The Nature and Elements of Communication
What is communication?
Communication is the process of transmitting information and common
understanding from one person to another (Keyton, 2011); an
interdependent process of sending, receiving, and understanding
messages (Dunn & Goodnight, 2011). Further, It pertains to the exchange
of information between two or more people, and it happens when one
encounters or observes a behavior (verbal or nonverbal) and gives
meaning to it—a meaning ideally similar to what is intended.
As an interdependent process of sending, receiving, and understanding
messages (Dunn & Goodnight, 2011), the steps are interlinked, continuous,
and dynamic, involving the following elements:
● The sender is the encoder or the source of the message. This
entity can be a person, a group of people, or an organization with
their own distinct characteristics in terms of age, race, gender,
values, experiences, and other traits.
● The sender’s message refers to the ideas and feelings encoded.
It may be in verbal form (words) or nonverbal symbols
(paralanguage, including pitch, tone, and volume; body language,
including gestures and facial expressions, posture, and eye
movement; physical distance to the receiver, and
appearance/clothing).
● The receiver is the decoder or the recipient of the message who,
likewise, has his or her own attributes.
● The channel, also called medium, is a vehicle used in message
conveyance. It is based on the form of delivery (verbal or
nonverbal) and the means used in delivering (face-to-face or
technology-mediated).
● Feedback pertains to the verbal or nonverbal responses to the
sender’s encoded signals. It gives information on how the
message is interpreted.
● Interference or noise relates to the factors that hinder the
recipient’s ability to send or receive messages. Serving as a
barrier to communication, it can be external (physical environment,
e.g., a loud party) or internal (psychological/mental interference,
e.g., biases and wandering thoughts; physiological, e.g.,
articulation problem; semantic, e.g., jargon and abstract ideas).
● Context is the situation and environment in which the
communication occurs. Its dimensions are physical (place, e.g.,
classroom), social (pertaining to the occasion and the people
involved, e.g., students in a class), and cultural (attitudes, beliefs,
and the practices of the senders and receivers).
Verbal and Nonverbal Communication and Their
Functions
Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
Every time you send a message, you expect it to be understood exactly as
you intended it to be. If this happens, the process of sharing ideas is
successful. However, it does not happen at all times. The communicators’
choice of communicating ideas, either verbally or nonverbally, affects the
clarity of the message. Knowing more about these choices can help one
decide on what to use.
Verbal communication is the use of sounds and words to impart one’s
thoughts or feelings. Though the concept encompasses both vocal (spoken
words) and nonvocal (e.g., writing, sign language), the focus is on the
former.
Largely associated with oral communication, it has these succeeding five
functions gleaned from several sources (Flores, 2016; “Functions of
Communication”, 2016; Nuss, 2014; Remoral, 2017; & Tenedero, 2016).
1. Regulation (Control) - The spoken language is used to control
one’s or other people’s behavior or activities. For example, a
teacher who gives students instructions on what to do says, “Raise
your hand if you have any questions.”
2. Social Interaction - A person speaks to create relationships, form
associations, develop intimacy, and maintain bonds and
connections with other people. A colleague encouraging a fellow
employee by saying, “Don’t worry. You can do this,” can be a case
of starting a friendlier camaraderie.
3. Motivation - This function concerns expressing one’s desires,
goals, inclinations, choices, preferences, likes and dislikes, and
needs and wants. Stating “I’d like to become a teacher” manifests
an aspiration.
4. Information - Verbal communication plays a major role in
disseminating information whether by asking for or giving
directions, instruction, or ideas.
5. Emotional expression - One communicates orally to show one’s
feelings and emotions. A person saying “I’m hurt” is voicing out
what he or she feels.
Nonverbal communication, which is as important as verbal communication,
is the conveyance of meaning by means of body language (e.g., gestures,
facial expression, eye contact, posture) or paralanguage (e.g., pitch,
volume, speaking rate) instead of spoken or written words. Specific
classifications of nonverbals include: proxemics (space), chronemics (time),
oculesics (eye movement), haptics (touch), kinesics (body movements,
gestures, facial expressions), objectics (clothing, ornaments, jewelry, other
artifacts), vocalics (voice), olfactorics (smell), colorics (colors), pictics
(pictures), iconics (signs/symbols).
Nonverbals have seven functions culled from Hahn and Paynton (2016)
and “Communication in the real world: An introduction to communication
studies” (2016, Chapter 4).
1. To replace (Replacement) - Actions can replace or substitute
speech. For instance, one can shrug shoulders instead of saying “I
don’t know” and wave hands instead of saying goodbye. It is
foremost then that one employs nonverbal forms of
communication with recognizable and nearly universal meanings
to avoid confusion. You may watch the video on 'Gestures around
the world".
2. Link
3. Links to an external site.
4.
5.
2. To repeat (Repetition) - Gestures duplicate and reinforce one’s
message. The nonverbal communication can either occur
simultaneously with the verbal or follow and repeat the word said.
For example, the act of nodding while saying yes is a restatement,
and so does pointing while giving directions. Like replacement
function, consistency in the meaning of both verbal and nonverbal
is important.
3. To complement (Complementation)
This nonverbal enhances and adds nuance to the meaning of a verbal
message. By way of illustration, one rubs one’s stomach when feeling
hungry or says “I passed the test” with a sarcastic tone. However, gestures
that aim to complement cannot be used alone or else they may be
misinterpreted.
4. To accent (Accentuation)
To accent is to emphasize certain parts of the verbal intent or the utterance.
It is often done by increasing voice volume, prolonging a word, moving
forward, and even widening the eyes. If the “very” in the line “I’m VERY
angry with you” is emphasized, it is likely louder. (Some authors regard
repetition, complementation, and accentuation as part of one function reinforcement.)
5. To regulate (Regulation)
Nonverbals can be used to control the flow of conversations. For instance,
to signal the beginning of an interaction, one must face the person, move
closer, or look at him or her directly. Conversely, looking at one’s watch
repeatedly is an indication that he/she has to go, and the other person must
stop talking.
6. To contradict (Contradiction)
A contradiction occurs when verbal and nonverbal messages contradict
each other. Saying “I’m all right” with a frown is an example of nonverbal
cues contradicting verbal statements.
7. To deceive (Deception) - Although this purpose is not
encouraged, nonverbal signals can be utilized to mislead the
listener. Gestures and actions supplement the message, therefore
making it believable. Remarks such as “I like it” as a compliment,
though not sincere, may sound convincing if they are said with
eagerness and a smile.
According to Albert Mehrabian, a psychologist known for his pioneering
work on nonverbal communication, when words and body language
contradict, one is inclined to believe the latter (Belludi, 2008). If this takes
place, movements or gestures may become barriers to a successful
exchange of ideas. Hence, a harmony between the verbal and the
nonverbal is crucial in attaining effective communication.
Mediated and Ethical Communication
Mediated Communication
Mediated Communication: interaction carried out by using information
communication technology, such as mobile phones, computers, and the
Internet. This means of sending/receiving messages can be synchronous
or asynchronous.
Emails, chat rooms, social networking sites, and other technologies have
chat rooms, and social networking sites have made communication for
personal and business reasons instant, speedy, convenient, and
far-reaching. However, this brand of communication has drawbacks.
Gestures, voice, tone, and other nonverbal signals that reinforce one’s
message is lost, thus making the meaning susceptible to misinterpretation.
Moreover, issues on confidentiality and trust, among others, surface (Chin,
2016).
Ethical Communication
The sender’s message can affect the receiver in a positive or negative way.
Hence, communication ethics are important. Ethics pertains to a set of
principles or rules for correct conduct as to what is right or wrong and what
makes something right or wrong.
Below are the basic principles of ethical communication (Hybels & Weaver,
2009; Wood, 2014). The first five are laid down by the National
Communication Association (NCA), an organization of American teachers
and public speakers. The sixth principle is echoed by Wood (2014), a
scholar and professor of communication and gender.
1. Strive to understand and respect others’ communications before
evaluating and responding to their messages.
2. Help promote communication climates of caring and mutual
understanding that protect the unique needs and characteristics of
individual communicators.
3. Condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity
4.
5.
6.
7.
through distortions, intolerance, intimidation, coercion, hatred, or
violence.
Commit yourself to the courageous expression of your personal
convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice.
Accept responsibility for the short-term and long-term
consequences of your own communication and expect the same
from others.
Avoid plagiarism—the presentation of the work of another person
in such a way as to give the impression that the other’s work is
your own.
Promote honesty, truthfulness, and accuracy as essentials to the
integrity of communication.
In brief, communication is ethical when it follows certain established
principles or rules of conduct. These principles promote respect, harmony,
and overall positive well-being of the communicator’s relationship with
others and the society in general.
Online Ethical Principles 1
Netiquette is a fairly recent coined word combining the words net which is a clipped or
shortened version of the word internet and etiquette which refers to the acceptable
conduct in specific contexts. Simply put, and as defined by Merriam-Webster Online
Dictionary, netiquette is the “etiquette governing communication on the internet.”
Module 1 Summary & References
Key Ideas:
● Communication is a process of transmitting and understanding
●
●
●
●
●
messages.
Verbal communication, associated with oral communication, is the
use of sounds and words in imparting messages, and this
communication type has five functions: regulation (control), social
interaction, motivation, information, and emotional expression.
Nonverbal communication is the conveyance of meaning through
body language or paralanguage instead of words, and this
communication type has seven functions: replacement, repetition,
complementation, accentuation, regulation, contradiction, and
deception.
Ethical communication follows certain established principles of
conduct. These principles - seven of them - include among others
the promotion of honesty, truthfulness, and accuracy as essentials
to the integrity of communication.
Mediated communication is an interaction carried out by using
information communication technology
In keeping with today’s new normal way of communicating – that is
virtual – there are etiquettes or skills to consider.
Communication in a Multicultural Setting:
Concepts
Communication in a Multicultural Setting: Intercultural
Communication and Its Related Concepts
Globalization and digital technology are two developments that ushered
interconnectedness among countries in terms of economy and
communication making people of different races and cultures to move
around and interact.
Communicators who fail to realize that people from different cultures may
not look, think, or act as they themselves do may run the risk of being
judged as insensitive, ignorant, or culturally confused (lacking an
understanding of cultural difference), who may pay a high price for cultural
misunderstandings that often lead to lost opportunities such as business
transactions, and increased level of tension between people during
meetings and social gatherings. Hence, cultural-difference awareness and
effective communication are necessary knowledge and skills to be able to
embrace cultural diversity – the existence of various cultural and ethnic
groups in a society.
Intercultural Communication and its Related Concepts
Intercultural communication is the process of interpreting and sharing
meanings with individuals from different cultures. Aside from the language,
intercultural communication gives emphasis on social attributes, thought
patterns, and cultures of different groups of people.
Intercultural communication has these following forms:
Intracultural Interracial
International
Communicati Communicati Communication
on
on
Interethnic
Communicati
on
Interaction
among
members of
the same
racial, ethnic,
or other
co-culture
groups
Communicatio
n with/among
individuals of
different ethnic
origins
Communicatio Interaction between
n with/among persons representing
individuals of different nations
different races
Culture is defined as the system of knowledge, beliefs, values, customs,
behaviors, and artifacts that are acquired, shared, and used by its
members during their daily living.
Within a culture, there are co-cultures composed of members of the same
general culture who differ in certain ethnic or sociological ways from the
parent culture. It is used to imply that no culture is superior and that some
may coexist within a culture or a place. It is a group that shares values,
norms, etc. but not defined by the place one lives, grows up, or one’s
nationality. African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Japanese Americans,
the disabled, gays and lesbians, cyberpunks, and the elderly (who are also
Americans) are just some of the co-cultures belonging to the same culture
(Forey & Lockwood, 2010).
In interacting with a dominant culture, co-culture members who may feel
like outsiders may use one of these strategies: assimilation,
accommodation, and separation.
Accommodation
Co-culture members
attempt to maintain
their cultural identity
while striving to
establish relationships
with members of the
dominant culture –
they may take on
values and beliefs of
the host culture and
accommodate them in
the public sphere
while maintaining the
parent culture in the
private sphere.
Assimilation
Separation
Co-culture members resist
Co-culture
interacting with members of
members attempt
the dominant culture
to fit in or join
with members of
the dominant
culture – they
give up their own
ways in an effort
to assume the
modes of
behavior of the
dominant culture.
E.g. A Filipino worker
who has to speak in
English in the US and
still speaks Cebuano
at home with fellow
Filipinos
Ideally, individuals must accept diversity to be able to process other
cultures’ influences and communicate with each other in a meaningful way.
If they are able to do so, then it is safe to say that they hold the view called
cultural relativism referring to the acceptance of other cultural groups as
equal in value as that of their own. On the other hand, the tendency to see
their culture and its practices as superior compared to others is
ethnocentrism.
There are four (4) variables to distinguish cultures.
1. Individualism vs. Collectivism - reveals how people define
themselves in their relationship with others
2. High Context vs. Low Context - reveals a culture’s communication
style
3. High Power Distance vs. Low Power Distance - measures the
extent to which individuals are willing to accept power differences
4. Masculine vs. Feminine - reveals attitudes toward gender roles;
the value placed by members on something, e.g. material
possession
The following tables contain the characteristics of each pair of variables.
Individualism
Collectivism
Individual goals are stressed
Group goals are stressed
Emphasis on “I”
Emphasis on “We”
Emphasizes developing a sense of The individual is expected to fit in
self
groups
Individual initiative & achievement Nurture group influence
E.g. Great Britain, United States,
Canada, France, & Germany
High Context
E.g. Arab, African, Asian & Latin
American
Low Context
Polite & indirect in relating to
others
Generally exhibit a more direct
communication style
Indirect and implicit messages
Direct, simple, and clear
messages
Less verbal communication
More verbal communication
Relies on nonverbal signs such as Less nonverbal communication
facial expression, gestures, tone of
voice, and body language
Polychronic (completing activities
simultaneously)
Monochronic (scheduling and
completing one activity at a time)
Use intuition and feelings to make Rely on facts and evidence to
decisions
make decisions
Collectivist (Cultural traditions
Individualist
shape the behavior and lifestyle of
group members)
Primary role of communication is
to build relationships
Primary role of communication is
to exchange information
E.g. Saudi Arabia, China, Mexico, E.g. United Kingdom, the United
Japan, and the Middle East
States, Germany, and Switzerland
High Power Distance
View power as a fact of life
Low Power Distance
View power should be used only
when legitimate
Apt to stress coercive or referent
Apt to employ expert or legitimate
nature of power
power
Superiors & subordinates are
likely to view each other
differently
Superiors & subordinates
emphasize their interdependence
by displaying preference for
consultation
Subordinates are quick to defer
(submit to another’s wishes) to
superiors
Subordinates will even contradict
their bosses whenever necessary
E.g. Saudi Arabia, India, Malaysia
Masculine
Members value male
aggressiveness, strength, and
material symbols of success
E.g. Israel, Sweden, and the United
States
Feminine
Members value relationships,
tenderness in members of both
sexes, and a high quality of life
Confront conflicts head-on
Apt to compromise and negotiate
to resolve conflicts
Likely to use a win-lose conflict
strategy
Seeking win-win solutions
E.g. Japan, Italy, Germany Mexico
& Great Britain
E.g. Sweden, Norway,
Netherlands, Thailand, Chile
To reduce the strangeness of strangers, communicators have to try doing
away with their biases - their preconceived opinions not based on reason
or experience - and stereotypes - the fixed images/ideas, labels when they
communicate with individuals having different cultures and bear in mind
that their culture is not superior than that of others.
Cultural Differences among Countries including
Registers and Language Varieties
Cultural Diversity
1Cultural Diversity is the existence of a variety of cultural groups within a
society. The diversity ranges from ethnicity, race, religion, language, values,
traditions, beliefs, behaviors, rules of conduct, and others.
2 “Culturally diverse” is often used interchangeably with the concept of
“multiculturalism.
According to Shah (2017), people can have better interpersonal dialogue
and communicate more on a personal level when they know about the
different cultural backgrounds of others. Knowing cultural differences is
helpful in understanding other culture's uniqueness (Bovee & Thill, 2013).
These differences include, among others, contextual differences.
A. Contextual Differences
This relates to communication styles usually evident in the way business
people approach decision-making, problem-solving, negotiations,
interactions within an organization, and socializing outside the workplace.
For example, people in low-context cultures tend to be more direct and
focus on results, while those from high-context may be more indirect and
emphasize building and protecting relationships.
B. Social Differences
1. Concept of Time
Americans are time conscious; Indians and Filipinos have this norm of
arriving late.
2. Future Orientation (preference towards past, present, or future)
Future-oriented cultures, such as the US are more invested in long-term
goals, compared to present-oriented cultures like India and China.
3. Manners
Winking and whistling in public are normal in the Philippines but
inappropriate in India.
4. Roles and Status
People in China are addressed according to their official titles, e.g.
Manager, but in the US respect towards top managers is shown by
addressing them as Mr/Ms. Roberts
5. Attitudes towards Work
East Asian workers are happier and more successful when they have a
good relationship with colleagues and supervisors, while North Americans
thrive when they enjoy gratifying job assignments and organizational
policies.
6. Openness and Inclusiveness
Filipinos, known for their hospitality, welcome foreigners while some Hong
Kongers tend to show biases and racial discrimination against other
cultures.
C. Nonverbal Differences
More explicit differences can also be seen in nonverbal communication.
Here are some examples:
● Placing hands in pockets is disrespectful in Turkey while bowing
shows rank in Japan.
● Distant cultures such as Northern Europe, the US, and other
western cultures tend to keep more personal space.
● Warm cultures such as the Middle East and South American
welcome and accept close proximity.
E. Age Differences
Some countries like the United States support their youth which signifies
vibrance, strength, energy, potential, and innovative ideas. Other cultures
such as Singapore value age and seniority which earns more respect and
freedom.
F. Language Differences
Different varieties of English are used in various parts of the world.
American English (AmE) is spoken by about two-thirds of Americans who
live in the United States. British English (BrE) is spoken mainly in the
United Kingdom. Australian English (AuE) is used in Australia. Also,
Philippine English (PE) is a variety of English “nativized legitimately” in the
Philippines. It is used by Filipinos in different fields, such as science and
technology, judiciary and legislature, bureaucracy, and scholarly discourse
(Dayag, 2012). Each variety has a distinct vocabulary, grammar, and
registers
1. Registers / Level of Formality
Registers refer to the level and style of speaking and writing appropriate for
different situations. Registers are determined by social occasion,
relationships, context, context, purpose, and audience. For the English
language, there are five registers
a. Frozen/Static
The language does not change, e.g. National Anthem
b. Formal
The language follows an accepted & prescribed format, e.g. business
meetings, academic papers, lectures.
c. Consultative
The language is less formal and the context involves one with specialized
knowledge or an expert who is consulted or can give advice.
d. Casual
The language is conversational – maybe informal with slang and
contractions, e.g. chit-chat & text messages between friends.
e. Intimate
The language is for private communication used between lovers or very
close family and friends, e.g. inside pet names, inside jokes, terms of
endearment.
Not all languages in different cultures may have these five registers. For
instance, the Korean language seems to have four speech levels: Formal
and Polite, Formal and Casual, Informal and Polite, Informal and Casual
(https://www.sayjack.com/korean/learn-korean/honorific-speech-and-speec
h-levels-in-korean/)
2. Language Variety
Language varieties include vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling, and even
grammatical structures. The following are some differences in terms of
vocabulary and spelling.
● Vocabulary
Examples:
estafa (Phil. English) - criminal deception intended to result in financial or
personal gain
swindle or fraud (American English)
booze (Australian English)
alcohol (British English)
line (American English)
queue (British English)
● Spelling
Examples
centre, mould (British English)
center, mold (American English)
Language Varieties
Varieties of English
In 1985, Indian linguist Braj Kachru (1990 in Kilickaya, 2009)
developed the three concentric circles that group the varieties of English in
the world (click on the link for the image). First, the inner circle shows the
English used as the mother tongue or first language in the US, UK,
Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Second, the outer circle shows
English used as a second language in countries such as Singapore,
Malaysia, India, and South Africa. Third, the expanding circle shows
English used as a foreign language in countries like Japan, China, Russia,
and Brazil. In which circle does the Philippines belong?
Different varieties of English are used in various parts of the
world. American English (AmE) is spoken by about two-thirds of Americans
who live in the United States. British English (BrE) is spoken mainly in the
United Kingdom. Australian English (AuE) is used in Australia. Also,
Philippine English (PE) is a variety of English “nativized legitimately” in the
Philippines. It is used by Filipinos in different fields, such as science and
technology, judiciary and legislature, bureaucracy, and scholarly discourse
(Dayag, 2012). Each variety has a distinct vocabulary, grammar, and
registers.
Language varieties include vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling,
and even grammatical structures. In conversing and writing, the speaker or
writer needs to situate his or her communication style to cater to the needs
of the audience according to context, purpose, and the level of formality of
situations.
Vocabulary, Spelling, Pronunciation, and Grammar
British English and American English have been considered the
standard language and used in various communication purposes. However,
with the advent of glocalization, many regional and dialectal variations have
been recognized albeit each carries its own systematic and rule-governed
features. English is now used as a first language, a second language, and
a foreign language in the US, Singapore, and China, respectively, as
illustrated in Kachru’s concentric circles.
Vocabulary
Having emerged from the dialects and vocabulary of Germanic
peoples—Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—who settled in Britain in the 5th
century CE, English today is a constantly changing language that has been
influenced by a plethora of different cultures and languages, such as Latin,
French, Dutch, and Afrikaans (Crystal, 2020).
American English (AmE) and British English (BrE) have interesting
variants, especially in vocabulary, as illustrated in the examples below.
AmE
BrE
baggage
luggage
line
queue
movie
film
Australian English (AuE) is known to have aboriginal languages,
abbreviations, and diminutive words. Words found in the Oxford English
Dictionary include mugaccino (a cappuccino coffee served in a mug) and
lolly water (a weak/non-alcoholic drink). The following are some AuE
words and their BrE counterparts.
AuE
BrE
booze
alcohol
chalkie
teacher
dunny
toilet
Philippine English (PE) is another variety of English used in the
Philippines. In June 2015, the Oxford English Dictionary included 40
Philippine English terms and expressions (Quismundo, 2015). Some of
these words include balikbayan, bahala na, barangay, buko, comfort room,
halo-halo, mani-pedi, pandesal, sinigang, suki, and utang na loob. Below
are more examples.
Philippine English
Meaning
barkada
group of friends
estafa
criminal deception
kikay
flirtatious woman
sari-sari store
a small neighborhood store selling
a variety of goods
Filipinism or Pinoy English is a set of “adopted” or “borrowed” English
words and phrases poorly translated from common Tagalog expressions
(see the examples below). These are understood Filipinos, but using them
to communicate with native English speakers can lead to misinterpretation;
hence, appropriate English expressions must then be used to avoid
confusion.
Filipinism
Appropriate English Expression
Go here.
Come here
Open /Kill the light
Turn/Switch on/off the light
For a while
Please wait one moment./ Wait a
minute. / Wait a second.
Next next week
The week after next
Fall in line
Get in line.
Spelling
British English and American English have different ways of
spelling. Particularly, British English commonly uses double l (e.g., fuelled),
ou (e.g., humour), -re (e.g., centre), -yse (e.g., analyse), and -ence (e.g.,
defence). In formal written communication, one spelling form is preferred
over the other depending on the academic institution’s guideline or format
style. Nevertheless, the consistency of spelling is important.
AmE
BrE
check
cheque
mold
mould
tire
tyre
Pronunciation
Many words in English have variant pronunciations since native
speakers from countries like the US, UK, Australia, and Canada speak
differently. Below are the American and British pronunciations of a few
simple words.
Word
AmE
BrE
garage
garáge
gárage
civilization
civilization / I/
civilization /aI/
laugh
laugh /ae/
laugh /a/
Grammar
Some differences between American and British varieties of
English are observed in terms of grammar.
●
The past participle of some verbs (e.g., spoil, burn, and dream)
have variant spelling
- My brother learned to play DOTA. (BrE uses the word learnt.)
- The pants fit her perfectly. (BrE uses fitted.)
● Choice of preposition (e.g., “on the weekend” instead of at),
adjectives, and adverbs (e.g., real instead of really) as well as tags
differ.
- I thought it was a real good movie. (BrE prefers using really.)
- I haven’t talked to my brother in three years. (BrE prefers using
for.)
●
AmE prefers to use simple past tense over present perfect tense,
unlike BrE.
- They went to Camiguin for their summer vacation. (BrE prefers
using have gone.)
- Did you try the Lechon in Cebu? (BrE prefers using have you
tried.)
Language Registers
Registers in Spoken and Written Language
Registers refer to the level and style of speaking and writing
appropriate for different situations. The way you talk to your parents and
teachers, for instance, differs from the way you converse with your close
friends and acquaintances. Similarly, writing a personal blog or cover letter,
compared to an advanced composition or research paper, requires a
different style, format, and content. One cannot simply say, “What’s up?” to
a department chair or write “Respectfully yours” to a classmate unless a
certain level of relationship is established.
Registers are determined by social occasions, relationships,
context, purpose, and audience. Registers range from formal to informal
levels (Young, 2012). These are the following:
Kind of Registers
Frozen/Static
Description
Examples
The language never
a wedding vow, a
changes and is often
national anthem, the
learned and repeated by
Bible, the Lord’s Prayer
rote.
P: Now I pronounce
you husband and wife.
Formal
The language is formal
for settings.
business meetings,
lectures
It often follows the
academic/scientific
prescriptive (commonly papers, speeches,
accepted) format.
school lessons, court
proceedings
It has fewer
contractions, has
I: What are your
complete sentences,
qualities that will be
and may include some beneficial for our
technical/academic
company?
vocabulary.
Consultative
The language is less
superior-subordinate
formal compared to the
employer-employee
formal register.
doctor-patient
In this context, one
counselor-patient
speaks with someone
who has specialized
teacher-student
knowledge, an expert
D: Come in. What
who can give advice.
seems to be the
The speaker likely
problem?
addresses the expert by
a title, such Dr., Mr.,
Ms., Atty.
Casual
The language is
conversational,
composed of vernacular
speech like in text
messages.
The sentences have a
loose structure, and
slang and contractions
are observed.
Intimate
buddies, cliques,
teammates, chats,
personal blogs
A: Hey, I heard you're
dating this newbie. You
can’t be serious.
The language is for
lovers
private communication
husband and wife
used between lovers or
close family and friends. close family members
It includes pet names,
words of endearment,
and inside jokes.
A: Hi babe, wanna hang
out?
Registers in writing discourse are more challenging since
feedback is not immediate. The writer must use appropriate phrases and
rules suitable for particular situations and target readers.
Module 2 Summary & References
Key Ideas:
● Culture is the system of knowledge, beliefs, values, customs,
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behaviors, and artifacts that are acquired, shared, and used by its
members during daily living.
Co-cultures are composed of members of the same general
culture, who differ in some ethnic or sociological way from the
parent culture.
Assimilation is an attempt to fit in or join with members of the
dominant culture.
Accommodation is an attempt to maintain one’s cultural identity
while one tries to establish relationships with members of the
dominant culture.
Resistance or separation is a strategy used when members of a
co-culture resist interacting with members of the dominant culture.
Cultural diversity is the quality of being diverse or varied cultures.
Intercultural communication is the process of interpreting and
sharing meanings with individuals from different cultures.
The forms of intercultural communication include: intracultural,
interethnic, interracial, and international.
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to see your one’s culture as
superior to all others.
Cultural relativism is trying to understand the behavior of other
groups on the basis of the context in which the behavior occurs
rather than from your own frame of reference (Forey and
Lockwood, 2010).
The variables used to distinguish culture are individualism and
collectivism; high- and low-context communication styles; high and
low power distances; and masculine and feminine cultures.
The word culture can be categorized into linear-actives (i.e., doing
one thing at a time), multi-actives (i.e., multitasking), and reactives
(i.e., prioritizing courtesy and respect).
Cultural contexts include the following:
1. Contextual differences (i.e., low and high contexts)
2. Legal and ethical differences
3. Social differences (e.g., attitudes toward work and
success, roles and status, manners, concept of time,
future orientation, openness, and inclusiveness)
4. Nonverbal differences
5. Age differences
6. Gender differences