Mechanics of Materials NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7 In this course, we concentrate on the analysis of deformation and internal forces of straight, slender members subjected to external loads. A member is slender if its cross-section dimensions are much less than the axial length. A slender member is called a rod if its primary function is to support axial loads, a shaft to transmit torque, and a beam to support transverse loads. Rod Shaft Beam 1 Mechanics of Materials NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7 A rod is a slender, uniform structure member used to support axial loads. In this lecture, we discuss how to characterize the material properties of a rod and how to analyze the deformation and axial forces of a rod and a structure consisting of rods. Spring Constant of a Rod A rod subjected to an axial force ๐ will behave like a linear spring if the change in length ๐ฟ is much smaller than its original (undeformed) length ๐ . Specifically, ๐ = ๐๐ฟ if ๐ฟ/๐ 1 . The ๐ ๐ฟ ๐ proportional constant ๐ is called the equivalent spring constant of the rod. The sign conventions used are: ๐ is positive for tensile and negative for compressive loads; ๐ฟ is positive for elongation and negative for contraction. A natural question arises: is ๐ a good measure of the stiffness of the material of which the rod is made? Q 1 Match the three steel rods with the lines in the ๐-๐ฟ plot. ๐ ๏ฌ ๏ช ๐ฟ ๏ซ Axial Stress and Strain The rod's spring constant depends on the material's stiffness and the rod's dimensions (i.e., original length ๐ and ๐/๐ด ๏ช๏ซ๏ฌ cross-sectional area ๐ด). If we plot ๐/๐ด vs ๐ฟ/๐, all three lines coincide. Define the (normal or axial) strain ๐ and (normal or ๐ฟ/๐ Fig. 1 axial) stress ๐ as ๐ = ๐ฟ/๐ and ๐ = ๐/๐ด, (1) respectively. In the above equation, ๐ indicates the deformation per unit length 2 Mechanics of Materials NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7 and ๐ the average internal axial force per unit cross-sectional area. The axial stress ๐ is positive (negative) if the rod is in tension (compression). The axial strain ๐ is positive (negative) if the rod is elongated (shortened). Note that ๐ is dimensionless and ๐ has the dimension of pressure. Tensile Test see ptt Hooke’s Law With the definitions of stress and strain, the results shown in Fig. 1 can be expressed as E E = . S ๐ = ๐ธ๐ (2) where the proportionality constant ๐ธ is called Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity. Equation (2) is known as Hooke’s law. Young’s modulus measures a material's stiffness, or ability to resist deformation. Most engineering structures are designed to undergo relatively small deformations. Within the range of the designated load, the structure obeys Hooke’s law. In this case, the deformation is proportional to the applied load, and after removing the applied load, the structure returns to its original configuration. Ex 1 Determine the spring constant of a uniform rod. Sol: Substitute Eq. (1) into Hooke’s law and rearrange terms to obtain ๐๐ ๐ธ๐ด (3) ๐ธ๐ด ๐ฟ ๐ (4) ๐ฟ= Equivalently, ๐= Hence, the spring constant of a uniform rod of length ๐ and cross-sectional area ๐ด is ๐ = ๐ธ๐ด/๐ 3 Mechanics of Materials NTU_ME CJLu Ex 2 Note#2 Axial Loading 4+ 3 = ๐น Determine the deformation of the rod shown 8 ๐ด ,๐ ๐ด ,๐ on the right. 2024/2/7 AN ๐น . 2 I B Sol: Divide the rod into two parts and draw the FBD’s. ๐น +๐น ๐น +๐น ๐ด ,๐ ๐น +๐น ๐น ๐น ๐น โณ - ๐น ๐ด ,๐ The elongation of the rod is the sum of that of the two parts (using Eq. (3)): ๐น +๐น ๐ ๐น๐ ๐ฟ= + ๐ธ๐ด ๐ธ๐ด DOTE Principle of Superposition - = F+ /silk +๐น ๐ ๐ + ๐ธ๐ด ๐ธ๐ด S = e (5) Equation (5) can be rewritten as ๐ฟ= ๐น๐ ๐ธ๐ด The above result indicates that the deformation due to the combined loads ๐น and ๐น is the sum of the deformation due to ๐น alone and that due to ๐น alone. This result implies a general principle - the principle of superposition. This principle states that the effect of a given combined loading on a structure can be obtained by determining the effects of the various loads separately and combining the results, provided that the following conditions are satisfied (Beer and Johnston): 1. Each effect is linearly related to the load that produces it. 2. The deformation resulting from any given load is small and does not affect the conditions of application of the other loads. We will use this principle repeatedly in this course. Rods with Continuously Varying Loads or Dimensions Ex 3 Determine the elongation of a uniform rod subjected to a uniformly distributed load ๐ as shown on the right. N(X) 4 jox / ๐ด, ๐, ๐ธ ๐ Mechanics of Materials NTU_ME CJLu ๐ Δ๐ฅ sidependent ๐ ๐ฅ N(X + 0x) Note#2 Axial Loading 11 2024/2/7 Sol: Consider a small element of length Δ๐ฅ at a ๐ ๐ฅ − ๐ Δ๐ฅ distance ๐ฅ from the fixed end as shown on the left. ๐ฅ Δ๐ฅ The elongation of this element is N(XX) While Ox A ๐ ๐ฅ Δ๐ฅ Δ๐ฟ = ๐ธ๐ด ๐ ๐ ๐ฅ X-0 ๐−๐ฅ where the axial force ๐ ๐ฅ is ๐ ๐ฅ = :it i ๐ ๐๐ฅ = ๐ ๐ − ๐ฅ Combining the above two equations yields Δ๐ฟ = ๐ ๐ − ๐ฅ Δ๐ฅ ๐ธ๐ด The total elongation ๐ฟ is the sum of all Δ๐ฟ's ๐ฟ = lim ๐ ๐−๐ฅ ๐ ๐ ๐๐ฅ = ๐ธ๐ด 2๐ธ๐ด Δ๐ฟ = → = 21x-Es ! = Alternatively, we can use the principle of superposition to solve this problem. The elongation Δ๐ฟ of the entire rod due to a concentrated load of ๐ Δ๐ฅ at ๐ฅ is ๐ Δ๐ฅ Δ๐ฟ = ๐ฅ ๐ Δ๐ฅ ⋅ ๐ฅ ๐ธ๐ด The total elongation due to all loads is ๐ฟ = lim → Δ๐ฟ = ๐ ๐ฅ๐๐ฅ ๐ ๐ = ๐ธ๐ด 2๐ธ๐ด Ex 4 Determine the elongation of the rod of smoothly varying cross-sectional area ๐ด ๐ฅ due to a ๐ ๐ธ, ๐ด ๐ฅ concentrated load ๐. Sol: The rod has a constant axial force, i.e., ๐ ๐ฅ = ๐ . The elongation of a small ๐ ๐ ๐ฅ element of length Δ๐ฅ at a distance ๐ฅ from the left end is Δ๐ฅ Δ๐ฟ = The total elongation is 5 ๐Δ๐ฅ ๐Δ๐ฅ = ๐ธ๐ด ๐ฅ ๐ธ๐ด ๐ฅ Mechanics of Materials NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7 ๐๐๐ฅ ๐ธ๐ด ๐ฅ ๐ฟ= (6) The above result is based on the formula ๐ฟ = ๐๐ฟ/๐ธ๐ด, which in turn is derived using the assumption that the stress is uniform, i.e., ๐ = ๐/๐ด over every cross-section. This assumption is not valid for a tapered rod. Hence, Eq. (6) gives satisfactory results only if the cross-sectional area changes smoothly. The left figure shows the stress distribution over a cross-section of a non-uniform rod. The stress over the cross section is not uniform. In this case, the average stress (๐ave = ๐/๐ด) we used in this lecture may not be a good indicator of the stress over the cross section because ๐ much larger than ๐ave . Force equilibrium · RB Statically Indeterminate Problems E ** may be P + RA = Constitutive · โ S, : Law Be = Ra Ex 5 (B&J CA2.3) Determine the stresses in portions ๐ด๐ถ and ๐ต๐ถ due D : = to the application of a load ๐ at point ๐ถ. & = 8, Sol: (I) Assume that point ๐ถ moves downward a distance ๐ due to the r application of ๐. The strains of portions ๐ด๐ถ and ๐ต๐ถ are respectively ๐ = ๐ and ๐ ๐ฟ =− ๐ ๐ฟ (7) Here, we adopt the sign convention that the normal strain is positive for elongation and negative for compression. The corresponding stress is positive for tensile and negative for compressive loads. The stresses in the two portions are determined by Hooke’s law, and the corresponding tensile forces are => => 6 - EA 8 Sc + p = E Sc (E EN) li 12 + = , 8 , = - co P Sc Mechanics of Materials NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading ๐น = ๐ธ๐ ๐ด = ๐ธ๐๐ด and ๐น ๐ฟ 2024/2/7 = ๐ธ๐ ๐ด = − ๐ธ๐๐ด ๐ฟ (8) Equilibrium of point ๐ถ requires that ๐น −๐น =๐ (9) Substitute Eq. (8) into Eq. (9) and solve for ๐ to obtain ๐= ๐๐ฟ ๐ฟ ๐ธ๐ด๐ฟ where ๐ฟ = ๐ฟ + ๐ฟ . Carrying this value into Eq. (8), we obtain ๐ ๐น ๐๐ฟ = and ๐ ๐ด ๐ด๐ฟ = = ๐น ๐๐ฟ =− ๐ด ๐ด๐ฟ (II) Let ๐ be the reaction at pin ๐ด. Remove the pin joint and apply the equivalent force ๐ as show on the left. By the principle of superposition, the SAL displacement of point ๐ด due to ๐ and ๐ is xRB ๐ ๐ฟ ๐๐ฟ ๐ฟ = − ๐ธ๐ด ๐ธ๐ด xP > - However, point ๐ด is fixed, i.e., ๐ฟ = 0, hence ๐ = find RB so compatibility that #2 & E ๐๐ฟ ๐ฟ ๐๐ฟ ๐ฟ Dividing the reactions by ๐ด yields the stress as ๐ = ๐ ๐๐ฟ = and ๐ ๐ด ๐ด๐ฟ = ๐ ๐๐ฟ =− ๐ด ๐ด๐ฟ Ex 6 (SP 2.2 B&J) The rigid castings ๐ด and ๐ต are connected by two 18-mm-diameter Est steel bolts ๐ถ๐ท and ๐บ๐ป and are in contact with the ends of a 38-mm-diameter aluminum rod ๐ธ๐น . Each bolt is single-threaded with a Sal sa < - pitch of 2.5 mm, and after being snugly fitted, the nuts at ๐ท and ๐ป are both tightened one- p # 7 = 0 H . Ite ****, eq The reaction at point ๐ต can be determined by the equilibrium equation as ๐ =๐ −๐ =− SB · Force FA Mechanics of Materials NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading · = 2 equil . Est Constitutive law Ste 2024/2/7 = e quarter of a turn. Knowing that ๐ธ is 200 GPa for steel and 70 GPa for aluminum, Sit determine the normal stress in the rod. = se Ast Sol: Casting ๐ด can be treated as fixed. Because of symmetry, the ๐น two steel rods ๐ถ๐ท and ๐บ๐ป are subjected to the same internal force ๐น and undergo the same deformation. Let ๐น be the compressive · Compatibilitfye ๐น axial force in the steel rods and ๐น the tensile axial force in the aluminum rod ๐ถ๐ท. The equilibrium of casting ๐ต requires that ๐น − 2๐น = 0 (10) ้ๆฏไธๅ้ไธๅฎ็ๅ้ก๏ผๅฟ ้่ ๆ ฎ้ๆกฟๅ่บๆ ็่ฎๅฝขใๅ ็บ็ตๆง (a) ็ๅฎๆดๆง๏ผ้ๆกฟๅ่บๆ ็่ฎๅฝขๆปฟ ่ถณ็นๅฎ็้ไฟๅผ–ๅน้ ๆน็จๅผใ ๅ่ๅทฆๅ๏ผ ๏ผa๏ผไปฃ่กจๅๅงไธๅๅ (b) ็ๆ ใๆๅพ็ๅนณ่กก็ๆ ๏ผc๏ผๅฏไปฅ ๐ฟ ๐/4 ๐ฟ ๆณๅๆฏๅ ๅฐ้ๆกฟ็งป้ค๏ผๆ่ฝๅณๆน ้ไปถ็่บๅธฝ1/4ๅ๏ผๅ ๆญคๅณๆน้ (c) ไปถๅๅทฆ็งปๅ๐/4๏ผๅ๏ผb๏ผ ๏ผ๐ไปฃ่กจ ่บ่ท๏ผ๏ผๆฅ่ๅฐๅณๆน้ไปถๅๅณ็งป ๅ๐ฟ ๏ผ้ๅไฝ็งป้ๅณๆฏ่บๆ ็ไผธ้ท้๏ผ ๏ผๅๆๅฐ้ๆกฟๅฃ็ญ๐ฟ ๅพ๏ผๆพๅ ฅๅ ฉ้ไปถ้๏ผๅ ๏ผc๏ผ๏ผใ ๐ฟ + ๐ฟ = ๐/4 (11) The load-displacement relations are ๐ฟ = ๐น ๐ ๐ธ ๐ด and ๐ฟ = ๐น ๐ ๐ธ ๐ด We now solve Eqs. (10)-(12) simultaneously and obtain the axial forces as ๐น = ๐ ๐ 2๐ + 4 ๐ธ ๐ด ๐ธ ๐ด 8 and ๐น = 2๐น (12) Mechanics of Materials NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7 Thermal Effects Changes in temperature produce expansion or contraction of structural materials, resulting in thermal deformations. Consider a homogeneous rod ๐ด๐ต resting freely on a smooth horizontal surface (Fig. 2.30). The elongation ๐ฟ of the rod is proportional to both the temperature rise Δ๐ and the length ๐ฟ of the rod. Define thermal strain as ๐ = ๐ฟ /๐ฟ Then ๐ = ๐ผ Δ๐ (13) where ๐ผ is a constant characteristic of the material, called the coefficient of thermal expansion. If the rod is subjected to both axial stress and temperature change, the strain in the rod is the sum of that due to the axial stress and thermal strain; that is ๐ (14) + ๐ผ Δ๐ ๐ธ ET Er Ex 7 Consider a rod of length ๐ฟ , Young’s modulus ๐ธ , and coefficient of thermal ๐= expansion ๐ผ. Determine the strain and stress induced by a temperature rise Δ๐ for the following two cases. (a) The left end of the rod is fixed while the right end is free. (b) Both ends of the rod are fixed. Sol: (a) The rod can expand freely. There is no stress in the rod. The deformation is due to the thermal expansion. Hence, ๐ = 0 and ๐ = ๐ = ๐ผΔ๐ (b) Because both ends are fixed, the total strain of the rod is zero. By Eq. (14), ๐ = −๐ธ๐ผΔ๐ 9 E o + = 20T - = 0 ExoT Mechanics of Materials NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7 where the negative sign indicates a compressive stress. This kind of stress due to a temperature change is called thermal stress. Alternatively, one can solve this problem by the principle of superposition (see the figure on the left). Because the right end of the rod cannot move, the thermal elongation ๐ฟ due to the temperature change must be pushed back by the reaction ๐. Obviously, ๐ผ Δ๐ ๐ฟ = ๐๐ฟ ๐ธ๐ด Hence, the compressive stress is ๐ = ๐/๐ด = ๐ธ๐ผΔ๐ (15) It is worth noting that (i) For a structure which can deform freely, a uniform temperature change throughout the structure will induce thermal strains but no thermal stresses. On the other hand, for a structure that has supports preventing free deformation, even a uniform temperature change will produce thermal stresses. (ii) The stress in a structure member should not exceed the designated allowable stress, ๐allow , which is usually much less than Young’s modulus. To ensure the thermal stress considered in case (b) to be less than ๐ ๐ผΔ๐ Take stainless steel, with ๐ผ = 17 , by Eq. (15), ๐allow ๐ธ 10 °C and ๐allow /๐ธ = 10 , as an example. The allowed temperature change is Δ๐ = 59 °C. Note that a relatively modest change in temperature can produce significant thermal stresses. Hence, temperature effects can be important in engineering design. 10 ๏ข Mechanics of Materials NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7 Q 2 For a (linear) statically determinate structure, uniform temperature changes in the members produce thermal strains but no thermal stresses. True or False Gere M of M, Fig. 2-21 Q 3 For a (linear) statically indeterminate structure, uniform temperature changes in the members may or may not produce thermal stresses. True or False Gere M of M, Fig. 2-22 Ex 8 (B&J 2.4) The rigid bar ๐ถ๐ท๐ธ is attached to a pin support at ๐ธ and rests on the 30mm-diameter brass cylinder ๐ต๐ท. A 22-mm-diameter steel rod ๐ด๐ถ passes through a hole in the bar and is secured by a nut which is snugly fitted when the temperature of the entire assembly is 20 °C. The temperature of the brass cylinder is then raised - to 50 °C while the steel rod remains at 20 °C. Assuming - that no stresses were present before the temperature T- T + OT change, determine the stress in the cylinder. Rod ๐ด๐ถ : steel, ๐ธ = 200 GPa , ๐ผ = 11.7 10 /°C , Cylinder ๐ต๐ท: brass ๐ธ = 105 GPa, ๐ผ = 20.9 10 /°C Sol: Let the elongations of rod ๐ด๐ถ and cylinder ๐ต๐ท be ๐ฟ Because bar ๐ถ๐ท๐ธ is rigid, ๐ฟ is related to ๐ฟ ๐ฟ by = 2.5๐ฟ and ๐ฟ , respectively. - ↑ - it wit ↓ # z (16) The deflection of cylinder ๐ต๐ท consists of two parts: the thermal expansion due to the temperature change and the contraction due to the compressive axial force ๐น Specifically, · NO · Tan Or O Soc (d = Sp . # , Force & ME + dz) O dzO &Ac 11 ( equil - 0 = (d , + dz) + FBDdz = 0 Constitutive law · 8ac Sop = : + LBP e e . ↑ eq . = I Mechanics of Materials NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading ๐ฟ The elongation ๐ฟ Compatibility · =๐ผ Δ๐ ๐ฟ − 2024/2/7 ๐น ๐ฟ ๐ธ ๐ด (17) is purely caused by the tensile axial force ๐น , ๐ฟ = ๐น ๐ฟ ๐ธ ๐ด (18) Moment equilibrium about point ๐ธ requires that 0.75๐น − 0.3๐น = 0 or ๐น = 0.4๐น (19) Substituting the above equation into Eq. (18) gives ๐ฟ = 0.4๐น ๐ฟ ๐ธ ๐ด (20) Substitution of Eqs. (17) and (20) into Eq. (16) results in an equation for ๐น 0.4๐น ๐ฟ ๐ธ ๐ด = 2.5 ๐ผ Δ๐ ๐ฟ − ๐น ๐ฟ ๐ธ ๐ด Rearranging terms gives ๐น =๐ผ Δ๐ ๐ธ ๐ด 0.16 ๐ฟ ๐ฟ ๐ธ ๐ด ๐ธ ๐ด +1 Carrying the values of the parameters into the above equation yields ๐น and the resulting compressive stress ๐ = ๐น ๐ด = 44.8 MPa 12 = 31.7 kN