formed to finish the
regular exercises of his community service. However, if exercises to completely
stop and at the same time not to perform an action, the skill may gradually
disintegrate. A new series of exercises will be necessary for its recovery. The most
complete theory of the psycho-physiological mechanism of the formation of a
sensomotor skill proposed by N.A. Bernstein. Structurally augmented this theory
was the concept of P. K. Anokhin of the model of behavioral act and the analysis
of the structure of mental functions, proposed by B. G. Ananyev. Thus, today there
are serious theoretical basis for developing practical ways of developing skills and
incorporating them into the system of vocational training.
2. The intermediate stage of learning based on the obtained knowledge
without level of skill. Skill is the knowledge that students understood and correctly
reproduced; speaking in the form of properly performed actions and acquired some
of the characteristics of efficiency. At the stage of skills learned the method of
action governed by knowledge, and the extent of training achieved the
transformation of skills into a skill. The approximate basis of the action changes in
this way. The ability involves a complex system of mental and practical actions. In
the presence of skill under the mind, control of people successfully performs this
or that action. Effective execution of complex actions is the outward expression of
competence.
The formation of skills, according to K.K. Platonov, passes a number of
stages:
1) initial skill;
2) lack of skilled action;
3) developed individual skills (skilled, relatively complete action items);
4) highly advanced skills;
5) mastery.
At the stage of full conscious ability to control ensures the operational
restructuring of the system-the structural basis of action when a significant change
of conditions for its implementation. Skill has a standardized form.
3.8 Motivation and Activity
Motivation is a system of stimulating processes to perform certain actions or
activities to meet the needs, motives, interests, desires and achieve goals. From the
definition we see that the concept of `motivation" brings together different motive
power in the overall structure.
The main reason for the activity is the human desire to meet their needs. In
psychology distinguish between needs and requirements. In order to live and act in
the world, man needs food, water, air, movements, material and spiritual culture,
other people, etc.
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Need is an objective need for something that the man himself may not survive
and not be aware of. For example, newborn baby objectively needs in the adult
human (without die), but I subjectively this is not only not conscious but not
feeling, not experiencing, and only on the third month of life, the objective need is
converted into the subjective mental state -- the need to communicate (the child in
the mother's violently happy, leans on her hands, smiling, etc.). As they grow, the
need for communication is reflected not only in experiences, but in the mind, in
human consciousness.
Need is a subjective mental state of the individual, reflected in the experience
and awareness of the human needs that it is necessary to maintain the existence of
his body and personality development.
Needs are the source of human activity. Needs is always accompanied by
subjective experiences: desire, anxiety, expectation, which, in turn, motivate us to
certain actions, actions aimed at the satisfaction of needs. In other words, the needs
give rise to a motive.
Motive (from lat. “movere” - to move, to push) - is the motivation to work,
which is due to meet the needs of the subject and determines the direction of its
action. According to A.N. Leontiev, motive - is objectified need. In fact, as the
needs of the subject, is able to satisfy this need is not reflected, is not fixed. But
when such an object is detected, the psyche reflects the image of the subject can
become a motive of behavior. Motive is a consideration, by which the subject must
act. Therefore, the motif provides the needs of a certain direction.
According to A.N. Leontiev, human activity is inextricably linked to his needs
and motives.
Motive is a form of manifestation of needs, motivation for certain activities,
the object for which the activity it carried out.
- the motive by A.N. Leontiev is materialized need;
- operation as a whole is the unit of human life, activity, meet a specific
motive;
- a particular motive motivates people to the problem statement that identify
the purpose, which, being presented under certain conditions, requires actions
aimed at creating or receiving an item that meets the requirements of motive and
satisfying the need. The goal is to present them a conceivable result of the
activities;
- action as an integral part of the activity meets the perceived needs. Any
activity carried out in the form of actions or chains of actions;
- activity and action are not rigidly linked. The same operation can be realized
by different actions and the same action can be included in several activities.
Motive is what induces a person to activities, directing him on meeting the
specific needs. Motive is a reflection of needs, which operates as an objective
pattern, an objective necessity.
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For example, the motive can be hard work with enthusiasm, and can be the
evasion was carried in protest.
The reasons there may be needs, thoughts, feelings, and other mental
formations. However, for the implementation of activities is not enough internal
motivations. You must have the object of activity and motives with the goals that
the individual wants to achieve. In motivational target sphere with great clarity acts
as social conditioning activities.
Motivational-requirement sphere of the personality is the totality of motives,
which are formed and develop over a person's life. In General, this area is
dynamic, but some motives are relatively stable.
Definition
Motivation the hypothetical physic-mental force that leads
humans and other animals to act. In learning theory, any
situation which acts to punish or reinforce particular
behavior. A willingness to make an effort in the pursuit of
a goal. The process or action of convincing others to make
an effort in the pursuit of a goal.
Motivational sphere of personality, from the point of view of its development,
can be assessed by the following parameters: latitude, flexibility and
hierarchizations.
Latitude of motivational sphere is a qualitative variety of motivational factors
such as dispositions (motives), needs, and goals. The more a person has a variety
of motives, needs, and goals, the more developed its motivational sphere. Latitude
is the diversity of the potential range of objects that can be used for the person's
means of satisfying the current needs.
The flexibility of the motivational sphere is reflected in the fact that, to meet
the motivational impulses of a more General nature (higher level) can be used in
more diverse motivational drivers of the lower level. For example, the more
flexible is the motivational sphere of the person, which depending on the
circumstances, satisfaction of one motive can use more varied resources than the
other person. For example, for one individual the need for knowledge can be
satisfied only through television, radio and film, and for the other means of
satisfaction variety of books, periodicals, communication with people. The last
motivational sphere, by definition, is more flexible. Flexibility is mobility linkages
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between different levels of hierarchical organization of motivational sphere:
between the motives and the needs, motives and goals, needs and objectives.
The following characteristics of motivational sphere are hierarchic motives.
Some motives and goals stronger than the others and occur more often; others are
weaker and less actualized.
Motivation is a combination of internal and external driving forces that
motivate an individual to act in a specific, purposeful way; the process of
encouraging yourself and others to work to achieve the organization's objectives or
personal goals.
The concept of "motivation" is broader than the concept of "motive". Motive
unlike motivation is what belongs to the subject of behavior, is it sustainable
personal property, inside incite to commit certain actions. The concept of
"motivation" has a double meaning: first, it is the system of factors influencing
human behavior (needs, motives, goals, intentions, etc.), and secondly, it is the
characteristics of the process, which stimulates and supports behavioral activity at
a certain level.
Motivational sphere includes:
a) Motivational system of the personality as common (holistic) organization
of all motive forces activities underlying human behavior, which includes such
components as needs, the actual motives, interests, inclinations, beliefs, goals,
attitudes, stereotypes, norms, values, etc.;
b) Achievement motivation is the need to achieve high performance behavior
and satisfaction of all other requirements;
c) Motivation of self-actualization is the highest level in the hierarchy of
motives of the individual, which includes the needs of the individual to most fully
realize their potential, and the need of self-realization.
Worthy goals, plans, good organization will be ineffective, if not backed by
motivation. Motivation can compensate for many shortcomings of other functions,
such as deficiencies in the planning, but the motivation is almost impossible to
reverse.
Success in any activity depends on not only abilities and knowledge, but also
motivation (the desire to work and achieve high results). The higher the level of
motivation and activity, the more factors (i.e., motives) of the person to encourage
activities, the more effort it tends to make.
Highly motivated individuals work more and tend to achieve better results in
their activities. Motivation is one of the most important factors (along with the
abilities, knowledge, skills), which provides for success in activities.
3.9 Personality types of motives
Motives of personality are related with or needs of the individual in the
function of motivation. Internal mental activity drives behavior is due to the
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actualization of those or other needs of the individual. Motives of human activity
can be of various types: organic, functional, physical, social, spiritual.
Organic motives are aimed at the satisfaction of natural human needs
associated with growth, preservation and development of the organism (hunger,
thirst, avoidance of pain, the desire for thermal comfort, etc.).
Functional motives are satisfied through different kinds of cultural forms of
activity, such as games and sports.
Material motives impel people to work that aimed at the creation of household
items, various objects and tools directly in the form of food, providing the natural
needs.
Social motives give rise to different types of activities designed to occupy a
certain place in society, to gain recognition and respect from other people. It needs
creativity, independence, recognition, respect, involvement, affiliation (the desire
for contact and communication), prevention, protection, dominance, power,
protection, aggression, sexual relations, aid, and understanding.
Spiritual motives are the underlying those activities that are associated with
the individual self-improvement.
Organic and functional motives together constitute the motivation of behavior
and activity of an individual in certain circumstances, and may not just influence,
but also change each other.
Human needs are manifested in specific forms. People may become aware of
their needs. Depending on this, the motives are divided into emotional needs,
desires, volition, desire, etc.
There are two groups of interrelated motives:
- Generalized, the content of which expresses the subject of the needs and
consequently the focus of the aspirations of the individual. The power of this motif
is due to the value of his needs;
- Instrumental as reasons for the choice of ways, means, and ways of
achieving or implementing the objectives, not only due to needs condition of the
individual, but also its readiness, potential to operate successfully on the
implementation of the goals set in these conditions.
There are other approaches to the classification of motives. For example, the
degree of public importance distinguishes the motives of a broad social plan
(ideological, ethnic, professional, religious, etc.), group plan and individual
personal character. There are also motives of goal achievement, avoiding of
failure, the motives for approval, affiliation (cooperation, partnership, love).
In practice, it is important to consider that the people doing the identical form
and subject to the results of actions are often guided by different, sometimes
opposing motives give a different personal value to their behavior, actions. In
accordance with this and all things must be different: both moral and legal motives.
Motivational phenomena, repeatedly repeating, eventually become individual
traits of human personality. This trait primarily can be attributed to the motive of
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achievement of successes and motive of avoiding of failure, and specific locus of
control, self-esteem, level of claims.
In consciously, justify motives include values, beliefs, and intentions.
Value is a concept used in philosophy to refer to personal, socio-cultural
significance of certain objects and phenomena. Human values form a system of
value orientations, elements of the internal structure of the personality, which is of
particular significance. These value orientations are the basis of consciousness and
activity of the individual. Value is painted personal attitude to the world, arising
based on not only knowledge and information but also own life experience. Values
give meaning to human life. Values are a part of the culture received from parents,
family, religion, organizations, schools and the environment. Cultural values are
widely supported beliefs that define what is desirable and what is right. Values can
be:
 Self-organized that relate to the individual, reflecting his objectives and
General approach to life;
 Oriented other that reflects the desires of society concerning the relationship
between the individual and the group.
Beliefs are a theme of practical and theoretical activities grounded on
theoretical knowledge. For example, a person becomes a teacher, not only because
he is interested in transmitting knowledge to children, not only because he likes to
work with children, but also because it knows how much in the creation of a
society depends on the education of consciousness. This means that he has chosen
his profession, not only out of interest and out of inclination to it, but by
conviction. Deeply grounded beliefs persist throughout a person's life. Beliefs are
the most generalized motives. However, if the generalization and sustainability as
the characteristics of the individual properties, the belief cannot be called motives
in the accepted sense of the word. The more generalized becomes the motive, the
closer it is to the property of the individual.
Intention is conscious decisions to achieve a certain goal with a clear view of
means and methods of action. Here are combined incentive to action and planning.
Intention organizes human behavior.
The above types of motives cover only the principal manifestations of
motivational sphere. In reality, there are so many different motivations as possible
human-environment relationship.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Control questions:
Explain general psychological features of activity
Analyse the Psychological Theory of Activity
Describe levels of Activity
Explain main differences between needs and motives
Analyse relation between motives and personality
Describe types of Activity
Explain connection between Motivation and Activity
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CHAPTER 4. SENSORY-PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES.
SENSATION.
In order to understand the next chapters of the Textbook it is necessary to be
aware that all cognitive processes exist in close relationship. They interact with
each other in a huge dynamic system. This system serves for human learning which
is significantly important for his adaptation process to environment.
Figure 4 System of learning process (by Williams & Shellenberger)
4.1 Sensation as a basis of cognition
‘Sensation’ is the subjective experience of a physical stimulus. Sensation is
reflection process of object’s properties. Sensation much differs from perception
not only qualitatively but also quantitatively. For example, holistic impression of
the flower which individual gets by holding a flower admires them and enjoys its
aroma which is called perception. Separate sensations represent for individual
flower’s aroma, the visual information about it, tactile impression etc. However, at
the same time, thus, the perception is composed of one or more of the senses,
creating at once complete image of the object.
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Definition
Sensation is the subjective experience of the stimulation
of a sensory organ by an appropriate source of energy,
such as light striking the eye or a stick touching the skin.
The process of gathering information through the sensory
organs. An exciting event, as in the need for creativity or
play.
Sensations are the primary form of human knowledge about environment.
Regarding sensations as the source of knowledge human psyche developing
and normally perform.
There were found that sensation is continued process of receiving external
information. Evident (touch with insulation). Experiments have shown that in the
case when there are no external stimuli the human mind cease to work normally.
Because of this status, hallucinations, thought disorder and other pathologies
distort perception. There are certain psychological problems during sensory
deprivation by limiting the flow of external stimuli.
Sensation is a form of direct reflection of object’s properties, which influence
on senses.
Sensation is a basic element of other forms of mental activity. Every sensation
has the quality (modality), strength and duration. There are types of sensation such
as visual, auditory, tactile, etc. With sensation it is possible to determine the
localization of stimuli on the body surface and from the environment. Sensations
are the primary source of knowledge. They provide other complex forms of
reflection of reality in the minds (of perception, thinking). The emergence and
dynamics of sensations are subject to a number of laws: adaptation, sensitization,
compensation, aftereffect, which are caused by a change in the sensitivity of the
analyser.
Figure 4.1.1 Types of sensory receptors
The concept of “analyzer” (apparatus performing the function of
differentiation of external stimuli) was introduced by academician I. P. Pavlov.
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He also studied the structure of the analyzers, and came to the conclusion that
they are composed of three parts:
First, there are receptors of peripheral part. These nerve endings located in our
senses directly perceive external stimuli.
The second part is pathways by which the excitation is transmitted from the
periphery nervous center to the brain.
The third part is the brain as central part of the analyzers. These parts of the
brain responsible for the recognition of the relevant stimulus (vision, hearing, taste,
touch, smell). In the brain, impact of the stimulus is converted into a mental
process, which is called “sensation” in psychology.
Definition
Sense organ is any biological structure which gathers
information from the world and transmits it to the
central nervous system, such as the eye or the ear.
Sense
Sense
is ability to perceive
stimuli
Sensation
is conscious awareness
of stimuli received by
sensory neurons
Sensory receptors
are sensory nerve
endings that respond to
stimuli by developing
action potentials
Figure 4.1.2 Structure of sense
Thus, sensations classification is based on receptors through which these
senses become available.
The analyzers consist contain two types of receptors
Exteroreseptors
analyzing signals coming from the
external world
Interoreceptors
analyzing internal information, such as
hunger, thirst, pain, etc.
Figure 4.1.3 Types of receptors
Key Takeaways
about Sensation
Sensation is the process of receiving information from the environment
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through our sensory organs.
Perception is the process of interpreting and organizing the incoming
information so that we can understand it and react accordingly.
• Transduction is the conversion of stimuli detected by receptor cells to
electrical impulses that are transported to the brain.
• Although our experiences of the world are rich and complex, humans — like
all species — have their own adapted sensory strengths and sensory limitations.
• Sensation and perception work together in a fluid, continuous process.
• Our judgments in detection tasks are influenced by both the absolute threshold
of the signal as well as our current motivations and experiences. Signal
detection analysis is used to differentiate sensitivity from response biases.
• The difference threshold, or just noticeable difference, is the ability to detect
the smallest change in a stimulus about 50% of the time. According to Weber’s
law, the just noticeable difference increases in proportion to the total intensity
of the stimulus.
• Research has found that stimuli can influence behaviour even when they are
presented below the absolute threshold (i.e., subliminally). The effectiveness of
subliminal advertising, however, has not been shown to be of large magnitude.
4.2 Properties of sensations
Sensations may be described by multiple characteristics and properties.
Modality
Modality is a qualitative characteristic. Each kind of sensation has its modal
characteristics. For instance, visual sensation can be hue, lightness, saturation;
hearing is related to pitch, timbre, loudness; touch has such qualitative
characteristics as hardness, roughness, etc.
Localization
Localization is spatial characteristics of sensation, which helps to get
information about the localization of the stimulus in environment.
Sometimes it is difficult to define sensations’ localization, for example, in the
case of painful and “internal” sensations. Interesting in this regard, "the problem of
the probe": When individual writes or cuts something, he decide that sensation
localized on the tip of a pen or knife, but not whole zone of pen or knife contact
with the skin.
Intensity
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Intensity is a classical quantitative characteristic. The problem of measuring
the intensity of sensation is one of the most important in psychophysics.
The basic psychophysical law reflects the relationship between a measure of
sense and measure of stimulus. Psychophysics explains the diversity of observed
behaviors and mental states primarily causing by difference in their physical
situations. It is necessary to understand connection between human body response
and sensory system reaction. Irritation area on human body is cause a sensation.
Each sensory system has its limits. It means that there is an area of exact sensation.
These limits were explained in such psychophysical laws as logarithmic low
discovered by G. Fechner, power law of S. Stevens, as well as Y.M. Zabrodins’
generalized psychophysical law.
Duration
Duration is a timeline characteristic of sensation. It is determined by the
functional state of sensory system, exactly by the time of stimuli’s influence and its
intensity. Sense occurs later than the stimulus begins to act, and sense does not
disappear immediately with stimulus’s termination. The period from the beginning
of the stimulus and emergence of sense is called latent (hidden) period of
sensation. This period is not the same for different types of sensations (for tactile =
130 msec. for pain = 370 msec. for taste = 50 msec.) and can vary dramatically
during diseases of the nervous system.
Response
Sensory input
A response is generated
Sensory receptors are
stimulated
Processing
Sensory information is organized and interpreted,
stored and related to previous experience
Figure 4.2 The process of perception and processing of sensory information
After termination of visual stimulus its trail is saved for some time as a
sequence of images, which can be either positive (for the relevant characteristics of
stimulus) or negative (for the opposite characteristics of stimulus). Positive
sequential images we usually do not notice because of their brevity. The
emergence of sequence of images can be explained by the phenomenon of retinal
eye fatigue.
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The auditory sensation, similar to visual one, may also be accompanied by
sequence of images. For example, unpleasant sense often accompanied by the
deafening sound effects and this phenomenon called as "ringing in the ears".
4.3 Types of sensations
Human sensations are extremely diverse. Although since the time of Aristotle,
there were classified five classic senses: vision, hearing, taste, touch, smell. In XIX
century knowledge about composition of sensations dramatically expanded
regarding scientific data. Scientists discovered such types of sensation as vestibular
sense, vibrating sense, kinesthetic sense, and others.
It is known that man has five senses. But there is also another type of external
sensation. It is motor skills. These skills have no single sensory system, but they
also cause a sensation. Therefore, a person can experience six types of external
senses: vision, hearing, taste, touch, smell and kinesthetic one.
Visual system is a main source of information about the outside world.
Definition
Vision is the capacity to detect light and perceive objects
reflecting light.
Figure 4.3.1 Process of Vision
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By this system, man gets nearly 80% of the total volume of information. Eyes
are location of visual sensation by which individual gets information about light
and color of stimuli. Perceived by human eye colors of stimuli are divided into
chromatic and achromatic groups. The chromatic group includes the colors of
rainbow spectrum. Achromatic group consists from black, white and gray colors.
Human eye perceives about 150 color shades which depending on the parameters
of the light wave. The retina has two types of receptors: rods and cones. Sticks
adapted to work in low light and give a black and white picture of the world, and
cones, by contrast, have the highest sensitivity at good lighting conditions and
provide color vision. The most interesting problem is the problem of color vision.
There are two main theories, three chromaticity theory and the theory opponent
colors that try to explain the phenomena of color vision.
Key Takeaways
about Vision
• Vision is the process of detecting the electromagnetic energy that surrounds us.
Only a small fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum is visible to humans.
• The visual receptor cells on the retina detect shape, colour, motion, and depth.
• Light enters the eye through the transparent cornea and passes through the pupil
at the centre of the iris. The lens adjusts to focus the light on the retina, where it
appears upside down and backward. Receptor cells on the retina are excited or
inhibited by the light and send information to the visual cortex through the optic
nerve.
• The retina has two types of photoreceptor cells: rods, which detect brightness
and respond to black and white, and cones, which respond to red, green, and blue.
Colour blindness occurs when people lack function in the red- or green-sensitive
cones.
• Feature detector neurons in the visual cortex help us recognize objects, and some
neurons respond selectively to faces and other body parts.
• The Young-Helmholtz trichromatic colour theory proposes that colour
perception is the result of the signals sent by the three types of cones, whereas the
opponent-process colour theory proposes that we perceive colour as three sets of
opponent colours: red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black.
• The ability to perceive depth occurs as the result of binocular and monocular
depth cues.
• Motion is perceived as a function of the size and brightness of objects. The beta
effect and the phiphenomenon are examples of perceived motion.
Auditory system is a next importance system which obtains external
information.
Auditory receptors are hair cells in the inner ear of two
different types: inner hair cells, which are the auditory
Definition
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receptors, and outer hair cells, contributing to “tuning”
the cochlea, though they also have a supporting role.
Hair cells are located between the so-called tectorial and basilar membranes in
the chamber known as scala media of the cochlea. The movement of the liquid
inside the scala media (endolymph) as a result of the action of the ossicles of the
middle ear causes a bending of the stereocilia (hairs) attached to the tectorial
membrane. A receptor potential is generated and eventually may result in an action
potential. The auditory information will be transmitted to the brain by the VIII
cranial nerve (vestibulocochlear or auditory nerve).
Figure 4.3.2 Structure of Auditory system
Sensation of sounds can be divided into music and noise. Their difference lies
in the fact that the musical sounds are periodic rhythmic vibrations of sound waves
and noise is spasmodic and irregular fluctuations.
Many people have interesting feature of combination of auditory and visual
systems in one common sensation. In psychology, this phenomenon called as
“Synesthesia”. For example, stable association arising between melodies and color
sensations. Most people may say, about “color" of melody or word.
Several less common synesthesia are based on the association between color
and smell. It was found that people with dominate smell system (for example,
tasters of perfumes) can translate information about smell into language of color.
Hearing relates with getting information about sounds of the environment. A
healthy young person can hear sounds roughly in the range of 20 to 20,000 Hz.
The feeling of volume and height are interrelated: the person with the greatest
sensitivity to sound marked by sound frequency 1000 Hz.
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Key Takeaways
about Hearing System
• Sound waves vibrating through media such as air, water, or metal are the
stimulus energy that is sensed by the ear.
• The hearing system is designed to assess frequency (pitch) and amplitude
(loudness).
• Sound waves enter the outer ear (the pinna) and are sent to the eardrum via the
auditory canal. The resulting vibrations are relayed by the three ossicles,
causing the oval window covering the cochlea to vibrate. The vibrations are
detected by the cilia (hair cells) and sent via the auditory nerve to the auditory
cortex.
• There are two theories as to how we perceive pitch: The frequency theory of
hearing suggests that as a sound wave’s pitch changes, nerve impulses of a
corresponding frequency enter the auditory nerve. The place theory of hearing
suggests that we hear different pitches because different areas of the cochlea
respond to higher and lower pitches.
• Conductive hearing loss is caused by physical damage to the ear or eardrum
and may be improved by hearing aids or cochlear implants. Sensorineural
hearing loss, caused by damage to the hair cells or auditory nerves in the inner
ear, may be produced by prolonged exposure to sounds of more than 85
decibels.
Kinesthetic sensations are a combination of sensory information from
muscles, tendons and ligaments. Kinesthetic system also play great role in human
live. Kinesthetic sensations do not have a special sensory organ. They are caused
by irritation of the nerve endings, which located in the muscles, joints, ligaments,
bones. These irritations occur during exercise, when the movements associated
with fine motor skills (drawing, writing, sewing etc.). Developed kinesthetic
sensation is important, of course, for all people. But it is especially necessary for
those whose profession is related to complex movements’ performance when it is
very important not to be mistaken.
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Figure 4.3.3 Structure of Kinesthetic sense
Kinesthetic and vestibular sensations inform individual about his own
movement and position in environment.
Vestibular sensation is a combination of information coming to the brain from
the semicircular canals of the inner ear. One of the main functions of the vestibular
sensation is to provide a sustainable basis for the visual observation. Regarding
this feature, individual can see stable picture of the world during motion.
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Figure 4.3.4 Vestibular sensation
Touch sensation provides individual with information that comes from contact
of stimuli with skin. Modern researchers distinguish four types of touch sensation:
sensation of heat, cold, pressure and pain. Pain sensitivity, for example, has a very
important biological significance: the pain signals of possible physical danger. A
person who does not have such sensitivity that is rarely, constantly in danger.
Figure 4.3.5 Bionic Hand Gives Amputee Real-Time Touch Sensation4
Definition
4
http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/d-brief/2014/02/05/bionic-hand-gives-amputee-real-time-touchsensation/#.WDsc_323vgE
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Tactile receptor any of the nerve endings having receptors
located in the skin, including those for pressure, texture,
vibration, temperature, and pain.
Taste sensation provides individual about information from substance in
mouth, which detect by taste buds in the oral cavity and tongue. Basic taste
qualities are sweet, salty, sour and bitter. Apparently, all other sensations are
caused by a combination of these four components.
Definition
Taste is the chemical sense of detecting molecules
dissolved in liquid placed on the tongue, including
sensations of salt, sweet, sour, and bitter and the
unlimited number of sensations possible when combined
with olfactory and tactile senses. The experience of any
combination of sweet, sour, salt, and bitterness mixed
with olfactory and tactile sensations, as in the taste of a
chocolate bar.
Figure 4.3.6 Taste localization
Olfaction is a sense of smell, which provides individual about the presence in
the air various smell chemicals.
Olfaction is the sense of smell, which includes a set of
chemical detectors located in the mucus linings of the
Definition
nose and nasal passages and nerves leading back to the
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olfactory bulbs on the bottom of the cerebral cortex.
Figure 4.3.7 Process of Olfaction sense
Key Takeaways
about Tasting, Smelling, and Touching
The ability to taste, smell, and touch are important because they help us avoid
harm from environmental toxins.
The many taste buds on our tongues and inside our mouths allow us to detect
six basic taste sensations: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, piquancy, and umami.
In olfaction, transduction occurs as airborne chemicals that are inhaled through
the nostrils are detected by receptors in the olfactory membrane. Different
chemical molecules fit into different receptor cells, creating different smells.
The ability to smell diminishes with age and, on average, women have a better
sense of smell than men.
We have a range of different nerve endings embedded in the skin,
combinations of which respond to the four basic sensations of pressure, hot,
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cold, and pain. But only the sensation of pressure has its own specialized
receptors.
• Proprioception is our ability to sense the positions and movements of our body
parts. Postural and movement information is detected by special neurons located
in the skin, joints, bones, ears, and tendons, which pick up messages from the
compression and the contraction of muscles throughout the body.
• The vestibular system, composed of structures in the inner ear, monitors the
head’s position and movement, maintaining the body’s balance.
• Gate control theory explains how large and small neurons work together to
transmit and regulate the flow of pain to the brain.
4.4 Measurement of sensation
Sensory system has sense thresholds that reflect subtle differences between
properties of the stimuli. Psychophysics G. Fechner (1860) studied measurement of
sensation thresholds. The Weber–Fechner law refers to two related laws in the
field of psychophysics, known as Weber's law and Fechner's law. Both laws
relate to human perception; more specifically the relation between
the actual change in a physical stimuli and the perceived change. This includes
stimuli to all senses; vision, hearing, taste, touch and smell.
Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878) was one of the first people to approach the
study of the human response to a physical stimulus in a quantitative fashion.
Fechner was a student of Weber and named his first law in honor of his mentor,
since it was Weber who had conducted the experiments needed to formulate the
law.
Fechner formulated several versions of the law, all stating the same thing. One
formulation states:
"Simple differential sensitivity is inversely proportional to the size of the
components of the difference; relative differential sensitivity remains the same
regardless of size."
What this means is that the perceived change in stimuli is proportional to the
initial stimuli.
Weber's law also incorporates the Just Noticeable Difference (JND). This is
the smallest change in stimuli that can be perceived. As stated above, the JND is
proportional to the initial stimuli. Fechner found that the JND is constant for any
sense.
(JND)dS = const
S
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Weber contrast
Although Weber's law includes a statement of the proportionality of a
perceived change to initial stimuli, Fechner never formulated this statement as a
mathematical expression. Instead, he only refers to this as a rule of thumb
regarding human perception.
This rule of thumb has been expressed mathematically, as Weber contrast.
dp = dS
S
Weber contrast is not part of Weber's law.
Fechner's law
Fechner noticed in his own studies that different individuals have different
sensitivity to certain stimuli. For example, the ability to perceive differences in
light intensity could be related to how good that individual's vision is. He also
noted that the human sensitivity to stimuli changes depends on which sense is
affected. He used this to formulate another version of Weber's law that he
named the Massformel, the "measurement formula". Fechner's law states that the
subjective sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity.
According to this law, human perceptions of sight and sound work as follows:
Perceived loudness/brightness is proportional to logarithm of the actual intensity
measured with an accurate nonhuman instrument.
P = kln S
S0
The relationship between stimulus and perception is logarithmic. This
logarithmic relationship means that if a stimulus varies as a geometric
progression (i.e., multiplied by a fixed factor), the corresponding perception is
altered in an arithmetic progression (i.e., in additive constant amounts). For
example, if a stimulus is tripled in strength (i.e., 3 x 1), the corresponding
perception may be two times as strong as its original value (i.e., 1 + 1). If the
stimulus is again tripled in strength (i.e., 3 x 3 x 1), the corresponding perception
will be three times as strong as its original value (i.e., 1 + 1 + 1). Hence, for
multiplications in stimulus strength, the strength of perception only adds. The
mathematical derivations of the torques on a simple beam balance produce a
description that is strictly compatible with Weber's law.
Deriving Fechner's law
Fechner's law is a mathematical derivation of Weber's law.
dp = k dS
S
Integrating the mathematical expression for Weber's law gives:
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p = klnS + C
where C is the constant of integration and ln is the natural logarithm.
To solve for C, assume that the perceived stimuli becomes zero at some
threshold stimuli S0. Using this as a constraint, set p = 0 and S = S0. This gives:
C = -klnS0
Substituting C in the integrated expression for Weber's law, the expression
can be written as:
p = kln S
S0
The constant k is sense-specific and must be determined depending on the
sense and type of stimuli.
Weber and Fechner conducted research on differences in light intensity and
the perceived difference in weight. Other sense modalities provide only mixed
support for either Weber's law or Fechner's law.
Weight perception
Weber found that the just noticeable difference (JND) between two weights
was approximately proportional to the weights. Thus, if the weight of 105 g can
(only just) be distinguished from that of 100 g, the JND (or differential threshold)
is 5 g, or in the SI system, a force or weight of 0.005 kg N. If the mass is doubled,
the differential threshold also doubles to 10 g, so that 210 g can be distinguished
from 200 g. In this example, a weight (any weight) seems to have to increase by
5% for someone to be able to reliably detect the increase, and this minimum
required fractional increase (of 5/100 of the original weight) is referred to as the
"Weber fraction" for detecting changes in weight. Other discrimination tasks, such
as detecting changes in brightness, or in tone height (pure tone frequency), or in
the length of a line shown on a screen, may have different Weber fractions, but
they all obey Weber's law in that observed values need to change by at least some
small but constant proportion of the current value to ensure human observers will
reliably be able to detect that change.
Fechner did not conduct any experiments on how perceived heaviness
increased with the mass of the stimulus. Instead, he assumed that all kinds are
subjectively equal, and argued mathematically that this would produce a
logarithmic relation between the stimulus intensity and the sensation. These
assumptions have both been questioned. Most researchers nowadays accept that a
power law is a more realistic relationship, or that a logarithmic function is just one
of a family of possible functions.
Sound
Weber's law does not quite hold for loudness. It is a fair approximation for
higher intensities, but not for lower amplitudes.
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Limitation of Weber's law in the auditory system
Weber's law does not hold at perception of higher intensities. Intensity
discrimination improves at higher intensities. The first demonstration of the
phenomena were presented by Riesz in 1928, in Physical Review. This deviation
of the Weber's law is known as the "near miss" of the Weber's law. This term was
coined by McGill and Goldberg in their paper of 1968 in Perception &
Psychophysics. Their study consisted of intensity discrimination in pure tones.
Further studies have shown that the near miss is observed in noise stimuli as well.
Jesteadt et al. (1977) demonstrated that the near miss holds across all the
frequencies, and that the intensity discrimination is not a function of frequency,
and that the change in discrimination with level can be represented by a single
function across all frequencies.
Vision
The eye senses brightness approximately logarithmically over a moderate
range (but more like a power law over a wider range), and stellar magnitude is
measured on a logarithmic scale. This magnitude scale was invented by the ancient
Greek astronomer Hipparchus in about 150 B.C. He ranked the stars he could see
in terms of their brightness, with 1 representing the brightest down to 6
representing the faintest, though now the scale has been extended beyond these
limits; an increase in 5 magnitudes corresponds to a decrease in brightness by a
factor of 100. Modern researchers have attempted to incorporate such perceptual
effects into mathematical models of vision.
Limitations of Weber's law in visual regularity perception
Perception of Glass patterns and mirror symmetries in the presence of noise
follows Weber's law in the middle range of regularity-to-noise ratios (S), but in
both outer ranges, sensitivity to variations is disproportionally lower. As Maloney,
Mitchison, & Barlow (1987) showed for Glass patterns, and as van der Helm
(2010) showed for mirror symmetries, perception of these visual regularities in the
whole range of regularity-to-noise ratios follows the law p = g/(2+1/S) with
parameter g to be estimated using experimental data.
Absolute threshold - the lowest level of a sensory stimulus
to which a subject can give any indication of perception
Definition
of a stimulus. Originally psychophysicists believed there
was some absolute level which corresponded with
human consciousness which defined this limit, but close
study revealed variability in subject responses which
were partially random and partially dependent on the
instructions given to the subject. Subsequent study
revealed that there is a gradual onset of stimulus
detection which is usually described using signal
detection methods which give probabilities of response
to a stimulus at different intensities or levels of the
stimulus cortex.
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There are two absolute thresholds.
Absolute threshold
Lower absolute threshold
the minimum value of the stimulus
that causes a barely noticeable
sensation
Upper absolute threshold
the maximum value of a stimulus, in which
the feeling disappears or changes
qualitatively (for example, turns into pain)
Figure 4.4 Types of Absolute threshold
The differential threshold is the minimum change in stimulus intensity causes a
change in sensation. The value is inversely proportional to the threshold of
sensation is called sensitivity. The presence of thresholds prevents human from
information overload, and some biologically harmful effects.
Sensation thresholds of individual may vary considerably at different times.
This is due to the influence of many factors. One of them is emergency factor
which change thresholds quickly, but not for long that relates with sensory
adaptation. Long-acting factor cause a gradual and sustained change in sensation
thresholds, which relates with age. An example of the first factors can be, and the
second relates to age.
Sensory adaptation is a change in sensation thresholds under the action of a
constant stimulus. During complete adaptation sensation disappeared. Thus it is not
allowed hyper irrigation of sensory system and ensures sensitivity to very weak
effects. Vividly adaptation expressed in tactile, thermal, visual and olfactory
sensations. For example, after being in the dark for hours, the light sensitivity is
increased by approximately 200 000 times.
Practically there is no adaptation to pain and sound effects.
On sensations thresholds affects motivation, biological or social significance of
the stimulus. For example, when creating an interesting game situation children
exhibit higher visual acuity compared with its dimension under normal laboratory
conditions.
With age, under the influence of growth and maturation of the relevant brain
structures, the child experiences a decrease of thresholds of sensation. In particular,
it is well known that as they become older color discrimination is significantly
improved and visual acuity is increased.
Control questions:
1. Why Sensations are the primary form of human knowledge?
2. Define Sensory receptor types.
3. Give definition for Sense organ.
4. Give examples for Exteroreceptors.
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5. Give examples for Interoreceptors.
6. Define types of sensation.
7. What kind of combinations of auditory and visual systems do you know?
8. How many absolute thresholds do you know?
9. Analyze why Sensory adaptation is important for human.
10. How sensations thresholds affect motivation?
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CHAPTER 5. PERCEPTION
5.1 Perception and its features
Perception is directly related with sensation. Both of these forms of reflection
are links in a single process of sensory perception (Figure 5.1).
Perception - the process, product, or act of creating
coherence from the patterns of energy impinging on
sensory organs, which allows either consciousness of
objects or states of the external world or the capacity to
react differentially to them.
Definition
Perception is related with other psychic processes
Thinking
Emotions
and feelings
Will
Figure 5.1 Link perception with other psychic processes
5.2 Properties of Perception
These relationships determine the basic properties of perception:
1) The integrity of perception arises from the fact that the perception reflects
a holistic image of the object, which, in turn, derives from the human generalized
knowledge about properties and qualities of the object. Perception is able to
capture not only the feelings of the individual, but also integrate sensations to
generalized structure (melody entirely);
2) Constancy of perception allows individual to percept a relatively constant
invariant structure of the object under different conditions of environment such as
distance, angle and illumination. Orientation in environment is impossible without
constancy of perception because each time individual will be faced with "new"
items of the object in different distance, angle or illumination.
3) Objectivity of perception is relatedness of all received through the senses
information about the outside world to the object itself. Objectivity plays an
important role in the regulation of behavior. Regarding to objectivity of
perception individual can distinguish, for example, brick of explosive unit from
brick of other kind.
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4) Reflection of perception is related with idea that perceptual images always
have a certain meaning. Perception always is connected with thinking and speech.
Human being perceives external information through the prism of meaning.
5) Categorization is relation of perceived object with the knowledge about it
which is represented in human mind by group or class of objects. For example,
when individual looks at the clock, he does not see something round, brilliant, but
sees a particular item such as “hours”.
6) Activity of perception where motor component of sensory system is
involved in perception process. For instance, hands movement in order to touch
something, eye movements in order to get visual information, etc.
7) The property of apperception helps to build image of object during
perception by using information about it from memory. This image permanently
adjusts by comparison with the reference image. Perception of each new object or
phenomenon is determined by individual experience and background knowledge.
Thus, people of different professions have different perceptions of the meaning of
“forest”. For instance, a forester percept forest as subject of his care and protection,
a forestry workers percept as a target for the production of furniture and paper, a
doctor can percept as a place to build the sanatorium treatment and rest people, an
artist percept as a way of the future works of art.
Thus, the perception depends not only on the stimulation, but also from the
sensing of the object by individual. Perception is affected for example by
individual’s needs, emotions, and values.
Another characteristic of perception is its latent period. Latent perception is
period between exposure of stimuli on individual and it’s reflection in form of
image in the mind. It can be reduced by training, but the maximum attainable level
depends on liability (functional mobility) of neural processes. The latent period of
perception also depends on the functional state of the organism.
From accurate perception of objects and phenomena should be distinguished
illusion. Illusion is distorting perception. The paddle immersed in water, appears in
pieces. The illusion of fracture depends on the difference in the refraction of rays
of light in air and in water.
Definition
Illusion - a perception of sensory information that is not
inherent in the stimulus itself. Any stimulus that
generally leads people to have false perceptions of
sensory information. A false belief or memory.
The great group of illusions is associated with the prospect. It is known that
distant objects are represented by small; parallel rails converging to the horizon,
and same house and the trees seem to be getting lower and lower, and somewhere
on the horizon merge with the earth.
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Figure 5.2 Examples of Illusion
A large group of illusions is connected with the phenomenon of contrast. The
gray circles on a black background look bright. Two equal circles seem different
when around one of them put a few large, and around another couple put smaller
circles. In the moonless night the stars look brighter.
Illusions must be taken into account when working with devices. Under the
microscope, for example, objects’ velocity increasing.
5.3 Types of Perception
1. Sophisticated types of perception characterized by simultaneously
mobilization several sensory systems. For example, visual and auditory; visualauditory-tactile; visual-auditory-motor, etc.
2. Special forms of perception vary depending on perceived object or stimuli:
time, space, movement, relationships, speech, etc.
There are the following features of perception of space and movement:
perception of depth and distance of objects, motion perception and perception of
form.
1. Perception of depth and distance of objects is related with object’s location
in environment. Perception allows determining how to percept objects far from
individual and from other objects.
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Figure 5.3.1 Psychological experiment of Depth Perception by infant
Due to the fact that human eyes are spaced from each other, each eye looks at
the object with a number of different positions. Consequently each eye sees the
same object from different angles. This difference in direction or angle between the
axes of vision of the two eyes is called binocular parallax. Sensory system “tracks
this angle in order to get information about subject distance: big corner inform that
subject is close, small corner inform that subject is far”.
2. Perception of movement is the phenomenon that an object can be perceived
as moving, even if its image is not moved on the retina, for example, at two spaced
apart from each other are light bulbs. First lit for a short time and is extinguished,
then ignited the second and also goes out, and so on. If the time interval is between
the firing of lamps from 30 to 200 milliseconds, it seems to us that a light strip is
moved from one point to another.
This phenomenon is called stroboscopic effect, and has been used in
animation and visual advertising for long.
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Figure 5.3.2 Motion capture at the Movement Innovation Laboratory
3. Perception of form is crucial in the process of identifying any object. The
images are characterized by the perception of integrity. This means that they
represented a connected picture image of an object or event. Human do not
perceive a tree as a collection of objects such as green oval located on a
background of black vertical lines of thick and thin black lines, most of which are
at a slant. Human see a tree: the trunk branches and leaves. This unification of
disparate objects in a holistic way is due to the special mechanisms of perception.
Figure 5.3.3 Perception of Form in Labarotory condition
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One of these principles is proximity: the closer two elements to each other, the
more human tend to group them together in perception. This principle is called the
continuation or continuity. If the outline of a shape is discontinuous, then human
tend to like to fill them, to complement the shape to complete image. This principle
is called closure.
Man is able to easily recognize even heavily modified images. For example,
individual finds a familiar melody, even if it is played on another instrument.
5.4 Involuntary and Voluntary Perceptions
There is involuntary and voluntary perception depending on the degree of
focus of the individual activities. Involuntary perception may be due both to the
features of the surrounding objects, and matching these items due to individual’s
interests and needs. Voluntary perception involves goal setting, application
volitional effort, a deliberate choice of the object of perception.
Thus, human perception is only the first stage of knowledge, the initial stage
of acquaintance with the subject, which is evaluated whole environment. Also
human perception of the world is extremely subjective; it depends not only from
the object but also from human emotions, desires and mood.
Key Takeaways
about Perception
Sensory interaction occurs when different senses work together, for instance,
when taste, smell, and touch together produce the flavour of food.
Selective attention allows us to focus on some sensory experiences while
tuning out others.
Sensory adaptation occurs when we become less sensitive to some aspects of
our environment, freeing us to focus on more important changes.
Perceptual constancy allows us to perceive an object as the same, despite
changes in sensation.
Cognitive illusions are examples of how our expectations can influence our
perceptions.
Our emotions, motivations, desires, and even our culture can influence our
perceptions.
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Control questions:
1. Explain the Integrity of Perception.
2. Define Constancy of Perception.
3. Analyse Objectivity of Perception.
4. Explain Reflection of Perception.
5. What Categorization Mean?
6. Give examples for illusions.
7. What kind of features of perception do you know?
8. Explain involuntary perception.
9. Explain voluntary perception.
10. What are the main differences between sensation and perception?
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CHAPTER 6 ATTENTION AND MEMORY
6.1 The concept of Attention
Attention is a part of human consciousness which is included in perception, in
the memory, thinking and imagination. The presence of attention in human activity
makes it productive, organized and active.
Attention it is focusing on something that has a certain value for individual.
From this definition, it follows that attention does not have its own product; it only
improves the results of other psychological processes. Attention is inseparable
from other mental processes and states.
Definition
Attention - focusing the apparently limited capacities of
consciousness on a particular set of stimuli more whose
features are noted and processed in more depth than is
true of nonlocal stimuli.
Attention has been a focus of research since the 1960s, and numerous models
have been generated noting certain features of attention and then been found
wanting. Important features of attention include limited capacity, focus, and
differential processing of focal and nonlocal stimuli, leaking of information from
nonlocal stimuli into awareness, effect of expectations on attentional focus and
perception, and cultural differences in attentional patterns.
Concept of attention was developed in psychology of consciousness.
Attention served as a tool for mental experiments. Using an objective experimental
method, W. Wundt found that the simple reaction to visual and auditory stimuli not
only depends on external stimuli characteristics, but also depends on individual
relation to stimulus. By W. Wundt content of consciousness is perception, and
focusing on stimulus is attention or apperception.
Gestalt psychologists believed that the objective structure of the field
determines individual’s perception on objects and events. Behaviorists rejected
attention and consciousness as the main concept of psychology of consciousness.
They tried to develop several more precise terms, which would allow, using
rigorous quantitative characteristics objectively describe relevant psychological
processes. However, after several years, the concept of "consciousness" and
"attention" back to psychology (Velichkovsky B.M., 1982).
To describe the concept of "attention", psychologists took decades of
experimentation and observation. In modern psychology it was decided to allocate
the following criteria for attention:
1) External reactions are motor, autonomic, providing conditions for a better
perception of the signal. These include turning the head, fixing the eyes, facial
expressions and posture of concentration, breath-holding, vegetative components
of the orientation reaction;
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2) Focus on the implementation of certain activities. This is the main criterion
for the "activity-related" approach to the study of attention. It is connected with the
organization of activities and the supervision of its implementation;
3) Increasing the productivity of cognitive and executive activities;
4) To select information. This criterion is expressed in the possibility of
actively perceive, memorize, analyze not only part of received information, as well
as to respond only to a limited number of external stimuli;
5) Clarity and distinctness of consciousness contents, being in the field of
attention.
Through various approaches psychologists focus on various forms of
attention: vegetative reactions during information selection; monitoring
implementation of the activity; state of consciousness. By Russian psychologist
N.N. Lange there are objective and subjective sides of attention. However, if to
summarize the whole phenomenology of attention, it is possible to come to the
following definition.
Attention is selection right information, the provision of electoral programs of
action and maintaining a constant monitoring of their occurrence (A.R. Luria,
1975).
6.2 Types of Attention
There are many different classifications of attention:
William James points out the following pairs of attention, guided by three
bases:
1) sensory and mental (intellectual);
2) directly, if the subject is interesting in itself, and indirect;
3) involuntary or passive, effortless, and arbitrary (active), accompanied by a
feeling of effort.
Classification, associated with will, is the most traditional. Dividing attention
to voluntary and involuntary was Aristotle’s idea, and a complete and
comprehensive description of these varieties had been done already in the XVIII
century. Later, this division has received a serious theoretical foundation in the
works of T. Ribot and H. H. Lange. Sources of voluntary attention are entirely
determined by subjective factors.
Involuntary attention occurs unintentionally, without any special effort.
Voluntary attention is clearly expressed, conscious, and willful and helps
perform any activity, it attracts and retains despite the factors of involuntary
attention.
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Attention
Focused attention
(process only one input)
Auditory
Visual
Divided Attention
(process all inputs)
Task
similarity
Task
difficulty
Practice
Figure 6.2 Types of attention 1
Attention
Non-volition
Enforced
Volition
Spontaneous
Implicit (by a
Explicit (by
single Act of will) repeated Act of will)
Figure 6.2 Types of attention 2
6.3 Basic Properties of Attention
By properties (or characteristics) of attention include its concentration,
distribution, volume, switching and stability.
1. Attention is characterized by intensity of concentration. Deep concentration
is useful in solution a difficult problem.
2. The distribution of attention is an organization of mental activity in which
two or more actions are performed simultaneously. For example, it is easy to
combine simple hearing speech content and some manual work.
It is more difficult to carry out two types of mental tasks which produce a
state of emotional tension.
3. The volume of attention. It is the number of unrelated objects which can be
perceived clear and distinct by individual. The wider scope of attention then the
greater the perceived objects in a single point in time.
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4. Switching of attention is a conscious, deliberate, purposeful change of
activity, due to new goals.
5. Stability of attention (vigilance) is the extent and duration of concentration
of attention. These factors of stability of attention are:
- Relation between individual’s needs, interests with information;
- Content and difficulty of performed activities;
- Awareness of the importance of activities;
- Individual psychological features of individual, such as temperament or
personality traits, etc.
6.4 Theoretical Models of Attention Research
There are various models of attention in psychology.
Attention as activity
S.Y. Rubinstein thought that attention is a side of cognitive processes and it is
closely associated with activity.
N.N. Dobrynin also considered that attention is a form of activity
manifestation.
Attention and control function
This aspect of the study of attention considered partially in the chapter on
voluntary and involuntary attention. Let us examine this in more detail.
By L.S. Vygotsky attention is associated with ability to control individual’s
own behavior.
Vygotsky's ideas were continued and developed by P.Y. Galperin. He
considered that attention is only internal control of behavior.
Attention and activity
By A.N. Leontiev, Y.B. Gippenreiter and other scientists’ attention can be
revealed only through analysis of activity. They believed that attention is only a
reflection of internal mental activity in the mind. Attention functions, included in
activation of mental and physiological processes, are necessary to focus on activity
goals.
Sensations
+
Memories
Thought processes
Controlled
processes
(including
consciousness)
Attention
Actions
Automatic
processes
Figure 6.4 Relation of Attention with Activity
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6.5 The concept of Memory
Memory is one of the human higher mental functions that are closely related
to the others. There are a several classifications of types of memory depending on
its nature.
Definition
Memory – 1) any relatively lasting storage of
information in the brain, which is currently
hypothesized to involve processes of encoding, storage,
and retrieval of the information. This includes
numerous kinds of information and different storage
processes including that necessary for remembering a
specific event, knowledge in general, and knowledge of
how to do things like see, move in a coordinated way,
and ride a bicycle. 2) A specific recollection of an
experience or some factual information. 3) The
hypothetical storage system or systems for information
of different kinds.
The higher functions of the brain are directly connected with biological
memorization, recalling and saving information. There are two types of memory
related to psychophysiological basis of Memory:
1. Genetic memory is biological information about organisms recorded
(encoded) in the DNA molecule.
2. Individual memory is associated with individual human development and
is related to organisms’ adaptation to the environment.
Structural and functional organization of Memory. Memory is provided by the
operation of a multi-level system of brain structures. The Hippocampus is involved
in the process of transition information from short-term memory to long-term
memory. The Amygdala plays leading role in the formation of emotional memory.
Both hippocampus and amygdala are closely linked to the temporal cortex, which
is regarded as a "repository" of long-term memory.
The frontal areas of the cortex system help transferring information into the
working memory during organization of goal-directed behavior.
Memory is a complex in its structure cognitive mental process consisting of
several stages. There are several models of memory, which have been developed in
Psychology. After the William James idea, N.C. Waugh and D.A. Norman in 1965
suggested dividing memory on two types: primary memory that allow currently
use a temporary information and secondary memory, which hold information for
long period of time. In 1968 R. Atkinson and R. Shiffrin created alternative
information processing model by using memory. In 2000 C.S. Brown & F.I.M.
Craik identified encoding, storage, and retrieval as three operations of memory.
Each operations represents in stores of memory processing (See figure 1):
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Unconscious processing
Attention to
important
or novel
Information
External Sensory
events input
Sensory
Working Encoding
Longregister and
shotterm
sensory
term
memory
Encoding memory
memory:
Retrieving
Environmental - getting
information in information
in
registered
Figure 6.5.1 Stores of Memory by R. Atkinson - R. Schifrin and operations of
memory by C.S. Brown and F.I.M. Craik
Memory unites all other processes of the human mind into a coherent whole.
The role of the memory not only saves past information. After all, any action
in the present needs memory processes because it is necessary to remember
information before exact reaction on it.
Memory as the system of information organization processes can be
considered as a substructure of Intelligence, because basis of Intelligence is an
interaction of cognitive abilities and knowledge available to the individual. It is
clear that each knowledge directly related with memory.
Being the most important characteristic of all mental processes, memory
ensures the unity and integrity of the human person. One of important
characteristic of memory is its’ productivity. In order to understand of productivity
of memory it is necessary to explain main processes, which involve in.
Productivity of memory is related with next processes:
PRODUCTIVITY OF MEMORY
Volume
Speed
Accuracy
Duration
Willingness to
reproduce
Figure 6.5.2 Processes of the productivity of memory
1. Volume of memory characterizes the ability to save simultaneously a
considerable amount of information. The average amount of memory is nearly
seven cells (units) of information.
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2. The speed of memory means how fast information can be saved. Using
special memory training can increase speed of memory.
3. The accuracy is related with recalling facts and events as well as recalling
the content of information. This feature is very important in learning processes.
4. Duration of memory is ability to keep information for a long time. This
feature is very individual quality. For instance, people may remember the faces and
names of school friends many years later due to developed long-term memory,
some of them may forget this information after only a few years. In addition,
duration of memory is very selective process.
5. Willingness to reproduce is the ability to reproduce quickly the information
in the human mind.
6.6 Types of Memory
There are also different classifications of types of human memory by:
1. Role of volitional processes in the process of remembering;
2. Leading mental activity, which is involved in performance?
3. Duration of saving information;
4. Characteristics of object and methods of memorization.
Types of Memory
Related with
sensory
system there
are:
Visual
memory
According
to
subject
of
activity
there
are:
Motor memory
According
to
duration of process
there are:
Related
with
psyche activity
there are:
Short-term memory
Voluntary
memory
Hearing
memory
Taste
memory
Touch
memory
Smell
memory
Emotional
memory
Image memory
Long-term memory
Involuntary
memory
Operational
memory
Verbal memory
Figure 6.6 Types of Memory
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Below there will be considerd these types in the order.
1. Classifications of types of human memory by role of volitional processes in
the process of remembering. Memory is divided into involuntary and voluntary
types which depends on activity goals:
Involuntary Memory is related with memorizing and recalling processes, in
which there is no special purpose, something to remember or recall. It is proved
that interesting material involuntarily memorized.
I.P. Zinchenko (1961) conducted a series of experiments aimed to study of
voluntary and involuntary memorization. The experimenter unexpectedly asked
subjects to recall everything they remember on the way from home to work. The
study found that the subjects most often remembered:
- What they did (not what thought);
- That contributes to or hinders the goal;
- Something strange and unusual;
- That was associated with the range of knowledge and interests of the subject.
I.P. Zinchenko compared the productivity of involuntary memory of the same
material, depending on the place occupied by this material in the structure of
activity (motive, purpose, method of performing activities). Result was that
material related to the purpose is remembered better than the material related with
conditions of purpose achievement. In this case background stimuli remembered
the worst.
I.P. Zinchenko also investigated the features of memory, depending on how
active and meaningful was the mental performance. The subjects were given the
task to mechanically memorize words or find a rational connection between the
words. It was shown that better memorized words positively correlate with their
content and with recourses required to words comprehension. Therefore,
psychologists concluded that involuntary memory depends on motives of work
performance.
Voluntary Memory focused remembering information using power of will. By
another words it means that human memorize only information what is really
needed and necessary. The study of this aspect of the memory process has also
been the subject of many experiments. The role of mnemonic resources in the
organization and functioning of the mnemonic system was examined from the
1960s. A.A. Smirnov (1966) found out that external memory plays significant role
in mnemonic function. The terms of "internally and externally mediated memory"
were introduced by A.N. Leontiev (1972). V.Y. Liaudis (1976) showed that first
signs are used to external regulation of internal plan of representations, and then
this signs interiorized and begin to carry out the regulatory function in
memorization and recall processes during memory development among children.
There are implicit and explicit memory that also referred to volitional
processes in the process of remembering and recalling.
Implicit Memory is unconscious memory without awareness of information
remembering.
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Explicit Memory is memory with awareness during information remembering.
Explicit and Implicit Memory We’ve now considered several ways that
explicit memory might be subdivided—into episodic memory and semantic, and
then with each of those categories potentially divided further. But what about
implicit memory?
The phenomena of implicit memory have been found not only in motor
learning, but also in a broad class of problems, which is used in the paradigm of
imprinting. For example, the researcher suggested the test with series of
photographs depicting women with long and short hair. Demonstration photos of
women with long hair are accompanied always by a story about her kindness.
2. Classifications of types of human memory by leading mental activity,
which are involved in performance.
Memory is divided into motor memory, emotional (affective) memory, image
memory and verbal-logical memory by the nature of mental activity with which an
individual remembers information.
1. Motor Memory is characterized by saving and recalling of various
movements and their systems during activity. Without movement memory people
should have every time to learn, to walk, to write, etc. This memory is actively
involved in the development of motor skills. All manual movement associated with
this memory. This memory firstly manifests in normal development of the child.
2. Emotional Memory is related with emotions, feelings, emotions.
Emotions always signalize individuals about level of satisfying their needs and
interests. Main role of experienced feelings and emotions, which are stored in the
memory, is to allow or not to act in each situation. The ability to empathize to
other person is also based on emotional memory. Often, the emotional memory is
stronger than other types of memory. Especially this kind of memory is manifested
in human relations. As a rule, what makes a person emotional distress,
remembered them easily and for a long time. It is proved that there is a connection
between the pleasantness of the experience and how it is held in memory. Pleasant
experiences are held much better than unpleasant. Human memory is generally
optimistic by nature, and generally human tend to forget unpleasant memories
about terrible tragedy over time. This type of memory plays an important role in
human motivation. That is why emotional memory starts to develop during infancy
period.
3. The image memory is related with representations, pictures of nature, as
well as sounds, smells and tastes. Individual receives information through different
senses: vision, hearing, smell, touch and taste. Accordingly distinguished visual,
auditory, olfactory, tactile and gustatory memories. For instance, some people are
able to evoke in their mind very vivid memory of the images, which are detailed
and clear.
a) Visual Memory is linked with saving and recalling of visual images. People
with well-developed visual memory usually have well-developed imagination and
are able to "see" the information, even when it has no effect on the senses. Visual
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memory is very important for people of certain professions: artists, engineers,
designers.
b) Auditory Memory is a good memorization and accurate recalling of a
variety of sounds: voices, music, etc. For example, this memory is especially
necessary in the study of foreign languages.
c) Tactile, Olfactory and Gustatory Memory does not play a significant role in
human life, because the possibility of such memory is very limited and its role is
the satisfaction of the biological needs of the organism. These memory types are
developed especially in people of certain professions, as well as in special
circumstances (Classic examples: born blind and deaf-blind).
4. Verbal-Logical Memory consists with memorizing thoughts, concepts,
judgments, reasoning, reflecting the essential connections and relationships of
objects and phenomena, their general properties. Thoughts do not exist without
language, so the memory of them is called not just logical, but verbal-logical.
Verbal and logical memory is present only in human being.
In this case, individual tries to understand assimilate information, clarify
terminology, to install all semantic links in the text, and only after that to
remember the material. People with well-developed verbal-logical memory can
easier remember a verbal information, abstract material, concepts, and formulas.
Scientists, as well as experienced lecturers, university professors have this type of
memory in conjunction with the auditory memory. The logical memory at its
training gives very good results, and more effective than simple memorization.
Some researchers believe that this memory begins to "work" later than other types
of memory.
3. Classifications of types of human memory by duration of saving
information:
1) Immediate or Iconic Memory holds the material that has just been
received by the senses, without any processing of the information. The duration of
this memory from 0.1 sec. to 0.5 sec. Often individual remembers information
without conscious effort, even against their will.
Individual receives electromagnetic waves, air pressure changes, a change in
position of an object in space etc. Stimulus always carries certain information that
is specific only to individual. Acting on a receptor in the sensory system, the
physical stimulus parameters are converted to certain condition of the central
nervous system (CNS). The mapping between the physical parameters of the
stimulus and the condition of the central nervous system is doing not possible
without the work of memory. This memory manifests itself in children as early as
the preschool years, but over the years, its value to humans is increasing.
2) Short-Term Memory is characterized by very short time of saving after
one very short perception and immediate recalling (in the first few seconds after
the perception of the material). In the short-term memory information is not stored
for more than 20 seconds.
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In 1956, J. Miller suggested that short-term memory is kept constant number
of short-term memory units. The volume of adult short-term memory is fixed,
whether it is visual information units (letters). This volume has become known as
the "magic number" equal to 7 ± 2. This value changes with age. Volume of
memory from two to ten years increases from 2.5 to 5 units.
It can be said that short-term memory is like a picture of objects that affect the
senses. Short-term memory is associated with a primary orientation in the
environment and therefore mainly aimed to fixing the total number of emerging
signals regardless of their information content. Short-term memory works without
a conscious effort to remember.
Features of Short-Term Memory:
- Attention to information helps to enter this information into short-term
memory.
- The volume of short-term memory is very individual, and there developed
formulas and methods to measure it. In this connection, it must be said about its
characteristics such as the “Replacement”. When individual memory becomes full,
the new information replaces the part already stored there, and the old information
is often irreversibly disappeared. A good example may be the difficulty in
memorizing the abundance of people names with whom we have just met.
- By doing conscious effort, it is possible to keep the information in memory
for a long time. Repeating something is the basis for this type of memory. In fact,
short-term memory plays an important role. Due to short-term memory is
processed huge amount of information. Short-term memory is organizing human
thinking, because thinking "draws" the information and facts because of short-term
memory and working memory.
3) Running or Working Memory can store information for certain,
predetermined period. Saving such information ranges from several seconds to
several days. After solving the task information may disappear from memory. A
good example would be information that is trying to put a student on the exam:
clearly defined time period and goals. After passing the exam there is can be
complete "amnesia" on the issue. This type of memory is Transition Bridge from
short-term to long-term.
4) Long-Term Memory can store information for a long period. This
memory starts functioning immediately after having been memorized material, but
sometimes later. The more often the information is recall, than the stronger it is
saved in the memory. In other words, individual may at any time to recall the
desired information through the efforts of will. It is interesting to note that the
mental abilities are not always an indicator of quality of memory. For example, a
weak-minded people sometimes have a phenomenal long-term memory.
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6.7 Main mnemonic processes
Human memory is active process because each time relate with human
activity.
Memory processes include memorization (fixing), recalling (updating,
renewal), as well as storage and forgetting information. Regarding this processes it
is possible to understand connection between memory and activity.
1. Memorization. This is memory process, which make possible to include
new information in mind by linking it with the previous one. In this case,
information is remembered better, if it relate with main goals of human activity.
There are a few features of involuntary and arbitrary memorization (Table
6.7).
Table 6.7 Features of involuntary and arbitrary memorization
Involuntary memorization
 Information
involuntary
better
remembered if it is included in active
human mental work. It was found that
very light text is stored worse, than
difficult one.
 Information
involuntary
better
remembered if it is particularly
important and related with human
interests and emotions.
Voluntary memorization
 The voluntary memorization directly
depends on motives.
 Voluntary memorization flows more
effectively by using rational remember
methods.
 Information is remembered faster
and stronger if it is nearly similar with
previous already assimilated knowledge.
2. Storage. This mnemonic process characterized by long-term saving of
perceived information in a hidden state. The storage unit has its own patterns and
determinants. There is a characteristic of storage duration. The psychological
literature describes the dependence of storage from:
- Individual attitudes;
- Conditions and an organization of learning material;
- Mental information processing.
Any information storing in general form excludes some additional units and
textual content.
We’ve been focusing on the first step involved in memory—namely memory
acquisition. Once a memory is acquired, though, it must be held in storage—i.e.,
held in longterm memory until it’s needed. The mental representation of this new
information is referred to as the memory trace—and, surprisingly, we know
relatively little about exactly how traces are lodged in the brain. At a microscopic
level, it seems certain that traces are created through the three forms of neural
plasticity: Presynaptic neurons can become more effective in sending signals;
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postsynaptic neurons can become more sensitive to the signals they receive; and
new synapses can be created. On a larger scale, evidence suggests that the trace for
a particular past experience is not recorded in a single location within the brain.
Instead, different aspects of an event are likely to be stored in distinct brain
regions—one region containing the visual elements of the episode, another
containing a record of our emotional reaction, a third area containing a record of
our conceptual understanding of the event, and so on (e.g., A. Damasio & H.
Damasio, 1994). But, within these broad outlines, we know very little about how
the information content of a memory is translated into a pattern of neural
connections. Thus, to be blunt, we are many decades away from the science-fiction
notion of being able to inspect the wiring of someone’s brain in order to discover
what he remembers, or being able to “inject” a memory into someone by a suitable
rearrangement of her neurons. (For a recent hint about exactly how a specific
memory might be encoded in the neurons, see Han et al., 2009.) One fact about
memory storage, however, is well established: Memory traces aren’t created
instantly. Instead, a period of time is needed, after each new experience, for the
record of that experience to become established in memory. During that time,
memory consolidation is taking place; this is a process, spread over several hours,
in which memories are transformed from a transient and fragile status to a more
permanent and robust state (Hasselmo, 1999; McGaugh, 2000, 2003; Meeter &
Murre, 2004; Wixted, 2004). What exactly does consolidation accomplish?
Evidence suggests that this time period allows adjustments in neural connections,
so that a new pattern of communication among neurons can be created to represent
the newly acquired memory. This process seems to require the creation of new
proteins, so it is disrupted by chemical manipulations that block protein synthesis
(H. Davis & Squire, 1984; Santini, Ge, Ren, deOrtiz, & Quirk, 2004; Schafe,
Nader, Blair, & LeDoux, 2001). The importance of consolidation is evident in the
memory loss sometimes produced by head injuries. Specifically, people who have
experienced blows to the head can develop retrograde amnesia (retrograde means
“in a backward direction”), in which they suffer a loss of memory for events that
occurred before the brain injury (Figure 8.9). This form of amnesia can also be
caused by brain tumors, diseases, or strokes (Cipolotti, 2001; M. Conway &
Fthenaki, 1999; Kapur, 1999; Mayes, 1988; Nadel & Moscovitch, 2001).
Retrograde amnesia usually involves recent memories. In fact, the older the
memory, the less likely it is to be affected by the amnesia—a pattern referred to as
Ribot’s law, in honor of the 19th-century scholar who first discussed it (Ribot,
1882). What produces this pattern? Older memories have presumably had enough
time to consolidate, so they are less vulnerable to disruption. Newer memories are
not yet consolidated, so they’re more liable to disruption (A. Brown, 2002;
Weingartner & Parker, 1984). There is, however, a complication here: Retrograde
amnesia sometimes disrupts a person’s memory for events that took place months
or even years before the brain injury. In these cases, interrupted consolidation
couldn’t explain the deficit unless one assumes—as some authors do—that
146
consolidation is an exceedingly long, drawn-out process. (For discussion of when
consolidation takes place, and how long it takes, see Hupbach et al., 2008;
McGaugh, 2000.) However, this issue remains a point of debate, making it clear
that we haven’t heard the last word on how consolidation proceeds. Strokes
(Cipolotti, 2001; M. Conway & Fthenaki, 1999; Kapur, 1999; Mayes, 1988; Nadel
& Moscovitch, 2001). Retrograde amnesia usually involves recent memories. In
fact, the older the memory, the less likely it is to be affected by the amnesia—a
pattern referred to as Ribot’s law, in honor of the 19th-century scholar who first
discussed it (Ribot, 1882). What produces this pattern? Older memories have
presumably had enough time to consolidate, so they are less vulnerable to
disruption. Newer memories are not yet consolidated, so they’re more liable to
disruption (A. Brown, 2002; Weingartner & Parker, 1984). There is, however, a
complication here: Retrograde amnesia sometimes disrupts a person’s memory for
events that took place months or even years before the brain injury. In these cases,
interrupted consolidation couldn’t explain the deficit unless one assumes—as some
authors do—that consolidation is an exceedingly long, drawn-out process. (For
discussion of when consolidation takes place, and how long it takes, see Hupbach
et al., 2008; McGaugh, 2000.) However, this issue remains a point of debate,
making it clear that we haven’t heard the last word on how consolidation proceeds.
3. Recalling. This is a memory process, by which information transfers from
long-term memory to operational memory.
Recalling process includes recognition, retrieval (voluntary and involuntary)
and remembrance processes also:
a) Recognition is related with process of comparison between new
information with stored one in memory. Recognition will be complete when
information spontaneously, without any effort gets from memory. Recognition is
incomplete when information only partially gets from memory. For instance,
when individual experiencing a "sense of the familiar," but it is difficult to identify
this information from memory;
b) Retrieval (voluntary and involuntary) process is work without reperception of the object, which is reproduced;
c) Remembrance is reproduction of significantly past information in memory,
which accompanied by a range of emotions.
Retrieval
When we learn, we transfer new information into our long-term store of
knowledge, and then we consolidate this newly acquired information. But we still
need one more step in this sequence, because memories provide no benefit for us if
we can’t retrieve them when we need them. Hence retrieval—the step of locating
and activating information in memory—is crucial. Moreover, the success of
retrieval is far from guaranteed, and many cases of apparent “forgetting” can be
understood as retrieval failures—cases in which the information is in your
memory, but you fail to locate it.
Partial Retrieval
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Retrieval failure can be documented in many ways—including the fact that
sometimes we remember part of the information we’re seeking, but we can’t recall
the rest. This pat- tern can arise in many circumstances, but it’s most clearly
evident in the phenomenon psychologists call the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) effect.
Try to think of the word that means “to formally renounce the throne.” Try to
think of the name of the Russian sled drawn by three horses. Try to think of the
word that describes someone who, in general, does not like other people. Chances
are that, in at least one of these cases, you found yourself in a frustrated state:
certain you know the word but unable to come up with it. The word was, as people
say, right on the “tip of your tongue.”
People who are in the so-called TOT state can often remember roughly what
the word sounds like - and so, when they’re struggling to recall abdicate, they
might remember abrogate or annotate instead. Likewise, they can often recall
what letter the word begins with, and how many syllables it has, even though they
can’t recall the word itself (A. Brown, 1991; R. Brown & McNeill, 1966; Harley &
Bown, 1998; L. James & Burke, 2000; B. Schwartz, 1999).
Similar results have been obtained when people try to recall specific names—
for example, what is the capital of Nicaragua? Who was the main character in the
movie The
Matrix? In response to these questions, people can often recall the number of
syllables in the target name and the name’s initial letter, but not the name itself
(Brennen, Baguley, Bright, & Bruce, 1990; Yarmey, 1973). They also can often
recall related mate- rial, even if they can’t remember the target information.
(Thus, they might remember Morpheus, but not the main character, from The
Matrix; the main character, of course, was Neo. And the Russian sled is a troika;
it’s a misanthrope who doesn’t like other peo- ple; Nicaragua’s capital is
Managua.)
People in the TOT state cannot recall the target word, but the word is
certainly in their memory. If it weren’t, they wouldn’t be able to remember the
word’s sound, or its starting letter and syllable count. What’s more, people often
recognize the word when it’s offered to them (“Yes! That’s it!”). This is,
therefore, unmistakably a case of retrieval failure—the information is preserved in
storage, but for various reasons it is inaccessible.
Effective Retrieval Cues. Retrieval failure is also clearly the problem
whenever you seem to have forgotten something, but then recall it once you’re
given an adequate retrieval cue. A clear illustration of this pattern often arises
when someone returns to his hometown after a long absence. This return can
unleash a flood of recollection, including the recall of many details the person
thought he’d forgotten long ago. Since these memories do surface, triggered by
the sights and sounds of the hometown, there’s no doubt about whether the
memories were established in the first place (obviously, they were) or lost from
storage (obviously, they weren’t). Only one explanation is possible, therefore, for
why the memories had been unavailable for so many years prior to the person’s
148
return to his hometown. They were in memory, but not findable—exactly the
pattern we call retrieval failure.
Why do some retrieval cues (but not others) allow us to locate seemingly
long-lost memories? One important factor is whether the cue recreates the context
in which the original learning occurred. This is obviously the case in returning to
your hometown— you’re back in the context in which you had the experiences
you’re now remembering. But the same broad point can be documented in the lab;
and so, for example, if an indi- vidual focused on the sounds of words while
learning them, then she would be well served by reminders that focus on sound
(“Was there a word on the list that rhymes with log? ”); if she focused on
meaning while learning, then the best reminder would be one that again draws her
attention toward meaning (“Was one of the words a type of fruit?”; R. Fisher &
Craik, 1977).
The explanation for this pattern lies in our earlier discussion of memory
connec- tions. Learning, we suggested, is essentially a process of creating (or
strengthening) connections that link the to-be-remembered material to other
things you already know. But what function do these connections serve? When
the time comes to recall something, the connections serve as retrieval paths—
routes that lead you back to the desired information. Thus, if you noticed in a
movie that Jane’s smile caused Tarzan to howl, this will create a link between
your memory of the smile and your memory of the howl. Later on, thinking about
the smile will bring Tarzan’s howl into your thoughts—and so your retrieval is
being guided by the connection you estab- lished earlier.
On this basis, let’s think through what would happen if a person studied a list
of words and focused, say, on the sound of the words. This focus would establish
certain connections—perhaps one between dog and log, and one between paper
and caper. These connections will be useful if, later, this person is asked
questions about rhymes.
If she’s asked, “Was there a word on the list that rhymes with log?” the
connection now in place will guide her thoughts to the target word dog. But the
same connection will play little role in other situations. If she’s asked, “Did any of
the words on the list name animals with sharp teeth?” the path that was established
during learning—from log to dog—is much less helpful; what she needs with this
cue is a retrieval path leading from sharp teeth to the target.
The impact of these same retrieval cues would be different, though, if the
person had thought about meaning during learning. This focus would have created
a different set of connections—perhaps one between dog and wolf. In this case, the
“rhymes with log?” cue would likely be ineffective, because the person has
established no connection with log. A cue that focused on meaning, however,
might trigger the target word.
Overall, then, an effective retrieval cue is generally one that takes advantage
of an already established connection in memory. We’ve worked through this issue
by pointing to the difference between meaning-based connections and sound-based
149
connec tions, but the same point can be made in other ways. In one experiment, the
researchers asked deep-sea divers to learn various materials. Some of the divers
learned the material while sitting on land by the edge of the water. Others learned
the material while 20 feet underwater, hearing the material via a special
communication set. Within each of these two groups, half of the divers were then
tested while above water, and half were tested below (Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
Imagine that you’re a diver in the group that learned while underwater. In this
setting, the world has a different look and feel than it does above water: The sound
of your breathing is quite prominent; so is the temperature. As a result, you might
end up thinking about your breathing (say) during learning, and this will likely
create memory connections between these breathing thoughts and the materials
you’re learning. If you are then back underwater at the time of the memory test, the
sound of your breathing will again be prominent, and this may lead you back into
the same thoughts. Once thinking these thoughts, you will benefit from the
memory connec- tion linking the thoughts to the target materials—and so you’ll
remember the materials. In contrast, if you’re on land during the memory test, then
the sound of breathing is absent, and so these thoughts won’t be triggered and the
connections you established earlier will have no influence.
We might therefore expect the divers who learned underwater to remember
best if tested underwater; this setting increases their chances of benefiting from the
memory connections they established during learning. Likewise, the divers who
learned on land should do best if tested on land. And that’s exactly what the data
show.
Related examples are easy to find. Participants in one study were asked to
read an article similar to those they routinely read in their college classes; half read
the article in a quiet setting, and half read it in a noisy environment. When tested
later, those who read the article in quiet did best if they were tested in quiet; those
who read it in a noisy environment did best if tested in a noisy setting (Grant et al.,
1998). In both cases, participants showed the benefit of being able to use, at time
of retrieval, the specific connections established during learning.
In case after case, then, it’s helpful, at the time of memory retrieval, to return
to the context of learning. Doing this will encourage some of the same thoughts
that were in place during learning, and so will allow you to take advantage of the
connections linking those thoughts to the target material. This broad pattern is
referred to as a benefit of context reinstatement— a benefit of recreating the state
of mind you were in during learning.
Let’s also note that, in these experiments, the physical setting (noisy or
not; underwater or above) seems to have a powerful influence on memory.
However, evidence suggests that the physical setting matters only indirectly: A
return to the physical circumstances of learning does improve recollection, but
only because this return helps recreate the mental context of learning—and it’s the
mental context that matters. This was evident, for example, in a study in which
participants were presented with a long list of words. One day later, the
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experimenter brought the participants back for an unexpected recall test that took
place in either the same room or a different one (one that differed in size,
furnishings, and so on, from the context of learning). Not surprisingly, recall was
better for those who were tested in the same physical environment— documenting,
once again, the benefit of context reinstatement. Crucially, though, the investigator
found a straightforward way of eliminating the difficulty caused by an
environmental change: A different group of participants were brought to the new
room; but just before the test, they were asked to think about the room in which
they had learned the lists—what it looked like, how it made them feel. By doing
so, they men- tally recreated the old environment for themselves; on the
subsequent recall test, these participants performed just as well as those who were
tested in their original room (S. Smith, 1979; S. Smith & Vela, 2001; Figure 8.11).
Apparently, then, what matters for retrieval is your mental perspective, not the
room you’re sitting in. If you change the physical context without changing your
mental perspective, the physical relocation has no effect.
4. Forgetting. This process characterized by a gradual decrease in the
possibility of recalling and retrieving exact information from memory. It is known
that some of the information can be "supressed", while others cannot be
intentionally forgotten.
There are many reasons why we sometimes cannot recall past events. In many
cases, as we’ve noted, the problem arises because we didn’t learn the relevant
information in the first place! In other cases, though, we learn something—a
friend’s name, the lyrics to a song, the content of the Intro Bio course—and can
remember the information for a while; but then, sometime later, we’re unable to
recall the information we once knew. What produces this pattern? One clue comes
from the fact that it’s almost always easier to recall recent events (e.g., yesterday’s
lecture or this morning’s breakfast) than it is to recall more distant events (a lecture
or a breakfast 6 months ago). In technical terms, recall decreases, and forgetting
increases, as the retention interval (the time that elapses between learning and
retrieval) grows longer and longer. This simple fact has been documented in many
studies; indeed, the passage of time seems to work against our memory for things
as diverse as past hospital stays, our eating or smoking habits in past years, car
accidents we experienced, our consumer purchases, and so on (Jobe, Tourangeau,
& Smith, 1993). The classic demonstration of this pattern, though, was offered
more than a century ago by Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909). Ebbinghaus
systematically studied his own memory in a series of careful experiments,
examining his ability to retain lists of nonsense syllables, such as zup and rif.
(Ebbinghaus relied on these odd stimuli as a way of making sure he came to the
memory materials with no prior associations or links; that way, he could study how
learning proceeded when there was no chance of influence from prior knowledge.)
Ebbinghaus plotted a forgetting curve by testing himself at various intervals after
learning (using different lists for each interval). As expected, he found that
memory did decline with the passage of time. However, the decline was uneven; it
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was sharpest soon after the learning and then became more gradual (Ebbinghaus,
1885). There are two broad ways to think about the effect of retention interval. One
perspective emphasizes the passage of time itself—based on the idea that
memories decay as time passes, perhaps because normal metabolic processes wear
down the memory traces until they fade and finally disintegrate. A different
perspective suggests that time itself isn’t the culprit. What matters instead is new
learning—based on the idea that new information getting added to long-term
memory somehow disrupts the old information that was already in storage. We’ll
need to sort through why this disruption might happen; but notice that this
perspective, too, predicts that longer retention intervals will lead to more
forgetting—because longer intervals provide more opportunity for new learning
and thus more disruption from the new learning. Which perspective is correct? Is
forgetting ultimately a product of the passage of time, or a product of new
learning? The answer is both. The passage of time, by itself, does seem to erode
memories (e.g., E. Altmann & Gray, 2002; C. Bailey & Chen, 1989; Wixted,
2004); but the effect of new learning seems larger. For example, Baddeley and
Hitch (1977) asked rugby players to recall the names of the other teams they had
played against over the course of a season; the researchers then systematically
compared the effect of time with the effects of new learning. To examine the
effects of time, Baddeley and Hitch capitalized on the fact that not all players made
it to all games (because of illness, injuries, or schedule conflicts). These
differences allowed them to compare players for whom “two games back” means 2
weeks ago, to players for whom “two games back” means 4 weeks ago. Thus, they
were able to look at the effects of time (2 weeks vs. 4) with the number of more
recent games held constant. Likewise, to examine the effects of new learning, these
researchers compared (say) players for whom the game a month ago was “three
games back” to players for whom a month ago means “one game back.” Now we
have the retention interval held constant, and we can look at the effects of
intervening events. In this setting, Baddeley and Hitch report that the mere passage
of time accounts for very little; what really matters is the number of intervening
events—just as we’d expect if intervening learning, and not decay, is the major
contributor to forgetting. (For other—classic—data on this issue, see Jenkins &
Dallenbach, 1924; for a more recent review, see Wixted, 2004.) An effect of new
learning undoing old learning can also be demonstrated in the laboratory. In a
typical study, a control group learns the items on a list (A) and then is tested after a
specified interval. The experimental group learns the same list (A), but they must
also learn the items on a second list (B) during the same retention interval. The
result is a marked inferiority in the performance of the experimental group. List B
seems to interfere with the recall of list A (Crowder, 1976; McGeoch & Irion,
1952). Of course, not all new learning produces this disruption. No interference is
observed, for example, between dissimilar sorts of material—and so learning to
skate doesn’t undo your memory for irregular French verbs. In addition, if the new
learning is consistent with the old, then it certainly doesn’t cause disruption;
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instead, the new learning actually helps memory. Thus, learning more algebra
helps you remember the algebra you mastered last year; learning more psychology
helps you remember the psychology you’ve already covered.
Thus T. Ebbinghaus first investigated the forgetting process. He came up with
lists of non-words, formed by two consonants and one vowel (ZAC, FOC, SID).
Having learned several lists, it checks to see how many words from each list will
be recalled back after 20 minutes, one hour, seven to nine hours, and few days and
after a month. By this experiment T. Ebbinghaus found out forgetting index and
built the famous curve of forgetting by including the value to additional number of
correctly reproduced words.
All memory processes are selective. For example, human forgets meaningful
material slowly.
The inability to remember any information does not mean that it forgotten
completely. According to the theory of R. Atkinson, individual forget nothing, but
information goes into long-term memory, where it is stored forever.
6.8 Theories of Memory
The experimental study of memory began in the late XIX century. There were
two approaches that start to explain main features of Memory.
1. Monistic approach that developed in associative psychology, and later in
behaviourism. According this approach memory has no different types, but only
varying degrees of association strength between processing of signals and recalling
information.
The monistic view on memory was developed by experimental procedures.
The main requirement in such experiments was the qualification of conditions,
where produces and enhances the associations (or connection between stimulus
and response). This experimental procedure was criticized, because of specific
explanation of memory processes where psychological phenomenon of memory
became equal to physical stimulus duration until recall processes.
2. Multiple (dual) approaches. Another interpretation of the memory has
been developed in the psychology of consciousness. William James using
primarily data from introspection identified the primary and secondary storage.
Primary memory content is an experience, directly present in the mind. This
memory has a transitory nature, its content quickly erased and forgotten. The
content of the secondary storage is our constant knowledge. Later, these two types
of memory (primary and secondary) are called short-term and long-term memories.
Norbert Wiener continued this idea in 1948 by dividing current and on-going
memories. Psychologists picked up this idea in 1950 by allocation of short-term
memory and long-term memory. Around the same time, there were developed
concepts such "working memory", "registers" and "buffer" etc.
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Broadbent in 1958 proposed a model of cognitive processing, where the
perceptual information arrives to sensor registers. Then information corresponds to
different signal modalities where they kept a very short time (a few hundred
milliseconds) and then passed to the next block, which is already transcoding in
verbal form. This block corresponds to the short-term memory. The probability of
transition of information from short-term memory into long-term depends on the
depth and quality of its processing.
3. Functional approach. Despite the successful development of memory
models by using the computer metaphor, it became clear that the analogy between
information processing in the human and the computer is not satisfactory. First of
all, the researchers found out that effectiveness of mnemonic systems depend on
influence of variables such as motivation, interest, attention etc. Scientists started
to include functional components in the structural model of memory. In 1974 A.
Beddli and J. Hitch created model of working memory. This system consists of
three components: the central executive processor and two "slave systems", one of
which specializes in the processing of verbal material and the second one is related
to the spatial visual memory. According to the model in first system automatically
maintained a certain amount of information. This amount depends on the time
required for the vocalization verbal material, and is approximately 1.5-2 seconds.
Therefore, the memory capacity can be expressed through total duration of
pronunciation. Numerous experiments were shown that suppression of articulation
entails a reduction in memory capacity.
D.A. Oshanin (1977) developed the idea of an operational image as working
memory in visual modality. Operational image formed when performing specific
activities. Its content is not isomorphic to sensory information. Operational image
include main characteristics of the object.
V.P. Zinchenko found out that the formation of perceptual image is deployed
in time and includes a number of perceptual processes. This process starts from
extraction of objects’ features and ending with the actual construction of the image.
This image performs the operational function, including management of the
specific executive action.
Key Takeaways
about Memory
Memory refers to the ability to store and retrieve information over time.
For some things our memory is very good, but our active cognitive processing of
information ensures that memory is never an exact replica of what we have
experienced.
Explicit memory refers to experiences that can be intentionally and consciously
remembered, and it is measured using recall, recognition, and relearning. Explicit
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memory includes episodic and semantic memories.
• Measures of relearning (also known as “savings”) assess how much more
quickly information is learned when it is studied again after it has already been
learned but then forgotten.
• Implicit memory refers to the influence of experience on behaviour, even if the
individual is not aware of those influences. The three types of implicit memory
are procedural memory, classical conditioning, and priming.
• Information processing begins in sensory memory, moves to short-term
memory, and eventually moves to long-term memory.
• Maintenance rehearsal and chunking are used to keep information in short-term
memory.
• The capacity of long-term memory is large, and there is no known limit to what
we can remember.
• Information is better remembered when it is meaningfully elaborated.
• Hermann Ebbinghaus made important contributions to the study of learning,
including modelling the forgetting curve, and studying the spacing effect and the
benefits of overlearning.
• Context- and state-dependent learning, as well as primacy and recency effects,
influence long-term memory.
Control questions:
1. Describe the concept of "attention"
2. Give classifications of attention
3. Explain types of attention
4. Compare concentration, distribution, volume, switching and stability of
Attention
5. Analyze attention as activity
6. Analyze attention and control function
7. Analyze attention and activity
8. Describe structural and functional organization of memory
9. Define types of memory
10. Explain motor memory
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CHAPTER 7. IMAGINATION
7.1 The Concept of imagination
Imagination also as other sensory systems reflects the real world, but in new,
unusual, unexpected combinations and relationships. Imagination differs from the
image memory (representation), because it dynamically creates new images
without act of remembering and recalling. Imagination is related with thinking
because by analytic-synthetic activity of the brain individual can imaging new
things by combining old objects in a new way. For example, mermaid is a result of
imagination.
Definition
Imagination is the act or process of imagery, especially
or generating mental images of stimuli that are being or
have never been experienced in perception.
It is possible to distinguish four types of representations in imagination:
1) Images are related with real objects and phenomena. For example,
individual may image himself in the Sahara desert, even if he has never been there.
But this exact image is related with sense of really existing there;
2) Historical images. For instance, individual can imagine how prehistoric
man or saber-toothed tiger looked like;
3) Fabulous images, which relate for example with Russian personage of
“Baba-Yaga”, “Serpent-dragon”, etc.;
4) Images of the future, for example how will look like a car in XXII century
Imagination cannot occur in a vacuum, it requires converting obtained
perceived information to new one. For example, fairy-tale “Baba-Yaga” is just a
scary old lady with a hooked nose, and her hut is also made up of familiar parts
(cottage + chicken feet).
Scientists in field of Bionic often create new technique based on natural
objects and phenomena:
Figure 7.1 Imagination technique based on natural objects
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Regarding to imagination individual has skills to design plans his activity and
to manage it. Imagination helps in those situations when it is impossible or difficult
to act practically.
Thus, without imagination it would not be possible to make progress in any
fields of human activity.
Imagination helps for human when he faces with thinking of difficulties in
order to analyze data during task of performance. However, ways of solving
problems using imagination is not enough precise. This is an imagination
limitation.
Imagination must be distinguished from hallucinations.
Definition
Hallucinations - sensory perception in the absence of any
external stimulus. Hallucinations can be auditory, visual,
tactile, olfactory, or gustatory; auditory hallucinations
are by far the most common. Hallucinations are most
commonly seen in the psychotic disorders, specifically
schizophrenia.
7.2 Functions of Imagination
1. Imagination performs primarily cognitive function because it requires
concentration, memory and thinking. Imagination occurs in problematic situations
with lack of information and certainty. In addition, certain images can influence
perceptions, memories, thoughts and feelings.
2. The second function is regulatory function. This function organizes new
form of individual’s behavior; regulates cognitive processes; it helps to plan and
regulate activity by anticipation (predicting) it’s results, which is related to process
of "jumping" through a stage of thinking and decision-making to stage of absence
of full knowledge. Phenomenon of anticipation (lat. anticipation - the prediction of
events) is the ability of a person predicting the results of actions before they are
implemented or received ("anticipatory reflection"), and readiness for upcoming
events based on previous experience.
3. Motivational function of the imagination by which individual can meet
their needs. For this reason human like to create cartoons, fairy tales.
4. Affective function of the imagination. Because it is involved in the
regulation of emotional states (enhances the emotional tone, improves mood,
relieves stress) in situation when needs are not satisfied. Children's imagination
performs affective-protective function in order to protect them from excessive
suffering and emotional trauma by symbolic resolution of the conflict.
5. Imagination participates in volitional regulation of behavior by
participating in planning activities, evaluation of the accuracy of their execution
progress.
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6. By imagination individual is able to perform actions by images of objects in
the mind, not manipulating with real objects.
7. Imagination gives possibility for individual to regulate his physiological
states, tuning in to the upcoming events. Widely known facts that by imagination
can change rhythm of breathing, blood pressure, pulse rate, body temperature etc.
Thus, there are a lot of functions of the imagination which help individual to
solve many actual problems and often rely on our subconscious.
7.3 Physiological basis of Imagination
Imagination, like other many mental processes, is a function of the cerebral
cortex. This is a complex analytic-synthetic activity of the brain. The basis of the
imagination is the work not of isolated nerve centers, and the whole of the cerebral
cortex. Creating images of imagination – the result of joint activities of the first
and second signaling systems, although any image, any representation formally
should be referred to the first signal sensory reflection of reality. Therefore, the
images of the imagination constitute a special form of reflection of reality, peculiar
to man.
Figure 7.3 Perception and Imagination: A neuroscientist’s perspective5
5
John Kubie. BrainFacts.org
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7.4 Types of imagination
Types of imagination
By degree of activity
Active
imagination
By image
Passive
imagination
Concrete
imagination
Abstract
imagination
Figure 7.4 Types of imagination
Active imagination is characterized by individual’s effort to cause the
appropriate images. Imagination recreates the form of knowledge by new images
based on descriptions, diagrams, drawings, mental and material models.
Passive imagination occurs spontaneous, without a predetermined goal.
Creative imagination allows person independently to create new ideas or nonexistent objects that are unlikely to real one.
Productive imagination is the kind of imagination by which human can
deliberately construct environment without mechanically copy or re-creating.
Reproductive imagination base on perception or memory in order to
reproduce the reality as it is, with some elements of fantasy. In this case, content of
imagination deeply reflects the reality.
Dreams, fantasies create unrealistic images in order to drawing pleasant,
desirable picture about future life.
Specific imagination creates real and specific natural images. For example,
paintings of painter.
Abstract imagination is creation of generalized, schematic, symbolic images.
For example, the art of the Impressionists, Cubists, etc.
7.5 Basic properties and techniques of Imagination
Imagination provides creative human activity.
Properties of the imagination:
1. The power of imagination characterized by the degree of brightness of
arising images.
2. Breadth of imagination is determined by the number of images which can
be creating.
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Table 7.5 The techniques of creative imagination
Combination
(agglutination) is creation of
new images based on "gluing" as
combining separate ideas into a
unified whole.
Accentuation - underline
particular features, often the most
significant characteristic features
of the image. This method is
often use in caricatures, cartoons.
Typing the synthesis of
significant
qualities
and
properties in a specific image.
Schematization is an image
of particular view on similarities
between objects.
Dogs
Hyperbola is increasing of
all features of character. For
example, giant, three-headed
snake.
Litola understatement of
features of the character, image or
its parts, etc.
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7.6 Theories of Imagination
Antiquity and Middle Ages: phantasia, imaginatio
The Ancient Greeks called the modelling process in mind „phantasia”.
Influential was the analysis of Aristotle in De anima III, 3“ (Gerard Watson 1988;
Dorothea Frede 1992; Bryn Rhys Williams 1996).
Romans used mostly „imago "(almost never: imaginatio, repraesentatio,
perceptio – see Raimund Daut 1975). Only Boethius (ca. 500 AD) explained in
his „Consolatio" (V. book): Imaginative power judges the shape without matter
(„Imaginatio vero solam sine materia iudicat figuram ").
Already Augustinus (ca. 400 AD) distinguished three kinds of phantasia:
1) productive
2) reproductive
3) synthetic.
In medieval philosophy the word „imaginatio" was common, e. g. with
Abelard (Paivi Hannele Jussila 1995), Hugo of St. Viktor (Heinrich Ostler 1906;
John Philip Kleinz 1944; Roger Baron 1957; Heinz Robert Schlette 1961) and
Thomas Aquinas (Pirmin Klaunzler 1949, Karl Bürgi 1972).
Scholastic John of Salisbury (1159) thought that ideas (phantasies) were
caused by intermediation of “species”, as “rerum imagines in mente apparentes”.
Good overviews are given by Murray Wright Bundy (1927) and John Martin
Cocking (1991).
Late Renaissance: Psychology of cognition
Since 1500 imagination and fantasy are frequently described and discussed.
Only postum – in 1501 - Pico della Mirandola’ s book De imaginatione, has
been published – soon (1536) also under the tilte: “De Phantasia”.
Around 1540 the personal physician of the Pope, Giovanni Fracastoro,
postulated a psychology of cognition, effectuated by sensual symbols
(„cognitionem omnem per rerum simulacra fieri“). To connect and to separate are
the basic functions of thinking.
Montaigne loved the words “fantaisie” and “imagination”. He used each
more than hundred times in his “Essais” (1580). He dealt also directly with the
topic imagination in his essay: «De la force de l'imagination» (see Ian Dalrynple
McFarlane 1968).
Linguistic Differentiations
Paracelsus has introduced the German word “Einbildung” for “imagination”
(I. Betschart 1952). 100 years later Georg Philipp Harsdörffer invented the madeup word “Einbildungskraft” for “facultas imaginandi” (Hans Langendörfer 1940;
Dietmar Kamper 1981; Isabel Zollna 1990). Again nearly 100 years later
Christian Wolff introduced the German word “Vorstellung” into the philosophical
language.
In the Age of Enlightenment the most used word for. “imagination” was
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1) in English “idea” (see e. g. John Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume,
Thomas Reid – John William Yolton 1956, 1990, 1993, 1996; George Pitcher
1971, 1988; Stephen P. Stich 1975; Peter Alexander 1985; Willis Doney 1989;
Roger D. Gallie 1989; Michael Ayers 1997),
2) in French “idée” (e. g. Etiennne Bonnot de Condilac, Charles Bonnet; in
the 19th century: Alfred Fouillée).
Around 1900 one used also “images”.
Since around 1700 in German “Imagination” has bee used, but not often.
Phantasy has been conceived as “Dichtkraft” or “Dichtungsvermögen” since 1750
(Georg Friedrich Meier, Johann Georg Heinrich Feder, Johann Nicolaus Tetens).
Since 1750 similarly accumulate studies on genius (Edgar Zilsel 1926; Hans
Thüme 1927; Jochen Schmidt 1985; Penelope Murray 1989) as well as on
heuristics or the art of invention (Michael von Matuschka 1974).
For different kinds of “Vorstellungen” in German see:
the long list in the German article „Modellgeschichte ist Kulturgeschichte“ –
paragraph: Viele unterschiedliche Arten von Vorstellungen.
Psychological theories of imagination in the 19th century
Manifold inspired by the philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte (Jakob Barion
1929; Jürgen Stolzenberg 1986) were a lot of theoretical debates and empirical
research on imagination on the one side, intuition (Josef König 1926) and
intellectual or productive thinking on the other side.
1) Johann Friedrich Herbart postulated a dynamic of imagination (since
1816; Matthias Heesch 1999)
2) Rudolf Hermann Lotze (1852) meant: „The thing per se is unrecognizable,
we only recognize the relationships, namely in the symbolic way.“ He used already
the term «fiction»
3) Alexander Bain (1855, 1859) saw all mental activity based on two kinds
of association: contiguity and similarity
4) Herbert Spencer (1855) took cognition also as symbolic because the
underlying things are manifestations of the unreconizable
5) James Rush (1865) compared the brain with a reflecting mirror
6) Hermann von Helmholtz (1865; 1867) thought as Lotze that cognition ist
mental working up of sensual material and leads to a symbolic apprehension oft
the relations between things. And we use them to control our behavior
7) Wilhelm Wundt (1862; 1874) coined the „principle of creative synthesis“,
Interplay of psychic elements gives birth to thins with new qualities and values.
The functions of thinking are the means to emulate the reale relations of the
objects symbolically
8) Franz Brentano (1874) discovered that psychic acts have an „intentional
object“. Edmund Husserl (1900) followed him
9) Sir Francis Galton (1880; Ruth Schwartz Cowan 1969; Derek William
Forrest 1974) called general imagery “generic images” or “blended memories”.
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Barely noticed were the psychological explorations of imagination by
Narcisse Michot (1876), Henri Joly (1877) and Wilfrid Lay (1898). Only the
essay of Théodule Ribot on “L’imagination créatrice” (1900) got wide reputation.
Without notion stayed similarly the research of Ernest Royer (1867), the
physicist John Tyndall (1870), Joseph-Florentin Bonnel (1890) and CharlesErnest Adam (1890) on imagination in the exact sciences.
20th century: Visual thinking is very disputed
The first half of the 20th century is shaped by a strong contrast. On the one
side we have the Wuerzburg School (psychology of thinking) and the
Behaviorists as picture destructors, on the other hand we had an eruption of
activities and thinking about concerning creativity, which resulted also in
exploration of imagination and genius.
It is no longer trendy to speak of visual thinking
Since 1901 the philosopher and psychologist Oswald Kuelpe and his
students in Wuerzburg questioned the theses of symbolic recognition and visual
thinking. Most experiments of this “Wuerzburg school” showed that humans
performend „non-pictorial“ thinking (George Humphrey 1951; Steffi Hammer
1990; Horst Gundlach 1999).
Wilhelm Wundt protested against the experimental design as well as against
the conclusions. The public controversy (1907-09) resulted in discrediting of the
“introspective” method – despite Wundt was wrong.
In 1913 John Broadus Watson led the death blow for visual thinking by
presenting the program of Behaviorism in his pamphlet: “Psychology as the
Behaviorist sees it“. He postulated a psychology without using „terms as
consciousness, states of consciousness, psyche, imagination, etc.”
Since then to 1960 in certain scientific communities it was no longer trendy
to speak of „mental imagery".
Also Analytic Philosophy and later Logical Empirism, which soon
controlled the whole Anglo-Saxon area and thought the medium of thinking is
language, denied the traditional view that the verbal meaning is deduced of
„pictures in the brain".
1909-1939: Nevertheless psychological research on imagery and
creativity
Despite most psychologists in consequence eschew to speak of “mental
imagery” till 1960 there was some research on imagery and creativity.
The important books of the two French Théodule Ribot (“L'imagination
créatrice” 1900) and Henri Bergson («L'évolution créatrice» 1907) had formed
the counterweight to the Wuerzburger School and to Watson. They caused a
respectable number of investigations into mental and visual imagery and
imagination as well as into creativity, “Schöpferkraft” and genius.
Connected with these investigations were often studies of problem solving.
The first impulses came again from the Wuerzburger School. Immediately it went
internationally with the Englishmen Charles Spearman (1904) and William
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McDougall (1910), the Germans Karl Bühler (1907/8) and Otto Selz (1913), the
Frenchman Henri Poincaré (1908), the American John Dewey (1909) and the
Viennese Sigmund Freud (1911).
Between 1909 and 1939 morethan a dozen psychology reseraches – mostly
women – at American Universities such as Cornell (Ithaca, N. Y.) and Columbia
(New York) presented studies on mental and visual imagery Some of these have
been reprinted in the 1970s. In the same time (1909-1939) apperared more than
100 investigations and book s on creativity, among them at least six on “creative
imagination”.
Also in German between 1900 and 1920 were published some works on
imagination and reproduction.
1940-1960: Psychological studies on imagination
On first sight it seems, that there was no research into the topic imagery/
imagination from 1940 to 1960. But in fact there ares more than a dozen
psychological publications. Unheeded went e. g. by Austin Larimore Porterfield
“Creative factors in scientific research” (1941) or the thesis by Abraham Antoine
Moles „La création scientifique” (1952).
Much more studies dealt with imagination
1) in poetry (Sophokles, Properz, Shakespeare, Wordsworth, Poe, Keats,
Shelley, Coleridge, Tennyson, Browning, Browne, Ruskin, Claudel, Malraux),
2) in religion,
3) in mathematics and
4) in philosophy (Platon, Bacon, Descartes, Hobbes, Locke, Kant, Fichte).
Starting from 1960: hesitant research on imagery
Around 1960 a similar paradox situation arouse as at the beginning of the
century. On the one hand the so-called “cognitive” approach in psychology,
anthropology (Ethnology) and ethologic spread rapidly out, on the other hand
research pounced on imagery and mental images and got back to the scene
metaphor and analogy.
First the discussion spread on:
1) “imagery” (Silvan Solomon Tomkins 1962; Alice Constance Owens 1963;
Robert Rutherford Holt 1964; Stanley M. Jencks, Donald M. Peck 1968; Alan
Richardson 1969; R. C. Anderson, J. L. Hidde 1971; Allan Paivio 1971; Sydney
Joelson Segal 1971; Joel R. Levin et al. 1972; Peter W. Sheenan 1972; Martha
Crampton 1977; Geir Kaufmann 1979, 1980; R. L. Solso 1979)
2) “mental maps” (Peter Robin Gould 1966; 1974) or
3) “mental images” (James Wreford Watson 1967; Alastair Hannay 1971;
Roger N. Shepard 1978, 1982).
Vigorously critizised have been the theories on imaginaton by Zenon Walter
Pylyshyn (1973), Jerry A. Fodor (1975, 1981, 2000), John Robert Anderson
(1978) and Peter Slezak (1990).
A first overview on the diverging conceptions of the „pictorialists“ and the
„propositionalists“ is given by Stephen Michael Kosslyn and James R. Pomerantz
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(1977). A good overview on the debate from 1973 till 2002 is given by Verena
Gottschling (2003).
Some impact had the “Psycho-imagination therapy” by Joseph E. Shorr
(1972, 1974, 1980, 1989). He condensed his experience with this kind of
psychotherapy in 1998.
1980-2000: research boom on “imagery” After 1980 there was no holding
the researchers. Studies on „imagery“ were published by Stephen Michael
Kosslyn (1980), John T. E. Richardson (1980), Roger N. Shepard and Lynn A.
Cooper (1982), Peter Edwin Morris, Peter J. Hampson (1983), Akhter Ahsen
(1984), Martha J. Farrah (1984), Artur I. Miller (1984; 1996), Allan Paivio (1986,
1991), David Henry Tudor Scott (1986), Mark Rollins (1989) and Ronald A.
Finke (1989).
Additionaly ther were edited some omnibuses, e. g. by Ned Block (1981),
John C. Yuille (1983), Malcolm L. Fleming and Deane W. Hutton (1983), Anees
Ahmad Sheikh (1983; 1986), Mark A. McDaniel and Michael Pressley (1987),
Michel Denis et al. (1988).
More than 200 studies on imagery and some on “mental representation”
were published from 1990 to 2000.
In 1993 Alan Richardson published a bibliography on „mental imagery”
covering the years 1872-1976. In the following year Stephen Michael Kosslyn
stated to have terminated defintively the „debate on imagery” – this a title by
Michael Tye (1991) – with his voluminous work “Image and Brain”.
Interesting studies were by Robert H. Logie and Michel Denis (“Mental
images in human cognition”, 1991), Beverly Roskos-Ewoldsen et al. (“Imagery,
creativity, and discovery”, 1993), Ralph D. Ellis (“Questioning consciousness.
The interplay of imagery, cognition, and emotion in the human brain”, 1995) and
Marlene Behrmann et al. (“The neuropsychology of mental imagery”, 1995).
In 2000 Michel Denis offered a “state of the art”, and the old master of
linguistic and thinking philosophy Jerry Alan Fodor warned: "The mind doesn't
work that way!"
The main problems that scientists face are the nature and mechanisms of the
imagination. It differs from other mental functions, especially of thinking,
communication and perception.
Associative psychology tried to explain imagination by other mental processes
such as memory. Associative psychology also explained creative imagery as a kind
of random combinations of elements. Idealism, for example, argued that the
creative imagination inherent in our consciousness.
L.S. Vygotsky criticized all these ideas about the imagination and put forward
a number of new provisions about the nature of imagination, which was absorbed
in the study of imagination in childhood. The main idea of L.S. Vygotsky refers to
the ratio of thinking and imagination. He showed that thought antagonistically is
opposite to imagination. Imagination is relatively autonomous activity of
consciousness, which differs from the direct knowledge about reality.
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7.7 Development of Imagination
As perception, memory and attention, imagination gradually transformed from
direct to indirect. As was shown by A. V. Zaporozhets, there model representation
and sensor standards are the primary means of child imagination.
Child's creative imagination develops quite quickly by the end of the
preschool period. Their imagination is presented in two main forms: as the product
of certain ideas and emergence of its implementation.
Regarding imagination, a child efficiently solves each challenging task.
First stage of development of imagination is associated with the process of
realization of action. Through this process, a child learns to manage their images
by changing, clarifying and improving them. This ability appears in children only
at 4-5 years.
Affective imagination developing in children aged form 2 to 5 years. Initially
children’s negative emotions express symbolically in imaginary situation.
Finally, the third stage of development of this function develops the ability to
relive emotional tension through the mechanism of projection. By projection
unpleasant knowledge about themselves attributed to other people, objects and
animals.
Imagination develops in close connection with personality, during process of
training and education, as well as in unity with the thinking, memory, will and
feelings.
It is very difficult to determine any specific age limits that characterize the
dynamics of imagination. There are examples of very early development of
imagination. For example, Mozart started to compose music at four years.
Despite the difficulties of defining development stages of imagination, there
are certain regularities in its formation. First manifestations of imagination are
closely linked with the process of perception. For example, children under the age
of eighteen are not yet able to listen even the most simple stories or tales. They are
constantly distracted or fall asleep, but happy to listen these stories. This
phenomenon explain link between imagination and perception. A child listens to a
story about their experiences because that is clearly, what was going on. First child
imagination always associated with activity.
An important stage of imagination development is age when child starts of
speech. It allows including abstract representations and concepts in imagination.
Moreover, it allows the child to move from expressions of imagination in activities
to directly expression in speech.
The sensitive period of development of imagination is preschool age.
For the development of imagination, however, certain conditions are
necessary: the presence of uncertain situations, the development of thinking (e.g.,
ability to see the whole before the parts; ability to transfer one object to another
one, etc.), certain types of activities (game, drawing, modeling, etc.).
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Control questions:
1. Why Imagination is a sensory system?
2. Describe Functions of Imagination.
3. Analyze Motivational function of the Imagination.
4. Affective function of the imagination.
5. Describe Physiological basis of Imagination.
6. Explain Active Imagination.
7. Analyze Passive Imagination.
8. Define Basic properties and techniques of Imagination.
9. Analyze Theories of Imagination.
10. Define Affective Imagination.
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CHAPTER 8. THINKING AND LANGUAGE
8.1 General characteristics of Thinking
Definition
The stream of consciousness and all its contents including
silent vocalizations, emotions, images, and the perception
of the external and internal worlds. The processes, which
underlie behavior and all the phenomena of experience.
Any product of the mind, such as judgments, attitudes,
knowledge, opinions, and beliefs.
In contrast to sensation and perception that gets information through the
senses, thinking is a rational form of knowledge, which is not directly given by
perception. The thinking is associated with the speech process of individual.
Thinking is human cognitive process, which allows reflecting information by logic
operations such as analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, specifying,
systematization and generalization.
Analysis is cognition of object by
breaking of object of phenomena into
smaller parts such as sides, elements,
properties, in order to understand it. It is
division of the knowable object to the
various components. The analysis of
some object, which are the most
important and interesting for individual
become the strongest stimulus, causing
the active process of excitation in the
cerebral cortex.
Synthesis is the process of putting
together parts of phenomena or objects
in order to get something new or combine these parts in order to form a coherent
whole. Analysis and synthesis are always interrelated.
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Comparison helps to establish similarities or differences, equality or
inequality between objects. Comparison is based on the analysis.
Abstraction is process which gives possibility to define common sides of
several objects. Abstracting possible only after the analysis and it is related to
scientific theoretical thinking.
Specifying is opposite process, which defines particular, concrete sides of
object. Systematization is location of objects, events, thoughts in a certain order.
For example, the chemical elements in the Mendeleev’s periodic table.
Generalizing as a component of thinking is
allocating the similarities between objects, and
applying it more broadly.
The process of thinking and problem solving.
W. James believed that thinking is related to individual’s motivation to solve a
new problem situation, where necessary to create a new efficient way of action.
The thinking often begins with an analysis of the problem situation with exact
conditions and requirements. Often the finding and formulation of the problem
demands even greater mental effort than its subsequent resolution.
Motives and emotions provide search process of problem solution.
Thus, thinking is a process, which mediates and generalizes knowledge, finds
relationships between objects and phenomena, and their transformation.
8.2 Main Types of Thinking
Thinking is clearly productive
process, which is defined as a search for
and discovery of essentially new.
The main common classification is
related to following three types of
thinking:
1) Concrete operatory thought;
2) Representational thought;
3) Verbal-logical (or conceptual)
thinking.
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Thinking develops in phylogenesis and ontogenesis in this order types.
Concrete operatory thought based on the direct perception of objects. By
physical contact with objects comes comprehension of their properties.
Representational thought (or "sensorimotor intelligence", according to the
classification of Piaget) is earliest and simplest form of the child's thinking, which
is in "captivity" in situations and actions. For example, children often break the
toys with the aim to see "what's inside." Individual during solving a problem starts
to analyse, compare and summarize various images about it.
Verbal-logical (or conceptual) thinking is the next type of thinking that
appears in ontogeny. The ontogenetic development of verbal-logical thinking
occurs at the age of four to seven years. This type if thinking is relate to transition
to the symbolic level of solving problems. Symbolic level of thinking depends on
language and speech. Thought becomes verbal and logical. Verbal and logical
thinking is characterized by the use of concepts, logical constructs, operates on the
basis of linguistic resources, and different types of generalizations are formed.
Basis of verbal-logical thinking is the inner speech.
The second classification of thinking depending on direction of thinking:
1) practical and theoretical;
2) logical and intuitive;
3) autistic and mythological;
4) creative.
Practical thinking is related to practice and with solving practical problems. It
takes place under time pressure, danger or high responsibility for decision-making.
Practical thinking is aimed to transform external conditions.
Theoretical thought is related to explanation of objects and phenomena. The
process of thinking involves creating a hypothesis, a new idea or image, as well as
hypothesis testing for compliance with reality.
Logical thinking is process of thinking that allows identifying meanings of
similar objects by converted inner mental operations. Inner mental operations
based on sign systems of language.
Intuitive thinking is a complex unity of the logical and intuitive components
that are closely interconnected in thinking. Intuitive thinking acts as generating
hypotheses, strategies and solutions challenging task by semantic and logical signs
in unusual combinations. By intuitive thinking new knowledge comes through
"insight" (enlightenment). Thus, intuitive thinking is the function of producing new
knowledge.
Autistic thinking firstly appeared in psychiatry. E. Bleuler described autistic
thinking as a type of thinking direct to withdrawal from reality for affective
satisfaction in the inner world. Normally some elements of autistic thinking, such
as dreams, fantasies or mental accommodation imaginary can be considered as
necessary exercise for human mind. In modern psychology, problem of autistic
thinking is connected with issues of computer influence on the human psyche. For
example, internet addiction is one of such issue. However, modern researchers note
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that computerization can stimulate the creative imagination; develop of cognitive
abilities and self-actualization.
Creative thinking has number of qualities such as:
1) Free from stereotype usual patterns of knowledge in order to search new
approaches in solution of creative tasks;
2) Critical thinking as an ability to assess objectively the product of human
mental activity;
3) Depth of thinking;
4) Latitude (or erudition) as possibility to use knowledge from various fields
in order to solve the problem;
5) Independent thinking is ability to formulate any problem originally and
solve it, without succumbing to outside influence;
6) Openness of thinking which allows getting new information without
neglecting its sources for some subjective reasons;
7) Empathy of thinking is an ability to identify with other individual in order
to understand his thoughts. Such kind of quality required for various types of
mental competition from the intellectual games to crime detection;
8) Anticipation is an ability to predict the evolution of the situation, to
anticipate the results of its activities.
Definition
Creative thinking is a way of looking at problems or
situations from a fresh perspective that suggests
unorthodox solutions (which may look unsettling at
first). Creative thinking can be stimulated both by an
unstructured process such as brainstorming, and by a
structured process such as lateral thinking6.
The creative thinking has four stages:
1)
This
stage
helps
formulating a problem, gathering
information and verification of
possible solutions of a problem.
2) Second stage is related to
reflection problems by brain. This
stage
is
characterized
by
unconscious level of processing
relevant information. This step
may take different amounts of
time for example, from several
6
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/creative‐thinking.html
171
hours to several weeks. During this stage often appears sudden insight, which can
occur in the most unexpected moment while walking, conversation, perform any
daily activities.
3) Stage of insight is related to intellectual activity, where the maximum
concentration exist. After sufficiently rested brain is "loaded" processed
information at an unconscious level.
4) Stage of solutions fully conscious during verifying in practical actions.
Figure 8.2 The creative thinking process7
Creative thinking
A. Brushlinskii (1977) said that thinking is always search
for and discovery of essentially new. One of the first
researchers of the creative thinking was a psychologist M.
Wertheimer. According to M. Wertheimer, process of problem
solving is not a result of a simple mechanical repetition and
remembering. It connects with creative thinking by two factors:
adaptability and structural feature of creative thinking.
Adaptability means that the creative processes aimed to
improving the situation;
Structural feature of creative thinking allow changing elements of a situation
within the whole structure.
7
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172
By M. Wertheimer in order to stimulate creative
thinking, it is necessary to perform atypical, unusual
tasks. Individual who decides to solve a problem must
look at the situation in a new way, trying to use the
hidden properties of objects and their unusual connection.
Wertheimer created a collective image of the
creative process, which consists of five stages:
1) Emergence of a problem, which mobilizes
individual creative recourse;
2) Perception and analysis of a situation, awareness
about problem. At this stage, formed a complete image of the problem situation for
future development of solutions;
3) Implementation of decisions often difficult. Dealing with problem occurs
on unconscious level by inspection and rejection of hypotheses;
4) Emergence of new idea (principle plan) of solutions. The nature of this
process is mysterious and incomprehensible to individual. This gives rise to the
mystical concept of creativity;
5) The executive, "technical" stage, when a decision become concrete, is
being finalized, tested and related to socially accepted requirements.
According American psychologist Graham Wallace
(1926) creative thinking takes place in four stages:
preparation, maturing, illumination and verification.
This view of human creative thinking has generated
the possibility of diagnosing and testing the ability to be
creative. J. Guilford, E. Torrance, J.A. Ponomarev, R.
Stenberg and other psychologists experimentally studied
creative thinking.
Modern researchers distinguish three phases of the
creative process:
1- stage: Ability to generate ideas. The criterion appears in the quantity and
quality of the ideas;
2- stage: Ability to analyse and refine the ideas already put forward. Man must
find ways to enhance the positive effects and minimize the negative;
3- stage: Ability to compare possible alternative ideas in terms of their
practical value. It is necessary to rank available factors in order of importance.
Each individual can learn to think creatively. To do this, it is necessary to
develop the relevant skills, overcome internal barriers to creativity etc.
8.3 Forms of Thinking
There are three logical forms of thinking: concept, judgment, inference.
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Concept is a reflection about distinctive features of objects and phenomena,
their general and specific features expressed by a word or group of words.
Every concept is a generalization of a particular class of objects. The content
of the concept is not reflected in detail-specific, but significant, abstract properties
of objects and phenomena that are inaccessible to direct sensory observation.
The concept represents the highest verbal and logical level of generalization
of thinking. Concepts are concrete and abstract. Specific concepts reflect objects,
phenomena and events, reflect abstract ideas. For example, "man", "autumn",
"holiday" is specific concepts; "truth", "beauty", "good" are abstract concepts.
The concept, as part of the logical form of thinking is closely linked with the
other two forms: judgments and inferences. The content of the concepts is revealed
in the judgments, which always have a verbal form.
Judgment is a reflection of the relationships between objects and phenomena
of reality, or between their properties and attributes. For example, when we think
that metals expand when heated, we thus establish a link between changes in
temperature and volume of the metal. Judgments are shared, private and isolated.
Judgments may be formed in two ways. The first is a direct expression of the
perceived relationship of concepts. Second is using reasoning as a degree of
indirectly judgment.
Thus, the conclusion is a new judgment removal of two (or more) existing
judgments (premises).
Thus, for productive mental activity it is necessary logical forms of thinking.
They are determined by the credibility, consistency, and therefore the adequacy of
thinking. The concept of logical forms of thinking turned into the psychology of
formal logic. This science also studies the process of thinking.
8.4 Theories of Thinking
1. Thinking in associationism. The basis of this direction in psychology is
association’s principle. Laws of associations were investigated by D. Hartley, J.
Priestley, J.S. Mill, etc. They had identified four types of associations:
1) Similarity;
2) Contrast;
3) Near in time or in space;
4) In relation (causality, inherence).
Definition
Mental associations are the building blocks of all or
almost all mental processes, with the most complex built
up of numerous simpler associations.
The basic law of association has been formulated as follows. If association
stronger and more true, the more often it is repeated. Development of thinking was
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seen as a process of accumulation and strengthening of associations.
2. Wurzburg school. This trend in psychology as opposed to assotsianism,
considered thinking as internal action. O. Külpe, S. Ach, K. Marbe and other said
that thinking has its specific content, cannot be reduced only to the visualfigurative. Würzburg School also belongs to the assertion that thinking is actionoriented.
Representatives of the Würzburg School began the first experimental studies
of cognitive processes. However, their experiments are limited only by systematic
introspection of thinking processes during performing tasks which are requiring
mental actions. This could be the task of interpretation of complex texts,
identifying between objects relations, establishment of cause-and-effect
relationships, and so on. Later, S. Ach made first attempt to create an objective
method of research of thinking. He created a methodology for the formation of
artificial concepts.
Despite the great contribution of the Würzburg School its position was selfcontradictory. Representatives of this school worked in a purely idealistic term.
3. Gestalt Psychology. The main idea of Gestalt psychology is as follows: the
contents of any mental processes are not separate elements, but have holistic
configuration so-called Gestalt.
Definition
Gestalt is a perceptual whole that is more than the
sum of its parts and cannot be completely described in
terms of its parts.
Basic principle of Gestalt psychology is perception of "figure" and
"background". General idea about thinking is related to the concept of structure in
Gestalt psychology. The structure is ultimately the only mechanism of thinking, its
form and content. The structure was nominated by Gestalt psychology as the
central law opposed to the law of association. The representatives of Gestalt
psychology are M. Wertheimer, W. Keller, K. Koffka, K. Dunker and others have
launched a new approach to thinking, considering it as an act of restructuring
situations. The primary content of any mental process is holistic educationconfiguration or "gestalt". Thinking seen as sudden, unprepared analysis, aimed to
release essential features of the problem situation activities.
As noted by M. Wertheimer, K. Dunker, solution of the problem lies in the
fact that some elements of a problem situation are beginning to be seen in a new
gestalt, in a new relationship. The process of solving a problem situation is
directed to the discovery of new properties in object that exists in a certain system
of relations with other elements of the problem. The solution comes as a gestalt.
For example, K. Koffka, as one of the representatives of Gestalt psychology
believed that thinking is a transformation of problem situation’s structure, because
its elements reveal new features and relationships.
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4. Behaviorism. J. Watson believed that the object of psychology could be
only a behavior. He introduced the concept of behavior as a relation between
stimulus and response. According to J.Watson thinking relates with next factors.
Thinking includes all kinds of inner speech activity, and any non-verbal forms of
expression, such as gestures and facial expressions. According J. Watson idea there
are three main forms of thinking:
1) easy deployment of speech skills (play verses or quotes without changing
the order of words);
2) the tasks are not new, but rare, so that they would require a test of verbal
behavior (trying to remember the half-forgotten verses);
3) new challenges requiring a verbal decision before will be taken any action
openly expressed.
5. The psychoanalytic concept. Within the framework of psychoanalysis,
thinking is seen as primarily motivated process. These motives are unconscious in
nature, and the area of their display is dreams, reservations, disease symptoms.
Dreams are considered as a kind of involuntary figurative thinking. Analysis
method of free association allowed studying some features of mental activity.
6. The concept of thinking of J. Piaget. J. Piaget regards thinking as a
biological process. He used the concept of "intelligence" as a concept of critical
thinking.
Likewise, Jean Piaget’s influential theorizing
about child development was based initially on
the study of just three children—his own (Figure
8.4). Piaget and his followers then went on to tes
his claims with larger groups of children.
J. Piaget considered that intelligence is a se
of biological characteristics that are fundamenta
to the human psyche. Basic functions o
intelligence are organization and adaptation
Under the organization of intelligence means it’s
structuring. Intellectual activity highlights a single
whole. Adaptation also involves two interrelated
processes: assimilation and accommodation.
Figure 8.4 J. Piaget with his
family
Definition
Assimilation refers to the tendency to interpret a new
experience in a manner that is consistent with one’s
preexisting concepts and knowledge.
Accommodation is term used by Jean Piaget to explain
one way in which we confront new information.
Accommodation occurs when we are faced with new
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information that we cannot incorporate in our existing
knowledge or schemes. Thus, we must alter our existing
knowledge to integrate this new information.
Accommodation is a process that works in conjunction
with the process of assimilation.
On the basis of this conclusion, J. Piaget developed the doctrine of
development stages of intelligence:
I – sensor-imotor intelligence (from 0 to 2 years).
II - preoperational thinking (from 2 to 11 years).
III - the period of concrete operations (from 7-8 to 11-12 years).
IV - the period of formal operations.
Consider the six basic stages in sensorimotor intelligence development.
The first phase (first month of life) is characterized by the prevalence of
reflexes.
In the second stage (from one to four months), child get first simple skills of
assimilation of one object in different schemes. For example, he tries to look at
what he caught, and seeks to grasp everything.
In the third phase (approximately four to eight months), the child begins more
actively explore the objects of the external world. Faced with an unfamiliar
subject, he explores it using the familiar scheme: hitting, scratching, and shaking.
It appears as "motor identification" items.
The fourth stage (10-12 months) is related to anticipation of the event as
affectively charged experience. For example, child begins cry when an adult
decides to leave him alone.
For the fifth stage (about 12-18 months) child starts active experimentation in
order to achieve any goal.
In the sixth stage (18-24 months) the child becomes capable to get "insight" as
discovery of new means suddenly, without experimentation.
6. Cognitive Psychology. In cognitive psychology, thinking is related with a
process of information processing. This idea was developed by computer
technology. Cybernetics introduced a concept of artificial intelligence. Cybernetics
began to develop a comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach to the problem of
intelligence at all. This had a great impact on the psychological science. In this
case, all mental processes start to analyse as analogous of computing processes. In
addition, the interpretation of thought as the information processing system has a
number of limitations. There was no distinction between data-processing and
human thinking as psychological systems which are related to goal formation,
conscious and unconscious processes in mental activity etc.
7. Domestic psychology based on idea that thinking is a form of activity.
Activity as methodological principle reflects the determination of the thought
processes by needs, motives, values of individual, etc. As part of the activity
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approach also are agreed about unity of thinking in his phylogenetic and
ontogenetic aspects.
8.5 Intelligence and Thinking
Thinking and intelligence are similar in content terms. We say "an intelligent
man", indicating that the individual characteristics of intelligence. Intelligence is
ability of thinking and thinking is the process of realization of intelligence.
Thinking and intelligence has long been considered an important feature of
human being. It is because human intelligence has taken a dominant position in the
world and has received additional funding for biological survival.
Definition
Intelligence is a set of abilities to adapt better to the
environment through experience.
Intelligence makes possible to engage in activity successfully. It was revealed
that a very high level of intelligence (in excess of 155 points on IQ tests)
negatively correlates with children's adaptation. They are ahead of their peers in
intellectual development for more than four years and become strangers in their
own teams.
The study of individual differences of intelligence began in the XIX century.
F. Galton became interested in the problem of the heritability of genius. In 1911
came the first test to evaluate the mental development of children, created by the
French A. Binet and T. Simon. Since XIX century, psychologists developed a
variety of intelligence tests.
With the advent of tests there was opened the possibility of certain facts and
measurements of intellectual abilities. IQ tests are usually a set of relatively simple
tasks with a single correct answer.
In 1904, the French minister of public instruction
appointed a committee with the specific task of identifying
children who were performing badly in school and would
benefit from remedial education. One member of this
committee, Alfred Binet (1857–1911), played a pivotal role
and had an extremely optimistic view of the project. As Binet
saw things, the committee’s goal was both to identify the
weaker students and then—crucially—to improve the students’
performance through training.
For their task, Binet and the other committee
Alfred Binet (1857– members needed an objective way to assess each child’s
1911) sought to measure
abilities, and in designing their test, they were guided by the
intelligence
and
to
belief that intelligence is a capacity that matters for many
improve it.
aspects of cognitive functioning.
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This view led them to construct a test that included a broad range of tasks varying in
content and difficulty: copying a drawing, repeating a string of digits, understanding a story,
arithmetic reasoning, and so on. They realized that someone might do well on one or two of
these tasks just by luck or due to some specific experience (perhaps the person had
encountered that story before), but they were convinced that only a truly intelligent person
would do well on all the tasks in the test.
Therefore, intelligence could be measured by a composite score that took all the tasks
into account. Moreover, they believed that the diversity of the tasks ensured that the test
was not measuring some specialized talent but was instead a measure of ability in general.
Indeed, Binet put a heavy emphasis on this diversity, and even claimed that, “It matters
very little what the tests are so long as they are numerous” (1911,p. 329).
In its original form, the intelligence test was intended only for children. The test score
was computed as a ratio between the child’s “mental age” (the level of development reflected in
the test performance) and his chronological age; the ratio was then multiplied by 100 to get
the final score. This ratio (or quotient) was the source of the test’s name: The test evaluated
the child’s “intelligence quotient,” or IQ.
The formula of Calculation of IQ quotient
IQ = (mental age ÷ chronological age) 100
This calculation of IQ scores, first proposed by German psychologist William
Stern, was adopted as the routine procedure for many years
Imagine little Johnny, born 10 years ago; his chronological age, therefore, is
10.
Johnny is able to do mental tasks that, on average, most 11- year-olds can’t
do, but most 12-year-olds can do. Mentally, Johnny seems quite advanced, and he
therefore seems to resemble a normal 12-year-old.
His IQ = (12 ÷ 10) 100 = 120
Spearman identified three intermediate intelligence factors, which are
involved in decision of wide classes of problems: numerical, spatial and verbal.
Spearman proved that the role of the factor G is greatest in solving
mathematical problems and problems in the conceptual thinking. For sensorimotor
tasks common, factor decreases with increasing role of special influence factors.
Spearman's main opponent was another American scholar, L. Thurstone, who
denied the existence of factor G. According to L. Thurstone, there are independent
abilities that determine the success of intellectual activity: verbal comprehension,
verbal fluency, numerical factor, space factor, associative memory, perceptual
speed, inductive factor.
J. Gilford believed that our abilities are determined by three main categories:
operations, maintenance and products. Among the categories allocated J. Guilford,
one aroused the greatest interest among researchers. This is a concept of
"divergent" thinking which means that thinking is related to searching different
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directions of possible solutions rather than one correct answer. For example, in one
of divergent thinking tests participate were asked to list all the possible ways to use
bricks. If the test says that brick you can build a house, barn, garage, school, fire,
mall, we can assume that he has a high response fluency (number of different
proposals), but low flexibility (all answers of the same type). The subject, who has
high flexibility, can list other following options: lock the door, load the paper,
make a red powder, placed under the wheel of a car, etc.
Intelligence is related to reasoning, linguistic intelligence, learning,
perception, problem solving.
Reasoning
linguistic intelligence
Perception
Intelligence
Learning
Problem solving
Figure 8.5.1 Link of intelligence with other processes
Figure 8.5.2 Types of Intelligent according to H. Gardner8
8
http://fundersandfounders.com/9‐types‐of‐intelligence/
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According to many modern theories, intelligence has many
components. At the highest level is g, a form of intelligence that applies to
virtually any mental task. Each person also has a number of more
specialized talents—so that performance on a verbal task depends both on g
and on linguistic ability; performance on a mathematical task depends both
on g and on numerical ability. Finally, each person also has a much larger
number of even more specialized abilities—and so performance on a
particular verbal task is also influenced by skills directly applicable to just
that task; performance on a particular mechanical task is also influenced by
skills applicable to just that sort of task, and so on.
Figure 8.5.3 Hierarchical conception of intelligence
For measures of intelligence, it turns out that the correlation between the IQs
of children and the IQs of their biological parents is about +.40; the correlation
between the IQs of biological siblings is roughly the same. These correlations
indicate a relatively strong resemblance, but these correlations, on their own, are
ambiguous. On the one side, bio- logically related family members resemble each
other genetically, and this might be the source of the resemblance in IQ scores. But
on the other side, the members of a family usually also resemble each other in their
experiences: They live in similar social and financial circumstances; they all
receive similar levels of health care and are likely to receive similar levels of
education. It’s plausible, then, that the resemblance in their IQs might be due to
this shared environment rather than their overlapping sets of genes.
Clearly, then, we need better evidence to help us untangle the hereditary and
environmental contributions to intelligence—and some of that evidence comes
from the study of twins. As we’ve mentioned in other chapters, there are two types
of twins: Identical, or monozygotic (MZ), twins originate from a single fertilized
egg. Early in development, that egg splits into two exact replicas which develop
into two genetically identical individuals. In contrast, fraternal, or dizygotic (DZ),
twins arise from two different eggs, each fertilized by a different sperm cell. As a
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result, fraternal twins share only 50% of their genetic material, just as ordinary
(nontwin) siblings do.
Identical twins, therefore, resemble each other genetically more than fraternal
twins do; and this fact makes it striking that identical twins resemble each other in
their IQs more than fraternal twins do. In an early summary of the data, the
correlation for identical twins was .86; the correlation for fraternal twins was
strongly positive but considerably lower, around .60 (Bouchard & McGue, 1981).
Other, more recent data confirm this pattern. This certainly suggests a strong
genetic component in the determination of IQ, with greater genetic similarity (in
identical twins) leading to greater IQ similarity.
The impact of genetic factors is even clearer when we consider results
obtained for identical twins who were separated soon after birth, adopted by
different families, and reared in different households. The data show a correlation
for these twins of about .75, which is not substantially less than the .86 correlation
for identical twins reared together (Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, Segal, & Tellegen,
1990; McGue, Bouchard, Iacono, & Lykken, 1993; Plomin & Spinath, 2004). It
appears, then, that identical genotypes lead to highly similar IQs even when the
individuals grow up in different environments.
Similar conclusions derive from a study that drew its data from the Colorado
Adoption Project (CAP). The CAP has been tracking 245 adopted children for
roughly 20 years, testing them periodically on several different measures (Plomin,
Fulker, Corley, & DeFries, 1997). Thus, we have intelligence scores for the
children themselves at various ages; we also have scores for the children’s
biological parents, who each share 50% of their genetic material with the children
but who are not the adults who raised the children. Third, we have scores for the
adoptive parents—the adults who did raise the children and shared (and largely
created) the environment in which the children grew up.
These scores allow us to compute the resemblance between the children and
their biological parents, as an indicator of how much shared genes matter. The
scores also allow us to compute the resemblance between the children and their
adoptive parents, as an indicator of how much a shared environment matters. The
data indicate a much greater resemblance in the first comparison—children and
their biological parents—even though we’re comparing individuals who (though
biologically related) have never even met. This indicates a powerful role for
genetic factors in shaping intellectual ability.
What’s especially striking about the CAP data, though, is that the resemblance
between children and their biological parent’s increases as the years go by. When
the children are 4 years old, for example, there’s roughly a .10 correlation between
the children’s intelligence scores and their biological parents’ scores. By the time
the children are 12, this correlation is almost .20. By the time the children are 16
years old, this correlation is almost .40—despite the fact that, by that point, it has
been more than a dozen years since the children and their biological parents have
seen each other!
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How should we think about this result? One possibility is that what’s inherited
via the genes is a learning capacity—and so, in early childhood, a child’s potential
might resemble that of her biological parents, but the potential hasn’t yet grown
into skills we can measure. To detect the resemblance, we must wait until the child
has had some experience in the world - and thus opportunity to use her learning
capacity and to gain from the potential she inherited. Only then, when the potential
has borne fruit, can we detect the full resemblance between parents and their
biological off-spring (cf. Plomin & DeFries, 1985; Plomin & Spinath, 2004).
Undeniably, individuals differ in their intellectual capacities, and in many
circum- stances genetic factors play a large role in shaping these capacities. But, as
we’ve repeatedly noted, these genetic influences don’t mean that intelligence is
immutable, fixed for each of us by our genetic heritage. The example of PKU
serves as a powerful reminder that patterns that are unambiguously rooted in the
genome can be changed entirely by suitable environmental intervention. And in the
case of intelligence itself, we have ample evidence that environmental changes
(most prominently, schooling) can increase IQ scores and thus markedly improve
life circumstances.
Perhaps, therefore, it does not matter what the origins are for the differences
in IQ scores—whether we’re comparing one individual to the next, or one group to
another. In either case, whether the differences are produced primarily by genetic
or environmental factors, the data tell us that training and enriched, supportive
environments can improve IQ. Notice the irony here: More than a century ago,
Binet designed the intelligence test in order to identify weaker students who would
benefit from special training. Binet’s conception, in other words, was that each
individual’s level of intelligence was pliable and certainly could be lifted through
education. On this point, it seems, Binet was exactly right.
As scientists, though, we still seek to explain how people differ from each
other; and here the data provide a relatively clear message: The differences in IQ
from one individual to the next seem influenced both by genetic and environmental
factors. For the difference between men and women, in contrast—or the difference
between whites and blacks - the main source of group differences does appear to
be environmental. Thus, women’s performance (especially in mathematics) is
surely shaped by widespread expectations that “girls can’t do math.” Academic
performance by African Americans is undercut by various societal and individuallevel factors, ranging from the availability of role models to expectations that are
manifest in stereotype threat.
These group differences make Binet’s optimistic goals all the more important.
Low IQ scores are, as we’ve seen, statistically linked to a number of undesirable
outcomes - ranging from poor school performance to lower levels of success in the
workplace. Indeed, we mentioned earlier that low IQ scores are associated with
shorter life expectancy. Points like these obviously motivate us to seek ways to
close the “achievement gaps” between various groups, although this will require
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efforts on many fronts - including moves toward improving nutrition, health care,
and education as well as combating the destructive effects of stereotypes.
Finally, what about the IQ tests themselves? These tests surely have their
limits; even so, many researchers consider the enterprise of intelligence testing to
be one of psychology’s great success stories. As we’ve seen in this chapter, there’s
reason to believe our intelligence measurements are valid. We understand many of
the mental processes that help make someone intelligent. And we understand some
of the neural bases for these processes. It might seem overenthusiastic to declare
this research – as one investigator did – “one of the most successful undertakings”
of modern psychology (K. Lamb, 1994, p. 386). Still, the broad enterprise
launched by Binet has clearly flourished.
8.6 The Problem of Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence exhibited by machines. In computer
science, an ideal "intelligent" machine is a flexible rational agent that perceives its
environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of success at some goal.
Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is applied when a machine mimics
"cognitive" functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as
"learning" and "problem solving". As machines become increasingly capable,
mental facilities once thought to require intelligence are removed from the
definition. For example, optical character recognition is no longer perceived as an
exemplar of "artificial intelligence", having become a routine technology.
Capabilities currently classified as AI include successfully understanding human
speech, competing at a high level in strategic game systems (such as Chess and
Go), self-driving cars, and interpreting complex data. Some people also consider
AI a danger to humanity if it progresses unabatedly. AI research is divided into
subfields that focus on specific problems or on specific approaches or on the use of
a particular tool or towards satisfying particular applications.
The central problems (or goals) of AI research include reasoning, knowledge,
planning, learning, natural language processing (communication), perception and
the ability to move and manipulate objects. General intelligence is among the
field's long-term goals. Approaches include statistical methods, computational
intelligence, soft computing (e.g. machine learning), and traditional symbolic AI.
Many tools are used in AI, including versions of search and mathematical
optimization, logic, methods based on probability and economics. The AI field
draws upon computer science, mathematics, psychology, linguistics, philosophy,
neuroscience and artificial psychology.
In the 1940s and 1950s, a number of researchers explored the connection
between neurology, information theory, and cybernetics. Some of them built
machines that used electronic networks to exhibit rudimentary intelligence.
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The field was founded on the claim that human intelligence "can be so
precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it". This raises
philosophical arguments about the nature of the mind and the ethics of creating
artificial beings endowed with human-like intelligence, issues which have been
explored by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. Attempts to create
artificial intelligence have experienced many setbacks, including the ALPAC
report of 1966, the abandonment of perceptrons in 1970, the Lighthill Report of
1973, the second AI winter 1987–1993 and the collapse of the Lisp machine
market in 1987. In the twenty-first century, AI techniques have become an
essential part of the technology industry, helping to solve many challenging
problems in computer science.
There is no established unifying theory or paradigm that guides AI research.
Researchers disagree about many issues. A few of the most long standing
questions that have remained unanswered are these: should artificial intelligence
simulate natural intelligence by studying psychology or neurology? Or is human
biology as irrelevant to AI research as bird biology is to aeronautical
engineering? Can intelligent behavior be described using simple, elegant principles
(such as logic or optimization)? Or does it necessarily require solving a large
number of completely unrelated problems? Can intelligence be reproduced using
high-level symbols, similar to words and ideas? Or does it require "sub-symbolic"
processing? John Haugeland, who coined the term GOFAI (Good Old-Fashioned
Artificial Intelligence), also proposed that AI should more properly be referred to
as synthetic intelligence, a term which has since been adopted by some nonGOFAI researchers.
Key Takeaways
about Intelligence
Intelligence is the ability to think, to learn from experience, to solve problems,
and to adapt to new situations. Intelligence is important because it has an impact
on many human behaviours.
Psychologists believe that there is a construct, known as general intelligence (g),
that accounts for the overall differences in intelligence among people.
There is also evidence for specific intelligences (s), which are measures of
specific skills in narrow domains, including creativity and practical intelligence.
Brain volume, speed of neural transmission, and working memory capacity are
related to IQ.
Between 40% and 80% of the variability in IQ is due to genetics, meaning that
overall genetics plays a bigger role than environment does in creating IQ
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differences among individuals.
• Intelligence is improved by education and may be hindered by environmental
factors such as poverty.
• Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to identify, assess, manage, and
control one’s emotions. People who are better able to regulate their behaviours
and emotions are also more successful in their personal and social encounters.
8.7 Language and speech. Thinking and speech development.
For human being thinking is not only one essential basis. Language and
speech are other significantly important cognitive processes, which directly relate
with thinking. This reflects one of the fundamental distinct between the human
psyche and the psyche of animals. Animal’s elementary thinking is mediated by
visual information. Their thinking cannot be abstract. Such primitive thinking
operates with objects in visual-motor plan and does not go beyond it. Only with the
advent of speech, it is possible to convert knowledge about object to concept
explained by words.
The human mind does not exist without language.
Definition
Language is the implicit system that links an external
linguistic signal, acoustic or written, and the message
carried by that signal. Central to knowledge of language
is linguistic competence, knowledge of the principles for
combining
sounds
(phonology),
morphemes
(morphology), and words (syntax); the principles for
determining meaning (semantics); and the vocabulary
repository (the lexicon).
Language as a system of signs plays role of a tool of human communication
and thought. Mastering the language leads to the development of speech and
mental activity, opening the possibility to understand, comprehend and use the
knowledge gained from other people and culture components.
By language human acquires means in order to analyse environmental
information. Language as a social phenomenon is a prerequisite for the emergence
and development of speech as a psychological phenomenon. Language is a
complicated structured cognitive process, which includes word pronunciation,
control speech, interprets of auditory code etc.
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Figure 8.3 Model of brain areas involved in language processing9
We have seen that the forms and contents of language are very much bound
up with the organization of the human brain and with the ways that humans think
and perceive the world. Languages are alike insofar as they are the central means
for transmitting beliefs, desires, and ideas from one human to another. To
accomplish these human communicative goals, each language must have
phonemes, morphemes, phrases, and sentences, and tens of thousands of different
meaningful words. But within these bounds, languages also differ from one
another in various ways. And these differences are not only with the sounds of the
words- hat the word meaning “dog” is pronounced dog, chien, perro, and so on in
different communities. Some languages will simply lack a word that another
language has, or refer to the same thing in quite different ways. As one example,
we speak of a certain tool as a screwdriver, literally alluding to the fact that it is
used to push screws in; German uses the term Schraubenzieher, which translates as
“a screw puller”; and French uses the word tournevis (“screw turner”) for the same
tool, thus referring to both the tool’s pushing and pulling functions (Kay, 1996). As
we have also mentioned, sometimes the structures differ across languages too, as
with fixed word-order languages like English and Mandarin Chinese versus those
with a quite free word order such as Finnish and Russian. Further differences are at
the social level. For example, such languages as Italian and French have different
pronouns for use when referring to relative strangers (e.g., French vous, or to
intimates tu). Finally, languages differ in the idioms and metaphors with which
they characteristically refer to the world. Witness English, where your new car can
9
David G. Myers. Psychology. 2010 by Worth Publishers, USA. P.390
187
be a lemon even though it is inedible, your former friend can be a snake in the
grass, and your future visit to an under- ground cave can be up in the air until its
date is settled.
Do these differences matter? Certainly we would not think that Germans and
Americans use different tools for inserting and extracting screws and that only the
French have a single tool for both jobs. At the other extreme, having a
linguistically built-in way to refer differentially to dear friends and total strangers
just might.
How Language Connects to Thought?
In one sense it is totally obvious that language influences thought. Otherwise
we would not use it at all. When one person yells “FIRE!” in a crowded room, all
of those who hear him rapidly walk, run, or otherwise proceed to the nearest exit.
In this case, language influenced the listeners to think, there’s a fire; fire is
dangerous; I’d better get out of here FAST. Language use also influences our
thought in other ways. It is a convenient way of coding, or chunking, information,
with important consequences for memory. The way information is framed when
we talk or write can also influence our decisions, so that a patient is more likely to
choose a medical treatment if she is told it has a 50% chance of success than if she
is told it has a 50% chance of failure.
In all these examples, the choice of words and sentences affects our thinking.
Of course, language is not the only way to influence thought and action. Observing
the flames is at least as powerful a motivator to flee as is hearing the cry FIRE!
Still, language is an enormously effective conveyer of information, emotions, and
attitudes. This much ought to be obvious. Why would we ever listen to a lecture or
read a poem or a newspaper if we did not believe that language was a means of
getting useful or aesthetically pleasing information? But when we speak of
language differences influencing thought, it is in quite a different sense from this.
In this latter case, we are asking whether the very forms and contents that a
language can express change the nature of perception and cognition for its
speakers.
Key Takeaways
about Language
Language involves both the ability to comprehend spoken and written words and
to speak and write. Some languages are sign languages, in which the
communication is expressed by movements of the hands.
Phonemes are the elementary sounds of our language, morphemes are the
smallest units of meaningful language, syntax is the grammatical rules that control
how words are put together, and contextual information is the elements of
communication that help us understand its meaning.
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• Recent research suggests that there is not a single critical period of language
learning, but that language learning is simply better when it occurs earlier.
• Broca’s area is responsible for language production. Wernicke’s area is
responsible for language comprehension.
• Language learning begins even before birth. An infant usually produces his or
her first words at about one year of age.
• One explanation of language development is that it occurs through principles of
learning, including association, reinforcement, and the observation of others.
• Noam Chomsky argues that human brains contain a language acquisition
module that includes a universal grammar that underlies all human language.
Chomsky differentiates between the deep structure and the surface structure of an
idea.
• Although other animals communicate and may be able to express ideas, only the
human brain is complex enough to create real language.
• Our language may have some influence on our thinking, but it does not affect
our underlying understanding of concepts.
8.8 Types and functions of speech
Definition
Speech is the vocalized form of communication based
upon the syntactic combination of lexicals and names
that are drawn from very large vocabularies. Each
spoken word is created out of the phonetic combination
of a limited set of vowel and consonant speech sound
units (phonemes). These vocabularies, the syntax which
structures them, and their sets of speech sound units
differ, creating many thousands of different, and
mutually unintelligible, human languages. Most human
speakers are able to communicate in two or more of
them, hence being polyglots.
There are different types of speech: speech gestures and audible speech,
written and oral speech, external and internal speech. The basic division of speech
is internal and external one. External speech is divided into written and oral forms.
Oral speech includes a speech monologue and dialogue.
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Inner speech is soundless speech, which flows more like a thought process.
There are two varieties of it: the actual inner speech and pronunciation in the mind.
Pronunciation is just mental repetition of any text in case where repetition is
impossible in loud condition (for example, the forthcoming report of the text, learn
by heart a poem).
The concept of inner speech by L.S. Vygotsky
L.S. Vygotsky played significant role in
development of psychological concept of
verbal meaning and thinking process. In his
book "Thought and Speech" (1934) was
explained main concept of inner speech. Inner
speech is a phenomenon qualitatively
different from external speech, which is
aimed primarily at the processing and
preparation of the perceived speech
utterances. Inner speech comes from the
egocentric speech or "speech for own self". L.S. Vygotsky found that children's
egocentric speech is bearer of the processes unfolding child's thinking. At this
time, child's thinking just entering as a path of internalization.
Definition
Internalization is the process of taking ideas, behavior
patterns, beliefs, and attitudes of other people and
making them part of the self. In object-relations theory,
the process of taking an object relationship into the mind
which reproduces the external relationship as an internal
process of mind.
L.S. Vygotsky argued that egocentric
speech is not just the sound accompaniment of
internal thought process. Egocentric thinking
is the only form of existence of thought in
child mind. Only after passing the stage of
egocentric speech, the thinking in the course
of further change and internalization will
gradually turn into a mental process,
transforming it into the interior.
The main feature of inner speech is revealed in the course of further study this
phenomenon.
The main features of inner speech are:
- Fragmentation;
- Predicates as relation between subject and words;
- Reducing the phonetic points (phonetic aspect of speech is reduced, the
words are understood by the intention of the speaker to pronounce them);
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- The predominance of meaning of a word.
Sense of the word is more dynamic wide than their values.
Thus, communication as external aspect of speech is developing in childhood
period from one word to the clutch of two or three words, and then to a simple
phrase and phrases adhesion, even later connected to a speech consisting of the
expanded number of proposals.
Semantic speech develops in the opposite direction. Child begins from whole
sentence and then moves on to the mastery of individual semantic units.
External speech is spoken and written. Speaking is first of all sound. But it is
impossible to exclude the value of gestures. They can be accompanied by sound
and speech, and act as independent characters. Some gestures can be the equivalent
of words and sometimes even pass quite complex meanings in an environment
where the sound cannot be applied. Communication by means of gestures and
facial expressions refers to the type of non-verbal communication, in contrast to
verbal one.
Speaking has two forms. A more common form is dialogic one. Dialogue is a
direct communication between two or more persons in order to exchange
information.
Monologues are another manifestation of speech. There is relatively long
consistent presentation of a certain system of thoughts, knowledge. For example,
individual can give lectures to a large audience.
Written language is very limited in the means of expression.
Traditionally, there are three functions of speech:
1. Nominative. This function of "naming" objects which surrounding
individual. This communication between people is far different from animals’
communication. Animals’ communication takes place at the level of the sound or
other signals that act directly on the reflexes.
2. Distributions. This function involves in separation of essential features of
objects and combining them into logic groups. Each word names this group of
objects, which are common for society. This function is related directly to
thinking.
3. Communicative function provides transfer of knowledge, attitudes, and
feelings in interaction between people. This function serves primarily as an
external verbal behavior.
Voluntary aspect of communicative function is related with individual ability
of using the speech activity in order to influence others’ opinion, attitude. Such
people are named as persons with charisma.
Intelligent function of speech defines a method for forming, formulation and
understanding of thoughts. This means that there are very complex relationships
and transitions between speech and thinking.
Problem of speech is a branch of psycholinguistics.
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8.9 Applied aspects of the using speech
Applied Psycholinguistics is approach of practical side of speech
development. It deals with issues related to the functioning of the speech in the
practical life of people, studying speech communication in personality and his
professional activity. Field of applied psycholinguistics is wide enough. This is due
to fact that it is woven into the whole human activity, social and personal contacts.
The need for such kind of scientific psychological knowledge is observed in many
practical situations. For example, in professional work solving problems is possible
only by using speech. Speech also provides an effective influence on people.
Practical rhetoric refers to this area.
Practical rhetoric. Since ancient times, people were interested in the
problems of the impact of speech. Nowadays, the interest in this area is not
reduced. In many countries, there are institutions for education and maintaining a
culture of communication and speech communication. College students are trained
to develop skills of correct speech, and the ability to communicate with people of
different status, age, position. It is believed that the possession of correct speech a
prerequisite for success in any field of activity. In Japan developed and practiced
school courses in speaking, listening, reading and writing. In our country also there
are various trainings and courses to develop skills in public speaking, business
negotiation, conflict resolution, public speaking skills courses.
Modern rhetoric deals with the analysis of various aspects of verbal
communication. People consider the different situations of communication: direct
(when speaking "face to face") or indirect (when speaking on television or radio).
It reveals how people act in communion with each other in order to satisfy own
needs.
8.10 Violations of the speech function
Voice disorders can happen at any point in the speech mechanism: the
pronunciation, semantic perspective. Lighter defects occur in the form of
imperfection pronouncing certain sounds or their combinations. Violations of the
semantic level of speech typically occur as a result of damage the brain speech
zones, which can occur due to injuries.
The resulting partial or complete loss of speech is called aphasia. There it’s
various forms:
- Motor is related to difficulty pronouncing words;
- Touch. Individual does not understand the spoken word or written word;
- Syntax. Individual does not understand;
- Amnestic. Individual has difficulty in naming objects, etc.
Differential diagnosis of aphasia requires consistent identification of the
factors that cause the disease. In sensory aphasia is the leading state of phonemic
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hearing. Motor aphasia requires the identification of the state of the articulatory
apparatus. Such diagnosis is the prerogative of experts in neuropsychology.
Aphasia is an inability to comprehend and formulate language because of
damage to specific brain regions. This damage is typically caused by a cerebral
vascular accident (stroke), or head trauma, however these are not the only possible
causes. To be diagnosed with aphasia, a person's speech or language must be
significantly impaired in one (or several) of the four communication modalities
following acquired brain injury or have significant decline over a short time period
(progressive aphasia). The four communication modalities are auditory
comprehension, verbal expression, reading and writing, and functional
communication.
The difficulties of people with aphasia can range from occasional trouble
finding words to losing the ability to speak, read, or write; intelligence, however, is
unaffected. Expressive language and receptive language can both be affected as
well. Aphasia also affects visual language such as sign language. In contrast, the
use of formulaic expressions in everyday communication is often preserved. One
prevalent deficit in the aphasias is anomia, which is a deficit in word finding
ability.
The term "aphasia" implies that one or more communication modalities have
been damaged and are therefore functioning incorrectly. Aphasia does not refer to
damage to the brain that results in motor or sensory deficits, as it is not related to
speech (which is the verbal aspect of communicating) but rather the individual's
language. An individual's "language" is the socially shared set of rules as well as
the thought processes that go behind verbalized speech. It is not a result of a more
peripheral motor or sensory difficulty, such as paralysis affecting the speech
muscles or a general hearing impairment.
People with aphasia may experience any of the following behaviors due to an
acquired brain injury, although some of these symptoms may be due to related or
concomitant problems such as dysarthria or apraxia and not primarily due to
aphasia. Aphasia symptoms can vary based on the location of damage in the brain.
Signs and symptoms may or may not be present in individuals with aphasia and
may vary in severity and level of disruption to communication. Often those with
aphasia will try to hide their inability to name objects by using words like thing. So
when asked to name a pencil they may say it is a thing used to write.
Signs and symptons of aphasia
 Inability to comprehend language
 Inability to pronounce, not due to muscle paralysis or weakness
 Inability to speak spontaneously
 Inability to form words
 Inability to name objects (anomia)
 Poor enunciation
 Excessive creation and use of personal neologisms
 Inability to repeat a phrase
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
Persistent repetition of one syllable, word, or phrase (stereotypies)
 Paraphasia (substituting letters, syllables or words)
 Agrammatism (inability to speak in a grammatically correct fashion)
 Dysprosody (alterations in inflexion, stress, and rhythm)
 Incomplete sentences
 Inability to read
 Inability to write
 Limited verbal output
 Difficulty in naming
 Speech disorder
 Speaking gibberish
 Inability to follow or understand simple requests
Transcortical sensory aphasia (TSA) is a kind of aphasia that involves
damage to specific areas of the temporal lobe of the brain, resulting in symptoms
such as poor auditory comprehension, relatively intact repetition, and fluent speech
with semantic paraphasias present. TSA is a fluent aphasia similar to Wernicke's
aphasia, with the exception of a strong ability to repeat words and phrases. The
person may repeat questions rather than answer them ("echolalia").
In all of these ways, TSA is very similar to a more commonly known
language disorder, receptive aphasia. However, transcortical sensory aphasia
differs from receptive aphasia in that patients still have intact repetition and
exhibit echolalia, or the compulsive repetition of words. Transcortical sensory
aphasia cannot be diagnosed through brain imaging techniques such as functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), as the results are often difficult to interpret.
Therefore, clinicians rely on language assessments and observations to determine if
a patient presents with the characteristics of TSA. Patients diagnosed with TSA
have shown partial recovery of speech and comprehension after beginning speech
therapy. Speech therapy methods for patients with any subtype of aphasia are
based on the principles of learning and neuroplasticity. Clinical research on TSA is
limited because it occurs so infrequently in patients with aphasia that it is very
difficult to perform systematic studies.
Control questions:
1. Why Thinking is human cognitive process?
2. Compare the process of thinking and problem solving.
3. Analyse Concrete operatory thought.
4. Describe Representational thought.
5. Explain Verbal-logical (or conceptual) thinking.
6. Analyse Logical thinking.
7. Analyse Intuitive thinking.
8. How many stages creative thinking has?
9. Analyse Forms of Thinking.
10. Explain how Thinking interacts with Speech.
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CHAPTER 9 REGULATORY PROCESSES OF MIND
9.1 Concept of “Emotion” in Psychology
Emotions (from the Latin “emoveo” – “stunning, excitement”) are special
class of mental processes that reflect the importance of individual’s activity.
Emotions contribute to behavior by arising due to response on significant life
events.
Definition
Emotions (translated as worry, shock) is a psychological
process of subjective reflection of the most General
man's relationship to objects and phenomena of reality,
to others, to yourself concerning the satisfaction or
dissatisfaction of their needs, goals and intentions.
Emotion - transient, neurophysiological response to a stimulus that excites a
coordinated system of bodily and mental responses that inform us about our
relationship to the stimulus and prepare us to deal with it in some way.
Let us recall the myth of the charioteer, proposed by Plato. Mind and Feelings
presented in this myth as two bitter rivals which are able to move in one direction
only under the whip of the driver “Will”. Stoics and Epicureans urged to refrain
from emotion. Nowadays, this view of emotion is preserved, for example in
practice of law. The courts take into account the emotional state of the accused at
the time of commission of the offense, meaning "strong emotion" or affect lead to
loss of control over their actions.
Feelings
Subjective experience
Phenomenological
awareness
Cognition
Bodily arousal
Physiological activation
Bodily preparation for
action
Motor response
Emotion
Sense of purpose
 Goal-directed
motivational state
 Functional aspects
Significant life
event
Social-expressive
 Social communication
 Facial expression
 Vocal expression
Figure 9.1.1 Four components of emotion
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Goal
Outcomes
Speech
Emotion
Action
Face
Body language
Figure 9.1.2 Relation between Emotion and other parts
of cognition and activity
Ch. Darwin spoke about the biological necessity of emotions. Emotions are
significantly necessary for survival. There are psychological functions of emotions
that support this statement. Functions of emotion:
1. The function of organizing. Emotions primarily organize activity. Even a
biological response such as affect, usually disorganizing human activities but may
be useful under certain conditions. For example, when an individual has to be
rescued from the serious danger he is relying, by affective reaction, solely on
physical strength and endurance.
2. Mobilizing function. Mobilizing function of emotions firstly manifested at
the physiological level by increasing of adrenaline in blood. This hormone
determines ability to escape threatening stimuli due to fear emotion. In addition,
the phenomenon of "narrowing of consciousness", which is observed during
intense emotional states, causes the body to concentrate all efforts on overcoming
the negative situation.
3. Evaluation function puts emotions in order with other processes in
cognition. Emotions reflect in the form of direct experience of events’ significance
(meaning) in individual. Emotions are one of the main mechanisms of internal
regulation of mental activity and behavior aimed meeting current needs. Emotion
makes possible to evaluate directly the meaning of the isolated stimulus or
situation for individual. Emotional assessment precedes to expand conscious
information processing and, therefore "direct" conscious in a certain way. In
addition, Evaluation function of emotion is especially useful when we do not have
enough information for rational decision-making.
4. Compensation functions in situation of information deficit. O. Maurer
(1960) said: "Emotions have absolutely extraordinary value in the functioning of
living organisms and does not deserve to be contrasted with intelligence. Emotions
itself are likely to represent a high order of intelligence". In other words, emotion
is a kind of resource for solving problems. By P.V. Simonov (1972) emotions are
mechanism, which compensate the lack of information. P.V. Simonov suggested
that the measure of emotions’ level depends on two factors: 1) the importance of
the needs (N) and 2) the difference between the information needed to satisfy it
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(IS), and available current information (CI). this difference reflects the subjective
probability of achieving the goal. In case of IS < CI there is the emergence of
negative emotions (fear, anger, anxiety, disgust), and if IS > CI there is the
emergence of the positive one (joy, interest ets.). Emergence of positive emotions
increases the demand of needs and emergence of negative emotions reduce their
intensity. To illustrate the P.V. Simonov’s concept it is possible to use the wellknown fable "The Fox and the Grapes." Fox’s negative emotion of disappointment
decreases its desire to reach it.
5. The function of motivation and support activity. Emotion is a product of
socio-historical development. They are related to the processes of internal
regulation of behavior. As a subjective form of expression needs, they precede
efforts to meet them, encouraging and directing it. As already mentioned,
performance regulation based not only on cognition, but also focusing on the
emotions. It is possible to go for a walk, because "oxygen is good for the body," or
because "to enjoy a breath of fresh air". And in the second case, you are likely to
get pleasure from the boardwalk.
According to S.L. Rubinstein: "emotions are subjective form of existence
needs." Today individuals can effectively hide its motivations of Behavior, but
emotions demonstrate their true motives for others. During task performance
emotion alerting its success or obstacles.
6. The regulatory function of emotions discussed in the psychological
literature under various names: binding - inhibition (P.K. Anokhin) trial formation
(A.N. Leontiev), reinforce (P.V. Simonov). This function indicates the ability of
emotions leave traces in individual life experience, fixing it all impacts in memory.
7. Function of trial formation (A.N. Leontiev). This function is a logical
continuation of the regulatory function (the track itself would be meaningless if it
was not possible to use it in the future). Trial formation goes normally ahead of
events in order to predict them.
According to P.K. Anokhin, emotions emerged in the evolutionary process as
factors supporting adaptive behavior. In this case negative emotion determine
future occurrences of errors and on the contrary, positive emotions reinforce
acceptable behavior.
8. Communication Function. Expressive component of emotion makes them
"transparent" to the social environment. The individual emotional experience is
much wider than the experience of his personal experiences: it is formed because
of emotional empathy that arise in communication with other people. This is
perhaps one of the most important functions of emotions because it serves for
empathy as a comprehension of emotional state of another person, ability to
experience empathy, compassion, share the feelings of another person. The
expression of certain emotions, such as pain, causing the awakening of altruistic
motivation in others. For example, each mother can distinguish own child’s crying
and more over can detect exact reasons of it.
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9. Disorganization function. Intense of emotions can disrupt the efficient of
activity. However, affect, as intensive emotion is useful when individual needs to
mobilize their physical strength. However, long-term effect of intense emotion
causes distress, which, leads to behavioral disorders, psychosomatic diseases such
as gastric ulcer, hypertension, heart attack, etc.
9.2 Types of emotional states
There are several types of emotional states which classification depend on the
depth, intensity, duration, and degree of differentiation of it. They are sensual tone,
emotions, affect, passion, mood.
1. A sensual or emotional tone is the simplest form of emotions, elementary
manifestation of organic sensitivity that accompanies some vital influence of
environment stimulus. Often such experiences cannot be expressed verbally
because of their weak differentiation (for example, individual may say: “I feel
something is wrong”).
2. Emotion is mental reflection of experience’s means in connection with
individual needs. Emotions arise from the fact that the subject can not or is not able
to give an adequate response to unusual or sudden stimulus.
Traditionally considered the division emotions into positive and negative
class. However, emotions such as anger, fear, shame, can not be classified as
negative. Anger is directly related to adaptive behavior, and even more often with
the protection of personal integrity. Fear is also associated with survival and, along
with shame, it contributes to the regulation of permits and aggressive assertion of
the social order.
There is another popular classification of emotions in relation with activity.
They are sthenic (inducing to action causing stress) and asthenic (inhibitory effect,
depressing) emotions. Also known classification of emotions by needs: biological,
social, and ideal emotions.
3. Affect is quickly and rapidly flowing emotional process with explosive
nature, which cannot give a subordinate conscious volitional control.
Definition
Affect - transient neurophysiological response to a
stimulus that excites a coordinated system of bodily and
mental responses including facial expressions that inform
us about our relationship to the stimulus and prepare us
to deal with it in some way. The basic affects are anger,
fear, surprise, happiness, disgust, and contempt. The
subjective feeling or evaluative component of human
experience or thought.
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Affect is suddenly occurring, dramatically experienced by individual shock,
characterized by a change of consciousness, disturbance of volitional control over
the actions. During affect dramatically changed the parameters of attention such as
disturbed concentration, partial or complete amnesia, etc. Affect has a
disruptive effect on the activity, consistency and quality of performance, with
chaotic untargeted motor reactions. There are normal and pathological affects. The
main symptoms of a pathological passion are change of consciousness
(disorientation in time and space), the inadequacy of the intensity of the response,
the presence of posteffective amnesia.
4. Passion is intense, generalized and prolonged experience, dominating over
other individual motives and leads to focusing on the subject of passion. The
causes of passion can be different, from bodily impulses to conscious ideological
beliefs. Passion can be experienced as something unwanted, intrusive or can be
experienced as wanted. Main features of passion are the strength of feeling
passion, expressed in the appropriate direction all thoughts of personality, stability,
unity of emotional and volitional moments unique combination of activity and
passivity.
5. Mood is relatively long, stable mental state with moderate or low intensity.
The causes of mood are plentiful from being organic (waste tone) to the nuances
of relationships with others.
Definition
Mood an affective state that persists from several
minutes to several weeks which directs and colors
perception, thought, and behavior.
Figure 9.2.1 Classification of emotions
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Our feelings are obscure and confused. But their obscurity has not deterred
psychologists from attempting to sort them out. Some psychologists have
identified dimensions of emotional experience, such as pleasant versus unpleasant
and mild versus intense. (Terror is more frightening than fear, rage is angrier than
angry, ecstasy is happier than happy.) Other psychologists have sought to identify
the fundamental emotions – emotions that are biologically, facially, and
experientially distinct. Carroll Izard believes that there are ten fundamental
emotions (interest-excitement, joy, surprise, distress, anger, disgust, contempt,
fear, shame, and guilt), most of which are present in infancy. Other emotions, he
says, are combinations of these (love, for instance, being a mixture of joy and
interest-excitement).
Among various human emotions, we looked closely at three: fear, anger, and
happiness.
Fear. Fear is an adaptive emotion, even though it can be traumatic. Although
we seem biologically predisposed to acquire some fears, the enormous variety of
human fears is best explained by learning.
Anger. Anger is most often aroused by events that are not only frustrating or
insulting but also interpreted as willful and unjustified. Although blowing off
steam may be temporarily calming, it does not, in the long run, reduce anger.
Expressing anger can actually arouse more anger.
Happiness. A good mood boosts people’s perceptions of the world and their
willingness to help others. The moods triggered by the day’s good or bad events
seldom last more than that day. Even seemingly significant good events, such as a
substantial raise in income, seem not to increase happiness for long. The apparent
relativity of happiness can be explained by the adaptation-level and relativedeprivation principles. Nevertheless, some people are usually happier than others,
and researchers have identified factors that predict such happiness.
Figure 9.2.2 Feeling and emotions
The variety of manifestations of individual emotional life is determined
qualitative differences between emotions and feelings. According to domestic
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psychology, feelings is a special subclass of emotional processes. Feeling is
experienced and is found in specific emotions. However, feeling isolated as the
phenomena of reality, having a stable need-motivational significance.
Thus, feelings are stable emotional relationships, acting as a kind of
"attachment" to a certain range of environment. Main role of feelings is regulation
of behavior.
9.3 Theories of Emotions
Numerous physiological theories of emotions considered that body changes is
accompanied by emotional state. Throughout the history of psychological
knowledge has repeatedly attempted a link between physiological changes in the
human body and certain emotions. Moreover, complexes of body processes are
significantly different in various emotional processes.
In 1872 Charles Darwin published his book "Expression of the Emotions
among Human and Animals" which was a turning point in the understanding of
relationship between biological and psychological phenomena, in particular,
between body and emotions. Ch. Darwin showed that the external expression of
different emotional states are common among anthropoids’ children. These
observations formed the basis for the theory of emotion, called as evolutionary
theory of emotions. According to this theory, emotions are vital adaptive
mechanisms that promote adaptation to conditions and situations of environment.
The bodily changes accompany the various emotional states.
W. James and K. Lange has continued Ch. Darwin’s ideas. Their theory
became popular in psychology. W. James and K. Lange believed that certain
physical conditions are characteristic of different emotions such as curiosity,
excitement, fear, anger and anxiety. Appropriate physical changes are called
organic manifestations of emotion. In James-Lange theory organic changes in the
body cause emotions. Emotions appear by changes in the body which are caused
by influence of external stimuli occurence. The James-Lange theory of emotion
argues that an event causes physiological arousal first and then we interpret this
arousal. Only after our interpretation of the arousal can we experience emotion. If
the arousal was not noticed or was not given any thought, then we would not
experience any emotion based on this event.
W. Cannon suggested alternative point of view. He firstly noted that bodily
changes, which occur in different emotional states, are quite similar. That is why it
is impossible to explain qualitative differences between human highest emotional
experiences by bodily changes.
W. Cannon-Ph.Bard showed that bodily changes associated with emotional
experience that occur almost simultaneously in order to develop regulation
mechanism of behavior.
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Schachter-Singer Theory. According to this theory, an event causes
physiological arousal first. You must then identify a reason for this arousal and
then you are able to experience and label the emotion.
Lazarus Theory states that a thought must come before any emotion or
physiological arousal. In other words, you must first think about your situation
before you can experience an emotion.
Later studies found that emotions functionally connected with the brain,
exactly with amygdala and the limbic system. In experiments carried out on
animals, it was found that the electric influence on these areas develop such
emotional states as anger and fear (H. Delgado).
Psychophysiological researches of the brain developed Activation theory.
According to this theory, emotions restore a balance in relevant structures of the
central nervous system.
Activation theory is based on the following key assumptions:
1. Electroencephalographic (EEG) pattern of the brain activity during emotion
expression is associated with the activity of the reticular formation;
2. The work of the reticular formation is determined by many dynamic
parameters of emotional states: their strength, duration, volatility and others.
Following the theories explaining the relationship of emotional and organic
process, there were theories that describe the emotion influence on human behavior
and human performance. Emotions regulate human activity but this influence
depending on the nature and intensity of emotional experience. D.O.Hebb
calculated curved, "bell-shaped" relationship between emotional arousal and
efficiency of human activity. To achieve the best results in activities it is necessary
to reach an optimum level of emotional excitability. The optimal level of emotional
arousal depends on many factors:
1. Characteristics, conditions and other factors of activities
2. Individual features.
3. Too weak emotional arousal does not provide adequate motivation activity
and that why disorganizing it.
Cognitive psychological factors are also important in dynamics of emotional
processes and states. One of the first of these theories was the theory of cognitive
dissonance of L. Festinger. According to this theory positive emotional experience
occurs when individual expectations are confirmed and cognitive representations
are developed. Negative emotions arise in case of dissonance between expected
and actual results of performance. Cognitive dissonance usually is experienced as a
discomfort state. In order to avoid the state of cognitive dissonance individual has
to change cognitive expectations to conform actual results, or try to get a new
result, which would be consistent with previous expectations.
In modern psychology, the theory of cognitive dissonance is often used to
explain human behavior, his actions in different social situations. Emotions are
also considered as the main motive of relevant actions.
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The dominant cognitive approach in modern psychological research believed
that cognitive levels direct impact on individuals’ emotional experience.
Author of cognitive-physiological concept of emotion S. Schechter also
showed that emotional processes make significant contribution to memory
processes and motivation sphere of personality. According to this theory emotional
state positively is correlated with perceived stimuli, body changes, individual’s
past experience and with his current interests and needs. It was discovered that
verbal instructions also influence emotions, emotional states also can be
transmitted from person to person.
Domestic physiologist P.V. Simonov tried in brief symbolic form to present
range of factors that effect appearance and features of emotions.
According to the cognitive formula proposed by P.V. Simonov the strength
and the quality of human emotion is ultimately determined by awareness of
individual about his ability to meet and solve problem situations.
Facial Feedback Theory. According to the facial feedback theory, any
emotion is the experience of changes in our facial muscles. In other words, when
we smile, we then experience pleasure, or happiness. When we frown, we then
experience sadness. It is the changes in our facial muscles that cue our brains and
provide the basis of our emotions. Just as there is an unlimited number of muscle
configurations in our face, so there is a seemingly unlimited number of emotions.
The relationship of emotions with the activity (A.N. Leontiev).
Emotion is a mental representation or a reflection of meanings generated by
motive. Emotions are the path to knowledge of the motives:
1. natural meanings are (useful/harmful)
2. social
3. personality is formed by the leading motive (the true/false for personal
development at this stage)
Thus there are many emotion theories which have been developing in modern
psychology, neuroscience and cognitive science.
Table 9.3 Theories of Emotion
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Key Takeaways
about Emotion
• Emotions are the normally adaptive mental and physiological feeling states that
direct our attention and guide our behaviour.
• Emotional states are accompanied by arousal, our experiences of the bodily
responses created by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
• Motivations are forces that guide behaviour. They can be biological, such as
hunger and thirst; personal, such as the motivation for achievement; or social,
such as the motivation for acceptance and belonging.
• The most fundamental emotions, known as the basic emotions, are those of
anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.
• Cognitive appraisal also allows us to experience a variety of secondary
emotions.
• According to the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, the experience of an emotion
is accompanied by physiological arousal.
• According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, our experience of an emotion
is the result of the arousal that we experience.
• According to the two-factor theory of emotion, the experience of emotion is
determined by the intensity of the arousal we are experiencing, and the cognitive
appraisal of the situation determines what the emotion will be.
• When people incorrectly label the source of the arousal that they are
experiencing, we say that they have misattributed their arousal.
• We express our emotions to others through nonverbal behaviours, and we learn
about the emotions of others by observing them.
9.4 Psychology of Stress
Discussing the themes of emotions, it is difficult to ignore the problem of
stress. Stress is a common non-specific response of the body to any modality
stimulus (stressor).
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The term "stress" was entered by Canadian
biologist and physician Hans Selye (1907- 1982).
According to his definition, stress is a general adaptation
syndrome to mobilize the body in order to adapt to an
environment.
Definition
Stress - prolonged state of psychological and
physiological arousal leading to negative effects on
mood, cognitive capacity, immune function, and
physical health.
According to H. Selye, stress has three stages or phases. On first stage under
the influence of a stressor activates the sympathetic nervous system. Man with
anxiety may experience emotional state (if the stressor is threatening) or elation (if
the stressor is basically associated with a positive outlook). In the second stage
(also called the "stage of fight") adrenal glands begin to secrete the hormone
cortisol in the blood and the body's mobilization occurs. In the second stage a
person can most effectively solve problems that require considerable effort that
goes beyond the ordinary. If the effect of the stressor continues, comes the third
stage - the stage of exhaustion. If in the third step to mobilize the body exhausted,
there will be distress. This leads to significant distress disorders as a mental
activity, and physical health.
Figure 9.4 General Adaptation Syndrome identified by H. Selye
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Definition
Stressor - any environmental circumstance to which
the organism reacts with prolonged physiological
arousal.
Figure 9.4 The stress reaction in the body (by C. Myss, N. Shealy)
In ordinary consciousness the concept of stress is uniquely associated with
negative feelings. However, positive changes in your life can cause deep stress,
rolling in distress. T. Holmes and P. Rae (T. Note, K. Cape, 1967) have developed
a list of typical life situations that cause stress. The most stressful was the situation
of the spouse's death (100 points), however, for such is certainly negative
situations such as imprisonment (63 points) and injury (53 points), followed by the
positive and desirable situations, such as marriage (50 points) or birth of a child
(40 points).
The most important factor for successful coping with stress is to ensure that
the situation remains under control. In one experiment, two rats simultaneously
received painful electric shocks. One of them could not make a difference, while
the other, pulling the ring, "controlled" painful effects. In fact, the strength and
duration of electric shock were identical for both members experience. However,
passive rats developed stomach ulcers and decreased immunity, and kept active
resistance to the action of the stressor. Similar results were obtained for the people.
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For example, employees who have been allowed to organize office space in its sole
discretion feel less distress than those who worked for once and for the entire
created environment.
Figure 9.5 Stress management techniques
L.A. Kitaev-Smyk has allocated two types of changes in the behavior under
stress: passive emotional changes that occur in anticipation of the end of the impact
of extreme factors ("endure"), and emotional activity, aimed to active removal of
extreme factors, overcoming the situation. As can be seen from the above studies,
it is the second way gives a more positive evaluation of emotion.
Key Takeaways
about Stress
Stress refers to the physiological responses that occur when an organism fails to
respond appropriately to emotional or physical threats.
The general adaptation syndrome refers to the three distinct phases of
physiological change that occur in response to long-term stress: alarm, resistance,
and exhaustion.
Stress is normally adaptive because it helps us respond to potentially dangerous
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events by activating the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
But the experience of prolonged stress has a direct negative influence on our
physical health.
• Chronic stress is a major contributor to heart disease. It also decreases our
ability to fight off colds and infections.
• Stressors can occur as a result of both major and minor everyday events.
• Men tend to respond to stress with the fight-or-flight response, whereas women
are more likely to take a tend-and-befriend response.
• Positive thinking can be beneficial to our health.
• Optimism, self-efficacy, and hardiness all relate to positive health outcomes.
• Happiness is determined in part by genetic factors, but also by the experience of
social support.
• People may not always know what will make them happy.
• Material wealth plays only a small role in determining happiness.
9.5 Will and Volition
Will is one of the most difficult concepts in psychology. It is considered also
as a mental process, and as an aspect of most other major mental processes and
phenomena. By Will individual control its behavior.
Aristotle was the first among the Greek philosophers who drew problem of
the will, who believed that will is human morality. He considered the connection
of ethics and human will, making the person responsible for his fate and wellbeing. "Man is the power of acting. First principle of action, both good and bad is
the intention, the will. We voluntarily change our actions. The intention and will,
change voluntarily. Hence it is clear that it depends on us to be good or bad "("
Great Ethics"). According to Aristotle Voluntary is freedom of choice, and focus
on reasonable goals.
With the development of psychology as an independent science widely spread
voluntarism as the recognition of the will of a special autonomous force, which
underlies the whole mental functioning. According to this position, volitional acts
can not be reduced to any mental processes, but they define their course.
So will is the mental function that literally permeates all aspects of human
life. Firstly, it sets the order, focus and awareness of human life and activity.
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S.L.Rubinstein said: "Volitional action is a conscious, purposeful action by which
a person performs standing before him the goal, subordinating their impulses to
conscious control and changing the surrounding reality in accordance with his
plan".
Secondly, the will as the ability of people to self-determination and selfregulation makes it free from external circumstances. Will brings to life a human
being is really a subjective measurement.
Thirdly, the will is a conscious overcoming human difficulties in the way of
implementation of the action.
The will, is a particular form of human activity, which involves in initiation,
stabilization and inhibition of individual’s desires, motives and organizes the
system of actions towards conscious goals. For instance, individual has to consider
a situation where he needs to go for a morning jog, while he wants to sleep. Firstly,
individual has to choose one of several competing motives ("sleep", "stand", "stay
at home and do exercises", "lie in bed and watch TV" and others). Thus detected
selective function of will is to make a choice in conflict between motives. Then, if
individual decide to force himself to get dressed and go out it will be initiating
implement of the will function. People may also while running in the imagination
act out certain situations that can happen in this day down in your mind the plans
you have to implement. By the will realized an arbitrary regulation of internal and
external actions and mental processes. In addition, individual can find another
reason of morning jog, for example to lose weight. This decision will be another
new motive and actually running start to play another significant role for him.
Thus, the will is a higher level of individual’s regulation of his motivation,
emotion and attention. Volitional processes have three main functions:
1. Initiating or incentive function (directly related to the motivational factors)
is to make start an action, behavior, activity, overcoming the objective and
subjective obstacles.
2. The stabilizer function is connected with the strong-willed efforts to
maintain activity at the appropriate level in different external and internal
interference.
3. Inhibitory function is to brake other, often strong motivations and desires,
which inconsistent with the main objectives of the activities at a given point in
time.
Figure 9.5 Volition spectrum
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There are also three main features of the will:
- Awareness by individual about his freedom to act;
- Objective determine of any actions;
- In the voluntary actions individual manifests itself as a whole system with
strong-willed regulation.
9.6 Volition and its structure
In the problem of the will the most important place takes the concept of an act
that has a certain structure and content. The most important links of an act decision-making and execution - often are of particular emotional states, which are
described as a willful effort.
Volitional effort is a form of emotional stress, mobilizing internal human
resources (memory, thinking, imagination, etc.), creates additional motivation for
action, and experienced as a state of considerable tension.
Components of volition:
1) Existence of objective action and its realization;
2) Presence of several motives and awareness about importance to find
priority motives;
3) "conflict between motives" as a clash in the process of choosing a
particular motive in contradictory tendencies, desires and intentions. It becomes
stronger if they are equal to each other. Taking "chronic" conflict of motives can
generate internal conflict.
4) Make a decision to choose a particular motive give possibility to solve
conflict between motives. At this stage, there is a sense of relief associated with the
resolution of the situation;
5) Implementation of the decision in activity or in behavior.
In most cases, decision-making and volitional behavior generally associated
with a large internal stress, often acquiring a stress character.
A.N. Leontiev revealed an important component of the will. He believed that
during conflict of motives often win social motives, which taking precedence over
the biological.
9.7 The Will as an Activity
Domestic psychologist D.N. Uznadze, defined main attribution of the will by
three main characteristics:
1) will acts as an objectification of individual behavior. By the will individual
can evaluate himself and his motives;
2) the will is always directed to the future;
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3) the will is not actual implementation of the human impulse (for example, to
get up and drink water). But the will is related with implementation of activity by
taking resource for it.
Localization of control
The will depends on type of localization control. Localization of control is
related with attribute responsibility for the results of individual’s activity.
There are people who tend to explain the reasons of their behavior and their
actions by external factors (the fate, circumstances, events, etc.). The tendency to
localize control of externalities is associated with such personality traits as
irresponsibility, lack of confidence, anxiety.
Internal localization control is related with individual’s responsibility to
explaining his results of activity by his own abilities, character etc. Internal
localization control is consistent with achieving the goal, prone to self-analysis,
sociable, independent. Internal or external localization control of volitional action
has both positive and negative social consequences.
The power is another psychological features of the will process. A person with
a strong will is able to overcome the difficulties encountered on the way to
achieving this goal. Weak-willed people succumb to difficulties: do not show
determination, perseverance, cannot suppress momentary impulses.
Extreme weakness of will is beyond the norms of the psyche. These include,
for example, abulia and apraxia.
Abul based on brain pathology, which creates inability to understand needs, to
make a decision to act.
Apraxia also based on brain pathology and it is a complex disturbance of
purposeful actions.
Abul and apraxia are relatively rare phenomenon, inherent to people with
severe mental disorder.
9.8 Psychological Features of Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence (EI) was formally defined by Peter Salovey and Jack
Mayer in 1990 as a member of an emerging group of mental abilities alongside
social and practical intelligence. EI refers to the processes involved in perceiving,
using, understanding, and managing emotions to solve emotion-laden problems
and to regulate behavior. Perceiving emotion refers to the ability to identify
emotions in oneself and others, as well as in other stimuli, including voices,
stories, music, and works of art. Using emotion refers to the ability to harness
feelings to assist in certain cognitive activities such as problem solving, decision
making, creative thinking, and interpersonal communication. Understanding
emotions involves knowledge of both emotion-relatedterms and the manner in
which emotions combine, progress, and transition from one to the other. Managing
emotions includes the ability to employ strategies that alter feelings, and the
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assessment of the effectiveness of these regulation strategies. The public and
academia were mostly unaware of EI until 1995, when Daniel Goleman,
psychologist and science writer for the New York Times, popularized the construct
in his book Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Emotional
intelligence quickly captured the attention of the media, general public, educators,
and researchers. Goleman, however, made extraordinary and difficult-tosubstantiate claims about the importance of EI. The definition of EI in the book
was not confined to the abilities described in Salovey and Mayer’s original ability
model of EI; it now encompassed a broad array of personal attributes, including
self-confidence, optimism, and self-motivation, among other desirable personality
attributes. Research on EI is only in its incipient stages: the theory was published
just 15 years ago, and performance measures of the construct have been used in
scientific investigations for only about 4 years. The theory of EI will certainly be
expanded upon in the coming years, and new tasks to measure different aspects of
EI also are under way. There is much to be learned about EI theory and
measurement, and its application at home, school, and the workplace.
Definition
Emotional intelligence (EI) or emotional quotient (EQ) is
the capability of individuals to recognize their own, and
other people's emotions, to discriminate between
different feelings and label them appropriately, to use
emotional information to guide thinking and behavior,
and to manage and/or adjust emotions to adapt
environments or achieve one's goal(s).
Although the term first appeared in a 1964 paper by Michael Beldoch, it
gained popularity in the 1995 book by that title, written by the author,
psychologist, and science journalist Daniel Goleman. Since this time Goleman's
1995 theory has been criticized within the scientific community.
There are three models of EI:
1. The ability model (P. Salovey, J. Mayer) where EI as individual ability is
necessary to navigate social; environment.
2. The trait model (K.V. Petrides), EI as disposition of behavior and self
perceived ability which can be measured by self-report.
3. The mixed model (D. Goleman) EI is skills, which drive leadership
performance.
EI correlates with mental health, job performance, and leadership skills. For
example, D. Goleman found that EI positively correlate with leader’s superior
performance.
EI has been widely developing last few decades. In addition, EI studies carry
out with neural mechanisms combination.
Criticisms have centered on whether EI is a real intelligence and whether it
has incremental validity over IQ and the Big Five personality traits.
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In 1983, H. Gardner said that Theory of Multiple Intelligences relate with
only traditional types of intelligence, such as IQ. He introduced the idea of
multiple intelligences which included both interpersonal intelligence (the capacity
to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people) and
intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's
feelings, fears and motivations).
Also the term «emotional intelligence» was described by Beldoch (1964),
Leuner (1966). S. Greenspan (1989). Then EI firstly was study by W. Payne in
1985. The distinction between trait emotional intelligence and ability emotional
intelligence was introduced in 2000.
The term became widely known with the publication of Goleman's Emotional
Intelligence.
Tests measuring EI have not replaced IQ tests as a standard metric of
intelligence. Measurement of EI includes:
Figure 9.8 Measurement of EI (5 metrics)
1. Self-awareness is the ability to know one's emotions, strengths, weaknesses,
drives, values and goals and recognize their impact on others while using gut
feelings to guide decisions.
2. Self-regulation involves controlling or redirecting one's disruptive emotions
and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances.
3. Social skill is managing relationships to move people in the desired
direction.
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4. Empathy is considering other people's feelings especially when making
decision.
5. Motivation is being driven to achieve for the sake of achievement.
Goleman posits that individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence
that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies.
There are currently several models of EI. Goleman's original model may now
be considered a mixed model that combines what have subsequently been modeled
separately as ability EI and trait EI. Goleman defined EI as the array of skills and
characteristics that drive leadership performance.(2) The trait model was developed
by Konstantin Vasily Petrides in 2001. It "encompasses behavioral dispositions
and self perceived abilities and is measured through self report". The ability model,
developed by Peter Salovey and John Mayer in 2004, focuses on the individual's
ability to process emotional information and use it to navigate the social
environment.
Studies have shown that people with high EI have greater mental health, job
performance, and leadership skills although no causal relationships have been
shown and such findings are likely to be attributable to general intelligence and
specific personality traits rather than emotional intelligence as a construct. For
example, Goleman indicated that EI accounted for 67% of the abilities deemed
necessary for superior performance in leaders, and mattered twice as much as
technical expertise or IQ.(5) Other research finds that the effect of EI on leadership
and managerial performance is non-significant when ability and personality are
controlled for,(6) and that general intelligence correlates very closely with
leadership.(7) Markers of EI and methods of developing it have become more
widely coveted in the past decade. In addition, studies have begun to provide
evidence to help characterize the neural mechanisms of emotional intelligence.
Criticisms have centered on whether EI is a real intelligence and whether it
has incremental validity over IQ and the Big Five personality traits. Review finds
that, in most studies, poor research methodology has exaggerated the significance
of EI.
Control questions:
1. What is emotion?
2. Define types of emotional states.
3. Why Emotion is mental reflection of experiences?
4. Compare Passion and Mood.
5. Give Classification of emotions.
6. Explain Psychology of Stress.
7. What does Localization of control mean?
8. Compare Will and Volition.
9. How the Emotional Intelligence helps people to interact?
10. Explain the main models of Emotional Intelligence?
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Chapter 10. PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONALITY
10.1 Introduction to Personality Psychology
There are other different definitions of "Personality".
Definition by A.N. Leontiev: Personality - a set of social relations that are
realized in diverse activities. Personality is relatively late product of social
historical development.
Definition by Rubinstein S.L.: Personality - a set of internal conditions
through which all external influences are refracted.
Definition by Cohn I.: Personality is understood as a social property of the
individual, as a set of integrated socially important traits formed during the direct
and indirect interaction of the person with other people and make it, in turn, the
subject of knowledge and communication.
Definition by Hansen V.A.: Personality is asocial individual, object and
subject of social relations and historical process, manifesting itself in
communication, activities, and behavior.
Definition by Ananiev B.G.: Personality is the subject of social behavior and
communication.
Definition
Personality is the dynamic organization within the
individual of common traits, behavior patterns,
values, interests, plans and motives, selfunderstanding and worldview, abilities, and
emotional patterns that determine characteristic
behavior and thought. All the systems within the
individual that develop and interact to create the
unique and shared characteristics of the person.
Thus, Personality is the subject of social relations. These relations are realized
in activities, which help people to express themselves.
Definition
Personality traits are hypothetical constructs. As such,
they cannot be measured directly with electrical or
mechanical instruments. Instead, the personality
psychologist will infer the level of a trait within an
individual by observing the effects of the trait on the
person’s behavior.
The more of a trait that a person possesses, the more trait-relevant behaviors
he or she is likely to display. Consider a psychological attribute common to many
theories of personality: extroversion. This trait is a hypothetical construct because
it cannot be observed directly. Yet it has been proposed to be a veridical construct,
having utility in describing and explaining consistencies in people’s behaviors and
215
in predicting future behaviors. Personality traits are generally conceived of as
forming normally distributed dimensions. Thus, for any particular trait, such as
extroversion, humans are thought to vary along a continuum, ranging from low
levels of the trait to high levels, with most people falling somewhere in the middle
of the dimension. The task of personality assessment is to identify those people
who are, for example, more extroverted and those who are less extroverted.
Another term of “individual” often is replaced by term “personality”.
Consider differences between two concepts.
Individual as a species (species of living creatures), which differs from other
animals specific characteristics and level of physiological and psychological
development, endowed with consciousness, ability to think, speak and make
decisions, control behavior, emotions and feelings.
Term "individual" characterizes human as a carrier of specific biological
properties. Individual with his psychological-physiological properties is a basis of
forming of personality and individuality.
The concept of individual expressed two main features:
1. Individual is specie that represents phylogenetic and ontogenetic
development of human beings;
2. Individual as a member of human community goes beyond the natural
(biological) limitations by using social tools, signs, and through them mastering
their own behavior and mental processes.
Individual
or
Human
being
Socialization
Get general
experience
Personality
Socialization
Get specific
experience
Individuality
Figure 10.1 The main categories of human
Individuality is a collection of individual (biological) and personality (social)
properties. Individuality is the individual way of life. Individuality of each person
is shown by specifics of intelligence, emotions, will, and other personality traits.
The nature of the individual characteristics is closely related with biological
and social identity. Relating with this idea there are different approaches of
understanding of human development.
Biogenetic approach of research of human development. Scientists who
belong to this approach believe that leading role of individual development plays
biological body's maturation process. Genetics mostly determines a person's
personality, even his personality. Sheldon’s constitutional psychology is an
example of biogenetic approach.
216
Sheldon’s constitutional psychology. The psychology of
William H. Sheldon, who suggested that there were three
basic breeds of humans called somatotypes in which
body form and character are interrelated. The three
somatotypes are endomorph, mesomorph, and
ectomorph. Sheldon suggested these come about because
of the dominance of the inner, middle, or outer portion of
the embryonic tube as the individual matures.
The inside of the embryonic tube matures into the inner organs of the body,
and a person dominated by this physique tends to be soft, spherical, and dominated
by the digestive process. The character of endomorphs tends to be warm, sociable,
relaxed, tolerant, and affectionate, and they tend to grow fat because of their
appreciation of food. Mesomorphs are dominated by the growth of the middle
portion of the embryonic tube, which matures into muscle and bone. They tend to
have wide shoulders, narrow waists, and a larger proportion of muscle in their
bodies than the other somatotypes. The character of mesomorphs is active,
aggressive, risk taking, callous, and dominant. Ectomorphs are dominated by the
development of the outside of the embryonic tube, which develops into the skin
and nervous system. They tend to be tall and skinny with a low muscle mass. The
character of ectomorphs tends to be oversensitive, inhibited, tense, and avoidant,
with a wish for concealment. Most humans are crossbreeds of the somatotypes as
most dogs are crossbreeds, and so most people show a mixture of the body and
personality traits associated with the different somatotypes, depending on their
particular mix of somatotypes.
Figure 10.1 Types of personality according Sheldon’s constitutional psychology
217
Vividly biological approach appears in S. Freud’s psychoanalyses. According
to his teachings, all human behavior is caused by unconscious biological drives
and instincts.
Scientific approaches on Personality research
2. Sociogenetic approach explain that individual become personality only by
ways of socialization.
Definition
Definition
Socialization is the process by which an individual
learns and internalizes the rules and patterns of
behavior of her/his culture, particularly in childhood
but continuing through adulthood. This involves
learning and mastering societal and cultural norms,
attitudes, values, and belief systems, as well as the
particular skills needed for daily living and
performance of the person’s cultural economic
functions.
Socialization agents are the people, institutions, and
organizations that exist to help ensure that
socialization occurs
Thus, socialization helps people being born biologically distinctive to
become a personality only through social conditions.
3. Social learning approach considered that personality is the result of social
learning process (E. Thorndike, B. Skinner).
Definition
Social learning is the processes by which an
individual acquires the capacities and knowledge
necessary to cope with life successfully in a particular
culture. 2. In learning theory, the process of
acquiring socially effective behaviors including
through observational learning.
Social learning theory Social learning theory is a collection of theories that
share the common goal of describing and explaining how the social environment
influences individuals’ behavior and how individuals affect their social
environment. These bidirectional effects are believed to occur on a more or less
continuous basis and to change dynamically as behavior and context change and
evolve over time. This process is sometimes referred to as dynamic reciprocal
determinism. Social learning theories differ fundamentally from psychodynamic
theories, in which individuals’ behavior is viewed as being influenced by psychic
forces outside their control, and
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Classic behaviorist approaches, in which behavior is considered to be
controlled solely by environmental stimulus conditions. In social learning theories,
individuals are seen as agented and active in their planning and pursuit of life goals
and in thinking about themselves, others, and the world. Early social learning
theories were advanced in the 1950s and 1960s by psychologists such as Albert
Bandura (e.g., social modeling of aggressive behavior) and Julian Rotter (e.g.,
locus of control). These early theories paved the way for later, more cognitively
oriented approaches to understanding social behavior and personality, social
cognitive theories.
4. Psychogenetic approach does not deny biological basis or social
environment e.g. personality development, but believe that personality
development correlates with mental processes development. Here, the following
trends stand out:
- Psychodynamic concepts explaining behavior through emotions, drives and
other components of non-rational psyche (American psychologist E. Ericson);
- Representatives of cognitivism believe that personality development based
on development of cognitive intelligence (J. Piaget, J. Calley, etc.);
- Personlogical approach focus of personality development generically (E.
Spranger, K. Buhler, A. Maslow and others).
5. Biopsychosocial approach in domestic psychology based on main
methodological idea that all mental activity of individual is determined by the
unity of biological and social factors that are mutually supportive and defining
each other.
Figure 10.2 Bio psychosocial approach features
219
In addition, biological and social factors play their important role only in
condition of active activity of personality. Active side of activity provides
interaction with the environment, adaptation to the environment and its changes
stimulate the individual participation in the life and activity.
Thus, personality development depends on several significant factor such as
biological (for example, genetic level), social (for instance social institutions) and
educational one. However, all this factors may influence on personality and
individuality development only through activity and communication with other
people.
Key Takeaways
about Personality
• Personality is an individual’s consistent patterns of feeling, thinking, and
behaving.
• Personality is driven in large part by underlying individual motivations, where
motivation refers to a need or desire that directs behaviour.
• Early theories assumed that personality was expressed in people’s physical
appearance. One of these approaches, known as physiognomy, has been validated
by current research.
• Personalities are characterized in terms of traits — relatively enduring
characteristics that influence our behaviour across many situations.
• The most important and well-validated theory about the traits of normal
personality is the Five-Factor Model of Personality.
• There is often only a low correlation between the specific traits that a person
expresses in one situation and those that he or she expresses in other situations.
This is in part because people tend to see more traits in other people than they do
in themselves. Personality predicts behaviour better when the behaviours are
aggregated or averaged across different situations.
• Projective measures are measures of personality in which unstructured stimuli,
such as inkblots, drawings of social situations, or incomplete sentences are shown
to participants, who are asked to freely list what comes to mind as they think
about the stimuli. Despite their widespread use, however, the empirical evidence
supporting the use of projective tests is mixed.
• Genes are the basic biological units that transmit characteristics from one
generation to the next.
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Personality is not determined by any single gene, but rather by the actions of
many genes working together.
Behavioural genetics refers to a variety of research techniques that scientists use
to learn about the genetic and environmental influences on human behaviour.
Behavioural genetics is based on the results of family studies, twin studies, and
adoptive studies.
Overall, genetics has more influence than parents do on shaping our personality.
Molecular genetics is the study of which genes are associated with which
personality traits.
The largely unknown environmental influences, known as the nonshared
environmental effects, have the largest impact on personality. Because these
differences are nonsystematic and largely accidental or random, we do not inherit
our personality in any fixed sense.
10.2 Structure of Personality
Psychological structure of personality is a system of social important
psychological features of personality. This system develops through lifespan and
determined personality behaviour and activity.
Psychological structure of personality include such characteristics like psyche
properties (temperament, character, ability), life experience, psyche states, selfconsciousness, individual features of cognitive processes, etc.
Structure of personality has been developing through social interactions. More
over structure of personality is a product of his development.
There are a lot of classifications of personality structure in Psychology. Let’s
see several of them which are more well-known in domestic psychology.
Table 10.2 Basic ideas about the structure of personality in domestic
psychology
Author
S.L. Rubinstein
Main idea
Personality structure includes:
1. Orientation is evident in needs, interests, beliefs, dominant
motives of activity and behaviour.
2. The knowledge, skills - acquired in the course of life and
cognitive activity.
3. Individually-typological features - appear in temperament,
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character and abilities.
V.N. Myasischev Unity of personality is characterized by:
1. Orientation (the dominant attitude: to people, to myself, to
the objects of the external world)
2. General level of individual development
3. Dynamics of neuro-psychological reactivity (meaning not
only the dynamics of higher nervous activity, but also the
objective dynamics of living conditions).
4. Motivation
Personality as synthesis of complex structures:
A.G. Kovalev
1. Temperament (the structure of the natural properties)
2. Orientation (the system needs, interests, ideals)
3. Abilities (system of intelligent, strong-will and emotional
properties).
AV Petrovsky
Personality is the subject of activities and relationships with
other people.
Personality as a result of adaptation to the environment
A.F. Lazurskii
(relationships, ideas, values).
Personality is a unity of 2 psychological mechanisms: internal
(mental functions) and external (in relation to the
environment and objects). The mechanisms are interrelated.
Dynamic structure of personality include:
K.K. Platonov
1. The orientation. This substructure is formed by education
and includes beliefs, interests, ideals, desires etc.
2. Social experience. This substructure brings together the
knowledge, skills, abilities, habits acquired through personal
experience by training,
3. Specific features of psychological processes. This
substructure combines the individual characteristics of
certain mental processes or mental functions: memory,
sensation, perception, thinking, emotions, feelings, and will,
which are formed in the course of social life.
4. Biopsychic properties. This is biologically conditioned
substructure combines typological properties of individual
such as sex, age features and pathological changes,
All of these substructures are closely linked and appear as a
single entity, which expresses such as complex integrative
concept of personality.
There are many different theories of personality within different schools in
foreign psychology. The main ideas of the foreign psychology:
1. The identity has its own structure
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2. Individual difference between people is important.
3. Personality is formed under the influence of external and internal factors,
including genetic and biological predisposition, social experience and the
environment.
4. Personality affects behavior. Thanks to the possession of the individual
person has consistently for a long time and under different conditions.
Personality is characterized by self-awareness, activity, self-image, selfesteem, self-respect, orientations, sustainable system of motives, needs, interests,
ideals, beliefs, abilities, qualities and attributes, character, emotional responses etc.
All these characteristics determine personality identity.
Individuality is uniqueness of the individual psyche and personality, its
originality. It manifested in temperament and personality traits, emotional and
volitional spheres, the interests, needs and characteristics of personality.
Thus, the term "Personality" describes one of the most significant levels of
human organization, namely the features of its development as a social being.
The structure of Personality usually includes: the ability, temperament,
character, will, emotions, motivation and attitudes. Psychological structure of
Personality is a holistic system formation, the unity of socially significant
properties, qualities, attitudes, relationships, actions, algorithms and human
behavior.
All these structures arise from the relationship of mental personality traits that
characterize a stable, constant level of activity, providing the best possible
individual adaptation to the effects of stimuli due to adequacy of their reflection.
10.3 Orientation of Personality and Activity
Activity is the basis of Personality. There are voluntary and involuntary
activities. Voluntary activity is shown to achieve a certain result, in the form of
pre-set goals, monitored during the process. Spontaneous activity is associated
with emotions, sleep, dreams. By involuntary activity individual passively reflects
environment. Leading characteristics of Personality is allocated by its orientation.
Orientation of personality is a set of stable motives, attitudes, beliefs, needs
and aspirations, focusing on certain human behavior and activity, in order to
achieve relatively complex life goals. Orientation is conditioned by the learning
and education processes, acts as the property of personality, which manifests itself
in the ideological, professional orientation, in activities related to individual hobby.
There are three main types of personality orientation: personal, business, and
collectivistic.
Personal orientation is related with predominance of own motives, prestige
etc. Such individual often busy themselves, their feelings and experiences and little
responds to the needs of the people around him.
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Business focus reflects the predominance of motives generated activity of
learning new skills and abilities. Typically, such individual prefer to cooperate
with people in order to reach goals.
Focus on mutual action occurs when individual actions determined by needs
to communicate, a desire to maintain good relations with co-workers, school etc.
Knowledge of content and structure of personality orientation gives an idea of
the prevailing orientation of his thoughts and aspirations. It allows correctly
assessing and, very importantly, to predict human behavior in certain situations, to
prevent deviation from the standard rules, providing effective educational impact
on him.
10.4 Theories of Personality
Personality theory is any integrated set of constructs
which attempts to understand the individual as a unit,
including shared traits, behavior patterns, values,
interests, plans and motives, self-understanding and
worldview, abilities, and emotional patterns that
determine characteristic behavior and thought.
Definition
Table 10.4 Main Theories of Personality
Perspective
Psychodynamic
Founding theory
Freud, C. Jung and
S.
Personality trait
G. Allport and H. Eysenck
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The viewpoint
others Source of human
activity is instinctual
drives.
Human
predetermined
by
biological instincts.
Struggling between
libido
(animal
instincts) and the
pressure
of
socialization
Personality includes
such features as
extraversion
and
deceitfulness
Humanistic
C. Rogers, A. Maslow
People
seeking
personal growth and
striving
toward
becoming their full
selves
Social-cognitive
G. Kelly and W. Mischel
People behave in
order to cope with
social pressure and
solve
social
problems
The comic theater of the classical and Renaissance ages presented personality
types as stable and well-defined. Once a character entered, the audience knew what
to expect of him. If the actor wore the mask of the cowardly soldier, he would brag
and run away; if he wore the mask of the miserly old man, he would jealously
guard his money.
As we have seen, the trait approach has amended this view in important ways
but has still left one crucial claim: We are who we seem to be, and our various
traits and motivations are in plain view for all to see. Indeed, the trait approach
often relies on self-report data—a reflection of the assumption that we can perceive
ourselves with relative accuracy.
According to the psychodynamic approach, however, we need to revise this
under- standing both of personality and of self-knowledge—and shift to an
understanding that parallels a more modern approach to drama, in which nothing is
quite what it seems. In this approach, actors playing a character must pay attention
to the subtext, the unspoken thoughts that go through the character’s head while
she speaks her lines. And many actors are interested in a still deeper subtext, the
thoughts and wishes of which the character is unaware. According to the
psychodynamic approach, this deeper subtext is the wellspring of all human
personality.
Adherents of the psychodynamic approach do not deny that some people are
more sociable than others, or that some are more impulsive or emotionally
225
unstable. But they contend that it is superficial to explain such tendencies as either
the expression of a personality trait or the product of situational factors. In their
view, what people do and say—and even what they consciously think—is only the
tip of the iceberg. As they see it, human acts and thoughts are just the outer
expression of a whole host of motives and desires that are often derived from early
childhood experiences, and that are for the most part unknown to the person
himself. They believe that to understand a person is to understand these hidden
psychological forces or dynamics
Psychoanalysis: Theory and Practice
The founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939; Figure 15.12),
was a physician by training. After a stint as a medical researcher, though, financial
pressures led Freud to open a neurology practice in which he found that many of
his patients were suffering from a disorder then called hysteria (now called
conversion disorder). The symptoms of hysteria presented a helter-skelter catalog
of physical and mental com- plaints—total or partial blindness or deafness,
paralysis or anesthesia of various parts of the body, uncontrollable trembling or
convulsive attacks, and gaps in memory. Was there any underlying cause that
could make sense of this confusing array of symptoms?
Freud suspected that the hysterical symptoms were psychogenic symptoms—
the results of some unknown psychological cause—rather than the product of
organic damage to the nervous system. His hypothesis grew out of the work of
Jean Charcot (1825–1893), a French neurologist who noticed that many of the
bodily symptoms of hysteria made no anatomical sense. For example, some
patients who suffered from anesthesia (i.e., lack of feeling) of the hand still had
feeling above the wrist. This glove anesthesia (so called because of the shape of
the affected region) could not possibly be caused by any nerve injury, since an
injury to any of the relevant nerve trunks would also affect a portion of the arm
above the wrist (Figure 15.13). This ruled out a simple physical cause and
suggested that glove anesthesia had some psychological basis.
In collaboration with another physician, Josef Breuer (1842–1925), Freud
came to believe that these hysterical symptoms were a disguised way to keep
certain emotionally charged memories under mental lock and key (S. Freud &
Breuer, 1895). The idea, in brief, was that the patients carried some very troubling
memory that they needed to express (because it held such a grip on their thoughts)
but also to hide (because thinking about it was so painful). The patients’
“compromise,” in Freud’s view, was to express the memory in a veiled form, and
this was the source of their physical symptoms. To support this hypothesis, Freud
needed to find out both what a patient’s painful memory was and why she (almost
all of Freud’s patients were women) found directly expressing her memory to be
unacceptable. At first, Freud and Breuer tried to uncover these memories while the
patients were in a hypnotic trance. Eventually, though, Freud abandoned this
method, and came to the view that crucial memories could instead be recovered in
the normal, waking state through the method of free association. In this method,
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his patients were told to say anything that entered their mind, no matter how trivial
it seemed, or how embarrassing or disagreeable. Since Freud assumed that all ideas
were linked by association, he believed that the emotionally charged “forgotten”
memories would be mentioned sooner or later.
But a difficulty arose: Patients did not readily comply with Freud’s request.
Instead, they avoided certain topics and carefully tuned what they said about
others, showing resistance that the patients themselves were often unaware of. In
Freud’s view, this resistance arose because target memories (and related acts,
impulses, or thoughts) were especially painful or anxiety-provoking. Years before,
as an act of self-protection, the patients had pushed these experiences out of
consciousness, or, in Freud’s term, they had repressed the memories. The same
self-protection was operating in free association, keeping the memories from the
patients’ (or Freud’s) view. On this basis, Freud concluded that his patients would
not, and perhaps could not, reveal their painful memories directly. He therefore set
himself the task of developing indirect methods of analysis—as he called it,
psychoanalysis—that he thought would uncover these ideas and memories and the
conflicts that gave rise to them.
ID, EGO, AND SUPEREGO. Much of Freud’s work, therefore, was aimed
at uncovering his patients’ unconscious con- flicts. He was convinced that these
conflicts were at the root of their various symptoms, and that, by revealing the
conflicts, he could diminish the symptoms. But Freud also believed that the same
conflicts and mechanisms for dealing with them arise in normal persons, so he
viewed his proposals as contributions not only to psychopathology but also to a
general theory of personality.
But what sorts of conflict are we considering here? What are the warring
factions, supposedly hidden deep inside each individual? According to Freud, the
conflicts hampering each of us involve incompatible wishes and motives, such as a
patient’s desire to go out with friends versus her guilt over leaving a sick father at
home. Freud devised a conception of personality that encapsulated these
conflicting forces within three distinct subsystems: the id, the ego, and the
superego (Figure 10.4).
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CONSCIOUS
Ego
PRECONSCIOUS
Superego
Internalized
code of
conduct
Id
UNCONSCIOUS
Figure 10.4 Models of mind
Freud distinguished among
three mental systems: the id,
ego, and superego. He held that
the id was unconscious, whereas
the ego and superego were
partly
unconscious,
partly
preconscious (easily brought to
consciousness),
and
partly
conscious. unconscious, partly
preconscious (easily brought to
consciousness),
and
partly
conscious.
In some of his writings,
Freud treated these three mental
systems as if they were separate
persons inhabiting the mind.
But this is only a metaphor that must not be taken literally; id, ego, and
superego are just the names he gave to three sets of very different reaction patterns,
and not persons in their own right (S. Freud, 1923).
The id is the most primitive portion of the personality, the portion from which
the other two emerge. It consists of all of the basic biological urges, and seeks
constantly to reduce the tensions generated by these biological urges. The id abides
entirely by the pleasure principle—satisfaction now and not later, regardless of the
circumstances and whatever the cost.
At birth, the infant’s mind is all id. But the id’s heated striving is soon met by
cold reality, because some gratifications take time. Food and drink, for example,
are not always present; the infant or young child has to cry to get them. Over the
course of early childhood, these confrontations between desire and reality lead to a
whole set of new reactions that are meant to reconcile the two. Sometimes the
result is appropriate action (e.g., saying “please”), and sometimes the result is
suppressing a forbidden impulse (e.g., not eating food from someone else’s plate).
In all cases, though, these efforts at reconciling desire and reality become
organized into a new subsystem of the personality—the ego. The ego obeys a new
principle, the reality principle. It tries to satisfy the id (i.e., to gain pleasure), but it
does so pragmatically, finding strategies that work but also accord with the
demands of the real world.
If, for a very young child, the ego inhibits some id-inspired action, it is for an
immediate reason. Early in the child’s life, the reason is likely to be some physical
obstacle (perhaps the food is present, but out of reach). For a slightly older child,
the reason may be social. Grabbing the food from your brother will result in
punishment by a nearby parent. As the child gets older still, though, a new factor
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enters the scene. Imagine that the child sees a piece of candy within reach but
knows that eating the candy is forbid- den. By age 5 or so, the child may overrule
the desire to eat the candy even when there is no one around and so no chance of
being caught and punished. This inhibition of the desired action occurs because the
child has now internalized the rules and admonitions of the parents and so
administers praise or scolding to himself, in a fashion appropriate to his actions. At
this point, the child has developed a third aspect to his personality: a superego, an
internalized code of conduct. If the ego lives up to the superego’s dictates, the
child is rewarded with feelings of pride. But if one of the super- ego’s rules is
broken, the superego metes out punishment – feelings of guilt or shame.
Psychological Defenses and Development
Freud’s threefold division of the personality was just a way of saying that our
thoughts and actions are determined by the interplay of three major factors: our
biological drives (the id), the commands and prohibitions of society (the superego),
and the various ways we have learned to satisfy the former while respecting the
latter (the ego).
Obviously, though, these three forces will sometimes pull us in different
directions—for example, when we want to do something but know we cannot or
should not—and this guarantees conflict among the competing forces. Imagine that
a child performs some forbidden act and is then scolded or disciplined by his
parents. The child feels threatened with the loss of his parents’ love and becomes
anxious about this. This anxiety leaves its mark, and the next time the child is
about to perform the same act—say, touch his penis or pinch his baby brother—he
will feel a twinge of anxiety, an internal reminder that his parents may castigate
him and the worry that he will be abandoned and alone.
Psychological defenses
Since anxiety is unpleasant, the child will do everything he can to ward it off.
If the cause of the anxiety is a real-world event or object, the child can simply run
away and remove himself from it. But how can he cope with a danger lurking
within—a threatening fantasy, a forbidden wish? To quell this anxiety, the child
must suppress the thoughts that triggered it, pushing the thoughts from conscious
view. In short, the thought must be repressed.
According to Freud, repression serves as the primary defense mechanism that
protects the individual from anxiety. But repression is often incomplete. The
thoughts and urges that were pushed underground may resurface along with the
associated anxiety. As a result, various further mechanisms of defense are brought
into play to reinforce the original dam against the forbidden impulses.
Defense mechanism – a collective term for a number of reactions that try to
ward off or lessen anxiety by various unconscious means.
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One such mechanism is displacement – a process in which repressed urges
find new and often disguised outlets, outlets that are more acceptable to the ego
and super- ego. An example is a child who is disciplined by her parents and who
then vents her anger by punching or kicking her doll. A different defense is
reaction formation, in which she guards against the repressed wish by turning to
thoughts and behaviors which provide the diametrical opposite of the forbidden
ideas. A young boy who hates his sister and is punished for calling her names may
protect himself by bombarding her with exaggerated love and tenderness, a
desperate bulwark against aggressive wishes that he cannot accept.
In still other defense mechanisms, the repressed thoughts break through but
are reinterpreted or unacknowledged. One example of this is rationalization, in
which the person interprets her own feelings or actions in more acceptable terms.
The cruel father beats his child mercilessly but is sure that he does so “for the
child’s own good.” A related mechanism is projection. Here the forbidden urges
well up and are recognized as such. But the person does not realize that these
wishes are his own; instead, he attributes them to others. “I desire you” becomes
“You desire me,” and “I hate you” becomes “You hate me” – desperate defenses
against repressed sexual or hostile wishes that can no longer be banished from
consciousness (S. Freud, 1911; Schul & Vinokur, 2000).
Key Takeaways
about Psychodynamic psychology
Psychodynamic psychology emphasizes the systematic study of the psychological
forces that underlie human behaviour, feelings, and emotions and how they might
relate to early experience.
• Consciousness is the awareness of the self in space and time and is defined as
human awareness to both internal and external stimuli.
• Sigmund Freud divided human consciousness into three levels of awareness: the
conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. Each of these levels corresponds and
overlaps with his ideas of the id, ego, and superego.
• Most psychodynamic approaches use talk therapy to examine maladaptive
functions that developed early in life and are, at least in part, unconscious.
• Carl Jung expanded upon Freud’s theories, introducing the concepts of the
archetype, the collective unconscious, and individuation.
• Freud’s theory describes dreams as having both latent and manifest content.
Latent content relates to deep unconscious wishes or fantasies while manifest
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content is superficial and meaningless.
 displacement A redirection of an impulse from a channel that is blocked into
another, more available outlet.
reaction formation A mechanism of defense in which a forbidden impulse is
turned into its opposite.

rationalization A mechanism of defense by means of which unacceptable
thoughts or impulses are reinterpreted in more acceptable and, thus, less
anxiety-arousing terms.

projection A mechanism of defense in which various forbidden thoughts
and impulses are attributed to another person rather than the self.

stages of psychosexual development The sequence of four develop- mental
stages from infancy through the attainment of adult sexuality that is considered
universal in psychoanalytic theory: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic
stage, and the genital stage.

• Unconscious processing includes several theories: threat simulation theory,
expectation fulfilment theory, activation synthesis theory, continual activation
theory.
• One application of unconscious processing includes incubation as it relates to
problem solving: the concept of “sleeping on a problem” or disengaging from
actively and consciously trying to solve a problem in order to allow one’s
unconscious processes to work on the problem.
• The study of neural correlates of consciousness seeks to link activity within the
brain to subjective human experiences in the physical world.
• In a perceptual illusion, like the Necker Cube, the physical stimulus remains
fixed while the perception fluctuates, allowing the neural mechanisms to be
isolated and permitting visual consciousness to be tracked in the brain.
Key Takeaways
about Behaviourist psychology
Behaviourist psychology should concern itself with the observable behaviour of
people and animals, not with unobservable events that take place in their minds.
The main influences of behaviourist psychology were Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936),
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949), John B. Watson (1878-1958), and B.F.
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Skinner (1904-1990).
• The idea that we develop responses to certain stimuli that are not naturally
occurring is called “classical conditioning.”
• Operant conditioning refers to how an organism operates on the environment or
how it responds to what is presented to it in the environment.
• Reinforcement means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to any
stimulus that strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response.
• There are four types of reinforcement: positive, negative, punishment, and
extinction.
• Behaviourist researchers used experimental methods (puzzle box, operant
conditioning or Skinner box, Little Albert experiment) to investigate learning
processes.
• Today, behaviourism is still prominent in applications such as gamification.
Key Takeaways
about Humanistic psychology
• Humanistic psychology emerged as the “third force” in psychology after
psychodynamic and behaviourist psychologies.
• The key principles of humanistic psychology include human capacity for selfactualization, selfdirection, and choice.
• Carl Rogers identified five principles of a fully functioning person as open,
present, trusting, creative, and fulfilled.
• Humanistic psychology relies on subjective factors and utilizes qualitative
methods of study.
• Abraham Maslow introduced a hierarchy of human needs including
physiological, safety, belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.
• With the advance of humanistic psychology, human motivation theory shifted
from a purely external or extrinsic focus to the acknowledgment of an intrinsic
focus.
• Positive psychology recommends focusing on people’s strengths and virtues as a
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point of departure rather than analyzing the underlying psychopathology.
• Flow is a state of optimal performance that can be entered when a person is
wholeheartedly performing a task or activity for intrinsic purposes.
• Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes such as attention,
memory, perception, language use, problem solving, creativity, and thinking.
• The main premise of evolutionary psychology is that while today the human
mind is shaped by the modern social world, it is adapted to the natural
environment in which it evolved.
Control questions:
1. Define concept of "Individual".
2. Define concept of "Personality".
3. Define concept of "Individuality".
4. Analyse overall structure of Personality.
5. Explain main content of Personality Theories in Psychology.
6. Explain Personality Traits.
7. Analyse Biogenetic Approach.
8. Analyse Sociogenetic Approach.
9. Analyse Social Learning Approach.
10. Analyse different definitions of Personality.
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CHAPTER 11 TEMPERAMENT
Individual differences are psychological characteristics that distinguish one
person from another. Individual differences indicate individual common
psychological patterns of mental activity. Individual differences based on
congenital anatomical and physiological characteristics of human and also
developed by influence of social environment. The originality of individual is
determined by the individual characteristics of mental processes due to the basic
features of the nervous system (neurodynamic differences), temperament features
(psychodynamic differences), character, manifestations of general and special
abilities, psychophysiological and social activities and needs, motivation, etc.
Thus, individually psychological features individually vary and they include:
 Temperament,
 Character,
 Abilities.
11.1 Historical Ideas about Temperament
Temperament is a combination of properties that determine the dynamics of
functioning of mental processes and human behavior.
Definition
Temperament - the basic character of the person
present at birth from which personality develops. It is
usually assumed to include energy level,
responsiveness, and exploratory drive
Properties of temperament biologically conditioned, but their influence on
human character formation is very large.
Temperament largely determines human behavior, its individual
manifestations.
Temperament is a link between the body and the personality.
Concept of temperament has a long history and goes back to the views of the
ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. The Four Temperaments or Four Humours
can be traced back reliably to Ancient Greek medicine and philosophy, notably in
the work of Hippocrates (c.460-377/359BC – the ‘Father of Medicine’) ideas
about character and personality. In Greek medicine around 2,500 years ago it was
believed that in order to maintain health, people needed an even balance of the
four body fluids: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. These four body
fluids were linked to certain organs and illnesses and also represented the Four
Temperaments or Four Humours (of personality) as they later became known.
Few centuries later, the Roman doctors began to use the word
«temperamental» (“the proper proportions of parts") to indicate mixed proportions
of the liquids in human body.
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Physician and anatomist C. Galen expands the classification of temperament.
Then ancient physicians limit the number of types of temperament to four.
According this idea, temperament types were determined by the following relation
of body fluids: blood predominance ("Sangvis" - "blood") gave a sanguine
temperament; prevalence of lymph ("phlegm" - "mucus") is phlegmatic; yellow
bile ("hole" - "bile") is choleric; black bile ("melayn hole" - "black bile") is
melancholic.
Later, these names have lost their scientific status, but preserved as a tribute
to history.
Since ancient period concept of temperament underwent many changes and
have been enriching with new knowledge.
Summing up all existing theories, it is possible to distinguish three major
systems.
1. Humoral theory. This direction included ancient physician’s views, and
ideas of I. Kant and P.F. Lesgaft.
I. Kant believed that blood is a basis of individual characteristics of
temperament. P. Lesgaft believed that the prevalence of temperament due to the
properties of circulatory system such as thickness and elasticity of blood vessels,
shape of the heart, etc.
These characteristics determine the speed and force of blood flow which
resulting in duration of reactions to stimuli and excitability organism.
According Contemporary Endocrinology, certain properties of the human
psyche (reactivity, balance, sensitivity) are largely determined by individual
differences of the hormone system activity.
2. Somatic theory (the beginning of the twentieth century) determines types
of temperament by dependence on human body.
Prominent representatives of this trend are the E. Kretschmer and W.H.
Sheldon. These scientists put a direct relationship between growth, fullness, the
proportions of the human body and especially his temperament.
3. The doctrine of higher nervous activity, which is based on I.P. Pavlov’s
views about dependence of temperament on properties of the nervous system.
I.P. Pavlov believed that the type of higher nervous activity is defined by
three properties of nerve processes:
1) Power is an evidence of performance and endurance of the nervous system,
as it is able to withstand strong stimuli;
2) The balance indicates the ratio of the basic nervous processes of excitation
and inhibition;
3) Mobility is how fast the processes of excitation and inhibition can replace
each other.
Combination of selected properties gives four types of higher nervous
activity:
1. Weak as the first type corresponds to a melancholy temperament type.
2. Strong unbalanced as the second type corresponds to the choleric
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temperament.
3. Strong balanced as the third type is sanguine.
4. Strong balanced, inert as the fourth type corresponds to the phlegmatic
temperament.
B.M. Teplov and V.D. Nebylitsin allocated additional properties of the
nervous system:
1) dynamic - how quickly produced conditioned reflexes;
2) liability - how quickly emerge and flow processes of excitation and
inhibition;
3) high sensitivity - inherent in individuals with a weak type of higher nervous
activity.
Recent scientific evidence suggests inheritance of individual properties of the
nervous system. Thus, temperament is a different biological characteristic of the
psyche.
11.2 Types and Properties of Temperaments
In current psychology, classical classification of temperament is extent
arbitrary which is related to mixed type of temperament.
Each temperament type has its own combination of mental properties. For
example, different degree of emotional activity. The level of activity varies from
inertia, sluggishness to violent outbursts of energy.
Externally activity manifests itself in forms of rate of reactions, their
swiftness or slowness. The level of activity can be seen in human speech features
and individual manifestations of handwriting.
The more active a person is, the more sweeping in his handwriting, wider
spacing between letters and words, and letters become bigger. For such individual
it is difficult to perform delicate movements with small amplitude, carefully
prescribe words.
The activity also effects on functioning of mental processes: perception,
memory, thinking, imagination, attention. For example, an active person
remembers the material faster.
The communication activity is manifested by verbal and non-verbal levels.
An active individual vivid facial expressions and pantomime, rapid speech,
excessive gestures, as a rule, their voice is stronger, louder and vice versa.
Activity may manifest itself in reactivity, for instance, by hypersensitivity
reaction to the smallest stimuli. This property characterizes people with a weak
type of higher nervous activity.
Another important property of temperament is plasticity - rigidity.
These qualities manifest in the human ability to quickly (plasticity) or slow
(stiff) adapt to changing environmental conditions, such as the transition to
another job, moving to another place of residence, etc.
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Plasticity n. Malleability, flexibility, or adaptability, especially as applied to
the growth and development of neural and other tissue. This seems to be inherent
in the expression of genetic forms and is assumed to be the basis for the
differences observed between genotypes and phenotypes. It is also one of the
processes by which the brain learns and develops sensory acuity.
Rigidity n. 1. Resistance to change as in difficulty bending at the joint. 2. A
character trait which leads the individual to resist change in ways of thinking and
acting which is associated with intolerance of ambiguity and many kinds of racial
and ethnic prejudice.
Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) was one of the first psychologists to analyze
personality differences using a psycho-statistical method (factor analysis), and his
research led him to believe that temperament is biologically based. The factors he
proposed in his book Dimensions of Personality were Neuroticism (N) which was
the tendency to experience negative emotions, and the second was Extraversion
(E) which was the tendency to enjoy positive events, especially social ones. By
pairing the two dimensions, Eysenck noted how the results were similar to the
four ancient temperaments (Figure 11.2 )
Figure 11.2 Types of Temperament (H. Eysenck)
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There are also very important qualities of temperament, such as extraversion introversion.
Extrovert is a person who is actively cooperating with the outside world, it is
inherent in the increased sociability, and his circle of friends is very wide.
Extroverts are individuals who are high in terms of outward focus. Extroverts
are at one end of an introversion-extroversion continuum on which most people
fall somewhere in the middle range. Extroverts tend to be outspoken, outgoing, and
optimistic.
There is research evidence that extroversion stems, at least in part, from
differences in the basic stimulation level of the ascending reticular activation
system (ARAS) in the brainstem, commonly referred to as the attention center of
the brain. Extroverts have inherently lower levels of stimulation in the ARAS and
therefore require more activity in order to stimulate the attention center of the
brain. Introverts, on the other hand, are already sufficiently stimulated and
therefore require far less outward stimulation. Stimulant drugs such as Ritalin
commonly used for treatment of attention disorders operate on this principle; by
stimulating the attention center of the brain, the individual becomes less motivated
to seek outward stimulation.
The introvert is more focused on his own inner world, than on others, closed
circle of friends is very narrow, it is prone to self-analysis, social adaptation
difficult.
Some combination of the considered characteristics gives different types of
temperaments.
However, concept of four types of temperament is useful for practical
applications.
Briefly characterize these types.
Sanguine is characterized by severe mental activity, lively and agile,
expressive facial expressions and movements respond quickly to events, it is
relatively easy to experiencing trouble extrovert.
Phlegmatic - his mood is different persistence, sense of deep and stable,
inactive mimicry, speech and movement slow, introvert.
Choleric has high activity, passion and vigour, prone to violent emotional
outbursts, but is able to quickly calm down and change the mood on the contrary,
an extrovert.
Melancholy - easily vulnerable, impressionable, but apparently there is weak,
muffled speech, movement restrained introvert.
Note that you cannot select any "good" nor "bad" type of temperament; each
has both advantages and disadvantages.
For example, sanguine can increase efficiency, easily adapt to most situations,
but work usually is not completely finished because his interests quickly fade.
Melancholic, on the other hand, slowly incorporated into the work, but in
most cases bring it to the end, his circle of friends is very narrow, but such
relations are long-term and stable.
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Choleric can "move mountains", but in a short time, because of lack of
exposure.
Phlegmatic are often not able to quickly gather and understand what is
happening, but he is able to work long and hard, striving for the goal.
Sanguine
The sanguine temperament is traditionally associated with air. People with
this temperament tend to be lively, sociable, carefree, talkative, and pleasureseeking. They may be warm-hearted and optimistic. They can make new friends
easily, be imaginative and artistic, and often have many ideas. They can be flighty
and changeable; thus sanguine personalities may struggle with following tasks all
the way through and be chronically late or forgetful. Pedagogically, they can be
best reached through awakening their love for a subject and admiration of people.
Choleric
The choleric temperament is traditionally associated with fire. People with
this temperament tend to be egocentric and extroverted. They may be excitable,
impulsive, and restless, with reserves of aggression, energy, and/or passion, and try
to instill that in others. They tend to be task-oriented people and are focused on
getting a job done efficiently; their motto is usually "do it now." They can be
ambitious, strong-willed and like to be in charge. They can show leadership, are
good at planning, and are often practical and solution-oriented. They appreciate
receiving respect and esteem for their work. Pedagogically, they can be best
reached through mutual respect and appropriate challenges that recognize their
capacities.
Melancholic
The melancholic temperament is traditionally associated with the element of
earth. People with this temperament may appear serious, introverted, cautious or
even suspicious. They can become preoccupied with the tragedy and cruelty in the
world and are susceptible to depression and moodiness. They may be focused and
conscientious. They often prefer to do things themselves, both to meet their own
standards and because they are not inherently sociable. Pedagogically, they can be
best met by awakening their sympathy for others.
Phlegmatic
The phlegmatic temperament is traditionally associated with water. People
with this temperament may be inward and private, thoughtful, reasonable, calm,
patient, caring, and tolerant. They tend to have a rich inner life, seek a quiet,
peaceful atmosphere, and be content with themselves. They tend to be steadfast,
consistent in their habits, and thus have steady and faithful friends. Pedagogically,
their interest is often awakened by experiencing others' interest in a subject.
People of this temperament may appear somewhat ponderous or clumsy. Their
speech tends to be slow or appear hesitant.
Thus, any type of temperament has both advantages, which should be
strengthened and develop in every way, and disadvantages, the manifestation of
which any person is able to inhibit, through education and strong-willed efforts.
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Figure 11.2 Types of Temperament
11.3 Individual style of Activity
Various combinations of properties of temperament are characterized by
individual style of human activity.
Individual style of human activity can be defined as a set of dynamic
characteristics of activities, depending on temperament.
During activities, a person adapts features of his organism and innate
properties of the nervous system to environment in order to achieve the best
results by lowest cost.
Individual style of activity and temperament are not identical.
Under the influence of life experience, there are certain abilities and skills
become a part of individual style of activity. That apparently is often perceived as
a manifestation of temperament, for example, the nature of the movements, in
fact, is the expression of individual style of activity.
Features of temperament and personal style can either be the same or
different.
Features individual style combined into two groups:
1) Acquired during life experience accumulation in order to use as a
compensation for disadvantages of individual properties of nervous system;
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2) The most revealing, reinforcing existing inclinations, the beneficial
properties of the nervous system, human ability.
Formation of individual style of activity starts from pre-school age regarding
training and education how to achieve the best results.
Thus, the features of temperament manifested individual style of activity.
11.4 Temperament and Education Issues
Knowledge of individual differences in temperament is particularly important
for people who are engaged in teaching activities.
The knowledge makes possible process of training and education more
efficient, ensuring the use of an individual approach to each child.
In order to understanding individual differences of temperament, teacher must
carefully observe the patterns of behavior and activities of children in various
situations, be able to distinguish the occasional manifestations of temperament
traits.
Age-related manifestations of temperament depend primarily on the course of
maturation of brain structures, properties of the nervous system.
The younger the children are, the more they are characterized by symptoms of
weakness of the nervous system, namely, a small endurance and high sensitivity.
This explains the child's impulsivity, brightness perception, sensibility.
However, the weakness of the nervous system with the rapid recovery of
energy is related to increasing mobility of children.
Younger students’ nervous system activity is manifested in the ease of interest
occurrence and lack of capacity for sustained concentration.
The differences in temperament in children can be expressed in distinctive
mental manifestations. Children with a weak type of nervous system perform well
repetitive work. However, in situations where there are strong, sometimes
unexpected stimuli, such children cannot cope with the activity.
Thus, children with a weak type of nervous system better able to cope with
the performance of certain tasks, not with strong one.
Considering the mobility of the nervous processes, we note the following.
Students with high mobility will cope with the task, but with some mistakes.
Those with an inert system worked smoothly, allowing for a minimum
number of errors, but not always fit into the allotted time.
In order to determine as precisely as possible the type of the child's
temperament, it is important to note the presence of the following features:
1) Activity is manifested in how vigorously the child reaches goals, interacts
with others, and overcomes obstacles;
2) Emotionality. As far as a child is sensitive to emotional stress, as far as he
is susceptible;
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3) Motility expressed in sharpness, speed, amplitude and other muscular
movements.
Manners of a child should not be blamed by temperament, for example, bad
manners are not always evidence of choleric temperament, but a consequence of
upbringing mistakes.
However, it is impossible to underestimate existing differences between types
of temperament.
Knowing these differences will allow to correctly understanding and respond
correctly to children's behavior, find an individual approach to them, varied
educational methods.
Particular teachers’ attention often attracts children with choleric and
melancholic temperament.
Choleric should be strongly deterring manifestations of violent emotional
outbursts, to inculcate the habit of working systematically and calmly, without
haste.
Melancholic needs a clear mode, to improve their self-esteem, demand
actions related to overcoming the difficulties.
Temperament affects the terms of behavior, however, does not prejudge their
compulsory manifestation.
It is well known that, under favourable conditions, melancholic education can
develop strong will power and choleric learn to restrain their violent emotional
outbursts.
Thus, the knowledge of children's temperament allows making the
educational process more efficient, while the traits of temperament are the only
one of the prerequisites for the development of human character.
Control questions:
1. Explain Individual differences as psychological characteristics.
2. Describe Concept of temperament.
3. Analyse Humoral theory.
4. Analyse Somatic theory.
5. Analyse doctrine of Higher Nervous Activity.
6. Analyse Types and Properties of Temperaments.
7. Define Sanguine features.
8. Explain Melancholy features.
9. Analyse Individual style of Activity.
10. Compare Temperament and education issues.
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CHAPTER 12. PSYCHOLOGY OF CHARACTER
12.1 The Concept of Character
Definition
Character is the whole of the mental processes and
behavioral aspects of a person which differentiate
him or her from other persons and particularly the
prospects and aspects which are consistent over time.
By its nature, the character is a result of individual’s social psychological
development and it mainly reflects the objective relationship between people and
their relationship to various social phenomena, events, etc.
Concept "character" is characterized not all psychological features of
individual, but only substantial and sustained one, which is related to the will and
motivation of human behavior.
Character is a unique, individual combination of stable psychological traits,
constant individual’s relations with environment, which is expressed in his
behavior, communication, activities and actions.
The manifestation of the character can be seen in the performance of any
activity: some prefer challenging activities, finding positive emotions to overcome
difficulties.
Character is closely related to temperament, being in the same stable nature.
But unlike the temperament, character form during lifetime education and lifetime
experience.
Character traits include following blocks:
1) system of relationship with environment;
2) volitional qualities.
The system of relationship with environment includes relations with:
1) other people by characteristics like a honesty, teamwork, conformity,
egoism, sincerity, etc.;
2) activities (rationality, prudence, diligence, thrift, etc.);
3) attitudes to oneself (self-reliance, self-esteem, etc.).
The concept of "character" is not equal to the concept of "Personality". For
example, such great personality as F.M. Dostoevsky characterized by heavy,
quarrelsome character. It was found that high talent is often associated with
psychopathy.
The character is central part psychological structure of individual, affecting
the cognitive and emotional processes. It is closely related to needs.
Unlike other personal qualities, character is formed at an early age and is
characterized by stability.
For example, interests, attitudes may change throughout a person's life.
Thus, character determines the individuality and uniqueness of personality.
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Common feature of character and temperament is dependent on the
physiological characteristics of the person and especially on types of nervous
system. The formation of character is largely due to the properties of
temperament, which is closely related with properties of the nervous system.
According to I.P. Pavlov, habitual human behavior is a system of well-established
responses to repetitive exposure to the environment. Habitual patterns of behavior
are caused by properties of the nervous system. In addition, habitual patterns of
behavior are caused by variety of sophisticated, stable systems of temporary
connections formed in the cerebral cortex under the influence of various stimuli.
Features of temperament may contribute to formation of various traits. For
example, organization, discipline is easier to develop for phlegmatic than choleric,
and the kindness and compassion for melancholic. Being a good organizer,
sociable person is easy for choleric. Choleric work vigorously, passionately, but
phlegmatic work methodically, slowly.
Social factors play more important role than biological one in order to shape
the character.
Character, as the result of reflection of the whole complexity of life
influences, formed in the process of active interaction between individual and
environment. Unlike temperament character changes throughout life. Childhood is
the main stage of character formation. Character is beginning to emerge from the
first days of life under the direct influence of people who are bringing up a child.
Character depends on relationship between parents and child. Regarding activity,
certain behaviors establish, consolidate and transform in stable and permanent
character.
The formation of character is impossible without education activity.
Pedagogical and psychological approaches in very of social institutions effect
individual character.
12.2 Structure of Character
Character is a holistic system of individual properties that are in certain
relations to each other. Individual character traits independent of each other,
connected to each other in main structure, reflect individual’s relationship with
different aspects of reality and form a coherent organization.
There are several classifications of character traits. For example, the R.S.
Nemov identifies three character traits groups: 1) strong-willed (the desire to
succeed); 2) business (honesty, responsibility, punctuality); 3) communication
(openness, sociability, interest and attention to the people).
A.G. Shmelev, M.V. Bodunov, W. Norman and other identified common
(self-confidence - lack of confidence, friendliness - hostility; consciousness impulsivity, emotional stability - anxiety, intellectual flexibility - rigidity) and
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private (sociability - isolation, courage - caution; demonstrative - modesty, and
many others) character traits.
Here is traditionally allocated traits.
I. Moral traits:
1) expressing the attitude towards society (collectivism - individualism,
altruism - egoism, egocentrism, kindness - indifference, polite - rudeness,
truthfulness - mendacity, communicative - isolation; openness - concealment;
2) expressing the attitude to work (hard work - laziness, diligence negligence, orderly - negligence, initiative - passivity and conservatism);
3) expressing the attitude toward themselves (self-assessment - adequate and
inadequate).
II. Determined traits: consistency, self-control, strength of will,
independence; criticality, suggestibility, responsibility.
Any person can identify more than a dozen personality traits, which are not
particularly stand out and appear at regular intervals. If one of the personality
traits very bright, it is the so-called character accentuation.
Accentuation character is a concept introduced by the German psychologist
K. Leonhard (1904-1988) and indicating excessive expression of individual traits
and their combinations, representing the extreme variants of norm, bordering with
psychopathy.
Definition
Psychopathy is an archaic term for a mental disorder
characterized by lack of guilt and remorse,
impulsiveness, rule breaking, and disregard for
others which is prevalent among violent criminals
who repeat their offenses and which was originally
called moral imbecility.
The severity of the character may be different. Imagine axis, which shows the
intensity of the manifestations of characters on it are clearly identified three
zones: zone completely "normal" characters (1); area of accentuation (2); zone of
strong character deviations, or psychopathy (3). The first and second zones are
normal and the third one is pathological. Accordingly, the accentuation is seen as
an extreme variant of the norm.
"Normal" characters
Area of Accentuation
Zone of strong character
deviations or
psychopathy
Figure 12.2 The boundaries of character accentuations
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K. Leonhard believed that almost every person can be assigned at least one of
the many accentuated features in his personality.
Accentuation phenomenon may be temporary (age) and permanent. For most
people, temporary accentuation detected in stressful situations (for instance,
during the crisis). Constantly accented character is usually seen in people with
severe childhood.
There are the following types of accentuation:
1) Hyperactive is excessively elevated mood, always cheerful, talkative,
energetic, independent, committed to leadership, adventure, risk, punish ignored,
self-criticism is absent, high sociability, facial expressions and pantomime. Such a
person is very serious about duties and family obligations. Often provoke
conflicts. He is optimistic and energetic, often frivolous. Easily irritated;
2) Distimisy is related to consistently low mood, sadness, isolation,
pessimism, non-conflict, passivity, slowness in movements, low communicative,
individualism, often leads a secluded life.
3) Cycloid characterized by frequent changes of mood and communication;
4) Emotive (Emotional) characterized by excessive sensitivity, vulnerability,
deeply experiencing the slightest trouble, too sensitive to the comments, failure,
sad mood, sense of duty, kind and compassionate, tearful;
5) Demonstrative express the desire to be in centre of attention and to
achieve their goals by any cost (tears, fainting, scandals, illnesses, and unusual
hobby);
6) Excitable characterized by slowness of movement and speech, irritable,
quick-tempered, bad controls of own behavior;
7) Paranoid person cannot forget the offense, with tendency to prolonged
squabbles, active in conflicts;
8) Pedantic person characterized by tediousness expressed in the form of
"experience" the details;
9) Psychasthenic person with lowered mood, constant fear for themselves,
lack of confidence, long experiencing failure;
10) Labile accentuation characterized by extremely changeable moods,
emotions talkativeness, amorous;
11) Schizoid (Introverted, Autistic) accentuation characterized by avoidance
communicate with others, talks by necessity, self-absorbed;
12) Conformal accentuation is characterized by high sociability,
talkativeness, prefer like the others, disorganized.
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Figure 12.1 Character traits examples
12.3 Typology of Character
Throughout the history of developmental psychology had been numerous
attempts to construct a typology of character.
The researchers proceeded from the following ideas:
1) during ontogenesis formation of character occurs quite early and after that
become stable form throughout life;
2) nature of the structure does not form a random combination of personal
qualities;
3) based on the typology, the majority of people can be referred to appropriate
groups.
Let’s consider the most well-known typology of characters.
The ancient Greek philosopher and physician Theophrastus (372-287 BC)
described the character as a mark of moral society in personality.
Aristotle believed that a person's character can be determined by identifying it
with the animal. For example, if a person has a short and thick neck, like a
buffalo, he has a stubborn, impulsive temper; if the neck is thin and long, like a
giraffe, such human characterized as shy; long and wavy hair like wool from
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sheep, characterized by stubborn; a soft man characterized by, slightly curly hair.
Aristotle also identified the nature of the strong-willed personality traits.
In the Middle Ages, the Swiss writer I.K. Lavater (1741-1801) proposed a
theory of physiognomy, whose main provisions are as follows: human face
imprinted by features as character traits rather than natural one. So, constantly
cheerful, smiling person has “corners” of lips; in “cold” and haughty individual
has thin colorless lips; carnivorous, irritable person has fold between the
eyebrows. Even Ch. Darwin held such views.
French writer La Bruyère (1645-1696) in his book "The character or manners
of the century" distinguished character types.
In Western Europe by Austrian pathologist F. Gall (1758-1828) was
developed theory so called "phrenology" (from the Greek phrenos the soul, the
nature, character).
Definition
Phrenology - an archaic theory in which the shape of
the skull was associated with personality and various
abilities. It supposed that different brain areas
governed different characteristics and abilities, and
those that were strongest in a person would cause the
skull to bulge outward while growing so that the
resulting bumps indicated the strength of the ability
or characteristic associated with the part of the brain
beneath it.
English psychologist Alexander Bain (1818-1903) defined intellectual,
emotional and volitional characters.
Russian psychologist A.I. Galich (1783-1848) divided the characters to bad,
good and great one. There were attempts to give a more sophisticated
classification of characters.
German-American psychologist E. Fromm (1900-1980) showed numerous
examples of difficulties in adaptation to foreign society due to character.
American sociologist W. Thomas (1918-1920) characterized marginal
personality as a person who has not formed a strong, unambiguous, coherent
system of social identities and values, who is experiencing cognitive and
emotional problems, and difficulties.
Modern domestic psychologist B.S. Bratus suggested typological model of
social character. A structure of individual identify has several fundamental levels:
1. Egocentric person’s desire only own convenience, prestige and benefits.
2. Group-centring person identifies himself with group. Such individual
prefers divide social environment into "us" and "they".
3. Pro-social or humanistic person desire to help other people and become
happy by doing this.
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4. The spiritual or eschatological person believes that life does not end with
death and associated with the spiritual world. This is the level of subjective
relationship of human with God.
All four levels anyway present in each individual.
American social psychologist E. Shostrom proposed of manipulative
character types. Individual does not born as a manipulator. He becomes so to
avoid trouble situations and achieve desired goals.
Manipulation is not a necessary attitude toward life and not useful.
There are several types of manipulator.
1. Dictator. Exaggerating its strength. Dominates and doing everything in
order to control their victims.
2. Victim dictator. Exaggerate their sensitivity.
3. Calculator. Exaggerating their control. He is lying, trying to outwit and
check other people.
4. Sticks. The complete opposite of the calculator. Exaggerating their
dependence. It lets others do the work for him.
5. Bully. Exaggerating their aggressiveness, cruelty.
6. Nice guy. He tends to exaggerate their diligence. A nice guy almost always
wins.
7. Judge exaggerates its criticality and tends to blame everyone and
everything, full of anger, with difficulties to forgive.
8. Defender is contrary judge. Excessive stresses support towards others and
indulgence to the errors. He is ready to take care of the needs of others rather than
do their job.
Four basic manipulations can be identified.
Active manipulator tries to control others by using active methods. He avoids
showing their weakness in relationship by pretending to be a man full of strength.
Passive manipulator is the opposite activity. Being unable to control his life,
he refuses every effort to allow you to manage his life.
Competitor manipulator considers life as a battle in which all other men are
rivals or enemies, real or potential. He varies passive and active methods of
manipulation.
Indifferent manipulation. This is the main form of manipulation. Manipulator
acts indifferent to the whole person by words “I do not care”.
Thus, main reasons of manipulation are getting full power over another
person.
12.4 Forming of Character
Formation of character starts from very beginning of human life.
Relationships with others, especially with the mother or with those who are
directly caring for a child play leading role in formation of character.
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Age from 0-3 to 9-10 years is sensitive (most favourable) period for formation
of character.
At this time, the process of communication with adults and peers is
particularly active. A character of the mother’s communication with her child at
the first months of his life influences on formation such qualities as kindness and
sympathy, sociability, or contrary, selfishness and callousness, indifference to
people. Later, in the early and pre-school age, develop such character traits as
diligence, honesty, responsibility, and others.
The source of the formation of these qualities is available through games and
forms of domestic labor.
School helps to design the character traits associated with the relationship
between people. Expanding circle of friends (classmates, teachers) contributes to
this design.
Due to not use these social methods character begin breaking, accompanied
by internal and external contradictions. The result is not always positive. Most
often, there is a partial change of character traits, leading to some compromise.
After school period, character formation is completed. Thus, the character
begins to form from the first months of life and finishing its formation at school
age.
Example of describing character:
Description of (the nature) character of a person
The nature of man is largely determined by him. There are features that
appear unconsciously, but most people will build their character by themselves. At
first sight it is usually difficult to determine the versatility of personality. But even
from the initial acquaintance it is possible to make some conclusions. Something
you can notice from the facial expressions, gestures, and communication style.
I would like to tell you about the person I care, the nature of which I admire. I
was lucky, because I know him from the first days of my life. I want to talk about
my father.
Profession largely determines a person's character. Or conversely a person
chooses a profession by his nature. Whatever it was, my father was not wrong with
the choice of specialty. He's a surgeon. At home my dad is calm and cheerful
person. He is always kind and responsive to others. He has many friends, and it's
easy for him to find a common language with people. I try to spend time with him
as much as possible. He can always cheer me up with a good joke or tell an
interesting story. Unfortunately, his work takes much time. When I was a child, I
even resented him because of this. But later I realized that his work is very
important, because it saves lives. At work, he is always reserved and collected. It
seems that he always knows what to do and never gets nervous. Patients always
feel his support and attention. Sometimes we meet on the streets his former
patients. They thank him and say many kind words. Father being shy by nature,
becomes confused of the words of thanks. I am proud of him and I want to become
in the future the same.
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Control questions:
1. Analyse Concept "Character".
2. Why character determines the individuality of Personality?
3. Why character determines uniqueness of Personality?
4. Describe Features of temperament and Character.
5. Explain Structure of Character.
6. Analyse Character as a holistic system.
7. Describe Accentuation character.
8. Define types of Accentuation.
9. Explain Formation of Character.
10. Analyse source of Character Formation.
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CHAPTER 13. PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND TALENT
13.1 Introduction to Psychology of Abilities
Every activity requires individual’s specific qualities that determine its
suitability and provide a certain level of success.
Definition
Ability is a capacity to accomplish a task at the
present moment. This implies that any learning or
developmental process necessary to the task has
already been accomplished. Ability often contrasts
with aptitude or potential or inherent but unrealized
capacity which needs further learning or
development to become an ability. Intelligence tests
measure ability and are sometimes used to infer
aptitude for future learning.
However, each ability has biological basis, which allow them to develop.
Deposition is a biological anatomical physiological basis of any ability.
Deposition gets own certainty in ability, only being included in activities.
Depositions are biological, morphological and functional features of:
• the structure and function of cerebral cortex;
• sensory systems;
• typological features of the nervous system;
• functional asymmetry of the brain;
• anatomy of motor organs.
Depositions are organic base of ability and other mental characteristics, such
as temperament, character, etc. But their formation depends on living conditions
and human activities. Human depositions are varied and can develop in different
directions. On basis of same depositions it can develop different abilities.
On the other hand, abilities development depends on various conditions. For
example, child's math ability has not a guarantee that the child will become a great
mathematician. Without appropriate conditions (special education, teachers
working creatively, family, etc.) ability will not be developed.
Abilities are individual’s possibilities to become successful in particular area
of social activity. Why some people get great success in their job activity than
others? Because each activity (educational, music, design, literature etc.) has
certain demands such as speed of reactions, properties of personality. If a person
has individual psychological characteristics, which best meet requirements of
relevant activities, it means that he will be capable of it.
Any activity requires from individual not only one single ability, but also a
number of them. For example, a literary work is related with observation,
imagination, and ability to speak accurately and expressively.
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Thus, any speciality provides opportunities for learning to variety of activities.
In addition, lack of capacity can be compensated by hard work, perseverance,
exertion.
There are equivalent components in the structure of each ability:
1. Leading properties. For example, in pedagogy leading feature is ability to
love children.
2. Supporting properties. For instance, in pedagogy supporting properties are
pedagogical tact, observation, etc.
Traditionally also decided to allocate the levels of development of abilities:
1) reproductive;
2) reconstructive;
3) creative.
However, the practice (empirical studies) shows that creativity and
reproductive abilities are quite different in nature, therefore, develop independently
of each other, each of them can be identified at distinct levels of development.
13.2 Types and levels of Ability.
Abilities are divided into general and special groups. There are the following
types of abilities:
1) intelligence and special;
2) training;
3) mathematics;
4) construction-engineering;
5) music;
6) literature;
7) physical abilities.
Educational and creative abilities differ from each other. Educational ability
determines the success of training and education, assimilation of human
knowledge and skills, formation of personality traits, while creative ability
determines creation of objects and spiritual culture, production of new ideas,
discoveries and works.
The nature of the general abilities (intelligence, creativity and search activity)
is determined by the particular organization of cognitive functions and individual
experience (including knowledge and skills). General abilities are called because
they are necessary for the performance of all activities, regardless of their
complexity. In the intellect there are differing versions
Nature of special abilities is a special quality that meets the requirements of a
narrow circle of activity.
It is possible to allocate a common basis for each type of activity, which will
combine special individual abilities into a coherent system, and without which this
ability would not take place at all.
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Specific examples: For mathematics is not enough to have a good memory
and attention. People who are good at math, distinguished by the ability to capture
the order in which must be placed the elements necessary for a mathematical proof.
Mathematical creativity is based not only on knowledge and experience, but on the
spatial imagination, as the main condition of mathematical thinking.
Musical abilities are special one and are determined by the nature of music.
Technological content of musical abilities can be divided into three groups:
1) proper technical (playing technique on this instrument or voice control
singing);
2) composite (for composing music);
3) control, hearing (the pitch or tonal intonation, etc.).
Types of abilities depend on their direction, or specialization. These types can
be divided into general and specific, theoretical and practical, educational,
interpersonal and subject-activity-related abilities. General ability is a prerequisite
for whole development of individual.
General ability is connected with a system of individual psychological
characteristics of personality, which determines efficiency of learning process,
various activities and communication. In foreign psychology, these abilities are
referred to concept of “intelligence” which is equivalent to concept of "mental
capacity".
Theoretical ability mostly determines abstract logical thinking (for example, it
is perfectly developed among scientists, philosophers).
Educational ability correlates with success in pedagogic area.
Interpersonal ability determines communication and interaction among
people, and subject-activity-associated ability relate with technology, sign systems,
etc.
The structure of the individual abilities depends on level of its development.
Activities can develop reproductive and creative levels of ability: reproductive
level is associated with a high ability to absorb already known ways of performing
activities, patterns of communication; creative level is connected with the
development a new, original product, by finding new ways of doing something. It
is obvious that both levels are closely interrelated: the reproductive level includes
elements of creative and vice versa.
Each person has different "sets" of abilities. Individually unique combination
of abilities formed throughout life and determines the uniqueness of the individual.
The success of any activities is ensured by the presence of a combination of
abilities working on the result. Activities of some abilities can be replaced by other
one, similar in appearances, but different in their origin. The success of same
activity can be provided by different abilities, so no one's ability can be
compensated by the presence of the other, or even the whole complex. Therefore,
individual uniqueness of individual abilities referred to "individual style of
activity".
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Another term used by B.M. Teplov is inclination. Inclination is a certain
relationship to work activity. Inclination and ability are closely related. Inclination
is a motivational component of activities. Therefore, activities may not start
without a definite inclination, and ability, respectively, will not be formed. On the
other hand, if no success, the human tendency is not be objectified.
In extreme conditions, when there is a need to solve the most important task,
the person due to the stress response can be restored, or greatly strengthen those or
other abilities to such levels as giftedness, talent and genius.
13.3 Psychology of giftedness, talent and genius
It is necessary to consider the concept of giftedness. The origin of the term is
based on the idea of "gift" as high inclinations that nature rewards some people.
Giftedness should be understood as an indicator of the high level of ability, based
on the natural predisposition.
Definition
Gifted individuals are those who demonstrate outstanding
levels of aptitude (defined as an exceptional ability to
reason and learn) or competence (documented
performance or achievement in top 10% or rarer) in one
or more domains. Domains include any structured area of
activity with its own symbol system (e.g., mathematics,
music, language) and/or set of sensorimotor skills (e.g.,
painting, dance, and sports).
The following are six categories of giftedness to which experts and definitions
often refer:
1) General intellectual ability;
2) Specific academic ability;
3) Creative ability;
4) Leadership ability;
5) Visual and performing arts ability;
6) Psychomotor ability.
Gifted children, no matter how you define or identify them, have different
educational needs than their age-peers. Their education needs to allow them to
grow with their unique intellectual development.
Intellectual giftedness of a child is defined by:
1) The speed of thought;
2) The ability to easily and freely express their thoughts;
3) Exceptional ability to solve any problems;
4) Has good grasp of abstract concepts;
5) Boundless energy;
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6) Early and avid reader with advanced comprehension of language;
7) Talks early and has large vocabulary;
8) Problem solver and is not always satisfied with an answer;
9) Questions everything;
10) Easily bored with repetitive tasks;
11) Learns things quickly and at an advanced level;
12) Perfectionist at standards and critical to himself;
13) Interested in adult problems, such as social issues at a young age;
14) Works independently;
15) Has internal motivation and intense focus etc.
I. Akimov and V. Klimenko considered there are not only quantitative, but
also qualitative difference between talent and genius. Talent’s product is
originality. Product of genius is “simplicity”. However, I. Akimov and V.
Klimenko believe that genius does not appear suddenly. It is born due to talent.
According to another view, the talent and genius are not stages of ability
development. They are quite different psychological qualities.
Definition
Talent is a special natural ability or aptitude. Someone
who has a natural ability to be good at something,
especially without being taught:
Her talent for music showed at an early age.
His artistic talents were wasted in his boring job.
Definition
Genius is an exceptional natural capacity of intellect,
especially as shown in creative and original work in
science, art, music, etc. For example, the genius of
Mozart. Genius a person having such capacity. Genius a
person having an extraordinarily high intelligence rating
on a psychological test, as an IQ above 140. Genius has
natural ability or capacity; strong inclination: a special
genius for leadership.
Domestic psychologists B.M. Teplov, N.S. Leites, V.A. Krutetskiy et al. have
identified some common features inherent talent:
1) attentiveness, concentration, willingness for hard work;
2) speed of thought processes, systematic mind,
3) a high level of analysis and synthesis, high productivity of mental activity.
Talented person psychologically is ready to seek and adopt creative solutions,
as well as adopt deep emotional and inspirational attitude to the work.
The highest expression of talent is genius. Genius is a person who because of
his abilities recognized and achieved outstanding success in various aspects of
human activity. Ideas, concepts, results of work of genius ahead of time, open up
new horizons for humanity.
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Genius is a high level of creative manifestation of personality, embodied in
the work, has historical significance for society. Genius is a high degree of
giftedness and talent. Genius is characterized by uniqueness, highest creativity.
The genius is unique, not like other people sometimes so much that seem
incomprehensible, even superfluous. Definitely to recognize someone genius is
extremely difficult. That is why the "unrecognized genius" is much larger than they
really are. However, geniuses are necessary to society. Geniuses are varied by their
ability, talent, circumstances and activities.
13.4 Correlations of Abilities
Problems of diagnostics capabilities never lost its relevance. There are many
unresolved issues, such as the problem of the creation of elite schools and other
educational institutions for gifted children. Gifted young generations are a
guarantee of a decent future for any country. But the main question is whether
there are in science reliable objective criteria of giftedness. It should be noted that
there are large-scale measurements of giftedness in modern scientific psychology.
The word "capable" or "incapable" is widely used in everyday life, especially
in education practice. The concept of ability is controversial, contains a
complicated universal, psychological, including the ethical and moral issues. This
concept overlaps with many other psychological categories and events.
In modern schools have been developing tendency of early diagnosis of
"special" abilities and aptitudes of students. Almost from the first year of study it is
necessary to determine student’s ability for humanitarian or natural sciences.
However, the most urgent issues pursued the modernization of education by
profiling of schooling. Someone has allegedly proved that earlier a student chooses
the profile of education, the better for him and for society. Someone thinks that the
teenager is already able to make a correct choice of future profession, and though
in most cases it is possible.
There are several correlations between personality traits and giftedness:
1) Child's perception positively correlates with ability to see different sites of
object;
2) Stable attention and thinking positively correlate with fluency, flexibility,
originality and openness;
3) memory positively correlates with quick storing interesting information,
but easy forgetting of what is considered to be of secondary importance;
4) Intelligence positively correlates with creativity, invention, etc.
Talent is the highest level of ability. Talented people are those who are highly
gifted, sold in a particular field of human activity, those who have already achieved
considerable success in the activities and fellowship. The high level of
development of any particular ability is not talent.
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Control questions
1. Define Abilities.
2. Explain main features of Talent.
3. Identify components of Pedagogical Activity.
4. Identify Components of Pedagogical Abilities.
5. Compare Talent and Genius.
6. Give examples on Giftedness.
7. Give examples on Talent.
8. Give examples on Genius.
9. Define Types of Abilities.
10. Analyse Role of Ability in Activity.
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CHAPTER 14 COMMUNICATION PSYCHOLOGY
14.1 Introduction to Communication Psychology
Communication is the process of interaction between people based on the
exchange of information, mutual recognition and understanding of each other,
forming relationships and joint activity.
Definition
Communication - the transference of understanding
from one individual to another or the transfer of data
from one source to another in any of a very large
number of natural and artificial ways. 2. The message
or actual data being transferred in an act of
communication.
According to I.P. Yakovlev, communication as a science should be
understood scientific discipline of role of communication in society, its
development and structure, processes and means of communication, and others.
According to S.V. Borisnev, communication is to be understood due to the
social process of transferring and receiving information in terms of interpersonal
and mass communication through different channels using different means of
communication.
According to M.S. Andrianov, communication is to be understood as the
semantic aspect of social interaction.
According to Niklas Luhmann, communication should be understood as a
specific operation, which characterizes only social system.
Communication is studied by a number of sciences, in such fields as:
1) Ethnographic studies, domestic and cultural features of communication in
different ethnic areas;
2) Psycholinguistics examines the factors contributing to transmission and
perception of information in process of interpersonal and mass communication;
3) Linguistics deals with problems of verbal communication, which based on
language and its grammar.
4) Paralinguistics deal with non-verbal communication such as gestures, facial
expressions, and other nonverbal communication means.
5) Sociolinguistics examines the social nature of language and features of its
functioning in different communities, mechanisms of interaction between social
and linguistic factors that contribute to the contacts between representatives of the
various groups;
6) Sociology, where communication is studied as a social communication
between representatives of different social groups.
The specifics of communication are as follows:
1) Communication requires a single communication space;
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2) Participants of communication are active subjects of mutual information.
Each of them has own motives, goals and attitudes;
3) Understanding (misunderstanding) occurs in the communication process,
which is achieved by the presence of feedback, as well as the importance of
information;
4) Each communication partner during sharing information has to get meaning
of information in order to get successful efficiency of communication;
5) Communicative impact is possible only under the condition when sender of
information and receiver have a single or a similar system of codification and
decoding. By other words, people need to speak the same language;
6) Participants of communication must identical understanding of
communication situation;
7) During exchange of information may exist communication barriers
Figure 14.1 Main features of communication process
According to G. Andreeva there are three parts of communication:
Communicative aspect is connected with exchange process of information
between individuals by language.
Interactive is the second aspect of communication is related not only with
sharing words, but also with actions. A buyer and a seller may communicate
without any words making payment at the store.
Perceptual is a third part of communication involves perception processes of
partners each other during communication. For example, perceive information
about not only partner’s personality features but also his external image.
If considered of unity of these three parts, communication serves as a way of
organizing joint activities and relationships between people.
A similar classification is proposed by B.F. Lomov:
1. Information-communicative is covering the processes of reception and
transmission of information;
2. Regulatory and communicative part of communication associated with joint
activities;
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3. Affective-communicative part referring to emotional sphere of individuals
during communication and meets needs to change their emotional state in order to
get effective results of communication.
A.A. Brudnyi identifies main operating functions of communication:
 Instrumental function of communication is necessary for exchange
information between partners of communication;
 Syndicated function serves to rallying groups of people;
 Translational function is necessary for transfer of knowledge between
individuals;
 Expression function is oriented to achieve mutual understanding.
According L.A. Karpenko there are 8 communication functions distinguishing
by criterion of "the purpose of communication":
1. Contact is a purpose of communication to establish mutual readiness to
transmit and receive messages;
2. Information is purpose of communication to exchange of messages,
information, opinions, ideas, solutions, etc.;
3. Motive is a purpose of communication to stimulate activity of
communication partner, guide him to perform certain actions;
4. Coordination is a purpose of communication to coordinate individuals’
actions in joint activities;
5. Understanding is a purpose of communication to get adequate perception
and understanding partners each other (their intentions, attitudes, feelings, states,
etc.) and understanding meaning of the message;
6. Emotive is purpose of communication to exchange emotions as well as
changes of them in order to understand partners of communication process each
other;
7. Develop relations between individuals by awareness of each other roles,
status, and other;
8. Influence is purpose of communication to change behavior, intentions,
attitudes, opinions, solutions, ideas, and needs of partner of communication
process.
14.2 Features of Effective Communication
Interpersonal skill and communication depend on effective communication
and each person needs to learn ways of improving communication because it has
many benefits.
Emotions, intentions, engaged listening are main psychological factors, which
surround effective communication. Each person should understand someone’s
communication message in order to gain effective communication.
261
Managing stress
Nonverbal
communication
Set of skills of effective
communication
Communicate
assertively
recognize and understand
emotions
Figure 14.2 Managing stress
All these skills are developed by the person throughout life, and it is seems to
be challenging. Nevertheless, there are psychological recommendations that can
help to improve effective communication:
1. Staying focused during communication;
2. Listening carefully others’ messages;
3. Understanding others' opinion and explain owns’ one in a clear way;
4. Skills help to resolve conflict.
Effective communication influence on every interaction in a positive way by
learned skills.
Table 14.2 Barriers to effective communication
Barriers to effective communication
Stress and out-ofInconsistent body
Sending negative signals
control emotion
language (for example, by negative body language
say “yes” while
(crossing arms, avoiding
shaking head no)
eye contact, tapping feet
ets.)
262
Figure
14.2.1
Communicative
competence
and
its
structure
Communicative competence is based on language, which is appropriately
used. As Hymes D.H. observes communicative competence: “…a normal child
acquires knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical, but also as appropriate.
He or she acquires competence like when to speak, when not, and like what to talk
about with whom, when, where, in what manner. In short, a child becomes able to
accomplish a repertoire of speech acts, to take part in speech events, and to
evaluate their accomplishment by others.” (Hymes 1972, p. 277).
Classification of communicative competence includes four components:
linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence.
1. Linguistic competence is related with language grammar, vocabulary
(phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics).
2. Sociolinguistic competence consists from rules, taboos of language use in
different culture.
3. Discourse competence deals with systemizing words, sentences in order to
develop conversation.
4. Strategic competence is the knowledge about recognising and repairing
communication breakdowns.
263
Each component of communicative competence develops in order to prevent
communication from misunderstands.
There are several factors which influence on effective communication
cultures
organizations
personalities
practices
cognitive style
communication
preferences
communication
skills
specific social
standing
Figure 14.2.2 Factors which influence on effective communication
According to the scheme, effective communication depends on:
1. Understanding and good interpretation of messages are related to culture.
In this case people from different cultural background should avoid stereotypes,
prejudice during communication.
2. Effective communication increases if people try to learn technical words or
jargons that are used.
3. Personality traits such as openness, conscientiousness and extraversion can
improve effective communication among people.
4. Communication skills such as communicate accurately and clearly need to
develop in order to increase effective communication because they help in all
aspects of life.
5. Practice any kind of communication skills for improve its features.
6. Cognitive style such as way of think, perceiving and remembering
information also influence effective communication.
7. Ways of how individuals want to interact with others explain some features
of communication preferences influencing on effective communication. For
instance, which massages they prefer to receive.
8. Specific social standing as a given position in social environment also
predicts effective communication. For example, social status, occupation, family
role etc.
Thus, ability to communicate effectively should not be overlooked by
individuals because communication skills can improve in order to raise quality of
life.
14.3 Effective Communication and Current Technology
Advent technological devices develop various ways of communication. Such
invention gives huge opportunities for the person to contact with others around the
world:
264
1. Fiber optics and new satellites;
2. Digital cellular telephone;
3. Wireless devices;
4. Laptop or computers with modems;
5. Digital technology (images, audio, video);
6. E-mail.
New technologies help to communicate with others:
1) Changing the way of interaction and communication, which become easier
and cheaper;
2) Keeping in touch with others free.
Communication could fail due to
using of jargon
in inappropriate
way
badly
written
messages
sending
messages to
wrong
address
overload of
information
break down of
the
communication
channel
Figure 14.3 Communication could fail due to
Blocks to communication due to technologies:
1. The mind can held limited information at one time. So individuals can miss
other things that are said.
2. In huge world of information developing by technologies, people do not
catch everything that is said.
3. Difficulties of transferring information because of developing new terms,
unusual words with different meaning in current language.
Psychological problems of communication due to technologies:
1. Isolation. Much electronic-relating relationship with others via the Internet
develops a social isolation of individuals.
2. There are many communication conflicts because electronic technology
poorly transmits emotions.
3. "Emotional invisibility" on the Internet as a social media abuse. People
tend to delay communication with others (for example, not answering on emails).
4. Non-verbal communication destroys by technologies.
5. Imbalance of time on the Internet with time spent with people.
Media content such as music, sound and images reflect verbal and nonverbal
communications. Luskin’s developed Three S Model to explain how
synestethetics, semiotics and semantics provide relationship between media,
human communication, language and vocabulary.
265
Synesthetic
stimulating and
combining one
sense with another
Semiotics
communication
through
identification,
manipulation and
the use of symbols
Semantics
the understanding
of the use, effects
and implications of
words
Figure 14.3 Luskin’s developed Three S Model
Today technologies not only destroy some aspects of communication but also
create current trends, which improve public understanding of major social and
medical consequences (body weight, diet and lack of exercise, high cholesterol,
and hypertension, etc.). Telemedicine, teletherapy and telehealth give a lot of
opportunities for the person to communicate with public services.
Nowadays role and value of digital communication is still increasing because
of business setting and other form of conversation moved to digital nature. Each
communication technology gives many opportunities to get feedback from
employees, customers in simple rapid way. Any communication in digital world
also needs to improve and there are several tips in order to do this:
1. Use social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and
Facebook as an excellent way to start any type of communication.
2. Use benefits of texting like SMS text messaging to improve not only
writing communication skills but to give short correct responses during
communication.
3. Keep balance between not only phone call and communication on a screen
but also with real world interaction in order to support the ability to relate to
people.
4. Web conference is another way to enable better communication regardless
of physical location.
266
5. Video chats like Skype give many opportunities to save personal
interrelationship in case when physically communication in some situations is
impossible.
Thus, current communication technology gives another way of
communication among people in digital world but still as any kind of
communication, it requires its development in order to engage with people.
14.4 Culture and Communication
Intercultural communication is characterized by communication between
people from different linguistic and cultural environment.
Communication is the active relationship through
Language
different cultures
national contexts
political, linguistic, economic,
institutional, and professional
contexts
inter-ethnic, inter-religious,
inter-regional communication
Figure 14.4 Intercultural communication
Effective intercultural communication is defined by three primary attributes of
the person:
1) communication skills;
2) knowledge about culture;
3) attitudes about relationship.
According theories of group identity there are two types of group identity:
“1. Ascribed identity is the set of demographic and role descriptions that
others in an interaction assume to hold true for you. Ascribed identity is often a
function of one’s physical appearance, ethnic connotations of one’s name, or other
stereotypical associations.
2. Avowed identity is comprised of the group affiliations that one feels most
intensely. For example, if an individual is assimilated into a new culture, then the
values and practices of that destination culture will figure importantly in her
avowed culture. A related concept is reference group. A reference group is a social
entity from which one draws one’s avowed identity. It is a group in which one
feels competent and at ease.
267
As stated by Communication theory of Identity (CtI) any cultural identities
develop through interaction between groups of people from different cultures.
Personal identity is shaped by language, nonverbal signs, etc.
Cultural identity performances can vary along three dimensions:
1. Scope of Identity Performance relates to features of persons’ behavior,
which express cultural aspects;
2. Intensity of Identity Performance is about power of persons’ identity.
3. Salience of Identity Performance defines cultural aspects of identity, which
demonstrates the person in his daily life (ethnic dress, language).
Individuals feel culture shock as a common stress reaction while immerse in
an unfamiliar culture.
The pattern of adjusting to a new culture starts from
relation to
depression to
adjustment
Culture shock can be as acculturation or adaptation for long-term sojourners
such as immigrants, refugees. For them, there is to be no re-entry to their home
cultures. Adjustment for this group of people could be only through
communication in their new home culture.
Communication components of long-term sojourners need to be in balance
between:
1. availability of same-culture community in foreign country;
2. the susceptibility of the local culture to long-term sojourners;
3. possibilities for long-term sojourners to communicate with host
nationals.
The main goal of intercultural communication to solve adaptation problems in
unfamiliar culture environment and establish bi-cultural (or multi-cultural) identity.
Intercultural communication usually is related with a message transmission
problems because each individual interprets any massage based on own cultural
beliefs, expectations, stereotypes and values. In this situation, any message may be
different between receiver and speaker. In order to develop effective cultural
communication individuals need to improve not only their ability to understand
information correctly but also have to communicate in the meaning of trust.
It is obvious that nonverbal communication as interaction without words
differ among cross-cultural perspectives. In each culture, there are many variations
of body language such as speech rhythms, posture, gestures, facial expressions,
and eye contact. People should get a knowledge about them in order to avoid
causes for mistrust and misperception in cross-cultural communication.
268
Intercultural communication competence is supported by nonverbal behavior
and individuals should improve this competence to communicate with host
nationals. This competence is linked with personal identity. There are some
components of intercultural communication competence, which helps people to be
aware how to fix intercultural communication problems:
1. Contex of intercultural competence may differ from culture to culture. In
this case, individuals should mention this difference and try to learn cultural
features in order to adapt to their environment.
2. Appropriateness of sojourners’ behavior to any given culture.
3. Effectiveness of intercultural communication is related with desired
outcome therefore individuals need to compare their goals of communication with
its wishful results in order to control their behavior in foreign country.
4. Knowledge about persons’ culture that individuals are interacting with for
effective interpretation of message meanings and understand cultural specific
context.
5. Motivations of intercultural communication lead to emotional reactions
during cross-cultural interaction. So people should be aware about own intentions
and motivation about each communication with host nationals.
In this case display of interest, being sensitive, empathy, interaction
management, tolerance, open-mindedness, reflectiveness is main tools to improve
intercultural communication.
Control questions:
1. Why advent of technology became an important tool of human communication?
2. How internet influences verbal and non-verbal communication?
3. Analyse a future of human communication.
4. Why intercultural communication became popular in nowadays?
5. What kinds of problems are developed due to intercultural communication?
6. How many stages are defined in stress reaction to unfamiliar culture?
7. Why group identity is important for each individual?
8. What kind of skills supports effective communication?
9. Why effective communications have some barriers?
10. How culture influences communication?
269
CHAPTER 15 PSYCHOLOGY OF CONFLICT
15.1 Introduction to Psychology of Conflict
The concept of "conflict" acts as a form of human relationship.
Definition
Conflict is a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals,
or ideas.
Any conflict situation between people often is associated with aggression,
negative emotions, arguments, threats, hostility, etc. There is an opinion that
should be conflict always undesirable and should be avoided whenever possible, or
immediately resolved. Modern psychology considers conflict has not only negative
but positive part also. Robert M. and F. Tilman point to the current understanding
of the conflict as a positive phenomenon because positive part of conflict consists
with personality development and conceptualization of subjective situations.
W. Lincoln manifested the positive impact of the conflict because:
1) Conflict develops self-awareness;
2) Under conflict influence, it is approved and confirmed certain set of values;
3) It promotes group awareness;
4) Facilitate priority goals;
5) It plays the role of a safety valve for safe and even constructive outlet of
emotions;
6) Conflict supports awareness about ways of situation’s understanding,
recognition problems and ways of its resolution;
7) It leads to communication with other people and groups.
According W. Lincoln the negative impact of the conflict is:
1) It threatens social system;
2) It leads to loss of support;
3) Conflict leads to rapid action;
4) Conflict supports process of forming alliances and coalitions among
people;
5) Conflict is seen as competition of interests etc.
J. Von Neumann and O. Morgenshteyn define the conflict as the interaction
between two or more individuals with incompatible goals and different ways to
achieve these goals.
K. Lewin describes a conflict as a situation in which simultaneously act
several oppositely directed forces of individuals.
In Role Theory, conflict is related with situation of incompatible expectations
(requirements) between two or more individual’s social roles.
Theory of Social Conflict considered that conflict is a struggle over values.
270
Figure 15.1 Causes of conflict
15.2 Classification of Conflict
There is numerous classification of conflict. Conflicts can be implicit and
explicit, intensive and worn, short-term and prolong, vertical and horizontal, etc.
In the direction of the conflicts they are divided into "horizontal" and
"vertical" and "mixed". In horizontal conflict, person involves in conflict relations
with other individuals who are in a same social position with him. Vertical
conflicts are characterized by conflict relations between individuals who stand in
different social positions (for instance, between employee and manager). In mixed
conflicts are presented vertical and horizontal components.
Conflicts also are divided into structural (constructive, positive) and
destructive (destructive, negative) ones. Constructive conflict brings benefits for
individuals, the second one only drawback.
Conflicts can be divided into objective and subjective classes due to its
causes. First class is related with objective reasons, the second one with subjective,
personal reasons. Objective conflict often correlates with constructive solutions. In
contrast, subjective conflict can generally be destructive.
271
M. Deutsch classifies conflicts according to the criterion of truth, falsehood or
reality:
 True conflict is related with objective reflection of its reasons by individuals;
 Conditional conflict depending on the circumstances, easily changeable,
which, however, is not recognized by the parties;
 Latent conflict is a conflict that would have happened, but it did not, because
of reasons which are not recognized by individuals who are involved in conflict;
 False conflict exists only because of the perception and understanding of
errors in objective justification.
Classification by type of social conflict formalization:
 formal
 Informal.
These conflicts are usually associated with the organizational structure, its
features, and can be both "horizontal" and "vertical".
Figure 15.2.1 Classification of Conflict (adapted from C. Moore, 2003)
In terms of social interaction, conflicts are classified into intergroup,
intragroup, interpersonal and intrapersonal one.
272
Intergroup conflict occurs between members of two or more different social
groups. For example, such conflict could be between different departments of an
organization. The socio-psychological studies have shown that "own" group in any
situation looks better than "the other". This phenomenon is so-called “group
favouritism”. It is a source of intergroup tension and conflict. Main conclusion,
which is made by social psychologists, is the following: if we want to remove the
inter-group conflict, it is necessary to reduce the differences between the groups.
Intragroup conflict involves members of one group. Such conflict depends on
group self-regulation. Group destruction may exist in case of low self-regulation
processes. These may be general dissatisfaction, decrease of cooperation etc. For
example, such conflict could be between employer and employee in an
organization. Group is more resilient to conflict if it is cooperatively interrelated.
The result of this cooperation is the freedom and openness to communication,
mutual support, friendship and trust in relation. Therefore, the probability of
intergroup conflict is higher in diffuse, immature groups.
Intrapersonal conflict is an inner conflict between individual’s motivation,
feelings, needs, interests and behavior. Interpersonal conflict is the most frequently
occurring conflict. The emergence of interpersonal conflicts is determined by
personal characteristics, attitudes to situations and psychological characteristics of
interpersonal relationships. The emergence and development of interpersonal
conflict is largely due to the demographic and individual psychological
characteristics. Women’s inner conflicts are related to personal problems, but
men’s inner conflicts are related to their professional activities.
Intrapersonal conflict is connected with low self-criticism, impulsiveness, lack
of restraint in feelings, negative prejudice, bias against others, aggressiveness,
anxiety, low level of sociability, and others. As a social phenomenon, the conflict
has a specific indicator function of well-being level in social groups that is related
to positive (structural and functional) or negative (destructive, dysfunctional)
features of conflict.
These types of functions are also very broad in its content. Among the
positive features are best known:
1) Integration of group (team). People tend to become a group against external
threats;
2) Balance of power and social control in order to get adequate social
relationships and phenomena during conflict;
3) Structuring relationships between people because conflict can identify
ways and opportunities for cooperation, to adapt to new conditions of cooperation.
The negative features include:
1) Destruction of a favorable psychological climate in the group (team);
2) Reduction of interaction and cooperation between people;
3) Increase both physical and emotional costs;
4) Aggravation of confrontation between people involved in conflict
5) Increases tension of conflict situation;
273
6) Inadequate perception of the situation.
Conflicts arise as a result of various reasons:
1. General, "global" causes: socio-political and economic (the contradictions
of people on the political and economic ideologies); socio-demographic (human
contradictions related to gender, age, ethnic group); socio-psychological
(connected with differences in various social groups); individual psychological
(differences in personal characteristics).
2. Fleshed reasons are as follows: any resources; interdependence (in any
situation individual is dissatisfied with personal, business, emotional changes);
difference of goals and objectives; values and beliefs (different people may come
into antagonism); communication (conflict due to inadequate communication or
non-constructive form of communication skills).
Conflicts are very diverse and broad; their classification can be represented
also as follows:
1. Depending on the area where conflicts take place: family (between parents,
children, and various relatives); organization (between work teams, managers,
subordinates, co-workers); social (between different social groups and formations).
2. Sources of conflicts due to professional characteristics such as distribution
of responsibilities or emotional characteristics of person.
3. Subjective perceiving of conflict.
Figure 15.2.2 Classification of Conflict (adapted from C. Moore, 2003)
15.3 Stages of Conflict
There are several classifications of stages of conflict. One of them include 4
stages, other classifications include 5 stages. However, all of them describe the
same process of a conflict.
Let’s see 4 stage model of conflict:
The first stage.
274
The main controversy between individuals of relationship has already arisen,
but still they are not recognized. Further controversy, even if it was hidden,
becomes visible because initial participant of pre-conflict situation amplifies it.
The second stage
Participants get a clear understanding of conflict situation. There are
appropriate emotions as a reaction to the situation. Individuals assessed conflict
situation by understanding of reasons and causes of conflict. Participants analyze
options for possible actions and decide how profitable to act (on their subjective
view). Begin action.
Aspirations and actions of the participants may have two vectors:
 Avoid conflict, seek to get out of it and / or find a compromise solution, to
prevent its further development;
 Intensify, exacerbate conflict dynamics and strengthen own goals.
It should be noted that the victory in the conflict often imaginary or
temporary. Spent force and means, as well as modes of action may not be fit for
purpose.
The third stage
There are external manifestations of conflict. Participants enter into open
confrontation, acting in accordance with their intentions and decisions. Individuals
of conflict situation try to block actions each other. If individuals of conflict
situation agree to seek a compromise, the conflict tends to be resolved through
negotiations (sometimes through a third party). The parties are willing to make
concessions.
The fourth stage
Conflict is completed (this is not always allowed). Participants evaluated the
effects of actions. The achieved result is compared with the original objectives.
Depending on the analysis, exact conflict will be terminated or continue its
developing (as with the new conflict passing through all the stages, of course, on
another level).
It should be understood that the precise allocation of the conflict stages are
conditionally. Each case requires a separate analysis.
For each stage (pre-conflict, the initial, active opposition, final) structural
elements of conflict process are as follows:
 Parts (actors, members) of the conflict. All those who are directly or
indirectly involved in the conflict interaction;
 Process conditions of conflict (rapid, silent or other);
 Subject of conflict;
 Outcomes of conflict.
275
Figure 15.3 Five stage model of conflict
15.4 Conflict behavior
In any conflict, each participant evaluates and correlates their interests with
those of the opponent, by asking exact questions: What I win? What if I lose? How
important the subject of a conflict for me and for opponent? Based on this analysis,
he chooses a particular strategy of behavior: competition, avoidance,
accommodation, compromise or collaboration.
Competition. Who choose this strategy of behavior, primarily based on
evaluation of personal interests in conflict as the highest, and the interests of his
opponent as the lowest one.
Competition may be as a characteristic of destructive model. It will be
effective in two cases. Firstly, in order to protect business interests from attacks or
in case of existence of threat to the existence of the organization or team.
Avoidance. This strategy is characterized by a desire to escape the conflict. It
is characterized by a low level of focus on personal interests as well as interests of
an opponent.
Accommodation. In this strategy focus on personal interests are low and
assessment of opponent’s interests is high because of value of interpersonal
relationships. Sometimes this strategy is reflected in tactics of decisive struggle for
victory.
Compromise. The compromise strategy of behavior is characterized by
balance of interests between conflicting participants. Compromise can not be
276
considered as a way to resolve the conflict. Sometimes a compromise can exhaust
the conflict situation. Compromise can be both in
active and passive forms. The active form of compromise may emerge in the
clear conclusion of contracts, acceptance of any obligation, etc. Passive
compromise is vice versa.
Collaboration strategy is characterized by a high level of focus on own
interests and interests of the opponent. This strategy is based not only on balance
of interests, but also on recognition of values of interpersonal relationships.
Cooperation is possible only in the case when each of participants of conflict
allowing coexistence of opposing interests.
Figure 15.4 Conflict styles
There is another classification of conflict patterns: approach-approach
conflict, approach-avoidance conflict, avoidance-avoidance conflict and double
approach-avoidance conflict.
Definition
Approach-approach conflict is a conflict in which we
are forced to decide between two desirable
alternatives, for example, choosing between two
delicious desserts.
Approach-avoidance conflict is a conflict in which we are attracted to the
positive features of the alternative but are repelled by the negative features. For
example, you want to go to the movies tonight, but that decision means you are not
able to study for an upcoming exam. In this situation, there is often a wavering
277
between the choices, and not until one’s desire outweighs the other will the conflict
be resolved.
Avoidance-avoidance conflict is a conflict in which we are forced to decide
between two undesirable alternatives. For example, you can suffer a toothache or
go to the dentist (assuming you are avoidant of dentists).
Double approach-avoidance conflict is an inner experience of indecision and
anxiety when confronted with choice between two options, both of which have
desirable and undesirable results.
15.5 Conflict Management
Conflict management methods. Each stage of conflict (pre-conflict, the
initial, active opposition, final) will be characterized by its own specific ways of
resolution (depending on the depth of contradictions).
1. In the pre-conflict stage, it is important to monitor closely the social
structure, individuals’ psychological relations and conditions of their violation. If
people are not compatible, do not organize their joint activity. It is necessary to
give information about understandable rules of engagement.
2. During active stage of conflict, it is necessary to analyze next:
1) Personal characteristics of each team representative; quality of personal
interaction; relationships in the group, their specificity, leadership (formal and
informal);
2) Group culture (traditions of team, uncoordinated positions of individuals).
3) In final stages of conflict interaction, it is possible to use:
4) The behavioral approach (formation of a sequence of rational and
constructive acts of behavior);
5) The analytical approach (based on a detailed analysis of structural
components of a conflict, conflict phases);
6) Situational approach (provides a solution to overcome the conflict,
depending on the particular situation).
Control questions:
1. Define main psychological characteristics of conflict.
2. Is it possible to predict conflict in communication?
3. What kinds of strategies in conflict are more effective?
4. Why it is important to manage any conflict in human communication?
5. Why conflict strategies depend on psychological features of person?
6. Give Classification of Conflict.
7. Explain Stages of Conflict.
8. Define Conflict behavior.
9. Compare Competition and Avoidance.
10. Give examples for Conflict Management.
278
TEST QUESTIONS OF THE SUBJECT OF "PSYCHOLOGY"
Question №1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
This school of psychology analyzed the behavior as the object of their
research
Activity Theory
Behaviorism
Psychoanalysis
Genetic Psychology
Gestalt Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
Question №2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
This scientist has made the greatest contribution to the psychology
development as an independent experimental science
William James
W. Wundt
Herbert Spencer
E. Thorndike
I.P. Pavlov
Question № 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
In this century, psychology became an independent and experimental
science
ХХ century
XIX century
XVII century
XVI century
XVIII century
XV century
XXI century
Question № 4
Scientist who suggested the first experimental study of memory
1. Weber
2. Ebbinghaus
3. Fechner
4. Freud
5. Bekhterev
279
6. Watson
7. James
Question № 5
Very strong, rapidly emerging and rapidly flowing momentary emotional state is
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Affect
Sleep
Smile
Activity
Behavior
Fear
Question № 6
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The volume of short-term memory equal to
5+/-2
7+/-2
3+/-3
4+/-2
6+/-2
Question № 7
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Comprehension of emotional
communicating with him
Reflection
Memory
Expressivity
Emotion
Empathy
state
of
another
person
Question № 8
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
This process provides the direction and focus of mental activity
Memory
Attention
Performance
Thinking
Imagination
Feeling
perception
280
while
Question № 9
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
This scholar introduced the concept of sensory system
I.M. Sechenov
P. Nemov
K. Teplov
I.P. Pavlov
L.S. Vygotsky
Question № 10
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Scientist who suggested the concept of "reflex"
Wundt
Descartes
Nemov
Hippocrates
Spinoza
Question №11
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Inherited form of behavior is called
Reflex
Instinct
Ability
Emotion
Skill
Question №12
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Consciousness is
Ability to attention
Ability to adequately respond
Thinking form
Multifunctional subsystem
A set of sensory and mental images of the subject
The product of social and historical development
Question №13
Communication is divided into the following types:
1. Tangible
2. Verbal
3. Perfect
281
4. Business
5. Nonverbal
Question №14
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Self-awareness is
Memory
Emotion
Thinking
Abilities
Self-reflection
Character
Question №15
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Sensory processes include: sensation, perception, attention,
representation, imagination, thinking, and
Emotions
Memory
Motivation
Fear
Behavior
Reflection
Question №16
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The most informative facial expressions as emotional reactions are
Clothes
Eyes
Hand
Hairstyle
Nose
Ears
Question №17
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Talent is
Optimism
Activity
The level of development of general abilities, which determines the range
of activities in which people can achieve great success
Confidence
The speed of thought processes
282
Question №18
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The highest form of creativity
Talent
Genius
Particular activity
Psychomotor and sensory organization
Person's performance
Special abilities
Question №19
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Thinking relate with
Deprivation
Analysis
Behavior
Reduction
Synthesis
Activity
Determination
Question №20
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Types of speech:
Sense
Oral
Written
Language
Emotion
Reflex
Question №21
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Non-verbal components of communication:
Mouth
Hand
Gesture
Emotions
Speech
Question №22
283
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Activity consist with
REflex
Action
Non-verbal communication
Feel
Operations
Understanding
Question №23
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Memory Processes include
Generalization
Fear
Forgetting
Experience
Concrete definition
Emotion
Question №24
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The main types of human activities are
Communication
Work
Service
Speech
Language
Reflex
Game
Question №25
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Type of sense
Perception
Memory
Burning
Pleasant
Happy
Fear
Salt
Question №26
Distant sensation is
284
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Temperature
Visual
Tactile
Pain
Sense
Organic
Items
Stress
Question №27
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Contact sensation is
Olfactory
Temperature
Tactile
Hearing
Visual
Stress
Emotional
Question №28
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Types of sensation
Immediate
Reflex
Instant
Emotion
Short
Visual
Question №29
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Human different from animal by following features:
Mentality
Consciousness
Memory
Perception
Neuron cells
Nervous system
Brain
Question №30
285
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Thinking directly relate with
Speech
Consciousness
Self-concept
Talent
Character
Self-reflection
Question №31
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Types of temperament are: choleric, ...
Pragmatist
Sanguine
Sensitive
Shopaholic
Hard worker
Question №32
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Empirical methods in Psychology are:
Thinking
Experiment
Methods of mathematical statistics
Method
Observation
Question №33
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Emotions reflect:
The world
Behavior
Connection between needs and results of the activity
Properties of objects
Sensation
Objective reality
Question №34
1.
2.
3.
4.
Due to stress person could get
Laughing
Somatic diseases
Game activity
Fatigue
286
5. New genes
6. Depression
Question №35
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Scientists who studied the temperament:
Nemov
Hippocrates
Freud
Galen
I.P. Pavlov
Question №36
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
This science is the study of the mind, including consciousness,
perception, motivation, behavior, the biology of the nervous system in its
relation to mind
Physics
Math
Psychology
Physiology
Sociology
Philosophy
Question №37
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Scientist who developed main requirement of experiment in science
William James
W. Wundt
Herbert Spencer
I.Newton
I.P. Pavlov
Question № 38
Scientist who suggested the principle of "Unity of Consciousness and
287
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Activity"
S.L. Rubinshtein
W. Wundt
Herbert Spencer
I.Newton
I.P. Pavlov
Question № 39
The Cultural-Historical Approach in Psychology was developed by
1. Weber
2. Ebbinghaus
3. Fechner
4. Vygotsky
5. Bekhterev
6. Watson
7. James
Question № 40
Theory of Joint Interactive Cognitive Activity was developed by
1. T. Tazhibayev
2. M.M. Mukanov
3. K.B. Zharikbaev
4. S.M. Dzhakupov
Question № 41
1.
2.
3.
4.
Psyche includes
Environment
Parents
Stimulus
Cognitive Processes
288
5. Response
Question № 42
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Cognitive Processes, Communication, Personality relate with
Human activity
Animal behavior
Insect activity
Response
Empathy
Question № 43
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Type of psychic phenomena, which are studied by Psychology
Behavior
Animal behaviour
Activity
Mental Processes
Imagination
Feeling
Perception
Question № 44
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The phenomenon of personal, subjective experience
Consciousness
Behavior
Imagination
Feeling
Perception
Question № 45
289
This an interdisciplinary approach to the study of the nervous system that
includes anatomy, biochemistry, cognitive modeling, pharmacology, and
physiology
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Biology
Science
Neuroscience
Philosophy
Math
Question №46
This is any scientific approach which involves recording information
without interference with the subject or process under scrutiny. This
approach is often used in developmental psychology, ethology, and
social psychology
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Reflex
Method
Experiment
Observational method
Modelling
Question №47
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
An arrangement of conditions and procedures which allows observations
of the relationships between the controlled circumstances (independent
variables) and the uncontrolled outcomes (dependent variables) with an
intent to make inferences about causal relationships between the
independent and dependent variables
Reflex
Method
Experiment
Observational method
Modelling
290
6. Reflex
Question №48
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
According to A.N. Leontiev, psyche occurred through this stage during
biological evolution:
Perceptive psyche
Behavior
Intelligent Psyche
Business
Activity
Question №49
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Anything necessary for the survival of an organism is:
Memory
Emotion
Need
Abilities
Self-reflection
Character
Question №50
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Reasoning for doing something
Emotions
Memory
Motive
Fear
Behavior
Reflection
291
Correct answers
№
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Correct answer
2
2
2
2
1
2
5
2
4
2
2
6
2, 5
2, 5
2
2
3
2
2, 5
2, 3
3
2, 5
3
2, 7
7
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
292
2
2, 3
6
2
1
2
2, 5
3
2, 5, 7
2, 5
3
4
1
4
4
4
1
4
1
3
4
3
1
3
3
GLOSSARY 10
Abnormal psychology - the area of psychological investigation is concerned with
understanding the nature of individual pathologies of mind, mood, and behavior.
Accommodation - according to Piaget, the process of restructuring or modifying
cognitive structures so that new information can fit into them more easily; this
process works in tandem with assimilation.
Acquisition - the stage in a classical conditioning experiment during which the
conditioned response is first elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
Acute stress - a transient state of arousal with typically clear onset and offset
patterns.
Aggression - behavior that cause psychological or physical harm to another
individual.
Agoraphobia - an extreme fear of being in public places or open spaces from
which escape may be difficult or embarrassing.
Altruism - prosocial behavior of a person who carries out it without considering
his or her own safety or interests.
Ambiguity – a perceptual object that may have more than "one interpretation.
Amnesia - failure of memory caused by physical injury, disease, drug use, or
psychological trauma.
Amygdala - the part of the limbic system that controls emotion, aggression, and
the formation of emotional memory.
Analytic psychology - a branch of psychology that views the person as a
constellation of compensatory internal forces in a dynamic balance.
Animal cognition - the cognitive capabilities of nonhuman animals; researchers
trace the development of cognitive capabilities across species and the continuity of
capabilities from nonhuman to human animals.
Anticipatory coping - efforts made in advance of a potentially stressful event to
overcome, reduce, or tolerate the imbalance between perceived demands and
available resources.
10
Glossary of Psychological Terms. From G.R.J. & Ph.G. Zimbardo. Psychology and Life, 16 edition. Published by
Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright (c) 2002 by Pearson Education
293
Anxiety An intense emotional response caused by the preconscious recognition
that a repressed conflict is about to emerge into consciousness.
Archetype - a universal, inherited, primitive, and symbolic representation of a
particular experience or object.
Assimilation - according to Piaget, the process whereby new cognitive elements
are fitted in with old elements or modified to fit more easily; this process works in
tandem with accommodation.
Attachment - emotional relationship between a child and the "regular caregiver”.
Attention - a state of focused awareness on a subset of the available perceptual
information.
Attitude - learned, relatively stable tendency to respond to people, concepts, and
events in an evaluative way.
Attribution theory - a social-cognitive approach to describing the ways that the
social perceiver uses information to generate causal explanations.
Attributions - judgments about the causes of outcomes.
Auditory cortex - the area of the temporal lobes that receives and processes
auditory information.
Auditory nerve - the nerve that carries impulses from the cochlea to the cochlear
nucleus of the brain.
Automatic processes - processes that do not require attention; they can often be
performed along with other tasks without interference.
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - the subdivision of the peripheral nervous
system that controls the body's involuntary motor responses by connecting the
sensory receptors to the central nervous system (CNS) and the CNS to the smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
Availability heuristic - judgment based on the information readily available in
memory.
Behavior - the actions by which an organism adjusts to its environment.
Behavior analysis - the area of psychology that focuses on the environmental
determinants of learning and behavior.
294
Behavior modification The systematic use of principles of learning to increase the
frequency of desired behaviors and/or decrease the frequency of problem
behaviors.
Behavior therapy See behavior modification.
Behavioral confirmation the process by which people behave in ways that elicit
from others specific expected reactions and then use those reactions to confirm
their beliefs.
Behavioral data observational reports about the behavior of organisms and the
conditions under which the behavior occurs or changes.
Behavioral measures overt actions and reactions that are observed and recorded,
exclusive of self-reported behavior.
Behaviorism A scientific approach that limits the study of psychology to
measurable or observable behavior.
Behaviorist perspective the psychological perspective primarily concerned with
observable behavior that can be objectively recorded and with the relationships of
observable behavior to environmental stimuli.
Biofeedback a self-regulatory technique by which an individual acquires voluntary
control over nonconscious biological processes.
Biological constraints on learning any limitations on an organism's capacity to
learn that are caused by the inherited sensory, response, or cognitive capabilities of
members of a given species.
Biological perspective the approach to identify causes of behavior that focuses on
the functioning of the genes, the brain, the nervous system, and the endocrine
system.
Biopsychosocial model a model of health and illness that suggests that links
among the nervous system, the immune system, behavioral styles, cognitive
processing, and environmental factors can put people at risk for illness.
Body image the subjective experience of the appearance of one's body.
Bottom-up processing perceptual analyses based on the sensory data available in
the environment; results of analyses are passed upward toward more abstract
representations.
Brain stem the brain structure that regulates the body's basic life processes.
295
Brightness the dimension of color space that captures the intensity of light.
Broca's area the region of the brain that translates thoughts into speech or sign.
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion a theory stating that an "emotional stimulus
produces two co-occurring reactions: arousal and experience of emotion that do
not cause each other."
Case study Intensive observation of a particular individual or small group of
individuals.
Catharsis the process of expressing strongly feeling but usually repressed
emotions.
Central nervous system (CNS) the part of the nervous system consisting of the
brain and spinal cord.
Cerebral cortex the outer surface of the cerebrum.
Cerebral hemispheres the two halves of the cerebrum, connected by the corpus
callosum.
Child-directed speech a special form of speech with an exaggerated and highpitched intonation that adults use to speak to infants and young children.
Chronic stress a continuous state of arousal in which an individual perceives
demands as greater than the inner and outer resources available for dealing with
them.
Chronological age the number of months or years since an individual's birth.
Classical conditioning a type of learning in which a behavior (conditioned
response) comes to be elicited by a stimulus (conditioned stimulus) that has
acquired its power through an association with a biologically significant stimulus
(unconditioned stimulus).
Client the term used by clinicians who think of psychological disorders as
problems in living, and not as mental illnesses, to describe those being treated.
Clinical psychologist an individual who has earned a doctorate in psychology and
whose training is in the assessment and treatment of psychological problems.
Cognition processes of knowing, including attending, remembering, and
reasoning; also the content of the processes, such as concepts and memories.
296
Cognitive appraisal with respect to emotions, the process through which
physiological arousal is interpreted with respect to circumstances in the particular
setting in which it is being experienced; also, the recognition and evaluation of a
stressor to assess the demand, the size of the threat, the resources available for
dealing with it, and appropriate coping strategies.
Cognitive appraisal theory of emotion a theory stating that the experience of
emotion is the joint effect of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal, which
serves to determine how an ambiguous inner state of arousal will be labeled.
Cognitive behavior modification a therapeutic approach that combines the
cognitive emphasis on the role of thoughts and attitudes influencing motivations
and response with the behavioral emphasis on changing performance through
modification of reinforcement contingencies.
Cognitive development the development of processes of knowing, including
imagining, perceiving, reasoning, and problem solving.
Cognitive dissonance the theory that the tension-producing effects of incongruous
cognitions motivate individuals to reduce such tension.
Cognitive map A mental representation of physical space.
Cognitive perspective the perspective on psychology that stresses human thought
and the processes of knowing, such as attending, thinking, remembering,
expecting, solving problems, fantasizing, and consciousness.
Cognitive processes higher mental processes, such as perception, memory,
language, problem solving, and abstract thinking.
Cognitive psychology the study of higher mental processes such as attention,
language use, memory, perception, problem solving, and thinking.
Cognitive science the interdisciplinary field of study of the approach systems and
processes that manipulate information.
Cognitive therapy a type of psychotherapeutic treatment that attempts to change
feelings and behaviors by changing the way a client thinks about or perceives
significant life experiences.
Collective unconscious the part of an individual's unconscious that is inherited,
evolutionarily developed, and common to all members of the species.
Comorbidity the experience of more than one disorder at the same time.
297
Complementary colors colors opposite each other on the color circle; when
additively mixed, they create the sensation of white light.
Compliance a change in behavior consistent with a communication source's direct
requests.
Concepts mental representations of kinds or categories of items or ideas.
Conditioned reinforcers in classical conditioning, formerly neutral stimuli that
have become reinforcers.
Conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, a response elicited by some
previously neutral stimulus that occurs as a result of pairing the neutral stimulus
with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus
that comes to elicit a conditioned response.
Conditioning the ways in which events, stimuli, and behavior become associated
with one another.
Cones photoreceptors concentrated in the center of the retina that are responsible
for visual experience under normal viewing conditions and for all experiences of
color.
Conformity the tendency for people to adopt the behaviors, attitudes, and values
of other members of a reference group.
Consciousness a state of awareness of internal events and of the external
environment.
Consensual validation the mutual affirmation of conscious views of reality.
Conservation according to Piaget, the understanding that physical properties do
not change when nothing is added or taken away, even though appearances may
change.
Contact comfort comfort derived from an infant's physical contact with the
mother or caregiver.
Contact hypothesis the idea that direct contact between hostile groups alone will
reduce prejudice.
298
Context of discovery the initial phase of research, in which observations, beliefs,
information, and general knowledge lead to a new idea or a different way of
thinking about some phenomenon.
Context of justification the research phase in which evidence is brought to bear
on hypotheses.
Contextual distinctiveness the assumption that the serial position effect can be
altered by the context and the distinctiveness of the experience being recalled.
Contingency management a general treatment strategy involving changing
behavior by modifying its consequences.
Control procedures consistent procedures for giving instructions, scoring
responses, and holding all other variables constant except those being
systematically varied.
Controlled processes processes that require attention; it is often difficult to carry
out more than one controlled process at a time.
Convergence the degree to which the eyes turn inward to fixate on an object.
Coping the process of dealing with internal or external demands that are perceived
to be threatening or overwhelming.
Correlation coefficient (r) a statistic that indicates the degree of relationship
between two variables.
Counseling psychologist psychologist who specializes in providing guidance in
areas such as vocational selection, school problems, drug abuse, and marital
conflict.
Counterconditioning a technique used in therapy to substitute a new response for
a maladaptive one by means of conditioning procedures.
Creativity the ability to generate ideas or products that are both novel and
appropriate to the circumstances.
Criterion validity the degree to which test scores indicate a result on a specific
measure that is consistent with some other criterion of the characteristic being
assessed; also known as predictive validity.
Crystallized intelligence the facet of intelligence involving the knowledge a
person has already acquired and the ability to access that knowledge; measures by
vocabulary, arithmetic, and general information tests.
299
Cultural perspective the psychological perspective that focuses on cross-cultural
differences in the causes and consequences of behavior.
Cutaneous senses the skin senses that register sensations of pressure, warmth, and
cold.
Dark adaptation the gradual improvement of the eyes' sensitivity after a shift in
illumination from light to near darkness.
Daytime sleepiness the experience of excessive sleepiness during daytime
activities; the major complaint of patients evaluated at sleep disorder centers.
Decision making the process of choosing between alternatives; selecting or
rejecting available options.
Declarative memory memory for information such as facts and events.
Deductive reasoning a form of thinking in which one draws a conclusion that is
intended to follow logically from two or more statements or premises.
Demand characteristics cues in an experimental setting that influence the
participants' perception of what is expected of them and that systematically
influence their behavior within that setting.
Dendrites the branched fibers of neurons that receive incoming signals.
Dependent variable in an experimental setting, any variable whose values are the
results of changes in one or more independent variables.
Descriptive statistics statistical procedures that are used to summarize sets of
scores with respect to central tendencies, variability, and correlations.
Determinism the doctrine that all events-physical, behavioral, and mental-are
determined by specific causal factors that are potentially knowable.
Developmental age the chronological age at which most children show a
particular level of physical or mental development.
Developmental psychology the branch of psychology concerned with interaction
between physical and psychological processes and with stages of growth from
conception throughout the entire life span.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) the physical basis for the transmission of genetic
information.
300
Double-blind control an experimental technique in which biased expectations of
experimenters are eliminated by keeping both participants and experimental
assistants unaware of which participants have received which treatment.
Dream analysis the psychoanalytic interpretation of dreams used to gain insight
into a person's unconscious motives or conflicts.
Dream work in Freudian dream analysis, the process by which the internal censor
transforms the latent content of a dream into manifest content.
Drives internal states that arise in response to a disequilibrium in an animal's
physiological needs.
Echoic memory sensory memory that allows auditory information to be stored for
brief durations.
Ego the aspect of personality involved in self-preservation activities and in
directing instinctual drives and urges into appropriate channels.
Ego defense mechanisms mental strategies (conscious or unconscious) used by
the ego to defend itself against conflicts experienced in the normal course of life.
Egocentrism In cognitive development, the inability of a young child at the
preoperational stage to take the perspective of another person.
Electroencephalogram (EEG) a recording of the electrical activity of the brain.
Emotion a complex pattern of changes, including physiological arousal, feelings,
cognitive processes, and behavioral reactions, made in response to a situation
perceived to be personally significant.
Emotional intelligence type of intelligence defined as the abilities to perceive,
appraise, and express emotions accurately and appropriately, to use emotions to
facilitate thinking, to understand and analyze emotions, to use emotional
knowledge effectively, and to regulate one's emotions to promote both emotional
and intellectual growth.
Encoding the process by which a mental representation is formed in memory.
Encoding specificity the principle that subsequent retrieval of information is
enhanced if cues received at the time of recall are consistent with those present at
the time of encoding.
Environmental variables external influences on behavior.
301
Episodic memories long-term memories for autobiographical events and the
contexts in which they occurred.
EQ the emotional intelligence counterpart of IQ.
Equity theory a cognitive theory of work motivation that proposes that workers
are motivated to maintain fair and equitable relationships with other relevant
persons; also, a model that postulates that equitable relationships are those in
which the participants' outcomes are proportional to their inputs.
Erogenous zones areas of the skin surface that are especially sensitive to
stimulation and that give rise to erotic or sexual sensations.
Evolutionary perspective the approach to psychology that stresses the importance
of behavioral and mental adaptiveness, based on the assumption that mental
capabilities evolved over millions of years to serve particular adaptive purposes.
Expectancy theory a cognitive theory of work motivation that proposes that
workers are motivated when they expect their efforts and job performance to result
in desired outcomes.
Experimental methods research methodologies that involve the manipulation of
independent variables in order to determine their effects on the dependent
variables.
Explicit uses of memory conscious efforts to recover information through
memory processes.
Extinction in conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned association in the
absence of a reinforcer or unconditioned stimulus.
Face validity the degree to which test items appear to be directly related to the
attribute the researcher wishes to measure.
Fear a rational reaction to an objectively identified external danger that may
induce a person to flee or attack in self-defense.
Fight-or-flight response a sequence of internal activities triggered when an
organism is faced with a threat; prepares the body for combat and struggle or for
running away to safety; recent evidence suggests that the response is characteristic
only of males.
Figure jbject-like regions of the visual field that are distinguished from
background.
302
Five-factor model a comprehensive descriptive personality system that maps out
the relationships among common traits, theoretical concepts, and personality
scales; informally called the Big Five.
Fixation a state in which a person remains attached to objects or activities more
appropriate for an earlier stage of psychosexual development.
Fluid intelligence the aspect of intelligence that involves the ability to see
complex relationships and solve problems.
Formal assessment the systematic procedures and measurement instruments used
by trained professionals to assess an individual's functioning, aptitudes, abilities, or
mental states.
Foundational theories Frameworks for initial understanding formulated by
children to explain their experiences of the world.
Free association the therapeutic method in which a patient gives a running
account of thoughts, wishes, physical sensations, and mental images as they occur.
Frontal lobe region of the brain located above the lateral fissure and in front of the
central sulcus; involved in motor control and cognitive activities.
Frustration-aggression hypothesis according to this hypothesis, frustration
occurs in situations in which people are prevented or blocked from attaining their
goals; a rise in frustration then leads to a greater probability of aggression.
Functional MRI (fMRI) a brain imaging technique that combines benefits of both
MRI and PET scans by detecting magnetic changes in the flow of blood to cells in
the brain.
Functionalism the perspective on mind and behavior that focuses on the
examination of their functions in an organism's interactions with the environment.
Ganglion cells cells in the visual system that integrate impulses from many bipolar
cells in a single firing rate.
Gender a psychological phenomenon that refers to learned sex-related behaviors
and attitudes of males and females.
Gender identity one's sense of maleness or femaleness; usually includes
awareness and acceptance of one's biological sex.
Gender roles sets of behaviors and attitudes associated by society with being male
or female and expressed publicly by the individual.
303
General adaption syndrome (GAS) the pattern of nonspecific adaptational
physiological
Genes the biological units of heredity; discrete sections of chromosomes
responsible for transmission of traits.
Genetics the study of the inheritance of physical and psychological traits from
ancestors.
Genotype the genetic structure an organism inherits from its parents.
Gestalt psychology a school of psychology that maintains that psychological
phenomena can be understood only when viewed as organized, structured wholes,
not when broken down into primitive perceptual elements.
Gestalt therapy therapy that focuses on ways to unite mind and body to make a
person whole.
Glia the cells that hold neurons together and facilitate neural transmission, remove
damaged and dead neurons, and prevent poisonous substances in the blood from
reaching the brain.
Goal-directed selection a determinant of why people select some parts of sensory
input for further processing; it reflects the choices made as a function of one's own
goals.
Group dynamics the study of how group processes change individual functioning.
Group polarization the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more
extreme than the decisions that would be made by the members acting alone.
Groupthink the tendency of a decision-making group to filter out undesirable
input so that a consensus may be reached, especially if it is in line with the leader's
viewpoint.
Hallucinations false perceptions that occur in the absence of objective stimulation.
Health a general condition of soundness and vigor of body and mind; not simply
the absence of illness or injury.
Health promotion the development and implementation of general strategies and
specific tactics to eliminate or reduce the risk that people will become ill.
304
Health psychology the field of psychology devoted to understanding the ways
people stay healthy, the reasons they become ill, and the ways they respond when
they become ill.
Hierarchy of needs Maslow's view that basic human motives form a hierarchy and
that the needs at each level of the hierarchy must be satisfied before the next level
can be achieved; these needs progress from basic biological needs to the need for
transcendence.
Hippocampus the part of the limbic system that is involved in the acquisition of
explicit memory.
Homeostasis constancy or equilibrium of the internal conditions of the body.
Hormones the chemical messengers, manufactured and secreted by the endocrine
glands, that regulate metabolism and influence body growth, mood, and sexual
characteristics.
Human behavior genetics the area of study that evaluates the genetic component
of individual differences in behaviors and traits.
Human-potential movement the therapy movement that encompasses all those
practices and methods that release the potential of the average human being for
greater levels of performance and greater richness of experience.
Humanistic perspective a psychological model that emphasizes an individual's
phenomenal world and inherent capacity for making rational choices and
developing to maximum potential.
Hypnosis an altered state of awareness characterized by deep relaxation,
susceptibility to suggestions, and changes in perception, memory, motivation, and
self-control.
Hypnotizability the degree to which an individual is responsive to standardized
hypnotic suggestion.
Hypothalamus the brain structure that regulates motivated behavior (such as
eating and drinking) and homeostasis.
Hypothesis a tentative and testable explanation of the relationship between two (or
more) events or variables; often stated as a prediction that a certain outcome will
result from specific conditions.
Iconic memory sensory memory in the visual domain; allows large amounts of
information to be stored for very brief durations.
305
Id the primitive, unconscious part of the personality that operates irrationally and
acts on impulse to pursue pleasure.
Identification and recognition two ways of attaching meaning to percepts.
Illusion an experience of a stimulus pattern in a manner that is demonstrably
incorrect but shared by others in the same perceptual environment.
Illusory contours contours perceived in a figure when no contours are physically
present.
Implicit uses of memory availability of information through memory processes
without the exertion of any conscious effort to encode or recover information.
Implosion therapy a behavioral therapeutic technique that exposes a client to
anxiety-provoking stimuli, through his or her own imagination, in an attempt to
extinguish the anxiety associated with the stimuli.
Imprinting a primitive form of learning in which some infant animals physically
follow and form an attachment to the first moving object they see and/or hear.
Impulsive aggression emotion-driven aggression produced in reaction to
situations in the "heat of the moment."
Independent construals of self conceptualization of the self as an individual
whose behavior is organized primarily by reference to one's own thoughts,
feelings, and actions, rather than by reference to the thoughts, feelings, and actions
of others.
Independent variable in experimental settings, the stimulus condition whose
values are free to vary independently of any other variable in the situation.
Induced motion an illusion in which a stationary point of light within a moving
reference frame is seen as moving and the reference frame is perceived as
stationary.
Inductive reasoning a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is made about the
probability of some state of affairs, based on the available evidence and past
experience.
Inferences missing information filled in on the basis of a sample of evidence or on
the basis of prior beliefs and theories.
Inhibitory inputs information entering a neuron signaling it not to fire.
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Instincts preprogrammed tendencies that are essential to a species's survival.
Instrumental aggression cognition-based and goal-directed aggression carried out
with premeditated thought, to achieve specific aims.
Intelligence the global capacity to profit from experience and to go beyond given
information about the environment.
Interference a memory phenomenon that occurs when retrieval cues do not point
effectively to one specific memory.
Internalization according to Vygotsky, the process through which children absorb
knowledge from the social context.
Intimacy the capacity to make a full commitment — sexual, emotional, and moral
— to another person.
James-Lange theory of emotion a peripheral-feedback theory of emotion stating
that an eliciting stimulus triggers a behavioral response that sends different sensory
and motor feedback to the brain and creates the feeling of a specific emotion.
Job burnout the syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and
reduced personal accomplishment, often experienced by workers in high-stress
jobs.
Judgment the process by which people form opinions, reach conclusions, and
make critical evaluations of events and people based on available material; also,
the product of that mental activity.
Kinesthetic sense sense concerned with bodily position and movement of the body
parts relative to each other.
Language-making capacity the innate guidelines or operating principles that
children bring to the task of learning a language.
Language production what people say, sign, and write, as well as the processes
they go through to produce these messages.
Latent content in Freudian dream analysis, the hidden meaning of a dream.
Learned helplessness a general pattern of nonresponding in the presence of
noxious stimuli that often follows after an organism has previously experienced
noncontingent, inescapable aversive stimuli.
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Learning A process based on experience that results in a relatively permanent
change in behavior or behavioral potential.
Learning-performance distinction the difference between what has been learned
and what is expressed in overt behavior.
Levels-of-processing theory a theory that suggests that the deeper the level at
which information was processed, the more likely it is to be retained in memory.
Libido the psychic energy that drives individuals toward sensual pleasures of all
types, especially sexual ones.
Limbic system the region of the brain that regulates emotional behavior, basic
motivational urges, and memory, as well as major physiological functions.
Longitudinal design a research design in which the same participants are
observed repeatedly, sometimes over many years.
Long-term memory (LTM) memory processes associated with the preservation of
information for retrieval at any later time.
Loudness a perceptual dimension of sound influenced by the amplitude of a sound
wave; sound waves with large amplitudes are generally experienced as loud and
those with small amplitudes as soft.
Lucid dreaming the theory that conscious awareness of dreaming is a learnable
skill that enables dreamers to control the direction and content of their dreams.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) a technique for brain imaging that scans the
brain using magnetic fields and radio waves.
Meditation a form of consciousness alteration designed to enhance self-knowledge
and well-being through reduced self-awareness.
Memory the mental capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information.
Mental age in Binet's measure of intelligence, the age at which a child is
performing intellectually, expressed in terms of the average "age at which normal
children achieve a particular score.
Mental retardation condition in which individuals have IQ scores 70 to 75 or
below and also demonstrate limitations in the ability to bring adaptive skills to bear
on life tasks.
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Mental set the tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used to
respond to a previous problem.
Meta-analysis a statistical technique for evaluating hypotheses by providing a
formal mechanism for detecting the general conclusions found in data from many
different experiments.
Metamemory implicit or explicit knowledge about memory abilities and effective
memory strategies; cognition about memory.
Mind-body problem the difficulty in understanding how the mind and body
influence each other—so that physical events can cause mental events, and so
that mental events can cause physical ones.
Mnemonics strategies or devices that use familiar information during the encoding
of new information to enhance subsequent access to the information in memory.
Mood disorder a mood disturbance such as severe depression or depression
alternating with mania.
Morality a system of beliefs and values that ensures that individuals will keep
their obligations to others in society and will behave in ways that do not interfere
with the rights and interests of others.
Monocular depth cues features of the visual stimulus that indicate distance even
if the stimulus is viewed with only one eye.
Monogamy a mating pattern in which one male and one female form an enduring
reproductive partnership.
Monozygotic (MZ) twins twins that develop from a single fertilized egg that then
splits in half. These twins are genetically identical. See also dizygotic (DZ) twins.
Mood disorders a group of disorders distinguished primarily by changes in
positive and negative affective state.
Mood stabilizers medications that treat bipolar disorder, such as lithium.
Moods affective responses that are typically longer-lasting than emotions, and less
likely to have a specific object.
Morbid obesity the level of obesity at which someone’s health is genuinely at
risk, usually defined as a BMI over 40.
Morpheme the smallest significant unit of meaning in a word (e.g., the word boys
has two morphemes, boy and -s).
Motion detectors cells in the visual cortex that are sensitive to an image moving
in a particular direction across the retina.
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Motion parallax a depth cue based on the fact that, as an observer moves, the
retinal images of nearby objects move more rapidly than do the retinal images of
objects farther away.
Motivated social cognition thinking about the social world in ways that serve an
emotional need, such as when people hold beliefs that help them feel less anxious.
Motivational-enhancement therapy a brief, nonconfrontational, client- centered
therapy designed to change specific problematic behaviors such as alcohol or drug
use.
Motivation the process of starting, directing, and maintaining physical and
psychological activities; includes mechanisms involved in preferences for one
activity over another and the vigor and persistence of responses.
Motor cortex the region of the cerebral cortex that controls the action of the
body's voluntary muscles.
Motor neurons the neurons that carry messages away from the central nervous
system toward the muscles and glands.
Need for achievement (n Ach) an assumed basic human need to strive for
achievement of goals that motivates a wide range of behavior and thinking.
Neuron a cell in the nervous system specialized to receive, process, and/or
transmit information to other cells.
Neuroscience the scientific study of the brain and of the links between brain
activity and behavior.
Neurotransmitters chemical messengers released from neurons that cross the
synapse from one neuron to another, stimulating the postsynaptic neuron.
Nonconscious information not typically available to consciousness or memory.
Non-REM (NREM) sleep the period during which a sleeper does not show rapid
eye movement; characterized by less dream activity than REM sleep.
Norm crystallization the convergence of the expectations of a group of
individuals into a common perspective as they talk and carry out activities
together.
Normal curve the symmetrical curve that represents the distribution of scores on
many psychological attributes; allows researchers to make judgments of how
unusual an observation or result is.
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Normative influence group effects that arise from individuals' desire to be liked,
accepted, and approved of by others.
Norms standards based on measurements of a large group of people; used for
comparing the scores of an individual with those of others within a well-defined
group.
Object permanence the recognition that objects exist independently of an
individual's action or awareness; an important cognitive acquisition of infancy.
Object relations theory psychoanalytic theory that originated with Melanie
Klein's view that the building blocks of how people experience the world emerge
from their relations to loved and hated objects (significant people in their lives).
Observational learning the process of learning new responses by watching the
behavior of another.
Observer bias the distortion of evidence because of the personal motives and
expectations of the viewer.
Occipital lobe rearmost region of the brain; contains primary visual cortex.
Operant behavior emitted by an organism that can be characterized in terms of the
observable effects it has on the environment.
Operant conditioning learning in which the probability of a response is changed
by a change in its consequences.
Operant extinction when a behavior no longer produces predictable
consequences, its return to the level of occurrence it had before operant
conditioning.
Operational definition a definition of a variable or condition in terms of the
specific operation or procedure used to determine its presence.
Opponent-process theory the theory that all color experiences arise from three
systems, each of which includes two "opponent" elements (red versus green, blue
versus yellow, and black versus white).
Optic nerve the axons of the ganglion cells that carry information from the eye
toward the brain.
Organismic variables the inner determinants of an organism's behavior.
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Organizational psychologists psychologists who study various aspects of the
human work environment, such as communication among employees, socialization
or enculturation of workers, leadership, job satisfaction, stress and burnout, and
overall quality of life.
Orientation constancy the ability to perceive the actual orientation of objects in
the real world despite their varying orientation in the retinal image.
Out-groups the groups with which people do not identify.
Overregularization a grammatical error, usually appearing during early language
development, in which rules of the language are applied too widely, resulting in
incorrect linguistic forms.
Pain the body's response to noxious stimuli that are intense enough to cause, or
threaten to cause, tissue damage.
Panic disorder an anxiety disorder in which sufferers experience unexpected,
severe panic attacks that begin with a feeling of intense apprehension, fear, or
terror.
Parenting styles the manner in which parents rear their children; an authoritative
parenting style, which balances demandingness and responsiveness, is seen as the
most effective.
Peace psychology an interdisciplinary approach to the prevention of nuclear war
and the maintenance of peace.
Perceived control the belief that one has the ability to make a difference in the
course or the consequences of some event or experience; often helpful in dealing
with stressors.
Perception the processes that organize information in the sensory image and
interpret it as having been produced by properties of objects or events in the
external, three-dimensional world.
Perceptual constancy the ability to retain an unchanging percept of an object
despite variations in the retinal image.
Perceptual organization the processes that put sensory information together to
give the perception of a coherent scene over the whole visual field.
Perceptual constancy the accurate perception of certain attributes of a dis- tal
object, such as its shape, size, and brightness, despite changes in the prox- imal
stimulus caused by variations in our viewing circumstances.
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Perceptual sensitivity an organism’s ability to detect a signal.
Performance orientation a learning orientation characterized by a focus on
presenting oneself well and appearing intelligent to others.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) the part of the nervous system composed of the
spinal and cranial nerves that connect the body's sensory receptors to the CNS and
the CNS to the muscles and glands.
Personality the unique psychological qualities of an individual that influence a
variety of characteristic behavior patterns (both overt and covert) across different
situations and over time.
Personality disorder a chronic, inflexible, maladaptive pattern of perceiving,
thinking, and behaving that seriously impairs an individual's ability to function in
social or other settings.
Personality inventory a self-report questionnaire used for personality assessment
that includes a series of items about personal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Personality types distinct patterns of personality characteristics used to assign
people to categories; qualitative differences, rather than differences in degree, used
to discriminate among people.
Phenotype the observable characteristics of an organism, resulting from the
interaction between the organism's genotype and its environment.
Phi phenomenon the simplest form of apparent motion, the movement illusion in
which one or more stationary lights going on and off in succession are perceived as
a single moving light.
Phobia a persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation that
is excessive and unreasonable, given the reality of the threat.
Photoreceptors receptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to light.
Physical development the bodily changes, maturation, and growth that occur in an
organism starting with conception and continuing across the life span.
Physiological dependence the process by which the body becomes adjusted to and
dependent on a drug.
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Place theory the theory that different frequency tones produce maximum
activation at different locations along the basilar membrane, with the result that
pitch can be coded by the place at which activation occurs.
Placebo control an experimental condition in which treatment is not administered;
it is used in cases where a placebo effect might occur.
Placebo effect a change in behavior in the absence of an experimental
manipulation.
Placebo therapy a therapy independent of any specific clinical procedures that
results in client improvement.
Population the entire set of individuals to which generalizations will be made
based on an experimental sample.
Positive punishment a behavior is followed by the presentation of an aversive
stimulus, decreasing the probability of that behavior.
Positive reinforcement a behavior is followed by the presentation of an appetitive
stimulus, increasing the probability of that behavior.
Possible selves the ideal selves that a person would like to become, the selves a
person could become, and the selves a person is afraid of becoming; components
of the cognitive sense of self.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) an anxiety disorder characterized by the
persistent reexperience of traumatic events through distressing recollections,
dreams, hallucinations, or dissociative flashbacks; develops in response to rapes,
life-threatening events, severe injuries, and natural disasters.
Preattentive processing processing of sensory information that precedes attention
to specific objects.
Preconscious memories memories that are not currently conscious but that can
easily be called into consciousness when necessary.
Predictive validity see criterion validity.
Prejudice a learned attitude toward a target object, involving negative affect
(dislike or fear), negative beliefs (stereotypes) that justify the attitude, and a
behavioral intention to avoid, control, dominate, or eliminate the target object.
Primacy effect improved memory for items at the start of a list.
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Primary reinforcers biologically determined reinforcers such as food and water.
Priming in the assessment of implicit memory, the advantage conferred by prior
exposure to a word or situation.
Problem solving thinking that is directed toward solving specific problems and
that moves from an initial state to a goal state by means of a set of mental
operations.
Procedural memory memory for how things get done; the way perceptual,
cognitive, and motor skills are acquired, retained, and used.
Projective test a method of personality assessment in which an individual is
presented with a standardized set of ambiguous, abstract stimuli and asked to
interpret their meanings; the individual's responses are assumed to reveal inner
feelings, motives, and conflicts.
Prosocial behaviors behaviors that are carried out with the goal of helping other
people.
Prototype the most representative example of a category.
Prototype theory a theory in which concepts and word meanings are formed
around average or typical values. Some prototype theories comprise feature
representations, but without the necessary and sufficient conditions of definitional
theory, but some are exemplar representations. In both cases, centrality in the
category is measured by closeness to an ideal or average. See also prototype.
Proximal stimulus the energies from the outside world that directly reach our
sense organs. See also distal stimulus.
Proximate cause the influences within an organism’s lifetime that led to its
particular traits or behaviors.
Proximity in perception, the closeness of two figures. The closer together they are,
the more we tend to group them together perceptually.
Psychoanalysis a theory of human personality development formulated by Freud,
based on assertions about unconscious conflict and early psychosexual
development; also the method of therapy that draws heavily on this theory. The
form of psychodynamic therapy developed by Freud; an intensive and prolonged
technique for exploring unconscious motivations and conflicts in neurotic, anxietyridden individuals.
Psychoanalyst an individual who has earned either a Ph.D. or an M.D. degree and
has completed postgraduate training in the Freudian approach to understanding and
treating mental disorders.
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Psychobiography the use of psychological (especially personality) theory to
describe and explain an individual's course through life.
Psychodynamic approaches approaches to personality and/or therapy that are
derived from psychoanalytic theory, which asserts that clinical symptoms arise
from unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood.
Psychogenic hypothesis the hypothesis that mental disorders result from
psychological causes.
Psychodynamic personality theories theories of personality that share the
assumption that personality is shaped by and behavior is motivated by powerful
inner forces.
Psychodynamic perspective a psychological model in which behavior is
explained in terms of past experiences and motivational forces; actions are viewed
as stemming from inherited instincts, biological drives, and attempts to resolve
conflicts between personal needs and social requirements.
Psychological assessment the use of specified procedures to evaluate the abilities,
behaviors, and personal qualities of people.
Psychogenic symptoms symptoms believed to result from some psychological
cause rather than from tissue damage.
Psychological intensity the magnitude of a stimulus as it is perceived, rather than
in terms of its physical attributes.
Psychometric approach to intelligence an attempt to understand the nature of
intelligence by studying the pattern of results obtained on intelligence tests.
Psychopathology the study of mental disorders, or a term for the mental disorder
itself.
Psychopathy see antisocial personality disorder.
Psychophysics an approach to perception that relates the characteristics of
physical stimuli to the sensory experiences they produce.
Psychosis loss of contact with reality, most often evidenced as delusions or
hallucinations.
Psychosurgery neurosurgery performed to alleviate manifestations of mental
disorders that cannot be alleviated using psychotherapy, medication, or other
standard treatments.
Psychotropic drugs medications that control, or at least moderate, the
manifestations of some mental disorders.
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Proximal stimulus the optical image on the retina; contrasted with the distal
stimulus, the physical object in the world.
Psychological dependence the psychological need or craving for a drug.
Psychological diagnosis the label given to psychological abnormality by
classifying and categorizing the observed behavior pattern into an approved
diagnostic system.
Psychologist an individual with a doctoral degree in psychology from an
organized, sequential program in a regionally accredited university or professional
school.
Psychology the scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental
processes.
Psychometric function a graph that plots the percentage of detections of a
stimulus (on the vertical axis) for each stimulus intensity (on the horizontal axis).
Psychometrics the field of psychology that specializes in mental testing.
Psychoneuroimmunology the research area that investigates interactions between
psychological processes, such as responses to stress, and the functions of the
immune system.
Psychopathological functioning disruptions in emotional, behavioral, or thought
processes that lead to personal distress or block one's ability to achieve important
goals.
Psychopharmacology the branch of psychology that investigates the effects of
drugs on behavior.
Psychophysics the study of the correspondence between physical stimulation and
psychological experience.
Psychosocial stages proposed by Erik Erikson, successive developmental stages
that focus on an individual's orientation toward the self and others; these stages
incorporate both the sexual and social aspects of a person's development and the
social conflicts that arise from the interaction between the individual and the social
environment.
Psychosomatic disorders physical disorders aggravated by or primarily
attributable to prolonged emotional stress or other psychological causes.
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Psychosurgery a surgical procedure performed on brain tissue to alleviate a
psychological disorder.
Psychotherapy any of a group of therapies, used to treat psychological disorders,
that focus on changing faulty behaviors, thoughts, perceptions, and emotions that
may be associated with specific disorders.
Puberty the attainment of sexual maturity; indicated for girls by menarche and for
boys by the production of live sperm and the ability to ejaculate.
Punisher any stimulus that, when made contingent upon a response, decreases the
probability of that response.
Racism discrimination against people based on their skin color or ethnic heritage.
Range the difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a set of
observations; the simplest measure of variability.
Random sampling a procedure in which every member of the population has an
equal chance of being picked to participate in a study.
Randomized clinical trial (RCT) a procedure for evaluating the outcome of
therapy, usually involving random assignment of participants to one or more
treatment groups or a no-treatment control group.
Ratio schedule a pattern of delivering reinforcements only after a certain number
of responses.
Rational emotive behavioral therapy a form of cognitive therapy associated with
Albert Ellis, in which the therapist actively challenges the patient’s irra- tional
beliefs.
Rationalization a mechanism of defense by means of which unacceptable
thoughts or impulses are reinterpreted in more acceptable and, thus, less anxietyarousing terms.
Reaction formation a mechanism of defense in which a forbidden impulse is
turned into its opposite.
Reality principle one of two major principles that Freud held governed psychological life. This principle is thought to characterize the ego, which is satisfied by
finding strategies that work in the real world. See also pleasure principle.
Reasoning the process of figuring out the implications of particular beliefs.
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Recall a type of retrieval that requires you to produce an item from memory in
response to a cue or question. See also recognition, recollection.
Recency effect in free recall, the tendency to recall items at the end of the list more
readily than those in the middle. See also primacy effect.
Receptive field for a particular cell in the visual system, the pattern of retinal
stimulation that most effectively causes the cell to fire. For some cells, this pattern
is defined solely in terms of a retinal location; for others, the most effective input
has a particular shape, color, or direction of motion.
Recessive a term for a gene that directs the development of a particular characteristic only if the corresponding gene on the other chromosome matches it—i.e.,
is the same allele.
Recognition a type of retrieval that requires you to judge whether you have
encountered a stimulus previously. See also recall, recollection.
Recollection recall of the context in which a certain stimulus was encountered. See
also recall.
Reconditioning in classical conditioning, the presentation of further reinforced
conditioning trials after a conditioned response (CR) has been extinguished.
Reflex A simple, stereotyped reaction in response to a stimulus (e.g., flexing a
limb in withdrawing from pain).
Refractory period the time after an action potential during which a neuron’s cell
membrane is unprepared for the next action potential.
Reinforcement schedule See schedule of reinforcement.
Reinforcer A stimulus delivered after a response that makes the response more
likely in the future.
Reliability The degree of consistency with which a test measures a trait or
attribute. See also test-retest reliability.
Reasoning The process of thinking in which conclusions are drawn from a set of
facts; thinking directed toward a given goal or objective.
Recall a method of retrieval in which an individual is required to reproduce the
information previously presented.
Recency effect improved memory for items at the end of a list.
Receptive field the visual area from which a given ganglion cell receives
information.
Reciprocal determinism a concept of Albert Bandura's sociallearning theory that
refers to the notion that a complex reciprocal interaction exists among the
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individual, his or her behavior, and environmental stimuli and that each of these
components affects the others.
Reciprocity norm expectation that favors will be returned-if someone does
something for another person, that person should do something in return.
Recognition a method of retrieval in which an individual is required to identify
stimuli as having been experienced before.
Reconstructive memory the process of putting information together based on
general types of stored knowledge in the absence of a specific memory
representation.
Reflex an unlearned response elicited by specific stimuli that have biological
relevance for an organism.
Refractory period the period of rest during which a new nerve impulse cannot be
activated in a segment of an axon.
Reinforcement contingency a consistent relationship between a response and the
changes in the environment that it produces.
Reinforcer any stimulus that, when made contingent upon a response, increases
the probability of that response.
Reliability the degree to which a test produces similar scores each time it is used;
stability or consistency of the scores produced by an instrument.
Representative sample a subset of a population that closely matches the overall
characteristics of the population with respect to the distribution of males and
females, racial and ethnic groups, and so on.
Resistance the inability or unwillingness of a patient in psychoanalysis to discuss
certain ideas, desires, or experiences.
Response bias the systematic tendency as a result of nonsensory factors for an
observer to favor responding in a particular way.
Resting potential the polarization of cellular fluid within a neuron, which provides
the capability to produce an action potential.
Reticular formation the region of the brain stem that alerts the cerebral cortex to
incoming sensory signals and is responsible for maintaining consciousness and
awakening from sleep.
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Retina the layer at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptors and converts
light energy to neural responses.
Retinal disparity the displacement between the horizontal positions of
corresponding images in the two eyes.
Retrieval the recovery of stored information from memory.
Retrieval cues internally or externally generated stimuli available to help with the
retrieval of a memory.
Reversal theory theory that explains human motivation in terms of reversals from
one to the other opposing metamotivational states.
Ritual healing ceremonies that infuse special emotional intensity and meaning
into the healing process.
Rods photoreceptors concentrated in the periphery of the retina that are most
active in dim illumination; rods do not produce sensation of color.
Rules behavioral guidelines for acting in certain ways in certain situations.
Sample a subset of a population selected as participants in an experiment.
Scientific method the set of procedures used for gathering and interpreting
objective information in a way that minimizes error and yields dependable
generalizations.
Self-actualization a concept in personality psychology referring to a person's
constant striving to realize his or her potential and to develop inherent talents and
capabilities. According to Abraham Maslow and some other adherents of the
humanistic approach to personality, the full realization of one’s potential. See also
hierarchy of needs.
Self-awareness the top level of consciousness; cognizance of the autobiographical
character of personally experienced events.
Self-concept a person's mental model of his or her abilities and attributes.
Self-control the ability to pursue a goal while adequately managing internal
conflicts about it, or to delay pursuing a goal because of other considerations or
constraints.
Self-efficacy the sense a person has about what things he can plausibly
accomplish.
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Self-esteem the relative balance of positive and negative judgments about oneself.
Self-fulfilling prophecies beliefs about how a person will behave that actually
make the expected behavior more likely.
Self-handicapping a self-protective strategy of arranges for an obstacle to one’s
own performance, so that failure can be attributed to the obstacle instead of one’s
own limitations.
Self-Monitoring Scale a personality measure that seeks to determine the degree to
which a person alters or adjusts their behavior in order to act appropriately in new
circumstances.
Self-perception theory the theory that we know our own attitudes and feelings
only by observing our own behaviors and deciding what probably caused them,
just as we do when trying to understand others.
Self-report data data supplied by the research participant describing herself
(usually, ratings of attitudes or moods, or tallies of behavior), rather than that
collected by the experimenter.
Self-schema an organized body of knowledge about the self and that shapes one’s
behaviors, perceptions, and emotions.
Self-theory Carl Rogers’s theory of personality, which emphasizes the individual’s
active attempts to satisfy his needs in a manner that is consistent with his selfconcept.
Semantic feature a basic semantic category or concept that cannot be decomposed
into smaller or less inclusive categories. According to several strict theories (e.g.,
Hume, 1739), the basic features are all sensory-perceptual.
Semantic memory memory for facts (including word meanings); these memories
are not tied to any specific time or place.
Semantic role the part that each phrase plays in the “who did what to whom”
drama described by a sentence. One word takes the role of being the cause of the
action, another, its effect, and so on.
Semicircular canals structures in the inner ear that contain the receptors for the
vestibular sense.
Semistructured interview an interview in which questions are posed in a
standardized yet flexible way.
Sensation seeking a predisposition to seek novel experiences, look for thrills and
adventure, and be highly susceptible to boredom.
Sensitive period an early period during the development of an organism when it is
particularly responsive to environmental stimulation. Outside of this period, the
same environmental events have less impact and may yield imperfect learning even
after lengthy exposure and practice.
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Sensorimotor period in Piaget’s theory, the period of cognitive development from
birth to about 2 years, in which the child has not yet achieved object per- manence.
Self-efficacy the set of beliefs that one can perform adequately in a particular
situation.
Self-esteem a generalized evaluative attitude toward the self that influences both
moods and behavior and that exerts a powerful effect on a range of personal and
social behaviors.
Self-fulfilling prophecy a prediction made about some future behavior or event
that modifies interactions so as to produce what is expected.
Self-handicapping the process of developing, in anticipation of failure, behavioral
reactions and explanations that minimize ability deficits as possible attributions for
the failure.
Self-perception theory the idea that people observe themselves in order to figure
out the reasons they act as they do; people infer what their internal states are by
perceiving how they are acting in a given situation.
Self-report measures the self-behaviors that are identified through a participant's
own observations and reports.
Self-serving bias a class of attributional biases in which people tend to take credit
for their successes and deny responsibility for their failures.
Semantic memories generic, categorical memories, such as the meanings of words
and concepts.
Sensation the process by which stimulation of a sensory receptor gives rise to
neural impulses that result in an experience, or awareness of, conditions inside or
outside the body.
Sensation seeking a predisposition to seek novel experiences, look for thrills and
adventure, and be highly susceptible to boredom.
Sensitive period an early period during the development of an organism when it is
particularly responsive to environmental stimulation. Outside of this period, the
same environmental events have less impact and may yield imperfect learning
even after lengthy exposure and practice.
Sensorimotor period in Piaget’s theory, the period of cognitive development from
birth to about 2 years, in which the child has not yet achieved object per- manence.
Sensory adaptation a phenomenon in which receptor cells lose their power to
respond after a period of unchanged stimulation; allows a more rapid reaction to
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new sources of information. The process by which the sensitivity to a stimulus
declines if the stimulus is presented for an extended period of time.
Sensory coding the process through which the nervous system represents the
qualities of the incoming stimulus—whether auditory or visual, for example, or
whether a red light or a green one, a sour taste or a sweet taste.
Sensory projection area see primary somatosensory projection area.
Sensory quality a distinguishing attribute of a stimulus (e.g., brightness, hue, or
pitch).
Separation anxiety a pattern of emotions and behaviors that reflect a child’s fear
when her mother (or other caregiver) leaves the room; usually observed in children
6 to 8 months of age.
Set point a general term for the level at which negative feedback tries to maintain
stability.
Shallow processing an approach to memorization that involves focusing on the
superficial characteristics of the stimulus, such as the sound of a word or the
typeface in which it’s printed.
Shape constancy the tendency to perceive objects as retaining their shapes despite
changes in our angle of regard that produce changes in the image pro- jected on the
retina.
Shaping the process of eliciting a desired response by rewarding behaviors that are
increasingly similar to that response.
Short-term memory see stage theory of memory.
Signal-detection theory the theory that perceiving or not perceiving a stimulus is
actually a judgment about whether a momentary sensory experience is due to
background noise alone or to the background noise plus a signal.
Signs in psychopathology, what the clinician observes about a patient’s physical or
mental condition. See also symptoms.
Similarity in perception, a principle by which we tend to group like figures,
especially by color and orientation.
Simple reaction time a measurement of how quickly someone can respond to a
stimulus.
Simultaneous color contrast the effect produced because any region in the visual
field tends to induce its complementary color in adjoining areas. For example, a
gray patch will tend to look bluish if surrounded by yellow and yellowish if
surrounded by blue.
Sine waves waves (e.g., sound waves or light waves) that correspond to the plot of
the trigonometric sine function.
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Single-cell recording a procedure of monitoring the moment-by-moment electrical
activity of an individual cell in the nervous system.
Situational attributions explanations of someone’s behavior in terms of the
circumstances rather than aspects of the person.
Size constancy the tendency to perceive objects as retaining their size, despite the
increase or decrease in the size of the image projected on the retina caused by
moving closer to or farther from the objects. See also unconscious inference.
Skin senses the group of senses, including pressure, warmth, cold, and pain,
through which we gain information about our immediate surroundings.
Slow-wave sleep a term used for both Stage 3 and Stage 4 sleep; character- ized by
slow, rolling eye movements, low cortical arousal, and slowed heart rate and
respiration.
Smooth muscles the nonstriated muscles controlled by the autonomic nerv- ous
system. Smooth muscles constrict the blood vessels to help regulate blood
pressure, and they line many internal organs.
Sensory memory the initial memory processes involved in the momentary
preservation of fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli. A type of memory included
in early stage models, preserving sensory in “raw” form. Iconic memory holds onto
visual inputs; echoic memory holds onto auditory inputs.
Sensory neurons the neurons that carry messages from sense receptors toward the
central nervous system.
Sensory physiology the study of the way in which biological mechanisms convert
physical events into neural events.
Sensory receptors specialized cells that convert physical signals into cellular
signals that are processed by the nervous system.
Serial position effect a characteristic of memory retrieval in which the recall of
beginning and end items on a list is often better than recall of items appearing in
the middle.
Serial processes two or more mental processes that are carried out in order, one
after the other.
Set a temporary readiness to perceive or react to a stimulus in a particular way.
Sex differences biologically based characteristics that distinguish males from
females.
Short-term memory (STM) memory processes associated with preservation of
recent experiences and with retrieval of information from long-term memory;
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short-term memory is of limited capacity and stores information for only a short
length of time without rehearsal.
Shyness an individual's discomfort and/or inhibition in interpersonal situations that
interferes with pursuing interpersonal or professional goals.
Signal detection theory (SDT) a systematic approach to the problem of response
bias that allows an experimenter to identify and separate the roles of sensory
stimuli and the individual's criterion level in producing the final response.
Situational variables external influences on behavior.
Social categorization the process by which people organize the social
environment by categorizing themselves and others into groups.
Social development the ways in which individuals' social interactions and
expectations change across the life span.
Social intelligence a theory of personality that refers to the expertise people bring
to their experience of life tasks.
Social-learning theory the learning theory that stresses the role of observation and
the imitation of behaviors observed in others.
Social-learning therapy a form of treatment in which clients observe models'
desirable behaviors being reinforced.
Social norms the expectation a group has for its members regarding acceptable
and appropriate attitudes and behaviors.
Social perception the process by which a person comes to know or perceive the
personal attributes of himself or herself and other people.
Social phobia a persistent, irrational fear that arises in anticipation of a public
situation in which an individual can be observed by others.
Social psychology the branch of psychology that studies the effect of social
variables on individual behavior, attitudes, perceptions, and motives; also studies
group and intergroup phenomena.
Social role a socially defined pattern of behavior that is expected of a person who
is functioning in a given setting or group.
Social support resources, including material aid, socioemotional support, and
informational aid, provided by others to help a person cope with stress.
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Socialization the lifelong process whereby an individual's behavioral patterns,
values, standards, skills, attitudes, and motives are shaped to conform to those
regarded as desirable in a particular society.
Sociobiology a research field that focuses on evolutionary explanations for the
social behavior and social systems of humans and other animal species.
Somatic nervous system the subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that
connects the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles and skin.
Stem cells cells that are found in early stages of an organism’s development and
are the precursors for all the other cells; stem cells have not begun to specialize or
differentiate.
Stereotype threat a mechanism through which a person’s performance is
influenced by her perception that her score may confirm stereotypes about her
group.
Stereotypes schemas that are often negative and are used to categorize complex
groups of people. Generalizations about a group of people in which the same
characteristics are assigned to all members of a group.
Stress the pattern of specific and nonspecific responses an organism makes to
stimulus events that disturb its equilibrium and tax or exceed its ability to cope.
Stress moderator variables Variables that change the impact of a stressor on a
given type of stress reaction.
Stressor an internal or external event or stimulus that induces stress.
Structuralism the study of the structure of mind and behavior; the view that all
human mental experience can be understood as a combination of simple elements
or events.
Superego the aspect of personality that represents the internalization of society's
values, standards, and morals. Superego in Freud’s theory, reaction patterns that
emerge from within the ego, represent the internalized rules of society, and come
to control the ego by punishment with guilt. See also ego, id.
Sympathetic division the subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that deals
with emergency response and the mobilization of energy.
Synapse the gap between one neuron and another.
Thalamus the brain structure that relays sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex.
327
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) a projective test in which pictures of
ambiguous scenes are presented to an individual, who is encouraged to generate
stories about them.
Theory an organized set of concepts that explains a phenomenon or set of
phenomena.
Theory of ecological optics a theory of perception that emphasizes the richness of
stimulus information and views the perceiver as an active explorer of the
environment.
Tolerance a situation that occurs with continued use of a drug in which an
individual requires greater dosages to achieve the same effect.
Top-down processing perceptual processes in which information from an
individual's past experience, knowledge, expectations, motivations, and
background influence the way a perceived object is interpreted and classified.
Traits enduring personal qualities or attributes that influence behavior across
situations.
Type A behavior pattern a complex pattern of behaviors and emotions that
includes excessive emphasis on competition, aggression, impatience, and hostility;
hostility increases the risk of coronary heart disease.
Type B behavior pattern as compared to Type A behavior pattern, a less
competitive, less aggressive, less hostile pattern of behavior and emotion.
Type C behavior pattern a constellation of behaviors that may predict which
individuals are more likely to develop cancer or to have their cancer progress
quickly; these behaviors include passive acceptance and self-sacrifice.
Unconditioned response (UCR) in classical conditioning, the response elicited by
an unconditioned stimulus without prior training or learning.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits
an unconditioned response.
Unconscious the domain of the psyche that stores repressed urges and primitive
impulses.
Unconscious inference Helmholtz's term for perception that occurs outside of
conscious awareness.
Validity the extent to which a test measures what it was intended to measure.
328
Variable in an experimental setting, a factor that varies in amount and kind.
Vestibular sense the sense that tells how one's own body is oriented in the world
with respect to gravity.
Weber's law is assertion that the size of a difference threshold is proportional to
the intensity of the standard stimulus.
Wellness is optimal health, incorporating the ability to function fully and actively
over the physical, intellectual, emotional, spiritual, social, and environmental
domains of health.
Wisdom expertise in the fundamental pragmatics of life.
Working memory a memory resource that is used to accomplish tasks such as
reasoning and language comprehension; consists of the phonological loop,
visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive.
Yerkes-Dodson law a correlation between task performance and optimal level of
arousal.
329
THE RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
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2010 Charles Stangor. This Textbook Is Available for Free at Open.Bccampus. Ca
3. The Cambridge Dictionary of Psychology. General Editor David
Matsumoto. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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Psychology and Life, 16-edition. Published by Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA.
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