hen Kate L. Turabian first put her famous guidelines 10 paper, she
could hardly have imagined the world in wh1cb todays students
would be conducting researcb. Yet while the ways in whlch we research
and compose papers may have changed, the fundan1entals remain the
same: writers need to have a strong research question, construct an evidence-based argument, cite their sources, and structure their work m a
W
logical way. A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertotions-also known as "Turabian"-re mains one of the most popular books
for writers because of its timeless focus on achieving these goals.
Part 1 covers every step of the research and writing process, including
d.rafting and revising. Part 2 offers a comprehensive guide to the two methods of Chicago-style source citation: notes-bibliography and author-datc.
Part 3 gcts into matters of editorial style and the correct way to present
quotations and visual material.
Through eight decades and millions of copies, A Manual for Writers has
belped generations shape their ideas into compelling research papcrs. This
new edition will continue to be the gold standard for college and graduace
students in virtually al! academic disciplines.
OF RES EAR CH
PAP ERS , TH ESE S,
Over
9 Million
Sold
AN D DIS SER TAT ION S
A Manual for Writers of
Research Papers, Theses,
and Dissertations 1
~
Chicago Style for Students and Researchers
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The Chicago Gú1de to fact
Chec~ini;
Student s Guo!c ln 'l,r,t,nl,l
C11líel!é Po'lp•·rt
Chri~!Of'hl'' l!o,var,/
Revised by
Wayne G. Booth,
Gregory G Colomb,
How ló Wril"' .s BA The,15
ChorlrJ l / son
Joseph M. Williams,
T e W•,te,·, P •et
H< 1rn „ rd
Joseph Bizup,
William T. FitzGera1d,
and the University
of Chicago Press
Editonal Staff
The Unil11rsity of Chica&o Prus
Chicago and London
Contents
rot110n, nt 1h1s book hav~ been adapted from Th• c,aft o) R<-searrh, •Lh Pd11ion, by Wayne c Booth,
A NOil! lo Students lU
Grego"' G Colomb, Joseph M Williams, Joseph Btzup, and WilliamT fll%Gerald, O 199, 2003, 2008
Prnface xlil
~016 byThe Uruven;tty of Chicago; and The 1.hica90 /.loni,al Of Style. 171h „d,uon, O ,017 bvThe
Uruve~ity of Clucago
Part I
The Un1vers1ty of Chic;go Press, Crucago 60637
Research and Writing
The Un1verS1ty of Chicago l'ress, Ltd., London
~
O 2007, 2013, 2018 byThe University of Cltirago
Wuyn" C Booth, Gregory G Colomb, Joseph M Willlami.,
Ali ngl,15 reser.·ed. No p.111 of th,s book rnay be used or repmduced 1n any manner whatsoever
w,útout wrmen pem1lss1on, excepr m the case n bnel quotaoons 1n cntical arudl.'s and re•:i<'WS Fot
mo1e llllormauon, conuct the U01v„1sity of Chlca1t0 P,ť55, t
E t«h $t, Cluu~. ll 6o6J7
P\lblisl,ed 2<118
Pnnted ín Lh• Un,ted Sutes c,f Ameru;3
Jo,;eph Bizup, and William T l'it,:Gerald
•n
Overview of Part I J
1
What Research ls and How Researchers Think about lt
1 ,1
17 ,~ 25 7q 23 22 21 20 19 IO
ISBN<13: 978-0-126-4<>4-42
~
(doth)
s
What Research ts
1 .2
How R~searchers Thtnk ahout Th.-,r Alms
1.3
Con~rsíng with Your R<'.JŮt.'t~
ISBN, I 3 978-o-·t26-4JOS7 7 (pape1'
IS11N,i3: 978-0-226 ,<3o6o-7 (e,hookt
2
DOi h11ps//do1.org/10-7~chm1go/978o2.16.JJo6a7 001 0001
Ltbr,ary o! Congress C~talogmg in-Vubhcaoon Data
N,mes Turabian, Kare I •uthor I Boolh, WAynr, C, orhror I Colomb, Glt'&O,Y C., ~dllor.111/illi.,~.
Joseph M. e<litor I 81:>up, Jose'ph 1966- editor I Fuz("..,ra]d William T, edJtor
1\lle A m&nual (or wnk~ ot res.earch pape1s, thi,ses, ,nd d1sseruuons Chioigo Style for srudena
and rese„rchers/ Kate L Turnblan, n,,1sed by \'hyne C Booth Gri:gory G. Ca\omb,/oseph M Wil
bams, J05eph BIZUp, Wtlltam T f1tzCerald, and the University of Ch1c,1go Pre.ss edi1orial sta U
Othl'l uůes: OUcago guldes lo Wnlmg. edmng,. nd publishing.
[J~cnpoon Nmlh ed11.1on. J Clucago, London . Tit„ Un1.-e1s1ty oí Ch1',1go Press, 201& I Series Clncago
3
gu1des to wnting. ~d1ung. ,nd publish,ng I lnclud~• IJtbltograph,cal referenc•• and index
ldenti~e,s LCCN 201:,o.i7f>20 J ISBN 91So21649,4.u~ (clolh ..Jk. Jl'lper) t ISBN 9;8<m6,i30577 (pbk Alk
pap.r/ I ISBN 978o226,i3oóo7 (e•bookl
SubJttt•· LCSH D:ssen,J!ions, 11cadem1c-flandbook.J. manuals, etc, I Aettdem,c wnting-Handboob,
tnanuals. etc.
Deflnlng a Project: Toplc, Questlon, Problem, Worlcing Hypothesls
2.1
find a Quesoon in YourTop,c
2 .2
lJnderstanding Research Problems
2 .3
Pmpos" a Workmg HypothcMs
2.4
eu,ld a SLoryboard to Pian and Gu1de Your Wo1k
2.5
Jom or Orgamze a Wnung Group
10
Finding Useful Sources 2s
3.1
Three Kinds of Sources and The1r Uses
3 .2
Search for Sources Systemaocally
3.3
Evaluate Sources for Relevance and Reliabthty
3.4
l.ook beyond the Usual Kinds c,f Reterences
3.5
Record Your Sources fully, Accurately, and llppropnately
Cla,,sl6canon LCC LB,309 T8 aor8 j DDC8ol:S-Oó/6376-dc23
LC ,ecord ava.ůable at h11ps//km loc gov/1017047620
'flt!S 11apei mttlS t!u> rf'qu11„rr,ents oí ANSl/tllSO Z39-'111• 19qz (Pennanenc~ 01 raper)
4
Engaging Vour Sources 38
4 .1
Read Generously 10 Undersra.nd. Then Cntically tn Engage
4. 2
Take Notes Systemat1u1lly
4.3
Toke Useful Notes
v
4.4
4. S
Rl!View Your Prog1ess
10
Writing Your final lntroduction and Concluslon
10.1 Draft Your nn~I tntroduction
M~nage Moments of Norma! Aruoety
10.2 Dr aft Yo11r Fina! Conclusion
5
10.3 Write Your ntle Last
Constructlng Your Argument Sl
5.1
What.1 Research AJiUment Ill and ls Not
5.2
Bwld Your Argument around An,:wers 10 Re•cl~rs' Que,u01is
11
Revising Se.ntcnces 113
5.3
Tum Your Workmg Hypothe<ts mto a Claun
11.1 Focus on Lhe Fir&t Seven or Elght Words of a Sentence
5.4
A~semble the Elements ol Your Argumenl
11.2 Diagnos. What You Read
5.5
Prefe1 Argumems Based on Ev1d~nce to Argum,•nt!. Bes~d on Warranl,;
11.3 Choost- Lhe Rlght Word
Assemble an Algumenl
11.4 Polish lt Up
5.6
11.5 Cive h Up and Tum lt ln
6
Plannlng a First Draft 66
G.1
AVoid Unhelpful Plans
6,2
c,..ate a Pian That M~t-ts Your Readers' Needs
6.3
nle Away Leftove1s
12
Learning from Comtnents on Your Paper 124
12.1 Tura Kmds of Fe,;dback AdV1ce and Data
12.2 Find C~nera\ Prlnaples in Specilk Comm„nts
12.3 Tolk with Your Reader
7
,
Draftlng Your Paper 75
7,1
Draft in the Way That feels Most Ccmfortable
13
Presenting Research in Altemative Forums 121
13.1 Pian Your Oral Presentanon
7.2
De\lelop Effecti"" Wnling Hablts
7.3
Keep Yourself on 1hck through Headmgs and >,:,e r~nns
13.2 Design Your Presentauon to 81? 1.!stťned To
7.4
Quote, Paraphrase, ,nd Summanze Appropnately
13.3 Pian Your Poster Pre:;enlation
7.5
lntegrate Quotanons into Your Text
7.6
Use Footnotes and Endnoti,s /ud1c1ously
7,7
Show Hcw Compla or Detaued EVidence 1s Reh,v.m1
7.8
l!t- Open to S11rp11ses
7.9
Guard against tnadvertent Plagíarism
13.4 Pian Your Confet~nce Proposal
14
On the Spirit of Research 134
Part li
Source Citation
7.10 Guard against lnappropriat<J A!<s,stance
7.11 Work Through Chronic Procrastmauon and WritPJ 'I Black
15
8
General lntroduction to Citatlon Practlces
139
15.1 Reasons for Ciung Your Sources
Prese.ntlng Evidence ln Tables and Figuru 86
8.1
Chaose Verba! or Vt.sual Rl'J)ret<'ntanons ofYour D,,111
1S.2 The Requirements of Citaúon
8 .2
Choose the Most Effc:tllvr Graphic
1S.3 1wo Citauon Styles
8.3
Design Tables and rigure!
15.4 Electronic Sources
8.4
Ccmmurucate Dota lthically
15.5 Prepat1t1l011 of Cltauons
15.6 Cltauon Mrsnagi,mtnt Tools
9
Revlslng Your Draft 102
9,1
Chcck for Blmd Spol& m Your Argument
16
Notes-Bibllography Style: The Basic Form 149
92
Check Your !ntroducuon, Conclusion, and Clasn.
16.1 Basic l'attems
9.3
Make Sure the Body ofYour Repon 11; Coherent
16.2 Bibliographlcs
9.4
Checlc Your Paragraphs
16.3 Notes
9,5
Let Your Drali Cool, Thtn J>;J1aph1as„ lt
16 4 Shon ,.,, m• for Not..,;
106
17
Notes-Blbliography Style: Citing Specific Types of Sources 169
21
Punctuatlon 305
17.1 !looks
21.1 Penod~
l7 .2 /011mal Artides
21.2 Comm,11
17.3 Magazíne :\mel~
21.3 Sem1colons
17.4 Newspaper Articles
21.4 Colon~
17.5 Websites Blogs, and Soc1al Medrn
21.5 Quesuon M;uks
17.6 1111erv1ews and Personal Commurucaoons
21.6 Exclamatiou l'o1ms
17 7 Pnpers, Lectures, and Manuscript Collecnons
21.7 Hyphens and Dashes
17 B Older Works and Sarned Woth
21.8 Parenth.-~es ond Bracl,ets
17.9 R"íerence Works 11nd Sc:condary Citations
21.9 Slashes
17.10 source, 1n theVLSU&I and PerformingAm
21.10 Quotauon Marks
17.11 Public Documents
21.11 Apostrophes
21.12 Mulupl!! PUILCIUQlJOII Marks
18
Author•Date Style: T1te Basic Form 223
18.1 !lw;ic Patterns
22
Names, Speclal Terms, and Titles of Worlts 31!)
,,.
18.2 Reference Lists
22.1 Name,
18.3 P~renthencal Citauons
22.2 Special Ttmns
22.3 Titles of Worics
19
Author-Date Style: Citlng Speclfic Types of Sources 236
19.l
23
Boo'ks
Numbe.rs
329
19.2 /oumal Articles
23.1 Words or Numerals>
19.3 Magazíne Art!cles
23.2 Plu.rals and Punctuauon
19,4 Newspaper Arncles
23.3 Oate Sy1;tc-m
19.S Wo!bsites Blogs, and Social Media
23.4 NumbPrS Used OUISide the Toxt
19,6 lnti,mews and Peraonal Communicaoons
19.7 Papers. l..ectures, and Manuscrlpt Collecnons
24
Abbrcvlation, 342
19.8 Older Works and Saoed Works
24.l Gener.il Prtnoples
19.9 lltference Works and Secondary Dmtions
24.2 Names and f\Ues
1910 Sources
111
24.3 Geograph1cal 1'erms
theV1sual and l'erlomiingAits
24.4 Tlme ;.nd Dntť'S
19.11 Pub!Jc Oocuments
24.5 Unita of Measure
24.6 The Bible and Other Siloed Work.s
Part Ill
24.7 Abbreviatrons tn CJtanons and Othl'< Scholarlv Con:e:ar:s
Style
20
Spclllng
293
25
25.1 Quoung Accnrarely and Avo1ding rlngun~m
20.1 Plumls
25.2 lncorpornung Quotauons into YourText
20.2 Possessives
25.3 Modifying Quo1anons
20.3 Compounds and Words rormcd with Prefixes
20.4 l.Jne Breaks
Quotatlons 358
26
Tables and Flgures 370
26.1 Genr,ral lsrues26 2 Tubles
26 3
flglU l.'lt
Appendix: Paper Form.1t and Submission 393
A.1
General Format Requ,remems
A.2
Format Requirements for Specific Elements
A.3
File PTeparallon and Subm1Ss1on Reqwrements
A Note to Students
B1bliography 421
./
Authors 447
Index 449
Known by many as simply "Turabian" in honor of1ts original author, A
Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertatlons is the authoritative student resource on "Chicago style." This book has helped
generations of students successfully research, \"ITile, and submit papers
in virtually all academic disciplines. Its guidelines for source citations
and style have been condensed and adapted for student writers from
another, more comprehensive reference work, The Chicago Manual ofStyle.
Part I covers every step of the research and writing process. It provides practical advice to help you formulate the right questions, read
critically, and build arguments. It also shows you how to draft and revise
your papers Lo strengthen both your arguments and your writing.
Part 2 offers a comprehensive guide to the two methods of Chicagostyle source citation, beginning with helpful infonnation on general citation practices in chapter 15. In the humanities and most social sciences,
you will likely use the notes-bibliography style detailed in chapters 16
and 17; in the natural and physical sciences and some social sciences,
you will more likely use the author-date style described in chapters r8
and 19.
Part 3 covers Chicago's recommended editorial style, which wil\ help
you bring consistency to your writing in matters such as punctuation,
capitalization, and abbreviations; this section also includes guídance on
incorporating quotations into your wriling and on properly presenting
tables and fi.gures.
The appendix presents formatting and submission requirements for
theses and d1ssertations that many academic institutions use as a model,
but be sure to follow any local guidelines provided by your inst.ltution.
..
xl
Preface
Students writing research papers, theses, and dissertauons m today's
colleges and universities inhabit a world filled with digital technologies
that were unimagined in 1937-the year dissertation secretary Kate L.
Turabian first assembled a booklet of guidelines for student writers at the
University of Chicago. The availability of word-processing software and
new digital sources has chan~d the way students conduct research and
write up the results. But these technologies have not altered the basic
task of the student writer; doing well-designed research and presenting
it clearly and accurately while following accepted academic standards for
citation, style, and format.
Turabian's 1937 booklet reflected guidelines found in an already classic resource for writers and editors published by the Umversity of Chicago Press that would ultimately be known as The Chicago Manual of Style
(CMOS). The Press began distributing Turabian 's booklet in 1947 and first
published the work in book form in 1955, under the title A Manual for
Writers ofTenn Papers, Theses, and Dissertat1ons. Over time, Turabian's book
has become a standard reference for students of all Jeve!s at universities
and colleges across the country. Turabian died in 1987 at age ninety-four,
a few months after publication of the book's fifth edition.
Beginrung with that edition, members of the Press editorial staff have
carried out the revis10ns to the chapters on source citation, style, and
paper format. For the seventh edition (2007), Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G
Golomb, and Joseph M. Williams expanded the focus of the book by adding extensive new material adapted from their book The Craft of Research,
also published by the University of Chicago Press and new in its fourth
edition (2016). Among the new topics covered in their chapters were the
nature of research, finding and engaging sources, taking notes, developing an argument, drafting and revising, and presenting evidence in
tables and figures. Following the deaths of this remarkable trio of authors, whose collective voice will always animate this work, Joseph Bizup
and William T. FitzGerald have with this ed1tion assumed the mantle of
xlii
FkEFACE
revising their chapters for a new generation of students, as they had previously for The Craft of Research.
Part I, now aligned with the most recentedition ofthat book, íncorpo•
rales updated adv1ce for wmers and responds to recent developments in
information literacy, including the use of digital materials. Part 2 offers
a comprehensive guide to the two Chicago styles of source atation-the
notes-bibliography fonnat used widely in the humanit.les and most social saences and the author-date fonnat favored in many of the sciences
and some social sciences Thoroughly updated guidance related to online
c1tation practices has been supplemented throughout by new examples
featuring the types of sources students are most likely to consult. Part 3
addresses matters of spelling, punctuation, abbreviation, and treatment
of numbers, names, s pecial terms, and titles of works. The final two chap·
ters in this section treat the mechanics of using quotations and graphics
(tables and figures), topics that are discussed from a rhetorical perspec
tive in part 1. Both parts 2 and 3 have been updated for this edition in
accordance with the seventeenth edition (2017) ofThe Chicago Manua1 of
Style. The recommendations in th1s manual in some instances diverge
from CMOS in small ways, to better suit the requirements of academic
papers as opposed to published w01ks.
The appendix presents guidelines for paper format and submission
that have become the prin1ary authority for dissertation offices throughout the United States. These guidelines have been updated to reílect the
nearly universa! electronic submission of papers and to feature new ex
amples from recently published dissertations. This appendix is intended
primarily for students writing PhD dissertations and master's and undergraduate theses, but the sections on format requirements and electronic
file preparation will also aid those writing class papers. An extensive bibliography, orga.Jůzed by subject area and fully updated, llsts sources for
research and style issues specific to various disciplines.
The guidelines in this manual offer practical solutions to a wide
range of issues encountered by student wnters, but they may be supplemented-or even overruled-by the conventions of specific disdplines
or the preferences of particular institutions, departrnents, or instructors.
Ali of the chapters on style and format remind students to review the
requirements of their university, department, or instructor, which take
precedence ovet the guidelines presented in this book
Updating a book that has been used by millions of students over
eighty years is no small task, and many people participated in preparing
this ninth edition. The Press staffwelcomed Bizup and FitzGerald to therr
new role in revising part 1. Russell David Harper, the pnncipal reviser of
the s1xteenth and seventeenth editions of CMOS, revised parts 2 and 3
r ,EFAC.E
1(Y
and the appendix. Severa! recent PhD rec1p1ents from the University of
Chicago allowed the use of excerpts from their díssertations in the appendix, where they are credited ind1vidually.
Within the Press, the proJect was developed under the guidance of
editors Mary E. Laur and David Morrow, edttonal director Christie Henry,
and editorial assoc1ates Rachel Kelly and Susan Zakin. \,ucy Johnson and
Kristin Zodrow offered add1tional research support. Ruth Goring ed1ted
the manuscript, June Sawyers proofread the pages, and James Curus
prepared the index. Michael Brehm provided the design, while Joseph
Claude supervised the production Carol Kasper, Jennifer Ringblom,
LaUl en Sa las, and Carol Fisher Saller brought the final product to market.
The Unive, sity of Chicago Press Editorial Sta ff
Part I Research
and
Writing
Wayne C. Booth,
Gregory G. Colomb,
Joseph M. Willia m s,
Joseph Bizup, and
William T. FitzGera]d
Overview of Part I
We know how daunting it can feel lo start a substantial 1esearch p1oject,
whether iťs a doctoral dissenaoon, a master's or semor thesis, or just a
Jong class paper. But you can handle any project if you break it mto its
parts, then work on them one step at a time. Part I of this book shows
you how
...
We first discuss the aims of rcsearch and what readers will expect
of any research paper (a term we use broadly to refer to all varieties of
research-based writing) We then focus on how to find a research ques
tion and problem whose answer is worth your Lime and yow readers'
anenlion; how to find and use infomrntion from sources to back up your
answer; and then how to pian, dra ft, and revise your paperso your read
ers will see that your answer is based on sound reasoning and rehable
evidence.
Several themes run through th1s part.
■
You can't plunge mto a project bhndly, you must pian lt, then keep the
whole process in mind as you take each step So thmk b1g, but break the
process down into smaU goals that you can meet one at a time.
• Your best research will begin with a question that you want to answer. But
you must then imagine readers asking questions of their own. So what if
you don't answer ít? Why should I care;,
■ rrom the outset, you should try to wme every day, not just to record the
content of your sources but to clarify whal you think of them You should
also write down your own developing ideas to gel them out of the cozy
warmth of your head and into the cold light of day, where you can see 1f
they still make sen se. You probably won't use much of th1s writing in your
fmal draft, but it is essential preparation for 1t.
■ No matter how carefully you do your research, readers will Judge it by
how well you present it, so you must know what they will look for in a
clearly written paper that eams their respect
lf you're an advanced researcher, skim chapters 1-4 You will see there
much thaťs familiar, but if you're also teaching, it may help you explain
3
4
OVEP.\IIEW Of PA•t
what you know lo your students rnore effectivc-ly. Many experienced re•
searchers tel1 us rhat chapters 5-12 have helped them not onJy to explain
to olhers how to conduct and report research, but also to draft and revise
their own writing more quickly and effectively.
lf you're just starting your career in research, you'll find every chapter
of part r useful. Skim 1t all for an overview of the process; then as you
work through your proJect, reread chapters relevant lo your 1mmediate
task.
You may feel that the sleps described here are too many to remember,
but you can manage U1em if you take them one at a tlme, and as you
do more research lhey'll become hab1ts of nund. Don'l thmk, however,
that you must follow lhese steps in exactly the order we present them
Res:archers regularly lhinlc ahead to luture sleps as they work lhrough
earlier ones and revisit earlier steps as they deal with a later one (That
explains why we so often refer you ahead to anticipate a laterstage m the
process and back to revis1t an earlier one.) And even the most syslematic
researcher has unexpected ins1ghls that send her off in :1 new direction.
Work from a plan, but be reaáy to deparr from 1t, even to dtscard it for a
newone.
ff you're a very new researcher, you may also ůiink that some matters we d1scuss are beyond your ímmediate needs. We know that a ten
page class paper differs from a dissenaůon. But both requ1re :i kmd of
thinking that even the newest researcher can start practtcing. You begm
your Joumey toward full competence when you not only know what lies
ahead but also can start practicing the skills that experienced researchers began to leam when they were where you are now.
No book can prepare you for every aspect of every research project.
And this one won't help you with the specífic methodologi es m fields
such as psychology, economics, and philosophy, much Jess physics,
chemistry, and biology. Nor does tt tel1 you how to adapt what you leam
about academic research to business or professional settings.
But it does provide an overview of the processes and habits of mind
that underlie all research, wherever iťs done, and of the plans you must
make to assemble a paper, draft it, and revise it With lhal knowledge
and with help frorn your teachers, you'll come to feel in control of your
projecls, not mtimidated by them, '3nd evenrually you'll leam to manage
even the most complex projects on your own, in both the c1cademic and
the professional worlds.
The first step in learning the skills of sound research is to understand
how experienced rcsearchers ůiink about its aims
1
What Researc h Is and How
Researc hers Think about It
1.1
What Resea rch 1s
1.2
How Researchers Think nbout Their Aims
1.3
Conversing with Your Readers
"
Whenevet we read about a scientific breakthrough or a crisis m world
affaus, we benefit from the research of others, who likew1se benefited
from the research of countless others before them. When we walk into
a hbrary, we are surrounded by more than twenty-five centuries of research When we go on the internet, we can read the work ofmillions ot
researchers who have posed questions beyond number, gathered un told
amounts of information from the research of others to answer them,
and lhen shared their answers with the rest of us. We can carry on thetr
work by askmg and. we hope, answering new questions in tum. Govemments spend billions on research, businesses even more Research goes
on in laboratories and libraries, in jungles and ocean depths, m caves and
in outer space, in offices and, in the mformation age, even lil our own
homes. Research is in fact the worlďs b1ggest industry.
So what, exactly, is it?
1.1
What Research ls
You al ready have a basic understandi ng of research: answering a ques•
tion by obta1mng information ln this sen se, research can be as simple as
choosmg a new phone or as complex as discovering the origin of hfe. ln
this book we use research m a specific way to mean a process of systematic inquiry to answer a question that not only the researcher but also
others wane to solve. Research thus includes the steps mvolved in presenting or reporting it. To be a true researcher, as we are using the term,
you must share your findings and conclus1ons w1th others.
tf you are new to research, you may thmk that your paper will add
5
- -- - -- -- - -
.....------------ ---------7
little to the worlďs knowledge But done well, it will add a lot to your
knowledge and to your abílity to communicate that knowledge. As you
learn to do your own research, you also learn to use and judge that of
others. ln every profess1on, researchers must read and evaluate the work
of others before they make a decision. This is a job you will do better after
you have leamed how others judge yours.
This book focuses on research in the academic world, bul every day we
read or hear about research that affects our lives. Often we get news of
research secondhand, and it can be difficult lo know what reasoning and
evidence support a claim. But research doesn't ask for our blind trust or
that we accept something on the basis of authority. It invites readers to
thmk critically about evidence and reasoning.
That is how research-based U1Til1ng differs from ether kinds of persuasive writing: it rnust rest on shared facts that readers accept as truths
mdependent of your feelings and beliefs. Your readers must be able to
foUow your reasoning from evidence they accept to the claim you draw
from it. Your success as a researcher thus depends not JUSt on how well
you gather and analyze data but also on how clearly you report your
reasoning so that your readers can test and Judge it before making your
claims part of their knowledge and understandmg
1.2
How Researchers Think about Their Aims
Ail researchers collect information, what we're calling data. But researchers do not merely gather facts on a topic-stories about the Bartle oJ the
Alamo, for example. They look for specific data to test and support an
answer to a question that their topic inspired them to ask, such as Why
has the Alamo story become a national legend;, ln doing so, they also imagine
a community of readers who they believe will share the1r interest and
help them test and support an answer to that question.
Experienced researchers, however, know that they must do more than
convince us lhat their answer is sound They must also show us why
their question was worth asking, how its answer helps us understand
some bigger issue in a new way lf we can figure out why the Alamo story has
become a national legend, we m1ght then answer a larger question: how have
regional myths shaped the American charaeter;,
You can judge how dosely your thinking tracks that of an experienced
researcher by describing your pro;ect in a sentence like this:
1.
Topic: I am working on X (stories obout thl' Battle a{ the A/omo)
,. Question because I want to lind out Y (why ils story become a natianal legend)
3. Slgnificance: so that I can help others understand Z (how such regional myths
have shoped the Americon character)
That sentence 1s wonh a close look, because 1t describes not just the
progress of your research bul your personal growth as a researcher.
,. Top1c: ~, am working on X . " These new to research often begin
with a simple topíc like the Baltle of lhe Alamo. But too often they stop
there, wilh nothing but a broad topíc to guide their work. Beginning
this way, they may pile up dozens or hundreds of n~tes but then can't
decide what data to keep or discard. When it comes ume to write, their
papers become udal.a dumps" that leave readers wondering what all
those data add up to.
2. Quesúon °. . because l want to find outY .. .'': More experienced researchers begm not just with a topíc but with a research quesuon, such
as Why )1as thc story of the Alamo become a nauonal legend? They know
that readers will think their data add up to something only when they
serve as eVidence to support an answer. lndeed, only with a question can a researcher know.,.what information to look for and, ooce
obtamed, what to keep-and not just data that suppon a particular
answer but also data that test or disc1edit it. With suffic1ent evidence
to support an answer, a researcher can respond to dala that seem to
conaadict it ln wnnng a paper, the researcher tests that answer and
invttes others to test it too.
3. Significance· "... so that I can help others understand Z"· The best
researchers understand that readers want to know not only that an
answer is sound but also why che question is worth asking. so what?
Why should 1care why the Alamo story has become a natlonal lege11d?Think
of it this way: whal will be lost if you don't auswcr your ql1estion? Your
answer might be Nothiny I JUSl want 10 know. Good enough to start but
not to fm1sh, because eventually your readers will want an answer
beyond Just cunous.
Answering So what? is tough for all researche1s, beginning and experienced alike, because when you only have a quesnon stemming from
a topic of persona) mte,est, 1ťs hard to predict whether others will find
its answer significant. Some researchers therefore work backwards: they
begin not by following their own curiosity but by crafting quesnons with
implications for bigger ones lhat others in their field already care about.
But many researchers, including us, find that thcy cannot address that
third step untíl they fimsh a first draft. So 1t's line lo begm your research
without being able to answer So what?, and if you are a student, your
teacher may even let you skip that last step. But 1f you are doing advanced research, you must take it, ber.;iuse your answer to So what? is
what makes your tesearch matter to others.
ln short, not all questions are equally good. We might ask how many
•
9
cats slept in the Alamo the mght before Lhe battle, but so what if we fínd
out? lt is hard to see how an answer would help us think about any larger
issue worth understanding, so iťs a question thaťs probably not worth
asking (though as we'll see, we could be wrong about that).
How good a question is depends on its significance to some commu
nity of readers Exactly what commuruty depends on your field but also
on how you frame your research You can try to expand your potential
readership by connecting Z to even broader questions: And if we can 11ndersta11d what has shaped the American character, we might understand bet •
ter u,ho Americans thi11k they are And when we know that, we might better
understand why others in the world JUdge them as they do. Now perhaps polit.Jcal sc.:ientists will be as interested m this res~atch as historians. On the
other hand, if you lry to widen you r a udience too much, you nsk losmg
it altogether. Sometimes iťs better to address a smaller community of
specialists.
We can't tel1 you the right choice, bul we can tel1 you two wrong ones:
trying to interest everyone (some people just won't care no matter how
you frame your research) or not trying to interest anyone at al!.
1,3
Converslng wlth Your Readers
When you can explain the s19nijicance of your rcsearch, you enter inLo a
kind of conversation with your research commumty. Some people, when
they think of research, imagine a Jone scholat or scientisl m a hushed
library or lab. But no places are more crowded with the presence of others
than these. When you read a book or an article or a report, you silently
converse with its authors -and through them with everyone else they
have read. ln fact, every time you go to a written source for information,
you jom a conversation between wnters and read~rs thal began millennia ago And when you report your own research, you add your vo1ce
and hope that other voices will respond to you, so that you can in tum
respond to them. And so it goes.
Experienced researchers understand that they are participating in
such conversations and chat genuine research must matter not only to
the researcher but also to others. That is why our formule- I am working
on X to ftnd aut Y so that others can better understand Z- is so powerful: because it makes informing others the end of research.
Bur these silent conversations differ from the face-to-face conversations we have every day We can JUdge how well everyday conversations
are going as we have them, and we can adjust our statements and behavior to repair místakes and misunderstandings as they 0ťcu1. Buc 111
wrinng we don'l have that opporturuty: readers have to imagine writers
in conversaoon w1Lh one anothe1, as well as with themselves, and writers have to 1magme theu readers and Lheir relationsh1p to them. ln other
words, writers have to offer readers a social contract J'll play my part if
you play yours.
Doing this is one of the toughest tasks for begmning researchers: get
that relationship wrong and your readers will think you are na1ve or,
worse, won'l read your work al all. Too many beginning researchcrs offer
their readers a rehwonslup that caricalures a bad dassroom: Tead1er, I
lmow less than you So my role 1s to show you how many Jaets I can dtg up. Yaurs
rs to say whether ťve found enough to give mc a good grade Do that and you
tum your project into a pomlles& drill, casting yourself in a role exactly
opposile to that of a crue researcher ln true research, you must switch
the roles of student and teacher You must 1mag10e a relationship that
goes beyond Here are same Jacts l've dug up aboutfourteenth-century Tibetan
weaving. Are they enough of the right ones?
There are three b etter reasOl'ls to sha1e what you've found . You could
say to your reader, Here 1s some mformation that you may find mteresting. This
offer assumes, of course, that your reader wants to know. You could also
say not just Here is sornething tJ1at should interest you but Here is something
that w1II help you remedy a situauon that trou!,les you. People do this kind of
research every day in business , govemment. and the professions when
they rry to figure out how to address problems ranging from insomnia
to falling profits to climate change. In chapter 2 we call such situations
and theu consequences practtca.1 problems. When acaderruc researchers
address such pracllcal problems, we say they are doing applted research,
Most commonly, thongh, academic researchers do pure research that addresses what we call conceptual prob!ems-that is, not troubling situations
in the world but the limitations of our understanding of il (again see
chapter 2). ln this case, you say to your readers, Here 1s someth111g that w1ll
help you b1mer understond somethtng you care abour. When you make thts
last sort of appeal, you 1magme your readers as a community of receptive
but also skeptical colleagues who are open to learning from you and even
changmg their minds-if you can make the case.
We now undersland the goa! of research, at least in its pure form. it
is not to have the last word but to keep the conversation going. The best
questions are those whose answers raise several more When that happens, everyone in the research community benefiLS
flMD A QUFSl1or; IN \'OUR !OPIC
2
You might even post those five goals in your workspace.
Research projects would be much easier if we could march straight
through these steps But you \vili discover (if you have not already) lhat
the research process 1s not so straightforward. Cach task overlaps with
othe.rs, and frequently you must go back to an earlier one. The truth 1s,
research 1s messy and unpreclictable. But thaťs also w}lat makes il exciting and ultimately rewarding.
Defining a Project: Topíc, Question,
Problem, Working Hypothesis
2.1
2.1
2.2
Find a Quesnon in Your Topic
21
212
2 13
Search Your lnterests
Make You, Top1c Manageabfe
Questlon Your Top1c
2 14
Evaluate Yoor Quest,ons
Understanding Research Problem s
22I
222
2.3
Undel"Standing Practical and Conceptual Problems
D1st1ngu,sh1ng Pure and Applied Research
Propose a Working Hypothes1s
23•
Bewa~ lhe Rislcs m a Work,ng Hypothesis
2 3 2 li You Can·t Find an Answer, Argue for Your Queshon
2.4
Build a Storyboard to Plan and Guide You r Work
2 41
Stale Your Question and Wo1~1ng Hypothescs
2 4 2 Stale Your Reasons
2'1 3 Sketch m lhe Kmd ol Evidence You Should Look For
'} t
2.5
A
Look al lhe Wholl!
Join or Organize a Writing Group
A research p1 ojecl begins well before you search the internet or head for
the library and connnues long after you have collected all the data you
thmk you need. tvery proJect involves counlless specific tasks, so it is
easy to get oveiwhelrned. But m all research projects, you have just five
general aims·
• Ask a question worth answering.
• Find an answer that you can support with good reasons.
• Find good data that you can use as reliable eVidence to support your reasons.
■ Draft an argument chat makes a good case for your answer
■ Revise that draft until readers will think. you met U1e first four goals.
10
11
Finda Question in Your Topic
Researchers begin projects in different ways. Many experienced researchers begin with a quesoon that others in their field want to answer·
What caused lhe extinction of most large North American mammals? Others
begin with Just basic curiosity, a vague intellectual itch that they have
to scratch. They might not know what puzzles them about a topíc, but
they're willing to spend time-To find out whether that topic can yield a
question worth answering.
They realize, moreover, that the best research question is not one
whose answer they want to know just for its own sake; it is one that
helps them and others understand some larger issue For example, if
we k.new why North Amencan sloths disappeared, we might be able to
answer a larger queslion that puzzles many historical anthropologists:
D1d early Native Americans hue in harmony w1th nature, as some beheve, ar did
they hunt rts largest creatures to exnncuon~ And 1f we knew that, then we might
also understand . . (So what? again. See r .2.)
Then there are these questions that Just pop into a researcher's mmd
with no hint of where they'U lead, sometimes about matters so seemingly trivial that only the researcher thinks they're worth answeríng: Why
does a caffee spill dry up m the form of a ríng 7 Such a quesnon m1ght lead
nowhere, but you can't know that until you see 1ts answer. In fact, the
sctentist puzzled by coffee rings made discoveries about the behavior of
fhúds lhat others in his field thought important-and that paint manufacturers found valuable. lf you cullivate the ability to see whaťs odd
in the commonplace, you'll never lack for research projects as either a
student or a professional.
tf you already have a focused top1c, you mighL skip to 2.r.3 and begin
asking questions about it. lf you already have some questions, skip to
2.1-4 to test them using the criteria listed there. Otherw1se, here's a pian
to help you search for a top1c.
12
C HAPH R 2 I DEFIN\ NG A PROlfCT
2.1.1
Search Your Interests
Beginning researchers often find it bard to pick a topic or believe they
lack the expertise to research a topic they have. But a research topic is
an interest stated specifically enough for you to imagine becomtng a local
expert on it. That doesn't mean you already know a Jot about it or that
you'll know more about it than others, including a teacher or advisor. You
just want to know more about it than you do now.
lf you can work on any topic, we offer only a cliché: start with what
interests you. Ask these questions.
17
• In the library, look up your topic m a general guide such as CQ Researcher
and skim the subheadings. ln an online database such as Academie
Search Premier, you can explore your top1c through subject terms. If you
have a narrower focus, you can do the same with speciahzed guides such
as Women's Stud1es Internatwnal. At most libraries today, such guides are
found online.
" On the internet, google your topic, but don't surf mdiscpminately. Look
first for websites that are roughly like the sources yo\1 would fínd in a
library, such as online encyclopedias. Read the entries on your general
topic, and then copy their Jists of references for a doser look. Few experienced researchers trust Wikipedia as a reliable source to cite as evidence,
but most would use the site to find ideas and more specific sources.
• Finally. thinkahead: you maybem for a longrelationship with your topíc,
sobe sure it interests you enough to get you through the inevitable rocky
stretches.
■ What special interests do you have-chess, old comic books, scouting?
The less common, the better. Choose one and investigate something
about it that you don't know.
■ Where would you like to travel? Find out all you can about your destination. What particular aspect surprises you or makes you want to learn
more?
■ Can you find an online discussion list or social media page focused on
issues that interest you?
■ Visit a museum or a "virtual museum" on the internet with exhibitions
that appeal to you. What catches your interest that you would like to
know more about?
• Have you taken positions on issues in your field or in debates with others
but found that you couldn't back up your views with good reasons and
evidence?
• What issues in your fíeld do people outside your field misunderstand?
• What topic is your instructor or advisor working on? Would she like you
to explore a part of it? Don't be too shy to ask.
■ Does your library have rich resources in some field? Ask your instructor
or a librarian.
• What intrigues you in your reading? What connections do you see among
different things you are reading?
■ What other courses wil1 you take in your fíeld or out of it? find a textbook
and skim it for study questions.
■ If you have a job in mind, what kind of writing might help you get it?
Employers often ask for samples of an applicanťs work.
Once you have a list of possible topics, chaose one or two that interest you most and explore their research potential. Sometimes beginning
researchers chaose a topíc because they already know what they want
to say about it, even before they've done any research. Thaťs a mistake:
the best topics provoke good questions; the worst come with ready-made
answers. To gauge a topic's potential, do these things:
2.1.2
Make Your Topic Manageable
If you pick a topíc that sounds like an encyclopedia entry-bridges, birds,
masŘs-you 'll fmd somany sources thatyou could spend a lifetime reading them You must carve aut of your topíc a manageable piece. Before
you start searching, limit your topíc to reflect a special interest in 1t: What
is tt about, say, masks that made you chaose them? What particular aspect of them interests or puzzles you? Think about your topíc m a context
that you know something aboul, and then add words and phrases toretlect that knowledge:
masks in religious ceremomes
masks as symbols in Hopi religious ceremomes
mudhead masks as symbol s of sky sp1rits 1n Hopi fertility ceremonies
You might not be able to focus your topíc until after you start reading
about it. That takes tlme, so start early (you can do much of this preliminary work online):
• Begin with an overview of your topic in a general encyclopedia (in the
bibliography, see items in category 2 in the general sources); then read
about it in a specialized one (see items in category 2 in your field).
• Skim a survey of your topíc (encyclopedia entries usually cite a few).
• Skim subheads under your topíc m an annual bibliography in your field
(in the bibliography, see items in category 4 m your field) That will also
give you a start on a reading list.
• Search the internet for the topíc (but evaluate the reliability of what you
find; see 3.3.2)
14
1 ll<D /.. Q\JE~TIOfJ IN YOUU TQP1C
Especially useful are topics thal spark debate: Fisher cla1n1s that Halloween
masks reueul d1ildren's archetypal fears, but do they? Even if you can't resolve
the debate, you can leam how such debates are conducted (for more on
this, see 3.1.2),
2.1.3
Question Your Topic
Once they have a focused topic, many new researchers start plowing
through all the sources they can find, takmg notes on everything they
read. They then dump it all mto a report with little sense of purpose or
direction. Experienced researchers, however, document information not
for its own sake but to support an answer to a question thcy (and they
hope theit readers) think wonh asking. So the best way to begin working
on a focused topíc is to pose questions that direct you to JUSl the míormaaon you need lo answer them.
Do lhis noLjust once, early on, but throughoul your project. Ask questions as you read, especially how and why (see also 4.1 . 1-4.1.2). Try the following kinds of questions (lhe categories are loose and overlap, so don't
worry about keeping them distinct).
1.
Ask how the topic fits inlo a larger context (historical, social, cultural,
geographic, functional, economic, and so on).
How does your topic fit into a larger story? What came before masks?
How did masks came into being? Why? What changes haue they caused
in othcr parts of the1r social or geographtc settmg? How and why d1d that
happen? Why have maslts become a part of Halloween;, How and why
haue masks helped make Halloween the biggest American hohday after
• How do the parts of your topic fit togeU1er as a system? Whot parts
oj a mask are most signi.fícant in Hopi ceremonies? WhyJ Why do some
masks couer only the eyes? Why do so few masks couer 1ust che boctom
half of the face;,
How many different categories of your topíc are there' What are the
different kinds of Halloween masks;, What are the different qualities of
masks? What are lhe di.fJerentJunctions of Halloween! masks7
positive questions iuto a negative ones: Why have masks not become a part of Chnstmas7 How do Native American maslts not differ from
those in Africa? What parts of masks are r.yp,cally not sig11ificant in relig1ous
ceremonies?
3. 1\1m
4.
2,
s Ask What if? questions: how would things be different if your topic
never existed, disappeared, or were put into a new context? What íf
no one euer wore masks except for safety reasons? What if everyone wore
masks in public? What iJ movies and TV were like Greek plays and all the
actors wore mas ks? What if it were customary to wear masks on bhnd dates?
ln marriage ceremonies? Atfunerals;>
6.
Ask questions that reflect disagreements with a source; if a source
makes a claim you think is only weakly supported or even wrong,
mn.ke that disagreement a question (see also 4. r .2). Martinez c!a,ms chat
camival masks umquely allow wearers to escape social norms. But l think
religious masks also allow wearers to escape from the material realm to che
spintual. 1s there a larger patrem of al! masks creattng a sense of altemative
forms of social or spiritual life'
7. Ask questions that buHd on agreement. if a source offers a claim you
thlnk is persuasive, ask questions that eJ<tend its reach (see also 4.1.1)
Elias shows chat masked balls became popular in eigl1teenth-century London
in response to anxiety about soc,al mobility. 1s the same anxiety responsible
Jor similar deuelopments in other Europea11 cap1tals? You can also ask a
question that supports the same claim with additional evidence. Elias
supports h1s claim about masked balls ennre!y w1th pubhshed sources. 1s
it alsa supported by evidence from unpublishcd sources such as letters and
dl!Jríes?
Ask questioos about the nanire of the thing itself, as an independent
entity:
How has your top1c changed lhrough ume? Why? What is its fu ture?
How have Halloween mnsks changed;, Why;, How haue Nntiue Amencnn
masks changed;, Why?
Ask speculative questions: Why are masks common ln African religions
but not in Westem ones;, Why are children more comfortable weanng Halloween masks than are most adults? Why don't hunters tn camouflage wear
masks?
Christmas?
How is your topíc a functioning part of a larger system? How do
masks rejlect the values of spea.fíc societies a11d cultures? What roles do
masks play ln Hopi dances? In scary movies;, ln masquerade parties? For
what purposes are masks u.sed other than disguise? How has the booming
murker for kachina masks injluenced traditional desig11s?
How does your topic compare to and contrast with other topics like
it? How do masks in Nat111e American ceremontes differ from these in Afríca? What do Halloween masks have to do w,th Mardi Gras masks? How
are masks and cosmetic surgery alike?
15
8.
As k questions analogous to those that others have asked about similar
topics. Smith analyzed the Battle of Getrysburg from an economic point of
view What would an economic analysis of the Battle of the Alamo rum up?
16
Cl-'4PHR ~ I OHIN NG A PRO ![ Cl
17
Look for questions that other researchers pose but don't answer. Many
joumal articles end with a paragraph or two about open quest1ons,
ideas for more research, and so on. You might not be able to do a11 the
research they suggest, but you might carve out a piece of it.
10. Find a professional discussion forum on your topíc, then "lurk," JUSt
reading the exchanges to understand the kinds of questions being
asked. lf you can 't find one usmg a search engine, ask a Leacher or visit
websites of professional organizations in your field. Look for questions
that spark your interest. lf questions from students are welcomed, you
can even post one yourself, so long as it is very specific and narrowly
focused.
9.
2.1.4
sented in the Victorian novel? Can you read enough of them in the time you
have to arrive at a reasonable answer?
Don 't reject a question because you think someone must already have
asked it. Until you know, pursue its answer as if you asked first. Even if
someone has answered it, you might come up with a better answer or at
least one with a new slant In fact, in the humanities a~d social sciences
the best questions usually have more than one goop answer. You can
also organize your proJect around comparing and contrasting competing
answers and supporting the best one (see 6 2 5).
The point is to fmd a question that yo11 want to answe1 Too many students, both graduate and undergraduate, tl1ink that the airn of education
is to leam settled answers to someone else's questions. Iťs not. It is to
find your own answers to your own questions To do that, you must leam
to wonder about things, to let them puzzle you-particularly things that
seem commonplace.
Eva1uate Your Questions
After asking all the questions you can think of, evaluate them. Not all
questions are equally good. Look for questions whose answers might
make you (and your readers) think about your topíc in a new way. Avoid
questions like these:
■ Their answers are settled fact that you could just look up. What was Audre
ILorde's jirst published poem? Questions that ask how and why ~a~ for interpretations, notjust the discovery of facts. Thaťs why they mV1te deeper
thinking than questions beginning who, what, when, or where, and deeper
thinking leads to more interesting answers.
■ Their answers can't be plausibly d.isproved. How important are masks in
Inuit culture? The answer is obvious: Very. If you can't imagine disproving a claim, then proving it is pointless. (On the other band, world-class
reputations bave been won by those who questioned a claim that seemed
self-evidently true-for instance, that the sun circled the earth-and
dared to d1sprove it.)
• Their answers would be merely speculative. Would church seruices be as
well attended if the congregation al! wore masks? lf you can 't imagine finding
data that would settle the question, iťs not a question you can answer.
• Their answers are dead ends. How many b1ack cats slept in the Alamo the
night before the battle? Iťs hard to see how an answer would help us think
about any larger issue worth understanding better, so the question is
probably not worth asking.
■ Their answers require different capacities from the ones you have. How
do Japanese translations of The Great Gatsby treat early twentieth-century
America? If you can't read Japanese, this question is not for you to answer.
■ Their answers require more or different resources-materials, technology, money, especially time-than you have. How is childhood repre·
2.2
Understandlng Research Problems
In chapter r we gave you a fonnula that expresses how experienced researchers think about theu work:
1
Topic: I am working on X (stories obout the Battle af the Alamo)
2.
Question: because I want to find aut Y ( why lts story became a national legend)
3. Significance: so that I can help others understand Z (how such regiorial myths
have shaped the American character).
When you can state that sigruficance from the point ofview of your readers, you have more than a question: you have posed a research problem
that they recognize needs a solution.
Among researchers, lhe tenn problem has a specia1 meaning that
sometimes confuses beginners. ln our everyday world, a problem 1s
somethíng we try to avoid. But in academic research, a problem is something we seek out, even invent. Indeed, without a problem to work on, a
researcher is out of work
Expenenced researchers often talk about their problems m shorthand.
When asked what they are working on, they oflen answer with what
sounds like a genera! topic: adult measles, matíng calls of Wyoming clk As
a result, beginners may think that having a topíc to read about is the
same thing as having a problem to solve. But without a spedfic question
to answer and a reason to find that answer significant, researchers have
no way of knowing when they have enough So they can be tempted to
th1ow in everythmg just lo be safe.
18
CHAPlE R :
I DFF NING
PAOPOSE
A. FROltCf
2.
To avoid the judgment that your paper is just a data dump, you need
a problem, one that focuses on fmdingjust those data that will help you
solve it. To find one, you need to know how problems work.
2.2.1
Topíc: I am studying how read,ngs from the Hubble telescope differ from readings
for the same stars measured by earthbound telescopes
Quest1on: because I want to find out how much the atmosphere dislorts
measurements of electromagnetic rad,ation
Applied research is common in academic fields such as business, engineering, and medicine and in compames and govemment agencies that
do research to understand what must be known before they can solve a
problem.
Some new researchers may be uneasy with pure research because the
consequence of a conceptual problem-not knowing something-seems
so abstract. Smce they are not yet part of a community that cares deeply
about understanding its part of the world, they feel chat their findings
aren't good for much. So they try to show the importance of their conceptual answer by cobbling onto it an implausible pract:1cal use·
'
Your research question is about your problem's condition, its significance
follows from your problem's cost or consequence.
What differentiates practical and conceptual problems is the nature
of those conditions and costs/consequences The condition of a practical problem can be any state of affairs in the world that troubles you or,
better, your readers: a traffic jam, foreign competition, a disease we can't
effectively treat. The cost of a practical problem is always some tangible
effect we don't like; inconvenience, expense, pain, even death. Practical
problems are often a matter of perspective: if my company's products are
outselling yours, thaťs a problem for you but not for me.
The condition of a conceptual problem is always some version of not
knowing or understanding something. A conceptual problem does not
have a tangible cest but a consequence. This consequence is a particular
kind of ignorance: a lack of understanding that keeps us from understanding something else that is even more significant Put another way,
because we haven't answered one question, we can't answer another
that is more 1mportant.
ln short, practical problems concem what we should do; conceptual
problems concem what we should think. Practical problems are most
common in the professional world, conceptual problems are most com
mon in academe
1.
19
lelescopes to measure more accurately the density ol electromagnetic
rad,ation.
Understand.ing Practical and Conceptual Problems
There are two kinds of research problems practical and conceptual. Each
of them has a two-part structure:
Distinguishing Pure and Applied Research
We call research pure when it addresses a conceptual problem that does
not have any direct practical consequences, when it only improves the
understanding of a community of researchers. We cal! research qpphed
when it addresses a conceptual problem that does have practical consequences. You can tel1 whether research is pure or applied by considering
the significance of your project: is it about understanding or doing?
VIORKtNG HYPOTHE51S
3. Practical Sign;ficance: so that astronomers can use data from earthbound
• a situation or condition, and
■ undesirable costs or consequences caused by that condition.
2.2.2
A
,,.
,.
Topic: I am studying differences among nineteenth-century versions of the Alamo
story
2.
Question: because I want to find out how politic,ans used stories of such events
to shape public opinion
3 Potential Practical Significance. ln order lo protect ourselves from
unscrupulous polilicians.
Most readers will find the link between this research question and its asserted significance a stretch. But for researchers in American history, the
question does not need to have practical significance. As the term pure
suggests, many researchers value the pursuit of knowledge "for its own
sake" as a reflectJon ofhumanity's highest calling to know more
So if you are doing academic research, resist the urge to turn a conceptuaJ problem into a practical on~unless you've specifically been asked
to do so. You are unlikely to solve any genuine practical problem in a
course project. And in any case, most academic researchers see the1r missien not as fixing the problems of the world but as understanding them
better (which may or may not lead to fixing them).
2,3
Propose a WorkJng Hypothesis
Before you get deep into your pro;ect, try one more step. lt is one that
some beginners resist but that experienced researchers usually attempt.
Once you have a question, imagine some plausible answers, no matter
how sketchy or speculative. At this stage, don't worry whether they're
right. That comes Jater.
C,( ,
20
rm, G, A PPOJEC
BU lO A ~TORVc' /\R
For example, suppose you ask, Why do some rehgions use masks
wh,le others don't? You might sperulate:
1n
cer-
A WOR ►
21
Build a Storyboard to Pian and Guide Your Work
ror a short paper, you might not need a detailed pian-a sketch of an
outline m1ght do. Bul for a Jong project, you'll usually need more. especially for one as long as a thesis or dissertation. The first pian thar comes
to mind is usually an outline, with its 1s and lis and As and Bs and so on
(see 23,4.2.2). lf you prefer an ouůine, use one, especially tf your proJect
IS relatively shon The problem 1s that an outlinc? can force you to specify
too much too soon and so lock Up a fmal form before you've done your
besl thinking.
To avo1d that risk, many researchers, including those outside the aca
demic world, use a ::;toryboord to pian and guide the1r work. A storyboard
is like an outline spread over severaJ pages, with lots of space for addíng
data and ideas ;is you go. But it is more flexible than an outline because
storyboatd pages can be moved around, allowing you to try out new ways
of organizing your ideas You can spread íts pagcs ac,oss a waU, group
l1on agarnst 1dolatry
Even a general answer can suggest something worth studying:
Ma~be it has to do with the role of masks in nonreligious areas of a culture.
Beware the Risks in a Working Hypothesis
Don 't settle on a fmal answer too soon: working hypotheses a re meant to
change But many new researchers and some experienced ones are afraid
to consider any worlcing hypothesis early in their project, eveu one they
hold lightly, because they fear 1t might bias therr th.inking. There 1s some
risk of that, but a workmg hypothesis need not close your mind to a belter one. Even the most objective scientist devises an experiment to test
for jus1 a few pred1cted outcomes, often just one. A working hypothesis
is a risk only if 1t blinds you to a better one or if you can't give it up when
the evidence says you should. So as in al! relationships, don't fall too bard
for your 6rst hypothesis: the more you like it, the less easily you'll see its
f!aws. Despite that risk, 1ťs better to start with a flawed hypothesis than
with nene a t al!.
u
2.4
m,~ religion and medicme.
Maybe religions origlnating in lhe Mlddle Easl were lnfluenced by the Jcwl5h prohibi•
2.3.1
úl E
lfYou Can't Find an Answer, Argue forYour Question
We have focused so much on questions that you might think your proJect
fa1ls ifyou can't answeryours. Not so. Much important research explams
why a question no one has yet asked should be asked: Do turtles dream;,
Why is yawmnq co11tagm11sJ Papers addressmg such questions don 't argue
fot answers; they explain why the question 1s 1mportant and whar a good
answer mighl look like.
I
Or perhaps you find that someone has answered your question, but
incompletely or even-tl you're lucky-incorrectly. lf you can"t find the
right answer, you sti11 help your research community by showing that a
widely accepted one is wrong. You can even orgamze your paper around a
working hypothesis you abandon. Ifafter lots ofresearch, you can't confirm it, you can explain why ů1al answer seemed reasonable at the time
but tumed out to be wrong and so isn't worth lhe time of other researchers. That in itself can be a valuable contribuaon to the conversation on
your topic (See 10. 1. 1-10. 1 ,2 frlt how to use an apparently good idea that
tums aut to be wrong.)
OnJy by asking question after question 1,vill you develop the critical
imaginatíon you need co excel at research Experienced researchers know
the1e are few, 1f any, fmal answers, because thcre are no final questions.
They know that iťs as impo1tant to ask a new question as 1t 1s to answer
an old one, and that on1. day chei1 new quest1on will become old and
yield to a newer researcher's still newer one. Thaťs how lhe conversa
tions of research communities progress.
Maybe cultures w,th many spirits need masks to d,stinguish them
Try to imagine at least one plausible answer, no malter how tentative or speculative lf one answer seems promising, call tl your working
hypochesís and use it to guide your research. You can, of course, start gathering data with no more than a question to guide yo\l, but even a tentative workmg hypothesis will help you think about the kind of data you'll
need as evidence to supporl il: numbers? quotatlons? observations? ímages? historical facts? ln fact, until you have a hypothes1s. you can't know
whether any data you collect are relevant to your proiecL
lf you can't imagine any workmg hypotheses. reconsider your ques
Lion. You may even decide to start over with a new topic. That costs tlme
in the short run, but lt may save you from a failed project Under no
círcumstances should you put off thlnking aboul a hypothesis until you
begin drafung your paper or, worse, until you've almost finished it. You
m1ght not settle on the best answer to your questíon until you're well into
writmg your paper, for 1.1.'Titing is an act of discovery. Bul you can't wait
until that last draft to start thinlong about some answer
I AH A'I
2,3,2
emon,es
Maybe mask~ are common in culturcs that
I
22
related pages, and put minor sections below major ones to create a ~picture" of your pro1ect thal shows you at a glance the design of the whole
and your progress through it. For th1s reason, a storyboard 1s useful at
every stage of your project. It can help you plan your research, develop
your argument 01gan1ze your paper, write a first draít, and test a final one.
Someday you may have the time to amble through sources, reading
jusl what interests you Such random browsing has opened up many
important lines of research But if your paper is due in a month or so. or
even sooner, you need a pian. A storyboard 1s a simple and reliable device
to help you create one
2.4.1
State Your Question a nd Working Hypotheses
To start a storyboard, stale at the top of its first page your question and
work:ing hypothesis as precisely as you can. Then add plausible altema
tives and new hypotheses as you think of lhem, and cross off Lhase you
prove wrong. But save them, because you might be able to use one of
them in your mtroducuon (see 10.1 . 1)
2.4.2
State Your Reasons
We say more aboul the structure of arguments in chapter 5. Fot now, the
commonsense understanding of an argument as a claím supported by
reasons and evidence is enough. Put at the top of separate pages each
reason that migh t support your best hypothesis, even if you have only
one or two. Imagine explaining your projecl to a friend. You say, I wa>it
to show tha t Alamo stories h.Jped develop a u111que Texan 1de11tiry, and your
friend asks, Why do you th111k so? Your reasons are the genera1 statements
that you offer to support your answer- Weil, Jirst, the stories distort.ed facts
to emphasize what became cemral to Texan identity; second, the stones were
ftrst used to show that Texas (and the Wild West) was a new kind of front1e1,
third, . . and so on
lf you can't think of more than one or two reasons, put placeholders
at lhe tops of pages: Reason 3: Something about Alamo stones making Texans
feel special lf you know only how you want a reason LO support your answer, state that: Reason 4 Somethmg to show that Alamo stories were more
than just myth. Each reason, of course, needs support, so for each reason,
ask, Why do I think that? What evidence will I need to prove 1t? That will help
you focus your search for evidence (see 24.3 and 5-4.2).
lf you're new to your topíc or early in your project, your reasons may
be only educated guesses that you'll later change. But a list of reasons, no
matter how speculat1ve, can not only guide your reseurch but also focus
your thinking and help you anticipace the argument you will eventually
make.
2A,3
Sketch the Kintl of Evidence You Shou1d Look For
Every field prefers its own kmds of evidence-numbers, quotations, observations, h istorical facts, images, and so on. So for each reason, sketch
the k:ind of evidence thal you thin k you'll need to support it. Even imagine what the mostconvincingevidence would look like lfyou can't imagine the kind of evidence you'll need, leave that part df the page blank,
then read secondary sources to find out the kind of e\/1dence researchers
in your field typically use (see 3.1 2).
2.A.4
Loo k at the Whole
Lay the pages on a table or tnpe them on a wall Then slep back and look
at their order. When you plan a firsl draft, you must put 1ts parts in some
order, so you might as well think about one now. Can you see a logic
in your storyboard? Cause and effect? Narratlve time? Relat1ve 1mportance? Complexity? Length? (~e 6.2.5 for more princi ples of order.) 1'ry
out different orders. This storyboard isn' t your final pian; iťs only a tool
to gu1de you1 thmlang and orgamze what you find. When you fill a page,
try drafting that section, because wnting out your ideas can improve
your thinking at every stage of your project.
2,5
Joln or Organize a Writing Group
One of the best ways to stay on track with yow proJect 1s to join or organíze a writing group. ln many fields, especially m the humamties and so
cial sciences, scholars read, tlunk, and write mostly alone. But it doesn't
have to be that way, at least not entirely, Find someone other than your
instructor or advisor to talk with about your progress. to review your
drafts, even to peste1 you aboul how much you have wntten That person
m ight be a generous friend or, better, another writer with whom you can
trade feedback on ideas and drafts.
Better yet is a writing group· four or five people working on their own
projects who meet regularly to discuss each other's work Early on, start
each meeting with a summary of each person's project in that three-part
sentence· l'm work1119 on the top1c X, because I want to fmd out Y, so that I
(and you) ca11 berter understand Z. As your projects develop, start with an
"elevator story," a short summary of your research that you might give
someone in the elevator on the way to the meeúng. lt should include that
three-part sentence, a working hypothesJS, and the major reasons supporting it (see 13.4) ln later stages, share outlines and dtafts so lhat the
members of the group can serve as surrogate readers li your group has
a problem w ith your draft, so will your [mal readers. Your group can even
help you brainstorm when you bog down. Ail of this support is valuable.
Ht.
I
But for many writers, a wrilíng group 1s valuable simply for the cliscipline
it imposes. lt is easier to meet a schedule when you know you must report your progress to others.
Writing groups are standard practice for those preparing theses or dissertations But the rules may differ for class papers. Same teachers worry
that writing groups or writing partners might prov1de more help than
they should, So 1f you Join a group, be clear with your teacher about what
it will do. lfyou don't, she may decide the ass1stance you have received
is inappropriate (see 7-10).
3
Finding Useful Sources
3.1
3.2
Three Klnds of Sources and Their Uses
3 11
Consutl Pr,mary Sources for Evidenci!
31 •
Read Secondary Sources to learn lrom Other R..-;earche<,
313
Reed Tertlary Source~ lor lntroductory Overvlom
Search for Sources Systematically
r
Ask a Ubrar,an
3.2 2 Consult Reference Works
3 2 3 Explore Online Databases
3.7 4 Searc.h Your Library Catalog
3.21
325
Search Guides 10 Penodteal L1leraIure
3 2.t,
Prowl ttie Slack.s
3.2 7 Follow B1bliograph1c Tralls
3.2.8 Search the Internet
3 2 9 look for Someone Wt>o Know', Someth,np; about Your Top,c
3 .3
Evaluate Sources
ÍOT
Relevance and Reliability
3 31
(valuate Sources for Relevance
3 .3 2
Evaluate Source for Rehab1l,ty
3.4
Look beyond the Usual Kinds of References
3 .5
Record Your Sources fully, Accurately, and Appropriately
] 5.1
Determme You, Citat1on Style
3.5 2
Record Complete Bibhograph,c lnformat,011
Once you have a research question and perhaps a working hypothesis,
you can start looking for Lhe data you'll need to test your hypothesis and
develop yom argument ln this chapter we explaiu how to find those
da ta in sources and in the next how to work with them. s·ut don't think
of finding sources and reading them as separate steps. Once you have a
promising sour-ce, read it to find other sources. And as you fůl your storyboard with notes, you 'li d1scover gaps and new questions that only more
25
26
CHAPftll 3
Ir
sources can fill. So while we díscuss finding and using sources as distinct
steps, you'll more often do them repeated1y and s1multaneously.
3.1
27
,DING U5EFUl S0ul\CE5
2. To find other po1nts
Three Klnds of Sources and Their Uses
Sources are conventionally categorized into three kmds: primary, secondary, and tertiary (think first-, second , and thirdhand). Their boundanes
a1e fuzzy, but knowing these categories can help you conduct your resea1ch.
3,
3.1.1
3.1.2
Consult Primary Sources for Evidence
Primary sources are "original" materials that proVIde you with the "raw"
data or evidence you will use to develop, test, and ultimately justify your
hypothesis or claim. In history, primary sources are art1facts or documents that come directly from the period you are studying. letters, diaries, objects, maps, even clothing ln literature or philosophy, your main
primary sources are usualJy the texts you are analyzing, and your data
are the words on the page. ln the arts, your primary source would be the
works of art you are mterpretmg. ln social sciences, such as sociology
or political science, census or survey data would also count as primary
sources, as would data obtained through observation or experiment in
many fields. The primary sources for those collected data are reports of
original research in scholarly joumals or govemmem and commercial
databases.
Read Secondary Sources to Leam from Other Researchers
Secondary sources are books, articles, papers, or reports L.hat are based
on primary sources and intended for scholarly or professional audiences.
An arncle in a scholarly joumal analyzing Alamo stories would be a secondary source for researchers working on those stories. The body of secondary sources in a field is sometimes called lhat field's literature The
besl secondary sources are books from reputable university presses and
articles or reports that have been peer reviewed, meaning that they were
vetted by experts m the field before they were published (see 3.3.2). Secondary sources also inciude specialized encyclopedias and dictionaries
that offer essays written by scholars in a field.
You use secondary sources for three purposes.
1.
To Jleep up with cu.rrent research. Researchers read secondary sources to
keep up with the work of other researchers, to inform and refine their
thinking. and to motivate their own work by adding to a published line
ofresearch
of v1ew. A research paper is not complete until the
researcher acknowledges and responds to the views of others and to
his readers' predictable quesnons and disagreements. You can find
most of those other points of view in secondary sources. What alternatives to your ideas do they offer;, What evidence do they cite that
you must acknowledge? Some new researchers thmk they weaken
their case if they mention any view opposing their bwn.Thc opposite
is the trul.h. When you acknowledge competing views, you show readers that you not only know those views but can confidently respond to
them. (For more on this, see s t1.3 )
To fmd models for your own research and analysts. You can use secondary
sources Lo fmd out not just what others have wntte n about your topíc
but how they have written about it, as models for the form and style of
your own paper. lmagine a secondary source as a colleague talking to
you about your topic. As you respond, you'd want to sound like someone who knows the field, and so you'd try lo Jearn how she reasons,
the language she uses, the kinds of eV1dence she offers, and the kinds
she rarely or never uses. The "conversation" would be m wnung, so
you'd even imitate stylisůc details such as whether she wntes in Jong
paragraphs or breaks up her pages with subheads and bullet points
(common in the soda! sciences, less common in the humanities).
You can also use a secondary source as a model for your conceptual
analysis. lf, for example, you were analyzing Alamo stories, you might
study how a source treats Custer's Last Stand. Is its approach psychological, social, histoncal, political? lts parocular reasons or evidence will
probably be irrelevant to your project, but you might support yom answer
with the same kinds of data and reasoning, perhaps even followmg the
same organiz.ation,
So if you come across a source thaťs not exactly on your topic but
rreats one like it, sk.im it to see how that researcher thinks about his
material and presents 1t (You don't have to cite that source if you use
only its general logic, but you may cite it to give your own approach more
authority.)
You can even borrow evidence from secondary sources to use in your
own arguments, but you should do so onJy if you clo not have access to
the primary sources from which that evidence was originally taken. lf
you're doing advanced work, check the accuracy of important quotations,
facts, or numbers you draw from seconda1y sources.
Of course, if you were studying how the Alamo story has been analyzed, then seco11da1y sources offeri.ng those analyses would be your pnmary sources.
:za
( H.\Pltf<; í lNOl'l (, USEfUL sour.CE~
29
lf you're new Lo a field, you may find secondary sources hard to read:
they assume a lot of background knowledge, and many aren't clearly
written (see 11.2). If you're working on a topic new to you, you might
begin with an overV1ew m a specialized encyclopedia or reliable tertiary
source.
3.1.3
3.2
3.2.1
Read Tertiary Sources for lntroductory Overviews
Ternary sources are books and articles that synthesize secondary sources
for general readers They ínclude textbooks, encyclopedias (including
Wikipedia), and dicnonaries, as well as articles in publications for broad
audiences, like Time and the Atlantic. In the early stages of research, you
can use tertiary sources to get a broad overV1ew of your topíc. But if you
are making a scholarly argument, you should rely on secondary sources
because these makeup the conversation in which you are seeking to participate. lf you cite tertiary sources in a scholarly argument, you will mark
yourself as a novice or outsider, and many readers won't take you- or
your argument-seriously.
Search for Sources Systematícally
Knowing where to begin your search for sources can be overwhelming at
first. lt is temptíng to simply enter terms mto a familiar search engme
(e.g , Google) and see what comes up. We do this too, but we also know
that there are more systematic and productive ways for discovering useful, credible sources Make the library the focus of your search strategies
even as you draw on the expertise of others inside or outs1de the academic community and use the resources of the internet.
Ask a Librarian
The best advice we can offer ís to draw on the research expertise of líbrarians. Both general reference líbranans and (in largerlibraries) subject
area specíabsts can help you refine your search parameters and direct
you to the right tools for your specific research question. They can help
you use the catalog to locate materials held by your library orby other
líbraries (and obtainable through in terlibrary loan).These same libranans
typically design research guides that identify reference works and online
databases for specific fields. Ifyou're a new researcher, seize every opportunity to learn online search techniques in your field.
And don't be shy. L1branans love to assist researchers of all levels and
at al! stages of the research process. They can help you formulate your
research questlon and pian, develop search terms, and inventory your
results to ensure you haven't overlooked something of value. The only
embarrassing question is Lhe one you failed to ask. If you already have a
research question, share it: T'm lookmg for data on X becouse I want to ftnd
oul . If you have a workmg hypothesis and reasons, share them too:
I'm lookingfor data to show Y fyour reasonJ because I want to claim Z [your hy
pothesisj Rehearse you1 questions to avoid wastingyour time and theirs.
Consult Reference Works
Researchers in all fields share common values and habi°ts of thought, but
every field has its own ways of doing things. To learn about the ways of
your field, browse the shelves in your library's reference room that hold
guides to your fi.elďs particular research methods, databases, and special
resources (in the bíbhography, see items in category 3 in your field). At
least familiarize yourself with the following resources (in the biblíogra
phy, see category 4 for lists of sources in your field; many are also online);
3.2.2
■
a bibliography ofworks publisht;.tl each year in your field, such as Philosopher's Index or Educarion Index
■ summary bibliographies of works on a specific top1c collected over sev•
eral years (Bibhograph1c Index is a bibliography of b1bhographies)
• annual hterature reviews; look for a title in your field beginning wilh
Reviews 111 •••
■
3.2.3
specíalized reference works such as the Encyclopedia of Philosophy or the
Concise Oxford D1ct1onary of Literary Terms. where you may fi.nd an overview
of your topic and often a list of standard primary and secondary sources
(in the bibliography, see ítems in categories 1 and 2 in your field) .
Explore Online Databases
What sets libraries apart from the internet are subscriptions to indexes
and databases. After books, these are arguably a library's most valuable
assets, since they give researchers access to materials they could not
obtain otherwise. Each líbra1y's subscnptions will differ, w1th maJor research libraries offering the most comprehensive access to specialized
indexes and databases. However, academic 1íbranes and many public libraries offer powerful online tools that greaůy extend their attual collections You will certaínly want to make use of these general and specialized resources in your research. At least become familiar with the major
databases to which your library subsc1ibes, such as Academie Search
Premier, MLA Intemational Bibliography, or PubMed. Many academic
databases either provide abstracts or dfrect you to articles that include
abstracts. LooJ...-ing at these can help you decide if an amcle itself 1s worth
reading carefully. Some databases allow you to access full-text articles
or books. But beware. if your library does not subscribe to a parbcular
30
31
CHA•TEP JI · tNDI NG USlfl>o. S01J llCE~
can subsotute for the kind of m -bbrary search that turns up an unexpectedly useful source
joumal mcluded m a database, you might be asked to pay a fee to access
a full-text article. Before doing so, always speak WJth a librarian aboul
ether rneans of access.
3.2.4
3.2.6
Prowl the Stacks
Doing research online is faster chan on foot, but if you never go into the
stacks of your libmry (assuming you have access). you may miss crucial
sources that you'd find only there. More important, yofll miss the benefits of serend1p1ty-a chance encounter with a source that you find only
in person. Jf you can get to the stacks, find the shelf with books on yow
topic, then scan the titles on that shelf and the ones above, below, and
on e1ther side. especially for books with new bindings published by uni•
versity presses. Then tum around and sk.tm útles behind you, you never
know, When you spot a promising title, skim its table of contents, then
its index for keywords related to your question or its answer. Then skim
its bibliography for liUes that Jook relevant to your project. You can do all
that faster w1th books on a sh~ than you can online.
lf the book looks promising, sla.m its preface or introd11ct1on. lf it sůll
looks prornismg, set it aside for a doser Jook. Even if it doesn'l seem relevant, record 1ts Library of Congress call number and bibliographic data
(auŮlor, title, publisher, date of publication and so on; see pan 2 of thls
manual for the details). and in a řew words summarize what the book
seems to be about. A month later, you might reahze that iťs more useful
than you thought
You can cht!tl tables of contents for many journals online, bul browsmg m lhe joumals area of a hbrary can be more producnve. Find the JOWnals that have promising arcicles. Slom tables of contents for the prior
ten years. Most volumes include a yearly summary table of contents.
Then take a quick Jook at the joumals shelved nearby. Skim lheir most
recent tables of contents. You will be surprised at how often you find a
relevant article that you would have missed had you done your work
entirely online.
lf you are new to a field, you can get a rough impression of lhe acadermc quality of a Joumal by its look. If 1ťs on glossy paper with lots
of illustrations, even advert.iseme11ts, it mighl be more joumalistic than
scholarly. These are not infallible signs of unreliable scholarship, but they
are worth considering.
3.2.7
Follow Bibliographic Trails
Most sources Wlll give you tra1Jheads for bíbllographic searches. When
you find a book or article that seems useful, skim its bibhography or
works cited lts index will list the aurhors dled rnost often Journal articles usuaUy begm with a reV1ew of previous research, all cited. Finally
Search Your Library Catalog
In your research, you will likely use your library's catalog in two ways. keyword searching and browsing. When you have examined some sources
to identify a list of keywords related to your topic, you are ready to use
these terms to search the catalog. ln most libraries you must chaose tbe
category (books, articles, joumals, etc.) you wish to use for your search.
lf your sources include books, you can use the Library of Congress
subject headings, found either on the back of their title page or on lheir
"details" page in the online catalog, to search for related materials. For
example, the online entry for this book includes these two topics:
,. Dissertations, Academie. 2 . Academie wnttng.
lf you search an online ca talog, you will find all the books on that subject
m that library. A book may be cross-llsted under multiple subJect headings. ln that case, look at titles listed under these headmgs as well. You
can also browse the catalog for books with similar call numbers.
Also search your online catalog using keywords from your question or
working hypothesis-Alamo, Texas independence, James Bowie. If you find
too many titles, start Wlth those published in the last tenor fifteen years
by well-known university presses. For a wider selection, search WorldCat
if your library subscribes. Otherwise, search the Library of Congress catalog at httpsJ/www.loc.gov. It has links to large university catalogs. Start
early if you expect to get books on interlibrary loan
lf most sources on your topic are articles, locate a recent one in your
Ubrary's onlme databases. lts database entry will include a list of keywords. Search for Ůlem to find more artides on your topic. ln most cases
you can just click on them. Use the keywords to se arch the library catalog
as well. Some databases also provide abstracts of joumal articles that you
can skim for search terms.
3.2.5
Search Guides to Periodical Literature
lf you've done research before, you're probably familiar with annual
guides such as Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature, which cites sources
such as magazines and newspapers. Mosl specialized fields also have
yearly guides to secondary sources. such as Art Abstracts, Htstoncal Ab·
stracts. and Abstracts in Anthropology (in the bibliography, see items in category 4 in your field). Most are available online or i.n other digital forms.
Ali those resources will direct you to more sources, but none of chem
32
C <i AP Tf R 1
F r;DJ•lG IJ FUL <Ol,RC t>
EVIILlJAH SOuPCE" rn~ Rt . EVAt,LE Arn AELJABIUTV
■
look for recent PhD d1ssertations even marginally related to your topic.
Almost every dissertation reviews research rn 1ts first of second chapter.
By following these bibliographic trails, you can navigate the most difficult
research tenitory, because one source leads to another, and another
■
■
Search the Internet
Your practlcal experience using the internet for everyday research might
lead you to believe that it is comprehensive and reliable, but that would
be a mistake. Your library's catalog and databases provide access to information that you cannot get through a search engine. When doing research online, maintain a healthy skepticism: most of what we retrieve
using Google or some other search engine is perfecUy reliable, but not
everything is. In contrast to your library's catalog and databases, theinternet is essentially unmonitored. There is no one to vouch for the credibility of m aterials posted to coun tless websi tes. And finally, keep in mind
that companies offering free search engines make theír money by acquiring data about you through online behavior and by selling advertising,
and that webmasters routinely modify thetr sites to make them appear
higher in search results.
But if you keep these limitations in mind, the -internet can be an enormously valuable resource. In particular, you can do useful preliminary
work with a scholarly search engine such as Google Scholar or with a
tertiary source such as Wik1pedia (which you should never cite as a reference). Of course, the internet can also be a pnmary source if you are
researching the internet itself, rncluding social media.
3.2.8
3.2.9
Look for Someone Who Knows Som ething about Your Topic
You might also ask around or search online to find someone who knows
something about your topic and standard reference works on it: advanced students, faculty, even people outside che acadernic community.
You won't always find someone, but you mig11t get lucky.
3.3
Evaluate Sources for Relevance and ReliabUity
You will probably find more sources than you can use, so you must evaluate their usefulness by skimming quickly for two cnteria: relevance and
rel!abi1ity.
Evaluate Sources for Relevance
Once you decide a book rnight be relevant, do this:
3.3 .1
■
Skim its index for your keywords, then sla:m the pages on which those
words occur.
■
■
33
Sk1m the first and last paragraphs in chapters that use a lot of your keywords.
Skim the book's introduction, especially its last page, where authors and
editors often outline U1e1r text.
Skim its last chapter or conclus1on, especia11y the first and last severa]
pages.
Skim prologues, summary chapters, and so on.
Check the bibliography for titles relevant to your topíc.
Be sure that you're looking at a book's most recent edition. Researchers
change their views over time, refining them, even rejecting earlier ones. If
your source is an e-book, stlll follow these steps, but you can also search
the whole text for your keywords. lf you are an advanced researcher, read
book reviews of prom1sing sources (see section 4 of the bibliography of
resources in your field).
Ifyour source 1s a1oumal article, do this·
■
■
■
■
~
Read the abstract, if it has one.
Skim the introduction and conclusion; if they are not marked off by
headings, skim the first six or seven paragraphs and the last four or five.
Skim for section headings, and read the first and last paragraphs of those
sections.
Check the bibliography for titles relevant to your topic.
If your source is online, do this:
■
If it looks like a printed article, follow the steps for joumal article, and
also search for your keywords.
■ Skim sections labeled "Introduction," "Overview," "Summary," or the like.
If there are none, look for a link labeled "About the Site" or something
sunilar
• If the site has a link labeled "Site Map" or "Index," check 1t for your keywords and skim the referenced pages.
• If the site has a search funct1on , type in your keywords.
3.3.2
Evalu ate Sources for Reliability
You can't judge a source until you read it, but there are signs of its reliability:
,
Is the source published by a reputable press? Most books and journals published by university presses, whether in print or in electronic
editions, are reliable, especially if you recogn1ze the name of the university. You can also trust some commercial presses in some fields ,
such as Norton in litera ture, Ablex in sciences. or West in the law. Be
34
CH AFHR JI f l N 01HG lJ~EflJL SO(IRCES
2.
3.
4.
s.
6.
7.
s.
skeptical of a commercial book that makes sensational claims, even tf
its author has a PhD after his name. Be especially careful on con1ested
social issues such as gun control or climate change. Many books and
arucles are published by individuals or organizations driven more by
ideology than by evidence.
Is the book or article peer reviewed? Most reputable presses and journals ask experts to review a book or article before it is published; this
is called peer review. Essay collections published by university presses
are often bul not always peer reviewed; someomes tbey are reviewed
only by tbe nametl editor or editors. Few commercial magazines use
peer review, and fewer still check an autbor's facts. If a book or article
hasn't been peer reviewed, use it cautiously.
ls the author a reputable scholar? This is a hard question to answer
if you are new to a field. Most established scholars are reliable, but
use good judgment: even reputable scholars can have axes to grind,
especially if their research is supported by a special interest group.
If the source is avallable on.ly online, is it sponsored by a reputable
organization? A website is onJy as reputable as its sponsor. You can
usually trust one that 1s sponsored and maintained by a reputable
organization. Some sites run by individuals are reliable; most are not.
Do a web search for the name of the sponsor.
1s the source current? You must use up-to-date sources, bul what
counts as currenl depends on the field. ln computer science, a joumal
can be out of date ín months; m the social sciences, ten years pushes
the limit. Publications have a longer shelflífe m the humamties: literary or art criocism, for example, can remam relevant for decades, even
centuries.
lf the source is a book, does it have notes and a bibliography? lf not,
be suspicious, because you have no way to follow up on anything that
the source claims.
lf the source is a website, does it include bibliographlc data? You cannot judge the reliability of a site that does not mdicate who sponsors
and maintains it, who wrote whaťs posted there, and when 1c was
posted and last updated.
lf the source is a website, does it approach its topíc judiciously? Your
readers are unlikely to trust a site thal engages in heated advocacy,
attacks other researchers, makes wild claims, uses abusive language,
or makes errors of spelling, punctuation, and grammar
35
Ifthe source is a book, hasit been well reviewed? Many fields have in•
dexes to published reviews that tel1 you how others evaluate a source.
10. Has the source been frequently cited by otbers? You can roughly esti~
mate how iníluenual a source 1s by how often others cite it. To deter
mine that. consult a citation index (in the bibliography, see section 4 in
your field) lf you find tbac a source has been ciled repeatedly by other
scholars, you can infer that experts in the field regard it as reliable and
sigruficant. Such sources are satd to have an "high impact factor."
9.
Those s1gns don't guarantee that a source is reliable, but they should
give you reasonable conftdence in 1r. lf you can't find reliable sources,
acknowledge che lumts of rhe ones you have. Of course, you may find an
exciting research problem when you discover chat a source thought to
be reliable is not.
3.4
For a class paper, you'Jl probably use sources typical in your field. But íf
you are doing an advanced projecl such as an MA thesis or PhD disserta•
bon, search beyond them. If, for example, you were doing a proJect on
the economic effects of agricultural changes in late sixleenth-century
England, you might read some Elizabethan plays, look at woodcms of
agricultural Jife, find commentary by religious figures on rural social be·
havior. Conversely, if you were working on visual representations of daily
life in London, you might work up the economic hlstory of the period and
place. When you look beyond the standard kinds of references relevant
to yow queslion, you enrich not only your analysis but also your range
of intellectual reference and your ability to synthesize diverse kinds of
data, a crucial competence of an inquiring mind. Don't ignore a work on
your topic that 1s not mentioned in the bibliographies of your most relevant sources-you'll get credit for originality if you tum up good sources
others have ignored.
3.5
Record Your Sources Fully, Accurately, and Appropriatcly
Once you decide a source is wonh reading, record all of its bibliographic
information. Your first obligation as a researcher is to rite your sources
accurately and fully so tbat your readers can find them.
3.5.1
The following criteria are especially important for advanced re•
searchers.
Look beyond the Usual Kinds df References
Determine Your Citation Style
Most fields require a specific citation style. The two most common ones
are described in detail in part 2:
[H4P TER 1 I !INDING LJHHI. SQtJR< l \
36
• notes-bibliography style (or simply notes style), used widely in the humaniLies and in some social saences (see chapters 16 and 17)
• author-date style, used in most soc,al sciences and m the natural sciences
(see chapters 18 and 19)
If you are uncertain which style to use, consult your instructor or advisor.
Before you start compiling your list of sources, read the general introduction to citat:ions in chapter 15 and then, depending on the citation style
you are required to use, read the introduction to notes style (chapter 16)
01 author-dale style (chaptcr 18).
Record Com plete Bibliographical Information
To save time and av01d errors, record all the c1tation mfonnation you
will need when you first find a source Most of this information appears
on the title page of a book orat the head of a journal artide. The specific
infonnation you need depends on the type of source, but for each source,
answer the following:
3.5.2
• Who wrote or assembled the source?
author(s)
edítor(s) (if any)
translator(s) (if any)
• What data identify the source?
title (including subtitle)
page numbers Qf the source appears in a larger work)
volume number
issue number
edition num ber
• Who published the source and in what contexl?
publisher's name
place of publication
name of lhe JOUmal, collectton, or other work in whlch the source
appears
■
When was the sowce published?
year of publication
season, momh, or specific day (and, in some cases, time)
for online sources, the date you accessed the material (whether or
not you include this date in your citation)
■
Where can the source be found~
for online sources, a URL or the name of the database
for physical items in a one-of-a-kind collection, the place that
houses che coDection
:J7
Fot you1 own use, you m1ght tecord Librnry of Congress call numbers.
You won't mclude them in bibhographic citations, but you may find them
helpful 1f you must consult the source again.
lf you access a printed text online, record thc URL and any other data
for the online versíon in addition to the full bibliographic data for the
origmal source.
If you scan or photocopy a passage from a book, also /scan or photocopv its Litic page and the bibliograph1c mformation on the reverse side.
Then add the library cal! number if you know 1t.
At some point, you'll need to format th1s bibliographic information
into your required citation style, so you should record your sources in
chat style now. (You can fmd templates and examples for notes style in
figure 16. r and chapter r7; for author-date style, refer to figure rB.1 and
chapter r9)
For many lypes of sources, you can copy and paste atation data online if you know where to look. A~ ů1ere are a number of programs that
will help you collect and organi:i:e your citations and automatically insert
them in your paper m the proper format These are useful aids, but they
are not perfect, so pian on double-checking your citations not only as
you acquire chem but also later, after they've been inserted in your paper.
~EA[l (.f_PJEROIJ,lť TO 1)NDe~STANC1 THfN
4
4 1.1
4.2
1.2
4 .1.1
Look for Creative Agreement
a happy moment when a source confirms our views. But if we just
passively agree, we don't develop our own ideas. So if you believe what 2
source claims, try to extend that claim: What new cases might it cover?
What new insights can it provide? 1s there confirming evidence the
source hasn't considered? Here are some ways to fmd a problem through
creative agreement.
Look for Creative Agreement
Look íor Creative Disagreemenl
Taking Notes on Paper
4 2 2 Takmg Notes Electronically
4 2.3 Decide Whether to Summarize, Paraphrase. or Quote
4 2.3 Guard against lnadvertenl Plag1arism
4.3
Take Useful Notes
4.3.1
Use Note·Taking to Advance Your Thinklng
4 3.2 Take Notes Relevant to Your Question and Work,ng Hypothesis
4 3.3 Get the Context Ríght
4.4
Review Your Progress
4 4 .1
Search Your Notes for an Answer
4 '1.2 lnvent Your Question
4 4.3 Re-sort Your Notes
4.5
39
Read Generousty to Understand, Then Critically to Engage
lf you can, read promising sources twice. First, read generpusly. Pay attention to what sparks your interest. Reread passages that puzzle or confuse
you, Don't look for disagreements right away, but read in ways tha t help
the source make sense. Disagree too soon and you will misunderstand
your source or exaggerate a weakness if it presents an argument that
challenges yours.
Then, if a source seems important or challenges your own posit:Jon,
read it a second time slowly and more critically. When you read a passage, think not only about what it says but about howyou would respond.
Record those responses in your ~tes or-if you own the source or a copy
of it-in the margins of the source. Test your understanding by summarizing; ifyou can't sum up a passage in your mind, you don't understand
it well enough to disagree.
You probably won't be able to engage your sources fully until you've
done a bit of reading and have developed your own ideas further. But
from the outset, be on alert for ways to e7gage your sources, actively and
creatively. At some point, the earher the better, you must look for ways to
go beyond your sources, too, even when you agree with them.
Take Notes systematically
4.2.1
TO '"GAGE
4,1
Read Generously to Understand, Then Critically to Engage
d
RITICA~l
data to record. Note-tak.ing 1s not clerical work. Whe11 you take notes on
a source thoughtfully, you engage not JUSt its words and ideas but also 1ts
implications, consequences, shortcomings, and new possibilíties.
Engaging Your Sources
4.1
<
Manage Moments of Norma! Anxiety
Once you have a research problem, use it to guide your search for evidence, models, and arguments to respond to. But if you don't yet have
one firmly in hand, you won't know which data, mode1s, or arguments
will prove relevam. So read sources not randomly but deliberately to find
a problem. Look for claims that seem puzzling, inaccurate, or simplisticanything you can disagree with. You're more likely to find a research
problem when you disagree with a source, but you can also fmd one in
sources you agree with.
Experienced researchers don't read passively; they engage their
sources actively, entering into conversation with them. Once you find a
source worth a close look, don't read it mechanically, iust mining it for
Iťs
, . Offer additional s upport. You can offer new evidence to support a
source's claim.
Smith u ses anecdotal evidence to show that the A lamo story had mythic status
beyond Texas, but editorials in big-city newspapers offer better evidence.
Source supports _ _ Wlth old evidence, but maybe you can offer
new evidence.
Source supports _ _ with weak evidence, but maybe you can offer
stronger evidence.
40
C!-lArH ~ 4
2.
E' úAGING \OUR SOIJ• t.
Confirm unsupported claims. You can prove something that a source
has only assumed or speculated.
2.
Part-whole contradictions. You can show
the parls of somelhing are related.
that c1
source m1scakes how
Smith recommends visualization to improve sporu performance, bul a study of the
Smith has argued that codlng Is irrele11ant to .i libcral education, but in fact., it is
mental activities of athletes shows why that Is good adv1ce.
essential
Source speculates _ _ rrught be true. but you can offer evidence to
show that it is.
Source assumes _ _ is true, but maybe you can prove it.
a position to new areas.
Source claims that _ is a part of __, but iťs not.
Source claims that one part of __ relates to anbther in a certain
way, bul it doesn't.
Source claims that every __ has __ as one of its parts, but it
doesn't.
Smith argues thal medlcal students learn phys1olog,cal processes better when they
3. Developmental or historical contradictions. You can show that a
3. Apply a claim more widely. You can extend
are e~pla1ned wtth many metaphors rather than wrth 1ust one The same appears to
source mistakes the origin and development of a top1c.
be true for engIneers learning phys1cal processes.
Smith argues that the world populatlon will rise, but it won'I.
Source correctly applies _ _ to one situation, bul maybe 1t can
apply to new ones.
Source clairns that _ _ is true in a specific situat10n, but maybe iťs
true in genera I.
Source clauns that __ is changing, but iťs not.
Source claims that __ o~ginated m __, bul it didn 't.
Source claims that _ develops in a certain way, but it doesn't.
4.
4 .1. 2
Look for Creative Disagreement
If you read actively, you'H inev1tably fi_nd yourself disagreeing with your
sources. Don't brush those disagreements aside, because they often point
to new research problems. So instead of JUSt noting that you disagree
with aoother writer's views, use that disagreement to encourage your
own productive lhinking. Look for these types (the list 1s not exhaustive,
and some overlap).
1.
Contradictions ofkind. A source says something 1s one kmd of thing,
but maybe iťs anolher kind.
Smith says that certain rehg1ous groups c1re considered "cults·• because of their
strange behefs. but those beliefs a,e no ditferent in kind from standard religion!..
Source claims that __ is a kind of __ , but iťs not.
Source claims that __ always has __ as one of its features or
qualilies, bul 1t doesn't.
Source claims that _
is normaUgood/significant/usefuVmoraV
interesting, but iťs not
You can reverse those claims and the ones that follow to state the
opposite:
Though a source says
it is.
is not a ld nd of __, you can show that
Extemal cause-effect relations. You can show that a source mistakes
a causa! relationship.
Smith claims that legalizing marijuana will increase 1ts use among teenagers, bul
evidence shows that ít doesn't.
Source claims that _ _ causes _ _, but 1t doesn't.
Source claims that __ causes _ _, but it doesn't; they are both
caused by _ _ .
Source claims that __ ís sufficient to cause _ _, but it's not.
Source claíms lhat __ causes only _ _, but 1t also causes _ _.
s. Contradictions of perspective. MosL contradictions don't change a
conceptual framework, but when you can contrad1ct a "standard" view
of things, you urge others to think in a new way.
Smith assumes that advert1s1n,g has only an economIc funct1on. but il also serves as
a laboratory for new art torms.
Source discusses __ from the point of view of _ _, bul a new
contexl or point of view reveals a new truth (The new or old context
can be social, political, philosophical, historical, economic, ethical,
gender specific, etc.)
Source analyzes _ _ using theory / value syslem _ _ , but you can
analyze it from a new point of view and see it in a new way.
As we said, you probably won't be able to engage sources in these ways
until afteryou've read enough to form some views ofyourown. But ifyou
42
Cllf•P TE P. J I W CiAGlflv rC,1/ll \OURCH
43
keep these ways of thinking in mínd as you begm to read, you'll engage
your sources sooncr and more productively.
Of course, once you d1scover lhat you can prnductively agree or disagree with a source, you should ask So what> So what if you can show
U1at whtle Smith cla1rns that eastemers did not embrace the s tory of the
Alamo enthusiastically, in face many <lid?
4,2
■
Record complete bibhographic mfonnanon for each source so that you
can cite it properly and find it again easily
■ Separate notes on different top1cs, even if iliey come from the same
source.
■ Make sure your notes are accurate, because you need to be able to rely on
them later. {lf you want to quole more than a few lines, cfpy or save the
passage or the whole documenl.)
■ Clearly distinguish (1) what you quote from a source, {2) what you paraphrase or summanze from a source, and (3) your own thoughts Jí you
are writing on pa per, use headmgs or brackels or distinct colors to differentJate these three difíeient klnds of notes. You m1ght also create a secóon speciftcally dedicated to your own responses, agreements, disagreements, speculations, and so on (see the 1talicized section m figure 4.1).
That will encourage you to do more lhan simply record the content of
what you read.
Take Notes Systematlcally
Once you fmd and record a source you d1ink you can use, you must read
it purposefully and carníully. Then take notes m a way that will help you
not only to remember and use what you have read but also to further
your own thmking. Llke the other steps in a research project, note-taking
goes better with a pian
4 .2.1
Taking Notes on Paper
Years ago, the standard way to take notes on sources was to create a file
of index cards (see figure 4 1). At the top left is the author, short title, and
page nurnber At the top nght are keyworrls that let the researcher sort
and re-sort notes into different categories and orders. The body of ilie
card summanzes the source, records a direct quotation, and includes
a comment or thought about further research iliat is clearly distinguished from the quotation At the bottom left is the call number for ilie
source.
A card like this seems old-fashioned, but it provides a template for
effident note-taking:
Shannan, swcanng, p. I33
HI STOR'ťi ECONOMICS
tC,ENDER'')
<,ay, S\\canng l>e~'llll1c •'t'l.l•10m1c hrue ,n IXlh c. C11es Gcml=n·s Mal!llZlne, Jw)
1751 (no page rctcn:ncc): "'mu\11 .e,u~nc.:d to len ůays' hard labor bccausc c:oul1ln't
!"I) Oll~-,hilling lín<' for pmfumty.
". one íll,lld economr,t pmclicall~ cn1en1110cd Ůl,: nolion ul adtling 10 tbe nniional
n:,uurcc:s b> prellch1ng ,: cn,~:idc at!airut 1hc opulcnt class ,1ť swean:r...
""""I!
f lfa1· to 11,/11~ ulH.iul rn
1oJu1• as e,m1m1c usue? Cnmediam mon· pop11/i,r ij
thq• w.- huti la11,:1m~<' ~.l/111 i1~1· lllfl1'' f'('(l(/i,t/c 1 A gr,uler 1<.111e '"'"., IJl.,r,, I.Vtlr-< ,
m~,, fi11ed ,.,_, nft,•11 <1< 11 "m<·n ' l
C,T3080 Sb
Figure 4 1. Example of a note c.rrd
l
j
Taking Notes Electronically
When you take notes electrontcally. you have some options:
4. 2..2
■
You can use a word processor. Create a separnte file (orat least a separate
page) for each source, and be sure to unambiguously distinguish your
words from those of your source. Though word processors are easy to use,
they also limit your ability to index, organize, sort, and search your notes.
For long or complex projects, you might consider other options.
■ You can use a dedicated note taking application to create and organize
your notes. Such applicauons can help you to index, sort, and access your
notes. But since they somenmes use proprietary formats, they can make
it difficult to share your notes or use t.hem W1th oů1er programs.
■ You can use a full featured citation management program. ln addition
to allowing you to make your own notes, these programs can often pull
infonnation directly from onhne library catalogs and databases, and they
can format and update your bibliographies as you write. Some will even
store full electronic cop1es of your sources, creating a persona} library
for your proJect. But like note-taking applications, these programs sometimes use propňetary formals
Jn electromc notes, as m notes on paper. you must clearly distinguish
yow own words and ideas from those of your source.
■
Record quotanons from your source in a distinctive color or font so that
you can recogmze them at a glance, and enclose them in large quotation
marks in case the lile loses its formattíng.
1 1\~E l•5ftll
44
Record paraphrases from your source in a second color or font so that
you can 't possibly mistake them for your own ideas. and enclose them in
curly brackets m case the ftle loses its formattmg.
• Record your own thoughts in a third color or font, and eudose them in
square brackets. Pul longer responses 111 a separate sect.Jon so there 1s no
chance you will mistake your own ideas for yoUT source's, or vice versa.
Guard against lnadvertent Plagiarism
For students and professionals alike, sloppy note-taking has caused grief
ranging frorn ridicule for trivia! errors to professionaJ exile for inadvertent pJagiarism. To avoid that nsk, commit to heart these two iron rules
for recording information in notes:
4.2,4
Decide Whether to Summarize, Paraphrase, or Quote
lf you can photocopy, scan, or otherwise reproduce your source, or you
know you can access it online when you write, you can focus less on preserving its exact words than on your engagement with it. Summarize the
source. which will help you understand il, and note passages you might
want to quote or paraphrase when you write. Note also your response to
the source. Where d1d you find yourself agreemg or disagreeing with 1t?
!f you can't preserve your source and you don't know whether you
will be able to access ll Jater, you have a tougher choice. lt takes too
Jong to transcribe the exact words of every passage you might want to
use, so when taking notes, you must choose as you go whether to quote,
paraphrase, or summarize. Every choice depends on how you pian to use
your source:
■
■
The quoted words are evidence that backs up your reasons. lf, for
example, you claimed that differen t regions responded to the Battle
of the Alamo differently, you would quote exact words from different newspapers. You would paraphrase them if you needed only
their general sentiments.
• The words are from an authority you pian to rely on or challenge.
The words are stnkingly original or so compelling thal the quotation can frame the rest of your discussion
The words express a claim that you disagree wilh, and to be fair you
want to state il exactly,
Always unambiguousJy identify words and ideas from a source so that
weeks or months Jater you cannot possibly mistake them for your own.
As recommended above, record quotat1ons and paraphrases with quotation marks, as well as in a font or color that unambiguously distinguishes
~
them from your own ideas.
Never paraphrase a source so dosely that a reader can match the phrasing and sense of your words Wtth those in your source (see 7.9.2).
ln fact, ralher than retyping quotations of more than a few lines, download or photocopy them. Add to th~ top of lhe downJoaded or photocopied pages the name of the source and keywords for sorcing.
This is important: never assume that you can use what you find online
w:ithout citing its source, even if iťs free and publicly available. You must
ack.nowledge your use of anythmg you did not create yourself. (For more
on plagiansm, see 7.9.)
■
Summarize when you need only the point of a passage, section, or even
whoJe article or book. Summary is useful for context and for data or
claims that are related-but not directly relevant-to your project. A
summary of a source can never serve as good evidence (see 5-4.2).
a Paraphrase when the speciftc words of a passage are less 1mportant I.han
its meaning. Paraphrase doesn't mean changingjust a word or two You
must replace most of the words and phrasing of the original with you1
own (see 7.9.2). As evidence, a paraphrase is never as good as a direct
quotation.
• Record exact quotabons for these purposes:
45
If you don't record important words now, you can't quole them Jater. So
copy or photocopy more passages th0n you think you'II need (for more
on photocopying, see 4.3.1).
Neuer abbreviate a quotation thinking you can accurately reconstruct
it Jater. You can't. And 1f you misquote, you'll damage your cred1bility.
■
4.2.3
NOHS
4.3
Take Useful Notes
Readers will judge your work not just by tlw quality of your sources and
how accurately you report them but also by how deeply you engage them.
To do that, you must take notes in a way that not only reflects but encourages a growing underslanding of your projecL
4,3.1
Use Note-Taking to Advance Your Thinking
Many inexperienced researchers think that note-taking 1s a matter of
merely recording data. Recording or photocopying can help you quote or
paraphrase accurately, but if you don't engage your sources, you simply
accumulate inen data To advance your thinking, on any pages you've
copied, a nnotate key sentences and passages by highJíghting or labeling
them in the margin. Mark ideas or data tbat you expect to use 111 your
46
tAr.f U5EF L 'IOlE~
paper, Summanzc what you have highlighted, or sketch a response to
ít, 01 add notes in the margin that help you interpret your highlighting.
The more you write about a source now, the better you will understand
it Jater
Take Notes Relevant to Your Question and Working Hypothesis
For sources you thmk especially useful, record not jusc facts that you
think you can use as evidence bul also other information that helps you
explain those facts and theu relationship to your claim. You can create a
template to help with this (see 4.2.1).
The first three items directly support or challenge your working hypothesis
4 .3.2
Sometimes you care only about a conclusion, b11t readers usually want
to see how a condusion emerges from the argument supporting it. So
when you take notes, record not only conclusions but also the arguments that support them.
2. When you record a daim, note its role in the original. 1s it a main
point? A mmo1 point> A qualification or concess1on::1 By noting these
distincaons, you avo1d this kind of mistake·
Ong,na/ by Jones: ''Researchers recognize that lung cancer has a number of causes,
including genetic predisposltlon and exposure to environmental factors such as
asbestos. radon, and fine particulates Bul no one who has stud1ed lhe data doubts
lhal lung cancer's leading cause 1s smoking
M,sleoding report obout Jonl!s: Smoking is 1ust one cause of lung cancer among
■
reasons that support your hypothesis or suggest a new one
■ evidence that supports your reasons
■ views that undermine or even contradict your hypothes1s (see 5,4.3)
many. Jones, for example, claims lhal " lung c,1ncer has a number of causl!S, tncfuding genet1c predisposilion and exposure to cnv1ronmental facto,s such ilS asbestos,
radon, and line particulates.
These next 1tems might not support or challenge your hypothesis, bul
they may help you explain its context or simply make your paper more
readable:
about it, particularly earlier research (see 6 .2.2 and 10.1 . r)
question
■ important definittons and principles of analysis
■ analogies, comparisons, and anecdotes that might not directly support
your hypothesis but do explain or illustrate complicated issues or simply
make your analysis more interesting
■ strikingly onginal language relevant to your topic
4 .3.3
Get the Context Right
You can 't record eveiything. but you have to record enough to ensure that
you accurately capture the source's meaning As you use material from
sources, record not Just what they say but how they use the information.
Here are some ways to guard against misleading your reader.
, . When you quote, paraphrase, or summarize, be sure to capture the
context. When you note an important conclusion, record the authoťs
line of reasomng:
Nol
Bartolll (p 123)· The war was caused by Z
Bul
Bartolli The war was caused by X, Y, and Z (p. 123). But lhe most important
cause was Z (p 123), for two reasons: reason 1 (pp, 124-26), reason 2 (p. 126).
~
Jones díd not make lhat pomt at all. He conceded a point to set up a
point he wanted to make Anyone who deliberately misrepresents an
author in this way violates basic standards of truth. But you can make
such a mis ta ke madvertently if you note only a source's words and not
their role m an argument.
■ historical background of your question and what authorities have said
■ historical or contemporary context that explains the importance of your
47
3.
Record the scope and confidence of a claim. These are not the same:
Chemicals 111 french fries cause cancer
Chemicals in french fries may be a lactor in causing cancer,
Seme chemtcals in french fnes correlate with a higher inCJdence of cancer.
4 . Oon't mistake a summary of another writeťs views for those of an
author summarizing them. Same writers do not clearly indicate when
they summanze another's argument, so iťs easy to quote them as saying what they set out to disprove rather than what they in fact believe.
s. Note why sources agree and disagree. Turo social scientists might
claim that a social problem is caused by persona! factors. not by environmental forces, but one might cite evidence from genetic tnhericance while the ether pomts to rehgious beliefs. How and why sources
agree is as important as the fact that they do. In the same way, sources
might disagree because they interpret the same evidence differently
or take different approaches to the problem
lt 1s nsky to attach yourself to wh~t any one researcher says about
an issue. It 1s not "res1:a1ch" when you uncritically summarize another's work. If you 1ely cm al least two sources, you'll usually find
•AAl-l AG l MOME
48
that they do not agree entirely, and
can begin.
thaťs
49
Once you can generate two or three such statements, try to íormulate
a stiU larger generalization that might include them al!:
where your own research
Many cultures invest great material and hu man resources in creating masks that
represent t heir deepest values.genera!izallo" Egyptlans Aztecs. and OC.edn1c cullures all
4.4
4,4.1
Review Your Progress
created religious masks out of the rarest and most valuable materlals.
Regularly review your notes and storyboard to see where you are and
wh ere you have to go. In a storyboard, full pages indicale reasons with
support; empty pages indicate work to do Consider whether your working hypothesis is stiU plausible. Do you have good reasons supportmg it?
Good evidence to supporl those reasons? Can you add new reasons or
evidence?
Jf you think that some readers might plauS1bly disa&,ke with that gen
eralization, you might be able to offer it as a claim .'that corrects their
misunderstandmg.
Search Your Notes for an Answer
We have urged you to find a working hypothesis orat least a question to
guide your research. Butsome writers start \Vlth a quest1on so vague that
it evaporates as they pursue it. lf that happens to you, search your notes
for a generabzation that might be a candidate for a worbng hypothesis,
then work backward to fmd the question il answers
Look first for questions, disagreements, or puzzles in your sources and
in your reaction to them (see 2.1 3 and 4.1). What surprises you 1rught
surprise others. Try to state that surprise:
~.4.2
Invent Your Question
Now comes a tncky part. Iťs like reverse engmeenng: you've tound the
answer to a questlon thaL you havcn'I yet asked so yo11 have to reason
backward to invenl the question that your new generalization answers.
ln this case, il might be What stgns ind1cate Lhe signijicm1ce of masks m thr
sooet,es of those who make and.asc them-' As paradoxical as it may seem,
experienced researchers often discovi:>r their question afte, they answer
it, the problem they shou]d have posed after rhey solve ít
4.4.3
Re-sort Your Notes
lf none of Lhat helps, try re-somng yout notes. When you first selected
keywords for your notes, you identified general concepts 1ha1 could organize not just your evidence but your thínking. If you chase keywords representing those concepts carefully, you can re-sort your notes in differem
ways to gct a new slant on your material. If your keywords no longer
seem relevant, review your notes to create new ones and rcshuftle agam.
4.5
Manage Moments of Norma! Anxiety
I ~xpected the fírst mylhic stories of the Alamo to origmate in Texas. but thev didn't.
They originated in •..
That working hypothesis suggests that the Alamo myth began as a national, not a regional, phenomenon-a modest but promising start.
lf you can 't find a working hypothesis in your notes, look for a pattem
of ídeas that might lead you to one. lf you gathered data with a vague
question, you probably sorted them under predictable keywords. For
rnasks, the categories might be their origms (Afncan, Ind1an,Japa11ese, .. .),
uses (dtama, relig1011, carníual, . .), materials (gold.feathet, wood, •• .), and
so on For example:
Egyptians-mummy masks of gold íor nobihty, wood for others
Aztecs-masks from gold and jade buried only in the graves of the nobility
New Guinea trlbes-masks for the dead from feathers from rare birds
Those facts could support a general statement such as Masl.!•maktng cul•
t11res use the most ual1.1able materials aua,lable to create relig1ous masl:s, espec1ally for the dead.
As you get deeper mto your project, you may experience moments when
everythmg seems to run together inro a hopeless muddle. That usually
happens wlum you accumulate notes faster than you can sort them. Such
moments can be st1essful, but ů1ey can also be a sign that you are on the
verge of a new msight or discov„ry.
You can minimize the amaety by taking every opportumty to organize
and summarize what you have gathered by writing as you go and by re
turning to the centra! questions: What question am I askmg} What problem
am I posing? Keep rehearsing that fom1ula : I am workmg on X to learn more
about Y, so that my readers can bettcr understand Z. Writing regulilrly about
these questtons does more than help you stay focused; it also helps you
think.
You can turn to friends, classmates, teachers-anyone who w11l serve
as a sympethelic but critical audience Explam how what you have
learned bears on your question and helps you resolve your problern, Ask
them, Does this make sense~ Am I missing somerhmg rmportant? What else
would you li~e to know? You wm profit from their 1eactions and even more
frorn the mere act of explaining your ideas to nonspecialists.
s
Constructing Your Argument
S.1
What a Research Argument ls and 1s Not
5.2
Build Your Argument around Answers to Readers' Questions
5.3
Tum Your Working Hypothesis into a Claim
5.4
Assemble the Elements ofYour Argument
5 41
~
State and Evaluate Your Claim
5. 1 • Support Your Claim w1th Reasons and Evidence
5 4 1 Acknowledge and Respond 10 Anticipated Questions and Obledions
~ 4 4 Establish the Relevance ol Your Reasons
S.S
Ptefer Arguments Based on Evidence to Argumcnts Based
on Warrants
5.6
Assemble an Argument
Most of us would rather read lhan write. There ís always another article
to read, one more source to track down, just a bit more data to gather.
But well before you've done aíl the research you'd like to do, there comes
a point when you must start thinking about the fust draft of your paper_
You m1ght be ready when your storyboard starts to fill up and you're
satisfied with how it looks. You will know you're ready when you thínk
you can sketch a reasonable case to support your working hypothesis
(see 2.3). tf your storyboard 1s full and you still can't pull together a case
strong enough to plan a draft, you may have to rethmk your hypothesis,
perhaps even your question. But you can't be certain where you stand in
that process until you at least try to pian that first draft
ln mis chapter we explam how to build your argument; m Ůle next,
how to orgamze it. As you gam experience, you'll learn to combine those
two steps into one
52
5 .1
CtiAr•fR S I C0"51 f \JC
,,,i; ,ou11 AR,
Mihl
What a Research Argument 1s and ls Not
The word argument has negative associations these days because it
evokes images of people shouling at one another. ln that k.ind of argument the goal is to win, to bludgeon or intim1date one's opponent into
assent or silence. But a research argument isn't lilce that As we suggested
in chapter 1, it is more like a conversation with a community of receptive but skeptical colleagues. Such readers won't necessarily oppose your
claims (although they might). but they also won't accept them until they
see good reasons based on reltable evidence and until you respond to
their questions and reservations.
When you make (not haue) an argument m a face-to-face conversat:Jon,
you cooperate with your listeners. You state your reasons and evidence
not as a lecturer would to a silent audience but as you would engage
friends sitting around a table. you offer a claim and reasons to believe it;
they probe for details, raise objections, ar offer their points of view; you
respond, perhaps with questions of your own, they ask more questions.
At 1ts best, it's an amiable but thoughtful back-and-forth that develops
and tests the best case that you and they can make together.
ln writ:Jng, even when done collaboratively, that kind of cooperation is
harder You must not only answer your imagmed readers' quesůons but
also ask them on their behalJ-as often and as sharply as real readers will.
Your aim isn't to thlnk up clever rhetoncal strategies that w1ll persuade
readers to accept your claim regardless of how good it is. lt is to test your
clatm and especially its support, so tl\ot you offer your readers the best
case you can make. In a good research paper, readers hear traces of that
imagined conversation.
As we've said, reasoning based on evidence isn 't the only way to reach
a sound conclus1on, sometimes not even the best way. We often make
good decis1ons by relying on intuition, feeling, even spiritual inspiraúon.
But when we try to exploan why we beheve aur claims are sound and why
others should too, we have no way to demonstrate how we reached them,
because we can't offer intuitions, feelings, or inspirations as evidence for
readers to evaluate. We can only say we had them and ask readers to take
our claim on faith, a request that readers of research papers rarely grant.
When you make a research argument, therefore, you must layout your
reasons and evidence so that your readers can consider them; then you
must 1magine both their questions and your answers. Doing all this is
hard, but remembering how arguments work in everyday conversations
will help you.
S,2
Bulld Your Argument around Answers to Readers' Questlons
Cons1der the kind of conversatton you have every day:
Abby: I hear you had a hard tIme last semester How tJo you think thls one w1II go?
[Abby poses a problem ín the form of a qucslion.]
Brett Beller, I hope, [Brett answers lhe question.]
Abby; Why so? [Abby asks for a reoson to belicvé Brett s onswer]
Brett: 1'111 taking courses ín my ma1or [Breil offers a reoson.]
Abby: Like ~hat? [Abby o$k.s (01 evidence to baclc up Brett'~ reason.]
Brett H1story of Art, lntro to Design, [Brett o(ft!rs ev1d1mce to bock up his ,eoson.]
Abby. Why Witi taking courses In your maior make a d1flerence? [Abby doesn't see the
relevance of Bretťs reason to h,s claim t~t
he wi/1 do betle,.]
j,
Brett. When I take courses l'm interested In, I work hardcr. [Brntt offers o generol prin-
cipie that reloles l11s reoson lo his cloim that he wi/1 do betler)
Abby- Whal about that math course you have to take? fAbby objects to Bretťs reoson.]
Brett: I know I had to drop ,t last tI111e f took 11, bul I round a good tutor. (Brett acknowl~dges Abby's ob1ection ond responds lo ,t.)
lf you can 1magine yourself u1 thar ccinversation, you'II find nothing
strange about assembling a research argument Thaťs because the five
elements of any argumem are JUSt answers to the kinds of questions
Abby asks Brett-and that you must ask yourself on your reader's behalf.
■
•
•
•
•
Claim· What do you wam me to believe? Whal is yom point?
Reason· Why do you say lhat? Why should I agree?
Evidence: How do you know? Ca11 you back it up?
Acknowledgment and response. 811t what about . _7
Warranl' How does that follow? Can you !!xplam your reasomng)
Think of your research as the process of figuring out answers to those
questions.
5,3
Turn Your Working Hypothesis into il Cloim
We described the early stages of research 11s findmg a
quest1on and ímagming a tentative answer We called that answe1 your wor~tng hypothesís.
Now as we d1scuss buildmg an argument to suppon rh;H bypothesis, we
change aur termmology one last time. When you think you can back up
your hypothesís wiůt good reasons and evidence, you'II present that hy•
5.5
54
arguments in terms of your teade1s' mterests (see chapter 1). lf, however,
you thmk your own claim is vague or trivia!, you're not ready to assemble
an argument because you have no reason to make one
pothesis as your argum~nťs claim A claim is an assertion (which cou)d
be one sentence or several) that demands support. Your maín daim 1s the
assertion supported by your whole research argument. Same call this
assertion your thes1s.
s.4.1
5.4
S.4 .1
Assemble t he Elements of Vour Argument
At lhe care of your argument are three elements: your claim, your reasons for accepting it, and the evidence on which those reasons are based.
To that core you'll add one and perhaps two more elements: one responds to questions, objections, and altematlve pomts of view; the other
answers those who do not understand how your reasons are relevant to
your claim.
State and Evaluate Your Claim
Start a new first page of your storyboard (or outline). Al the bottom, state
your claim in a sentence or two. Be as specific as you can, because the
words in th1s claun will help you pian and execute your draft Avoid
vague value words hke important, interestíng, and s1gm.fícant. Compare the
two following claims;
Masks play a signilicant role 1n many religious ceremonies.
ln cultures from pre-Columbian Arnerica to Africa and As1a, masks allow relig1ous
celebrants to bring deities to life so that worshlpers experlence lhern dlrectly.
Now judge the s1g11ijicance of your claim (So what? again). A signifícant
claim doesn't make a reader think J know chat, but rathe1 Really? How
interestmg What makes you think so? (Review 2.1.4.) These next two claims
are too trivia! to justify reading, much less writing, an argument to back
them up:
Th1s paper discusses teachmg popular leger,ds such as the Battle of the Alamo to
elementary school students. (So whot i( it does?)
Teach1ng Un1ted States history through popular legends such as the Sattle of the
Alarno is common in elementary education. (So what if ít is?)
Of course, what your readers Wlll count .is mteresting depends on
what they know, and if you're early in your research career, thaťs something you can't predict. lf you're writing one of your first papers, assume
that your most important reader is you. lt is enough 1f you alone think
your answer is s1gnificant, if it makes you think, Well, I didn't know chat
when I started. As you become more experienced and come to understand
your particular research commumty better, you'll leam to frame your
Support Yo ur Claim with Reasons and Evidence
At the core of every resea1ch argument is the answerfto your research
quesnon, the sol\ltion to your problem- your main elaim. You have to
back up that da1m with cv.ro kinds of support: reasons and evidence.
A reason is a statement lhat Jeads readers to accept a claim. We often
join a reason to a claim with because;
Elementary schools should make leaching loreign languages a priorilYcL,,m because we
acqu1re languages best and most easily when we are youn&,reason
You often need more than one reason to support a claim, and in a complex argument, your reasons V1JI be claims themselves, requiring support with additional reasons in turn.
Evidence is the data on which you base your reasons. lt may seem
obvious that you must back up a claim with reasons and evidence, bul
iťs easy to confuse those two words because we often use them as iI they
mean the same thing:
You have to base your cla1rn on good reasons
You have to bas!! your chum on good evidence.
Reasons and evidence are not the same thing, and disti11guishing them
is crucial in making sound arguments. Compare these two sentences:
On what evidence do you base your reasons?
On what reasons do you base your evidence?
That second sentence is odd: we don'Lbase evidence on reasons; we base
reasons on evidence. We use our minds to think up reasons. We have to
search for eV1dence ''out there" in the world and then make it available for
everyone to see. Reasons need the support of evidence: evidence should
need no support beyond careful demonstration or a reference to a reliable source
When assembling your evidence, be aware that what you th.ink is a
true fact and therefore hard evidence, your readers might not. For example, suppose a researcher offers chis claitn and reason:
Early A lamo stories reflected values already 111 the Amencan characler.clalm The story
al most instantly became a legend of American heroic sacrifice.reason
To support thar reason, she offers this "hard" evidence:
56
CH A PTE? ' I
cor,sn uc:rn,c.
ťQLJR
Ai<GUM ENT
Soon after the battle, many news papers used the story to celebrate our hero1c national
characler,evidence
The researcher treats this statement as fact. But skeptica1 readers, the
kind you should expect (even hope for), migbt as k How s0011 ts ''soon'';> How
many is "many'? Which papers? In news stories or ed1torials? What exactly did
they say;, How many papers didn't mention 1t' Such readers will accept that
statement as evidence only when they're satisfied their questions about
it have been answered.
To be sure, readers may accept a claim based only on a reason, without any evidence at all, if that reason comes from a trusted authority or
seems clearly-or selJ-ev1dently-true:
We are all created equal,,eason so no one has a natural right to govern US.cJaim
In research papers written for introductory courses, it is often sufficient
to support reasons only by what authontative sources say: Wilson says X,
Yang says Y, Schmidt says Z But in advanced work, readers expect more;
they want evidence drawn not just from secondary sources but from primary sources or your own observations, demonstrations, or experiments,
Review your storyboard: Can you support each reason with what your
readers will think is evidence of the right kind, quantity, and quality?
Might your readers challenge what you offer as evidence? If so, how? Do
you need to offer a better demonstration or a better source? Jf so, you
must produce more or better data or acknowledge the limits of what
you have.
Your claim, reasons, and evidence makeup the core of your argument,
but it needs at least one more element, maybe two.
5.4 .3
Acknowledge and Respond to Anticipated Questions and Objections
Careful readers will be fair, but they will also question every part of your
argument. So you must anticipate as many of their questions as you can
and then acknowledge and respond to the most important ones. Doing
this may be hard because you know your own a1gument too well and may
believe in it too much to serious1y challenge it. Still, you must imagine
your readers' questions and take their views into account. Thaťs how you
establish a cooperative relationship with your readers.
Readers can chaUenge both the intrinS1c and extnns1c soundness of your
argument: they might point to problems ins1de your argument, usually
with 1ts evidence, or they might raise questions from outside your argument by noting altematives or exceptions. 1'ry to imagine and respond to
both sorts of challenges.
ASS[MBL E THf El EMUIVi OF '(OllH AP.GUMEIP
1.
57
To address potential cha1lenges to your argumenťs intrinsic soundness, imagine a reader making any of these criticisrns, and then construct a subargument in response.
Imagine a reader challenging the nature of your evidence:
"I want to see a different sort of evidence-hard numbers, not anecdotes." Or ".. . stories about real people, not cold statistifs."
Imagme a reader questioníng its quality:
"It isn't accurate. The numbers don't add up."
"It isn't precise enough. What do you mean by 'many' 7 "
"It 1sn't current. There's newer research than this."
"lt 1sn't representative. You didn't get data on all the groups.''
"Jt isn't authoritatJve. Smith is no expert on this matter."
Now imagine a reader questioning its quantity (usually the strongest objection of all):
~
"You need more evidence, A single data point/ q uotation / number /
anecdote is not sufficient.''
Most researchers have difficu1ty finding enough good evidence to
make an airtight case, especially when working to a deadline. Research
is always a compromise between being thorough and being timely. lf
you feel that your evidence is less than unassa1lable, you might want
to admit its llmitations candidly, before readers reJect your argument
because you overstated it.
Next, imagine these kinds of reservatJons about your reasons and
how you would answer them:
Your reasons are incons1stent or contradictory
They are too weak or too few to support your claim.
They are irrelevant to your claim. (We discuss this matter in 5.4.4.)
2. To address potential challenges to your argumenťs extrinsic soundness, you have to step back and view your argument from other perspectives. Doing this is difficult, but you must try Iťs important to get
into the habit of asking yourself, What could cast doubt on my claim?
Those who see the world differently from you are likely to define
terms differently, reason differently, even offer evidence that you find
irrelevanL lfyou and your readers see the world differently, you must
acknowledge and respond to these issues as well. Do not treat differing points of view s imply as objections. You will lose readers if you
argue that your view is right and theirs is wrong. Instead, acknowledge
the differences, then compare them so that readers can understand
58
A,S EMBIE THf ElEM[IHS Of \OUP .\RGUMHH
CHAPTE~ 5 I co•i ~TRuCTIIJG YO!IR ARGUM(Nl
To most of us, the reason seems obviously to support the claim and so
needs no explanation of íts relevance. But suppose your friend asks this
odd question.
your argument on its own terms. They still might not agree, but you'll
show them that you understand and respect their views; they are then
more likely to try to understand and respect yours.
Jfyou're a new researcher, you'll find these questions hard to imagine because you might not know how your readers' views differ from
your own. Even so, try to think of plausible questions and objections.
But if you're writing a thesis or dissertation, you are responsible not
just for supporting your own claim but also for knowing the positions
of others in your research community and the issues they are likely
to raise. Whatever your Jeve! of experience, practíce imagining and responding to objecnons and altemative arguments. By doing so, you'U
cultívate a habit of mind that your readers will respect and that may
keep you from jumping to questionable conclusions.
Add those acknowledgments and responses to your storyboard
where you think readers will raise them.
5.4.4
Establish the Relevance ofYour Reasons
The last element of an argument is called a warrant, and even experienced researchers find it bard to grasp. You add a warrant to your argument when you think a reader might reject your claim not because a reason supporting it is factually wrong ar is based on insufficient evidence,
but because it seems irrelevant and so doesn't count as a reason at all.
For example, imagine a researcher writes this claim.
The Alamo stories spread quicklYcla,m because in 1836 the United States wasn't yet a
confídent player on the world stage,reason
lmagine that she suspects that her readers will likely object, lťs true
that the Alamo stories spread quickly and that in 1836 the Untted States wasn't
yet a confident player on the world sta.ge. But I don't see how not being confident
ts relevant to the story's spreadíng quickly. The writer can't respond simply
by offering more evidence that this country was not a confident player
on the world stage or that the stories in fact spread quickly: her reader
already accepts both as crue. lnstead, she has to explam the relevance of
that reason-why its truth supports the truth of her cla1m. To do that, she
needs a warrant.
54 41
Suppose you make
this little argument to a new friend from a faraway land:
HOW A WARRA N T WORKS IN CASUAl CON V ERSAT I ON
fťs 5° below zerO,reasoo so you should wear a
hat.c1aim
59
So what if it is 5° below? Why doe,; that rnean I should wear a hat?
That question challenges not the truth of the reason (ít is s• below) but its
relevance to the claim (you should wear a hat). You migh# think it odd that
anyone would ask that question, but you could ansv/er with a general
principie:
Weil, when 1ťs cold, people should dress warrnly.
That sentence is a warrant. It states a general principie based on our
experience in the wotld: when a certain general condition exists (iťs cold),
we're justi.fied in saying that a certain general consequence regularly follows (people should dress warrnly). We think that the general warrant just:Jfies our specific claim that our.,friend should wear a hat on the basis of
our specific reason that iťs s• below, because we're reasoning according
to this principie of logic if a general condition and its consequence are
true, then specific instances of it must also be true.
In more detail, it works like this (waming: what follows may sound
like a Jesson in Logic 101):
■
ln the warrant, the general condition is iťs cold. Jt regularly leads us to
draw a general consequence: people should dress warmly. We state that as
a true and general principie: When iťs cold, people should dress warmly
■ The specific reason, iťs s• below, is a valid instance of the general condition 1ťs cold.
• The specific claim, you should wear a hat, is a valid instance of the general
consequence, people should dress warmly.
■ Since the general principie stated in the warrant is true and the reason
and claim are valid instances ofit, we're "warranted" to assertas true and
valid the claim wear a hat.
But now suppose six months Jater you visit your friend and he says
this.
lťs
above 80° tonight,reason so wear a long-sleeved shirt.c1alm
That might baffle you: How could the reason (iťs aboue 80°) be relevant
to the claim (wear a long-sleeued shirt)? You might imagine this general
principie as a warrant:
When iťs a warrn night, people should dress warrnly.
60
o-1, AP T, R S I CCtNSll!UC WlG 10VK A~GlJMENT
~SSEMBLE TH[ HEM,tJTS Cf ~UUR APGIH,,l[ t-;T
But tha t isn 't true. And if you think the warrant 1s n 't rrue, you 'li deny that
the reason supports the cla1m, because iťs irrelevant to it.
But suppose your friend adds this:
We would accept the claim as sound if and only if we believe the following:
Around here, when iťs a warm night, you should protect your arms from insect b1tes.
Now the argument would make sense, but only if you belíeve al! this:
■
The warrant is true (when
íťs
a warm night, you should protect your arms
from ínsect b1tes).
■
The reason is true (iťs above 80° tonight).
The reason is a valid instance of the general condiaon (80° is a valid instance of being warm) ,
• The claim is a valid instance of the general consequence (weanng a longsleeved shirt is a ualid instance of protecting your arms from insect bites).
■ No unstated limitations or exceptions apply (a cold snap didn't kil! all insects the night before, the person can't use insect repellent mstead, and so on).
■
The warrant is true.
The reason is both true and a valid instance of lhe general condition of
the warrant (encyclopedias were valued objects m the early nineteenth
century).
I
■ The claim is a valid instance of the general consequence bf the warrant
(not owning an encyclopedia is a valid instance of something valuable
not being part of an estate).
■
■
If you believe all that, then you should accept the argument that when
iťs 80° at night, iťs a good idea to wear a long-sleeved shirt, at least at
that time and place.
We al! know countless such principles, and we leam more every day.
If we didn't, we couldn't make our way through our daily Jives. In fact,
we express our folk wisdom in the fonn of warrants, but we cal! them
proverbs: When the caťs away, the mice will play Out ofsight, out of mind. Gold
hands, warm heart
54 4 2
HOW A WA RRANT WORK S IN AN ACAOEM IC ARGUM EN T
And if the researcher feared that a reader might doubt any of those conditions, she would have to make an argument supporting it.
But thaťs not the end of the problem: is the warrant true always and
w1thout exception? Readers might wonder whether in some parts of the
country wills mentioned only land and buildings, or whether few people
made wills in the first place. If ~ writer thought that readers míght
wonder about such qualifications, she would have to make yet another
argument showing that those exceptions don't apply.
Now you can see why we so rarely settle arguments about complex
issues: even when we agree on the evidence, we can still disagree over
how to reason about it.
5.4.4.3
Here is a more
scholarly example, but 1t works in the same way:
ln 1836, this country wasn't a confident player on the world stage,,eason so the A lamo
Now construct a general principie that includes that reason and claim.
Warrants come in al! sorts of forms, but the most convenient is the Whenthen pattern. Trus warrant "covers" the reason and claim.
America,daim because wills rarely mentioned them,,eason
When a valued obJect wasn't ment1oned 1n early nineteenth-century wills, it
usually wasn't part of the estate wa,rant Wills at lhal time rarely mentioned
encyclopedias,reason so lew people must have owned one.c1a,m
TESTtNG THE RELEVAN CE OF A REA SON TO A CLAIM . To test the relevance
of a reason to a claim, construct a warrant that bridges them. First, state
the reason and claim, in that order. Here's the angina! reason and claim
from the beginning of this section-
stories spread quickly.cJalm
Encyclopedias must not have been widely owned in early nineteenth-century
Assume the reason is true: there is lols of evidence that encyclopedias
were in fact rarely mentioned in early nineteenth-century wills. Even so,
a reader might wonder why that statement is relevant to the claim: You
may be right that most such wills didn'r ment1on encyclopedias, but so what?
I don't see how that 1s relevant to your claim chat few people owned one lf a
writer expects that question. she must ant.Icipate it by offering a warrant,
a general principie that shows how her reason is relevant to her claim.
That warrant might be stated like this:
61
When a country lacks conlidence ,n its global stature, ít qu1ckly embraces stories of
hero,c military events.
We can formally represent those relationships as in figure 5. 1.
To accept that claim, readers must accept the following:
■
The warram is true
• The specific reason 1s true.
• The specific reason is a valid instance of the general condit.Jon síde of the
warrant.
... PHR ~
62
COtl 5 H LJ
pHfH~ A~GUMH, TS BASi D (IN EVIO•r.C[
r1•1G !Ol'H APG ú MffiT
When th1s General Condition
exists,
this General Consequence
When a country /acl<s
1l qu,ckly embraces
stones of herotc m1/1tary
evenls.general consequence
ln 1836, th,s country wasn ·1 a
confident player on the world
• Warrants typ1cally have exceptJons that experts also take for granted and
therefore rarely state, forcing new researchers to figure them out as well.
• Experts also know when not to state an obvious warrant or its limitations,
one more thing new researchers must learn on lheir own. ror example, if
an expert wrote Iťs early June, so we can expecl that we'II soon pay more for
gasoline, he wouldn't scate the obvious warrant When summer app,oacnes,
gas prices rise
I
íollows,warrant
confidence,general cond1tíon
50
If you offer a well-known but rarely stated warrant, you'll seem conde•
scending or na1ve. But if you fail to state one that readers need, you'll
seem illogical. You just need to know when readers need one and when
they don't. And Ůlat Lak.es ume and familiarity with the conventions of
your field.
So don't be dismayed if wanants seem confusing; they're difficult
even for expenenced writers. But knowing about them should encourage
you to ask this crucial questJon: m addition to the truth of your reasons
and evidence, will your readerťsee their relevance to your claim] lf they
might not, you should consider making an argument to demonstrace it.
the s tory of the A/amo spread
qu,c!(ly.spec1fic cla1m
stagespec1f1c reason
Th1s Specific Condition
50
th1s Specific Consequence
follows,,1a,m
exist s,reason
Figure 5.1, Argument structure
■ The speetfic cla1m is
■
a valid instance of the general consequence side of
5 '144
s.s
Prefer Arguments Based on Evidence to Arguments Based on
Warrants
the warrant.
No limiting conditions keep the warrant from applying.
[f the writer though t that readers might deny the truth of that warrant
or reason, she would have to make an argument s u pporting it. lf sh E:thought they might think the reason or claim wasn't a valid instance of
the warrant, she'd have to make yet another argument that 1t was.
As you gain experience, you'll leam to check arguments in your head,
but until then you might try to sketch out warrants fo r your most debatable reasons. After you test a warrant, add it to your storyboard where
you think readers w1ll need it. If you need to support a warrant with an
argument, outline it there
63
Finally, 1ťs important to note that readers judge arguments besed on
wammts and arguments based on eV1dence differently.
■
The first type of argument infers a cla1m from a reason and warrant. The
claim m that kind of argument is believed to be certainly tn.1e
■ The second type supports a claim with reasons based on evidence, The
claim in that kind of argument 1s considered to be probably aue
Contemporary readers generally trust the second kind more than the
firsL Compare these two examples:
We should do what we can to discourage teenagers from Lext1ng and dnvmg.c1.,m
because that behav1or increases lhc risk of havlng an accident rea,o" 1Onving is difficult and text mg a distraction,,eason 2 s.ipporting re.ason , and we know lhal when people
WHV WARRA.NTS ARE ESPECIAllY OIHICULT fOR RESEARCHERS NEW TO A
are d istracted while performlng complex task~. their performance suffers.warrant lonhng
If you're new in a field, you may find warrants difficult for these
reasons:
rcason 2 and reasoN 1
FIELD
■ Advanced researchers rarely spell oul the1r principles of reasoning, be-
cause they know their colleagues take them for granted New researchers
must figure them out on the1r own (lťs like hearing someone say, "Wear
a long-sleeved shsrt because iťs above 8o tomght.")
0
We should do what we can to discourage teenagers írom led.mg and drtvin&.c1a,m
because d1stracted d riving ls a leading cause of teenage deaths,reason According to the
CDC, motor vehlcle accidents are responsible for over a third of all fatalllles among
people aged 1,-19, and text1ng while dnvmg e><ponentlally lncrea~es the likelihood lhal
any driver will be 1nvolved in one. Moreover, , . , ~,,den,,.
6S
64
lf you are li.ke mosl contemporary re11ders you probably preferred the
second of these argumencs to the first. Thaťs because its wanant is not
controversial (and therefore goes w1thout saying) and its claim is supported by a reason based on solid evidence. That first argument set!ms
plausible because an uncontrovers1al {and therefore unslated) warram
connects reason I to the cla1m, and an explicit warrant connects reason
2 to reason r {reason r is the claim reason 2 supports). ln ether words,
reason I and reason 2 are good instances of that warranťs general consequence and conctition, respecůvely. Cven so, as tigbt as ůial argument
is, most readers still want some hard evidence.
ln particular, you can rarely support a daim of facl Wlth a worrant
and reason alone. Generally, we can't jusl reason our way to lhe facts,
we have to discover them through research Except in a few fields- some
branches of mathematics, philosophy, theology-the way to demonstrate
a claim of fact is to show with evidence that what you are clairrung is, in
f act, the case
All argurnents rely on wanants, but readers of research arguments are
likely to mistn1st arguments from principie alone. So whenever you can,
rely not on elaborate lines of reasoning based on warrants bul on hard
evidence.
5.6
Assemble an Argument
Here 1s a small atgumenl that fíts together all five parts·
Video games a1med al children can a1d the1r 1r1tellectual development bul thal conlri·
but1on is largely offset by a factor lhal coufd damage their emot1onal devclopmenttoo much viofence,clJ,m Example, parents and child psycholog1sts agree, ,s a ma1or
influence on children·s development. 11 seems plausible, then. thal when children
see image.s of degrading ar disturbing behavlor, lhey wlll be adversely affectcd by
il.warranl ln a single day, ch1ldren see countless examples of violence,reason Every day
t he average child plays over three hours of video games and sees over twenty acls of
v1olence (Ouarte 2012),evrdence Klm has shuwn lhal chIldren don't conluse vidto·game
violence With real life (2015),acknowledRment ot ,11JNna11ve aolnt of víew but because of thetr
1nteractivity video-game violence may aflecl them nonetheless ,esponse We cannot
Ignore the pos.s1b1hly that childhood exposure 10 v,olent v,deo games encourage.s th!!
developmenl of 111olenl adulls.c10 ..., n:st.iled 1!1d arrplrl,ed
Most of those elements could be expanded to fill many paragraphs.
Argumenls in different fields look different, but they all consist of answers to just these five questions·
■
■
What are you claiming?
What are your reasons?
■
■
■
What evidence supports you1 reasons?
But what about other points of view?
What principie makes your reasons relevant to your da1m?
Your storyboard should answer those questions many times. lf tt doesn't,
your paper wilJ seem incomplete and unconvincing.
CRf/\Tl. A PLA'4 lllAT MEEi~ ,OUP. l!EI\DEF' NHPS
6
67
too close to the activity of research to put your reélders' needs before
your own. Most readers want to know yom ideas, not necessari1y the
steps through wh1ch you anived ,n them.
Planning a First Draft
tf your drafl 1s Just a senes of q\lotations, para
phrases, and summanes of sources, you are probably overwhelmed
by your sources and have not yet developed a co1trolling claim of
your own. Readers want to know that you've done your rescarch thor
oughly, bul they also want to know what you think. Note: if you subrrut
a paper ů1at is stitched together from ether sources, especially if you
have cut-and pasted from the web, you also nsk being seen not jusL
as an amateur but also as a plagiarisl (see 7 .9).
2. Patchwork of sources.
61
6.2
Avoid Unhelpful Plans
Create a Pian That Meets Your Readers' Needs
6 21
of the assígnment. lf you are wridng for a course and your
draft simply mirrors the orgamzation of your assignment, you have to
ask why. Aie you just playing it safe or gomg through Lhe motions? You
owe 1t to yourself and your t,acher to do more. Are you still developing
your own ideas? Let the structure of your pa per reflect them Are you
struggling to organize your paper another way? (See secuon 6.2.5 for
some possibilities.)
J . Mirror
Convert Your Storyboard rnto an Outllne
6 2 2 Sketch a Workmg lntroduct,on
6 2 3 Identity Key Concepts That Will Run through Your Paper
6 2 4 Use key Term$ to Create Subhead~ That Un,quely ldent,fy Each Scction
6 2 S Order Your Paper
6 2 6 Make Your Order Clear with Trans1t1onal Words
6 2 7 Sketch a llrief lntroduct,on to Each Sectron and Subsectron
62
a
For Each Stci/on, Sketch Evidence Acknowledgmonts. Warrants, Jnd
Summarlcs
6. 2 9 Skelch a Work,ng Conclusron
6.3
File Away Leftovcrs
6.2
Create a Pian That Meets Your Rcadcrs' Needs
Some fields stipulate the pian of a paper ln the experimental sciences,
for example, readers expect papers to follow an organization like thjs:
lntroduction-Methods and Matenals-Results.-Discussion-Conclus10n
Once you have assembled your argument. you might be ready to draft
it. But experienced writers know that the tlme they invest in planning a
draft more than pays off when Lhey write 1t. To draft effectively, you need
more than just the elements of a sound argument; you need a pian to
assemble those elements mto a coherent draft. Some plans, however, are
better than others.
Ifyour paper must follow a conventional pian, fmd a model in a secondary source or ask your mentor, teacher, or advisor for guidance ln most
fields, however, you have to creare a plan ofyourown, but thal pian must
make sense to your readers. To create one, start with your storvboard or
outline
ConvertYour Storyboard into an Outline
lf you prefer to work from an outline, you can turn your storyboard
into one;
6 .2.1
6.1
Avoid Unhelpful Plans
When you are doing research, it is good to wrtte early, but your early writing should not detennine the pian for your final paper- the real purpose
of that early writing is to he1p you d1sco11er your ideas, not to communicate
them to your readers. tf you find yourself adopting one of the following
plans, pause lt means that you are not yet ready to dtaft your paper
■
■
■
, . Narrative of d.iscovery. lf you find yourself telling Lhe story of your
project-First I 1nuest19aced . Then I compared .-you are probably still
66
Start with a sentence numbered I that states your claím,
Add complete sentences under it numbered 11, Ill, . , each of which
states a reason supporting your claim.
Under each reason, use capital Jetters to list sentences summarizing your
evidence; then list by numbers the evidence itself. For example (lhe data
are invented for the illustration):
69
68
or expand on. 'fhen order those sources m a way that is useful to your
reade1s: chronologically, by quabty, significance, point of v1ew, or the
like. Don't just follow the order Ill which you happened to read them
or record them in your notes.
2. Rephrase your research question as a statemenl about a flaw or gap
iliat you see m your sources·
I, lntroduct,on: Educational benefits of wriling on laptops are uncertaln.
li DIfferent uses have d,fferent effects.
A. Ali uses increase number of words produced.
1
Study II.A,1· 950 vs. 78-0
2. Study II.A.2 1,103 vs. 922
8. Study 11.B: Using laplops encourages wriler's block.
Ill. Studles show limited benefit on revision.
I
1
A. Study Ill.A: Writers using laptops are more wordy.
, . Average of 2.3 more words per sentence
2
Why is the Alamo story so importi!nl in the United States' national mythology?
-+
Average of 20~ more words per essay
B. Study 111.B· Writers need hard copy to revise ettectively
1,
22'1. fewer typos when done on hard copy
vs. computer screen
3. Lf you
can, sketch an answer to So what? What larger 1ssue will your
readers not understand if you don't answer your question? You may
be only guessing, but try to find some answer
2. 2.26% fewer spelllng errors
IV Conc:lusion· Disadvantages of laptops may outweigh ad11antages
A sparer outline is JUSl phrases, w1th no forrnal layers of I, A,
soon
1,
and
lntroduction Benefits uncertain
Different u ses/ dlfferent effecls
Morewords
Writer's block
Revislon studles
Study 1 lcmger sentences
Study 2 longer essays
Study 3 hardcopy better
Conclusion: Disadvantages outwe,gh advantages
When you start a project, a spare outline may be the best you can do,
and for a short project it may be all you need, so long as you know the
point of cach item.Butan outJine of complete sentences IS usually more
useful. More useful yet is a storyboard, espeaally for a long project.
6.2.2
Sketch a Working Introduction
Writers are often advised to write their mtroduction lasc, but most of
us need a worlcing introducoon to start us on the nght track. Expect to
write your inuoducuon tw1ce, first a sketch for yourself and later a fmal
one for yom 1eaders. That final introd\lction will usually have four pans
(see chapter 9), so you might as well skelch your working introduction to
anticipate Ůlem.
1.
Few of these h1stor1ans, however, have e~plained whv the Alamo story has
become so importanl in the United States' national mythology.
At the top of ilie first page of your storyboard, sketch a brief summary
of only the key pomts in only those sources most relevant to your argument. Lnclude only tbe sources thal you intend to challenge, modify,
lf we understood how such stories become national legends, we would better
understand the United States' nallopal values, perhaps even what makes the
American character dlst1nct
lfyou can't think of any answer, skip ir; we retum to it in chapter ro.
4. State che answer to your queslion as your claim, or promise an answer
in a launching point. You have two choices here:
State your claim at the end of your introduction to frame what follows and again near che beginning of your conclusion.
State it only m your conclus1on, as a climax to your reasoning
This is a cnmal choice, because it creates your social contract with
your readers (see 1.2). lf you state your main claim toward the end of
your introduclron, you put your readers in charge: they know whaťs
coming, and they can decide to read on-or not. On the other hand, if
you wait unul your condusion to state your main claim, you create a
more concrolling relationship: you ask them to trust that they'll find
your claim-whcn you eventually reveal it-worth the mvestment of
their ůme Most readers prefer to see your main claim al the end of
you1 introducúon, because that lets them read what foUows faster,
understand it bener, and remember it longet. ln your storyboard, put
that cla1m at the bottom of you1 introduction page. Then restale it in
different words al the top of your storyboard's condusion page. If you
can. make this concluding claim more specific than the one in the
introduction
Some new researchers fear that if they reveal their main point too
early, readers will be "bored~ and stop readmg. Others worry about
repeaůng tliemselves. Both fears are baseless. lf you ask an interest-
70
CHAPHR b I PL A l', NING 1' FIR ST ORAF T
ing question, readers will want to see how well you can answer it,
and knowing where your argument is going will help your readers
follow it.
But if you do decide to announce your daim only in your conclus1on, you still need a sentence at the end of your introduction that
Jaunches your reader into the body of your paper. That sentence
should include the key terms that will run through your paper (see
6.2.3). You'll be better prepared to write that sentence after you draft
your final introduction, so when p1anning, just put your main claim
at the bottom of your storyboarďs mtroduction page (you can move
it Jater).
Finally, some writers add a "road map" at the end of their introduction.
CREI-Tf • Pt.;N T>iAT M EET'i /OU~ RPDERS NEEDS
6.2.4
Use Key Terms to Create Subheads That Uniquely Identify
Each Section
Even if papers in your field don't use subheads (see A.2.2.4 in the appendix), we recommend that you use them in your drafts. Create them aut
of your key terms. If you cannot find key te1ms that distinguish a section,
considet its contribution to the whole: if little differentiates that section
from others, readers may fmd it repeútive or melevant. /
If your field av01ds subheads, use them to keep yourself on track, and
delete them from your Jast draft.
6.2.5
Order Your Paper
When you assembled your argument, you may not have put your reasons
in any particular order (one benefit of a storyboard). But when you pian a
draft, you must impose some order on them. That 1s not easy, especíally
when you're writing on a new to~ic in a new field.
The best order is the one thatbest meets your readers' needs. When
you're not sure how to order your reasons. consider the following options.
You can organize your paper according to your subject matter:
ln part 1, I discuss the issue of . , . Part 2 addresses .. • Part 3 examines ...
Road maps are common m the social sciences, but many in the humanities find them clurnsy. You can add a road map to your storyboard
to guide your drafting, then cut it from your final draft. lf you keep it,
make it short.
6.2.3
Identify Key Concepts That Will Run through Your Paper
For your paper to seem coherent, readers must see a few key concepts
running through all its parts. But readers won't recognize these repeated
concepts if you refer to them in many different words. Readers need to
see specific terms that repeatedly refer to these concepts, not every time
you mention them but often enough that readers can't miss them. You
might find them among the terms you used to categorize your notes,
but they must include keywords from the sentences stating your prob1em and main point. On the introduction page, circle four or five words
or phrases that express those concept-s. Ignore words that name your
general topic; focus on those relevant to your specific quesnon:
gender, education level, major, choice of profess1on, wage gap
If you fmd few words or phrases that can serve as key terms, your topic
and point might be too general (review 5.4-1).
You can also use this procedure to identify concepts that distinguish
your sections from each ether. Look at the reason you stated at the top
of each reason page, and circle its important words. Same of these words
should be related to the words circled in the introduction and conclusion,
bul others will be specific to that section. When you draft, you can use
these lists of key terms to keep yourself on track and to recognize when
you rrught be saying somethmg new (see 7.3).
71
• Chronologrcal. This is the simplest earlier-to-later or cause to-effect.
■ Part by part. If you can break your topíc into its constituent parts, you can
deal with each in tum, but you must still order those parts in some way
that helps readers understand them: by their functional relationsh1ps.
hierarchy, or the like.
• Comparison and contrast. Chaose th1s form if you are comparing two or
more entities, concepts, or objects. You have two options, and one is
usually better than the other. lf you were comparing Hopi masks to lnuit
mas ks, you might decide to devote the first half of your paper to the former and the second halí to the Jatter. But this kind of organization often
results in a pair of disconnected summaries. lnstead, try to treat the objects of comparison together, aligning parallel aspects as you go. ln our
example, you might write first about the masks' designs, then about the
stages of their evolution, then about their use of symbolism, and so on.
You can also organize your paper to accommodate your readers' prior
knowledge and to facilitate their efforts to grasp your argument:
■
Short to long, simple to complex. Most readers prefer to deal with less complex issues before they work through more complex ones,
■ More familiar to less familiar. Most readers prefer to read what they know
about before they read what they don 't.
• Less contestable to more contestable. Most readers move more easily from
what they agree with to what they don't.
7J
72
• Less 1mpurta11t to more 1mporta11t (or vice versa). Readers prefer to read more
imponant reasons firsl, but those reasons may have more impact when
they corne last.
• Earlier understanding as a basis for later understanding Readers may have
to understand some events, principles, definitions, and so on before they
understand another thing.
Often these principles cooperate: what readers agree with and easily
understand m1ght also be short and familiar. But these principles rnay
also confhct: readers might reject most qu1ckly reasons that are most importanl. Whatever your order, 1t must reflect your readers' needs, not the
order thal the matena! seems to 1mpose on itself (such as chronology),
least of all the order in which those reasons occurred to you.
6.2.6
6.l.7
Make Your Orde r Clear with Transitional Words
Your readers must be able to recognize the order you choose In your storyboard, start each page of reasons with words that make the principie of
order dear: First, Second, Later, finally, More importanc, A more complex issue
is . . , As a result Don't worry if these words feel awkwardly obvious. At
this point, they're more for your benefit than for your readers'. Yo11 can
revise or even delete the clumsy ones from your final draft.
You may have l0 explain your evidencewhere it carne from, why iťs reliable, exactly how it supports a reason.
Usuelly these explanauons follow the evidence, but you can sketch them
before if that seems more logical
6 2.8 2 EXPLANAT I ONS OF EV IDENCE
628.3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ANO RESPONS ES. lmagme what rea9ers mightobject
to in your argument and sketch responses. Responses are typically subarguments with at leasl a claim and reasons, often including evidence and
even another response to an imagined objection to your response
lf you think you need a warrant to jusůfy the relevance of
a reason, develop it before you state the reason (lf you're using a war·
rant only for emphasis, put it after the reason.) lf you think readers wiU
question the truth of the warrant, sketch a subargument to support 1t If
readers might think that your reason or claim 1sn 'ta valid instance of the
warrant, sketch a subargument~howmg that it is.
6.28.4 WARRANTS
62.8.5 SUMMAR IES. lf your paper is long and "fact heavy" with dates, names,
events, or numbers, you might end each major section by briefly summarizing the progress of your argument. What have you established in
that section? How does your argument shape up so far? If jn your final
draft those summaries seem clumsy. cut them
Sketch a Brief lntroduction to Each Section and Subsection
Just as your whole paper needs an introduction that frames what follows,
so does each of its sections. lf a section 1s only a page or two, you need
just a short paragraph; for a section several pages Jong, you might need
to sketch in two or more paragraphs. This introduction should announce
the key tenns that are special to the section, ideally in a sentence at its
end expressmg the secůon's point, which mighl be a reason. a response
to a differen t point of view, or a warrant you must explain.
6.2.8
for Each Section, Ske tch Evidence, Acknowledgmen ts, Warrants,
and Summaries
ln their relevant sections, sketch out the parts of your argument. Remem•
ber that many oí those parts will themselves make points thal must be
supported by smaller subarguments.
6.2 81
EVI D ENCE. Most sections consist primatily of evidence supporting rea•
sons. Sketch the evidence after the reason it s upports. lf you have differenl kinds of evidence supporting the same reason, group and ordet
them in a way that will make sense to your readers
Writers in different fields may arrange these elements m slightly different ways, but the elements themselves and their principles of organization are the same jn every field and profession. Whaťs crucial in
every paper, regardless of fi.eld, is that you must order the parts of your
argument not merely to reflecl your own thinking but to help your read
ers understand 1t.
6.2.9
Sketch a Working Conclusion
You should have sta led your concluding claun at the top of the c:onclusion page of your storyboard. lf you can add 10 the sigmócance of that
claim (another answer to So what~), s ketch it after the claim (see 10. 2. for
more on conclusions).
6.3
File Away Leftovers
Onc:e you have a pian, you may discover that you have a lot of material
Jeft over that doesn't fit into il Resisl the impulse to shoehom these
leftovers into your paper just to show your work. ln fact, 1( you don't
have more leftovers than what you used, you may not have done enougb
resea1ch. Leftovers a1en't waste at a minimum, they helped you discover
you1 1deas. You might deade that you need to use them after all. And
they could even contain the seeds of another project.
7
Drafting Your Pa per
7,1
Dra ft in the Way That Feels Most Com fonable
7.2
Develop Effectlve Writing Hnbits
7.3
Keep Yourself on 'T'tack through Headings and Key Terms
7.4
Quote, Pnraphrase, and ]ummarize Appropriately
7.5
lntegrate Quotations into YourText
7.6
Use Footnotes and Endnotes Judic1ouslv
7.7
Show How Complex or Detailed Evidence 1s Relevant
7.8
Be Open to Surprises
7.9
Guard against lnadvertent Plagiarism
7Q1
Signal Every Quotallon E~en When You Cite lls Source
7q 2 Don't Paraphrase Too Closely
79 3
Usually Cite a Source for ldeas Not Your Own
79 ~
Don't Plead Ignorance. Misunderstanding. or lnnocent lnlenllnns
7.10
Guard agamst lnappropnate Assistance
7.11
Work Through Chronic Procrastination and Writer's Blod:
Some writers think that once they have an outline or sloryboard, they
can draft by just grinding out sentences. lf you've wntten a lot to explore
your ideas, you may even think that you can plug lhat prehmmary writmg into a draft Experienced writers know better. They know two things:
exploratory writing IS crucial but often not nght for a draft, and thoughtful drafting can be an act of discovery that planning and storyboarding
can prepare them for but never replace. ln fact, most w1iters don't know
what they can think until they see it appear in words before them. !ndeed,
you experience one ofthe most exciting moments in research when you
75
76
CHi'PTER
7
discover yourself expressing ideas that you did not know you had until
that moment.
So don't treat drafting as merely translating a storyboard or outline
into words. lf you draft with an open mind, you can discover lines of
thought that you couldn't have imagined before you started. But like
ether steps in the process, even surprises work better with a pian.
7.1
;:HP i'OURSELF ON IRA(~ 'HPOUGH lifA[•INGS .!,r,jp ~EV TlRMS
DRMTH4ú vOUR PM EP
7,3
Keep Yourself on Track through Headings and Key Terms
Here are two techniques you can use to keep yourself on track as you
draft.
Use headings-ideally full sentences-to break your draft into manageable chunks and to show how your sections are related to one an
other. Even 1f papers in your field don 't ordinarily use headings and subheadings, you can still use them as you draft and delete them Jater
You can also use lists of key terms to keep yourself on track. As you
draft, keep in front of you both the terms that s hould run through your
whole paper and those specific to individua! sections (see 6.2.3 and 6.2-4).
From time to tirne, check how often you've used those words, both those
that run through the whole paper and those that distinguish one section from another. If you find yourself writing something that lacks those
terms, pause and reflect: are you Just off track, or are you discovering
something new? You need not sta)i-"Yoked to your original pian: you are
free to follow a new path to see where it Ieads, but do that as a choicenot just because you got lost along the way.
Draft in the Way That Feels Most Comfortable
Writers draft in different ways. Seme are slow and careful: they have
to get every paragraph right before they start the next one To do that,
they need a meticulous pian. So ifyou draft slowly, pian carefolly. Other
writers let the words flow, sklpping ahead when they get stuck, omitting quotations, statistics, and so on that they can plugin Jater. If they
are stopped by a stylistic issue such as whether to represent numbers
in words or numerals, they insert a "[?]" and keep on writing until they
run aut of gas, then go back and fix it. But quick drafters need lots of
time to revise. So if you draft quickly, start early Draft in whatever way
works for you, but experienced writers usually draft quickly, then reVJse
extensively.
7.4
7.2
Quote, Paraphrase, and Summarlze Appropriately
We covered this issue when we discussed note-taking (4.2.2). You should
build most of your paper aut of your own words that reflect your own
thinking But you'll support much of that thinking with the words of
others, delivered in quotations, paraphrases, and summaries. As we've
said, different fields use these techniques differently. researchers in the
humanities quote more than do social and natura1 scientists, who typically paraphrase and summarize. But you must decide each case for itself. depending on how you use the infonnation. Here again are some
principles:
Develop Effective Wtiting Habits
Most of us leam to write in the least efficient way-under pressure, rushing to meet a deadline, with a quick draft the night before and maybe
a few minutes in the moming for proofreading. That rarely works for a
short paper, almost never for a longer one. You need time and a plan that
sets small, achievable goals but keeps your eye on the whole
Most important, draft regularly and often, not in marathon sessions
that duli your thinking and kill your interest. Set a small goal and a
reasonable quota of words for each session, and stick to it. When you
resume drafting, you need not stan where you left off: review your sto•
ryboard to decide what you're ready to draft today. Review how it will fit
into its section and the whole: What rea.son does this section support? Where
does it jit in the overall logic? Which key terms state the concepts that distinguish th1s sect1on? lfyou're blocked, skip to another section. Whatever you
do, don't substitute more reading for writing. Chrome procrastinators
are usually so intimidated by the size of their project that it paralyzes
them, so they just keep putting off getting started. You can overcorne
that destructive habit by breaking your project into small, achievable
goals (see 7.n).
n
■
■
■
Summarize when detaíls are irrelevant or a source isn't important
enough to warrant much space.
Paraphrase when you can state what a source says more clearly or concisely or when your argument depends on the details m a source but not
on its specific words.
Quote for these purposes:
The words themselves are evidence thaL backs up your reasons.
The words are from an authority who backs up your claims.
The words are strikingly original or express your key concepts so
compellingly that the quotation can frame an extended d1scussion.
,a
Uff fOOl'iOTES ANO
• The wo1ds express a c:la1m you d1Sagree with, and to be fair you
want to state iL exactly.
This vers1on modifies the quotation to emphasize one part of 1t and to
Hariman argues that " the real1st style radically separates power and te;Ktuality, constructing
the political actor as someone e1ther rationally calculating vectors of
interest and power or foohshly believing in such verba! illusions as laws or ethlcal
ideals" (4).
See chapter 25 for more on integrating quotatioTIS with your text.
When you refer to a source U,e nrst time, use the authoťs full name.
Do not precede 1t with Mr, Mrs., Ms, or Professor (see 24.2 2 for the use of
Dr , Reverend, Senator, and so on). When you mention a source thereafter,
use just the author's last name:
Jntegr.ite Quotations into Vour Text
S1gnal direct quotations in one oí two ways:
According to Steven Pinker, "claims about a language lnstinct .
• For four or fewer quoted lines, run them into your text, surrounded by
quotatJon marks.
• ror five or more lines, set them off as an mdented block.
have virtually nothing
to do with poss,ble genet,c dilference,.between people."' P,nker goes on lo explarn
that
Cxcept when referring to royalty, never refer to an author only by his or
her fusl name. You mighl write this:
You can insert run m and block quotations in your text in three ways.
1.
Y
fit the grammar of the writer's sentence:
Readers value research only to the degree that they trust its sources. So
for every summary, paraphrase, or quotation you use, cite its bibliographic
data in the appropriate style (see 15.5) Under no circumstances should
you stitch together passages from the internet with a few sentences of
your own. Teachers grind theil teeth reading such papers, dismayed by
thetr Jack of onginal thinlang. Readers of advanced projects reject such
patchworks out of hand.
7.5
[tiD•:orrs JUOICIOU5
Drop in the quotation with a few 1dentifying words (Author says, Accordmg to Author, As Author puts ít, etc.)
ln a recent speech Prince Charles described his effor1s lo preserve lhe village pubs
Diamond says, 'The histones of the FertIle Crescent and Ch,na, .• hold a salutary
But never this
that are such a part of Brltish cultu,e.
lesson for the modem world: c1rcumstances change, and past primacy ,s no guaranAccording to Steven Pinker, claims about a language rnslinct • Steven goes on to
tee of future primacy" (417).
explain that ..
2.
lntroduce the quotation with a sentence that incerprets or charactertzes it.
D1amond suggests what we can learn lrom the past: ,he histories of the Fertile
Crescent and Chma
3.
Use Footnotes and Endnotes Judiciously
If you a1e using notes-style atations (see 3.5.1), you wiJI have to decide
as you draft how to use footnotes and endnotes (for their forma! requirements, see chapter 16). You must cite every sonrce in a note, of course, but
you may also decide to use footnotes and endnoles for substantive material thet you don 't want to include in the body of your text but also don 't
want to omit (You might also use such substanttve notes in combination
with parenthettcal citations in author date style; see 18.3.3.)
7.6
hold a salutary lesson for the modern world" (417),
Weave the grammar of the quota tion mto the grammar of your own
sentence
Diamond suggests that the ch,ef "les:;on for lhe modern world'' in lhe hlstory of l he
Fertlle Crescenl and Chi na is that 'ctrcumstances change., and past primacy 1s no
guarantee of future promacy (417).
You can modify a quotation, so Jong as you don't change its meaning
and you signal deletions w1th three dots (called e!lipses) and changes with
square brackets. This sentence quotes the original intact:
As Hanman a, gues, "The realist style radically separates power and texluality. con·
structmg the polltical realm as astate of nature and the political aclnr as someone
either rallonally calculaling vectors of interes! and power or foollshly believing in such
verbal illusion.s as laws or ethical ,deals" C4)
■
■
If you cite sources in endnotes, put substantive material in footnotes.
Otherwise you force readers to keep flipping to lhe back of your paper to
check every endnote to see whether it is substantive or bibliographical
Use substantive footnotes sparingly lf you create too many, you risk
damaging the flow of your writing WJth asides and digressions.
ln any event, keep in mind that many readers ignore subs tantive footnotes on the principie that information not important enough for you to
80
C HA PTER 7 I DRA FTI NG YO l/R f l\Pi~
81
■
include in the main text is not important enough for them to read in a
footnote.
7.7
When reporting your evidence leads you to doubt a reason, don't ignore
that feeling Follow it up.
■ When the order of your reasons starts to feel awkward, experiment Wlth
new ones, even if you thought you were al most done.
■ Even when you reach your final conclusion, you may thtnk of a way to
restate your claim more clearly and pointedly.
Show How Complex or Detailed Evidence 1s Relevant
By this point you may be so sure that your evidence supports your reasons that you'll think readers can 't miss its relevance. But evidence never
speaks for itself, especially not long quotations or complex sets of numbers. You must therefore speak for it: íntroduce it by stating what yo11
want your readers to get out of it. For example, this passage bases a claitn
about Hamlet on the evidence of the following quotation:
lfyou get helpful new ideas early enough before your deadline, invest the
time to make the changes. lt is a small pri.c e to pay for a big improvement.
7.9
When Hamlet comes upon his sleplather Claudius at prayer, he demonstrates cool
rationality:c1a,m
researcher can make: leading readers to think that you're crying Lo pass
off the work of another writer as your own. Do that and you risk being accused of plagiarism, a charge that,' if sustained, could mean for a professional writer an irreparably damaged reputation, or for a student writer
a failing grade or even expulsion.
Students know they cheat when, say, they submit as their own work
papers bought online. Most also know they cheat when they pass off as
their own long passages copied direcLly from their sources, For those
cases, there's nothing to say beyond D011't.
Bul many inexperienced researchers fail to realize that they risk being
charged with plagiarism even if they were not intentionally dishonest
but only misinfonned or careless. You run that risk when you do any of
the following:
Now might I do it [kill him] pat, now ·a is a-praying,
And now l'11 do't. And so 'a goes to heaven,
And so am I reveng'd, . . . [Hamlet pauses to think]
[But this] villain kills my father, and for lhat,
I, h1s sole son, do this same villain send
To heaven.
Why, this 1s hire and salary, not revenge. (3.3)report of evidence
Since that quotation doesn 't exphcitly refer to Hamleťs ratlonality, readers mightnotsee how itsupports the claim. So show them whatis means
by introducing it with a reason:
When Hamlet comes upon his steplather Claudius al prayer, he demonstrates cool
rat1onality.claim He impulsively wants to kill Claudius but pauses to reflect: if he kills
• You quote, paiaphrase, or summarize a source but fail to cite it.
• You use ideas or methods from a source but fail to cite it.
■ You use the exact words of a source and you do cite it, but you fail to put
those words in quotation marks or in a block quotation.
• You paraphrase a source and cite it, but paraphrase too dosely (see 7.9.2).
the praying Claudius, he will send his soul to heaven, but he wants Claud1us damned to
hell, so he coolly decides lo kill him later:reason
Now might I do it [kill him] pat, .. , report of evidence
Now we see the connection. This kind of explanatory introduction is even
more important when you present data in a tahle or figure (see 8.3. t).
7,9,1
7.8
Be Open to Surprises
If you write as you go and pian your best case before you draft, you're
unlikely to be utterly surprised by how your draft develops. Even so, be
open to new directions from beginning to end:
Guard against lnadvertent Plagiarism
lt will be as you draft that you risk making one of the worst mistakes a
Signal Every Quotation, Even When You Cite Its Source
Even 1f you cite the source, readers must know exactly which words are
yours and wluch you quote. lf, however, you borrow only a few words, you
enter a gray area. Read this·
Because technology begets more technology, the importance of an invention's diffusion
potent1ally exceeds the importance of the original 1nvenllon. Technology's h,story ex-
• When your drafting starts to head off on a tangent, go with it for a bit to
see whether you're onto something better lhan you planned
emplifies what is termed an aulocalalylic process: that 1s, one that speeds up at a rate
that increases with t1me, because the process catalyzes itsell (Diamond 1998, 301).
8:Z.
CHAPTER 7
O<Af ! J„G YOUR
GUAPO AGAIN,t INAPPROPRIAH ASSISTANCE
Pt,,?[R
If you were writing about Jared Diamonďs ideas, you would probably
have to use some of his words, such as the importance of an inuention. But
you m1ght not put that phrase m quotation marks, because it shows no
originality of thought or expression.
Tulo ofh1s phrases, however, are so striking that they do require quotation marks· technology begets more technology and autocatalytic process. For
example:
As Gladwell (2008, 38) observes, summarizing studies on the highly successful, we
tend to overest,mate the role of talent and undetestimate that of preparation.
This phrasing is not a close match to the original. And notice that we
chose not to put talent or preparation in quotes. We decided that those
words are common enough to use as eur own.
To avoid seeming to plagiarize, read Lhe passage, Joo/ away, think
about it for a moment; then, still looking away, paraphrase 1t in your own
words. Then check whether you can run your finger along your sentence
and find synonyms for the same ideas in the same order in your source.
If you can, try again.
The powel' of technology goes beyond lnd1v1dual inventions because "technology begets more technology." lt ,s, as Diamond puts it, an "autocatalyt1c process" (301).
Once you cite those words, you can use them agaín without quotation
marks or citation:
7,9.3
Us ually Cite a Source for !deas Not Your OWn
This rule is more complicated than it seems, because few ideas are entirely new. Readers don't expect you to cite a source for Lhe idea that the
earth is round. But they do expect you to cite a source for an idea when
(r) it is associated with a specificierson and (2) it is new enough not to
be part of a fielďs comrnon knowledge. For example, psychologists daim
that we think and feel in different parts of our brains. No know1edgeable
reader would expect you to cite a source for that idea, because iťs so familiar that no one would think you are implying it is yours. On the other
hand, some psychologists argue that emotions are crucial to rational
decision-making. That idea is so new and tied to particular researchers
that you'd have to cite them.
7.9.4
Don't Plead Ignora nce, Misunderstanding, or Inn ocent lntentions
To be sure, what looks like plagiarism ís often just honest ignorance of
how to use a nd cite sources. Some students sincerely believe that they
don't have to cite material downloaded frnm the Web because iťs free
and publicly avaílable. They are wrong. Others defend themselves by
claiming they didn't intend to mislead. The problem is that we read words,
not minds. So think of plagiarism not as an intended act but as a perceiued
one. Here is the best way to think about Lhis: If the author of the source
you borrowed from were to read your paper, would she recognize any of
it as hers, including paraphrases and summaries, or even general ideas
or methods from her original work? If so, you must cite those borrowmgs.
7.10
Guard against lnappropriate Assistance
As one invention begets another one and that one slili another, the process becomes a
self-sustalning catalysis that spreads across national boundaries.
This is a gray area: words that seem striking co some are not to others.
If you put quotation marks around too many ordinary phrases, readers might think you're naive, but if you fail to use them when readers
think you should, they may suspect you of plagiarism. Since iťs better to
seem naive than dishonest, especially early m your career, use quotation
marks freely. (You must, however, follow the standard practices of your
field. Lawyers, for example, often use the exact language of a statute or
judicial opinion with no quotation marks.)
7.9.2
Don't Paraphrase Too Closely
You paraphrase appropriately when you represent an idea in your own
words more clearly or pomtedly than the source does. But readers wíll
think that you plagiarize if they can match your words and phrasing with
those of your source.
For example, here is a passage from page 38 of Malcolm Gladwell's
Outliers: The Story of Success:
83
Ach,evement is talent pl us preparat1on. The problem with this view is that t he doser
psycholog,sts look at the careers of the gifted, the smaller the role innate talent seems
to play and the bigger the role preparation seems to play
This too-close paraphrase is plagiarism:
Success seems to depend on a combination of talent and preparation. However, when
psychologists dosely examine the gifted and their careers, they d1scover that !nnate
talent plays a much smaller role than preparation (Gladwell 2008, 38).
Thls paraphrase does not plagiarize:
Experienced writers regularly show theír drafts to others for cnricism
and suggestions, and you should too (see chapter r2). But check how
84
C t<AP H R 7
p~n,
much assistance J.S appropriate and how you should acknowledge the
assislance you receive.
1. How much help is appropriate]
• For a class paper, most instructors encourage s tudents to get general
criticism and minor editing, but not detailed rewriting or substantive suggestions
For work submilled for pubhcation, writers are free to get all the
help they can from colleagues, reVlewers, and others so long as
these people don't become virtual ghostwriters
Theses and dissertations lie between these extremes. lfyou are in
doubt, ask someone with authority-your teacher or your advisorwhere the Jme is drawn. Then get all the help you can on the right
side of it.
2. What help must you acknowledge?
For a dass paper, you usually aren't required to acknowledge general
crittcism, minor editing, or help from a school writing tutor, but you
must acknowledge help thaťs special or extensive. Yow instructor
sets the rules, so ask.
For a thesis, dissertation, or published work, you're not required to
acknowledge routine help, though iťs courteous and ohen politic to
do so in a preface (see A.2.1.9 and A.2.1 10). But you must acknowledge special or extensive editing and cite in a note major ideas or
phrases provided by others.
7.11
85
'lu YOIJ ~ P/IPE R
Work Through Chronic Procrastination and Writer's Block
lf you can't seem to get started on a first draft or 1f you struggle to draft
more than a few words, you may have writer's block. Writer's block is tremendously frustrating. Some cases of it arise from mental health issues
related to school pressures, and for those you should consider seeking
professional help. Bul most cases have causes you can address· you may
be stuck because you have no goals or have goals that are too high; you
may feel so intimidated by the size of the task that you don't know wbere
to begin; you rnay feel lhal you have to make every sentence or paragraph
perfect before you move on to the next one; you may just allow yourself
to be easily distracted. Here are some good practices that can help with
all of these causes:
• Create a routine and set small, achievable goals.
• Use devices to keep yourself moving, such as a progress chart or a cimer
for writing sessions.
• Write routinely as you research, not just after
• Lower the bar by telhng yourself that you're not writmg a draft but only
sketching out some 1deas.
■ Write w1thout lookmg at the page or with your screen tumed off.
• Disconnect your computer from your network, 01 tum fff wifi.
■ Fmd a writmg partner or jom a writing group.
■ Vísit your schooťs learning center or writing cenrer, which will be staffed
with consultants who can help
And remember that if you take perfect1on as you1 goal, you will never finish or, worse, never starL We all have to compromise to gel the Job done.
On the other hand, somet1mes wnteťs block 1s a sign that you need to
Jet yow 1deas sirnmer in the back of your mind, where they might combine and recombine into something new and surprismg lf you're stuck
bul have time (another reason start early), do something else for a few
hours: go on a run, read a book, take a nap If you have even more time,
put your draft aside for a day or two Then return to the task to see 1f vou
can get back on track.
tC
87
CHOOS[ 1HE tv\OST HFECTIVE GPA~HtC
8
ln 2013, on average, men earned $50,033 a year, women $39,157, a dtfference of s10,876.
Presen ting Evidence in
Tables and Figures
But if you present more than four or five numbers in a passage, readers
will struggle to keep them straight, particularly if they must compare
them, like this.
Between 1970 and 2010, the structure of families changed in two ways. ln 1970, 85
percent of families had two parenls, but by 1980 thal number had deflined to 77
percent, then to 73 percent by 1990, to 68 percent by 2000, and lo 64 percent by 2010.
The number of one-parent famil,es rose, particularly families headed by a mother. ln
1970, 11 percent of famíltes were headed by a single mother. By 1980 that number rose
8.1
Choose Verba} or Visual Representations ofYour Data
8.2
Choose the Most Effective Graphic
8.3
Design Tables an d Figures
to 18 percent, by 1990 to 22 percent. to 23 percent by 2000, and to 27 percent by 2010
There were some marginal changes among single fathers (headed 1 percent of families
in 1970, 2 percent in 1980, 3 percent in 1990, and 4 percent ,n 2000 and 2010) Families
wlth no adult in the home have remained stable at 3-4 percent.
Those data can be presented more effectively m graphic form, as m
table 8.2.
Frame Each Graphic to Help Your Readers Understand ll
8.3.2 Keep Ali Graphics as Simple as Their Content Allows
8.3.3 Follow Guidelines tor Tables, Bar Cha,ts, and Line Graphs
8.31
8.4
Communicate Data Ethícally
If your data are in the form of numbers, most readers grasp them more
easily if you present them graphically. But you face many choices of
graphic fonns, and some forms Will suit your data and message better
than others, In this chapter we show you how to choose the tight graphic
form and design it so that readers can see both what your data are and
how they support your argument. {See pp. 426-28 in the bibliography for
guides to creating and usmg graphics; see chapter 26 for details on formatting graphics.) 1
8,2
Choose the Most Effective Graphic
When you graphically present data as complex as in that paragraph,
you have many choices. The simplest and most common are tables, bar
charts, and line graphs, each of which has a distinctive rhetorical effect.
• To emphasize specific values, use a table like table 8.2.
■ To emphasize comparisons that can be seen at a glance, use a bar chart
like fi.gure 8. 1.
■ To emphasize trends, use a line graph like figure 8.2.
Table 8.1. Male-female salaries ($), 2013
8.1
Choose Verbal or V ísual Representations of Your Data
Ordinarily, present quantitative data verbally when they include only a
few numbers. (See chapter 23 for presenting numbers in text.) Present
them graphically when most of your evidence is quantltative or you rnust
communicate a large set of data. But when the data are few and simple,
readers can grasp them as easíly m a sentence as in a table Like table 8.t.
50,033
39157
10,876
Men
Women
D1fference
Table 8.2. Changes in family structure, 1970-2010
Percenlage ot tolal fam1l1es
1 A nme on t~nmnologyc ln Ibis rhapter we use the 11,nn graphirs to refer to all v1sual representa·
uons of evid~nce Another term someumes u.ed for such representauons is illusrmuons. Tradttionallv,
gmphics a,e d1víded Juto rablts amlji9ures A Labi~ is a gríd wtth columns and rows that p,esem dala in
m,mbets or words orgamzed by categones. f1gu1es are al! other grapluc lorms, mcludmg graphs, charts,
photographs, drawings, and diagrams. F1gures chat p1esent quanhtative data are divided mto chcrts.
typ1cally consisting of bars, cirdes, pomts 01 other shapes, ~nd graphs. typ1callv consísting of ronnnU•
au.s lines. For a survey of common ligures, see tahle d 7
86
Fam1ly type
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2 parenls
85
77
73
11
18
22
68
23
óJ
Mott,er
Father
1
2
3
4
4
No adult
3
4
3
4
d
27
88
CHAPTER s
90
I
PRf)[NTINC, <VID[NCf IN TABL'S MW FIGLl~f>
OE'lúN TA6ltS AND r11,UFC~
Choose the graphic fotm that best achieves the effect you intend.
Your choices also depend on your experience. If you're new to quantitative research, limit your choices to basic tables, bar charts, and line
graphs Your computer software may offer more choices, but ignore those
that you aren't familiar with .
If you're doing advanced research, readers will expect you to draw
from a larger range of graphics favored in your field. In that Jase, consult
table 8.7, which describes the rhetorical uses of other common fonns
You may have to consider more creative ways of representmg data if you
are wnting a dissertation or artide m a field that routinely display complex relationships in large data sets.
85
80
77
73
"'~
68
70
64
E 60
.!E
02 parents
,iÍ
§
omother
50
afather
a noadult
o
c., 40
.,ť
CL
27
30
18
20
22
23
1990
2000
11
10
o
1970
1980
2010
Figure 8.1. Changes ln family structure, 1970-2010
8.3
Design Tables and Flgures
Computer programs create graphi,J.s so dazzling that you míght be
tempted to let your software detenníne their design. But readers don't
care how fancy a graphic looks if it doesn't communicate your point
clearly. Here are some principles for designing effecbve graphks. To follow them, you may have to change default settings in your graph1cs software. (See A.3.1.3 and A. 1.3.4 on creating and mserting tables and figures
in your paper.)
8.3,1
Frame Each Graphic to Help Your Readers Understa nd lt
A graphic representing complex n umbers rarely speaks for itself. You
must frame it to show readers know what to see in it and how to understand its relevance to your argument
90
80
2 parents
.,, 70
~
E 60
2
ro 50
§
o
89
40
C:
~ 30
"'
her
. omot
. ...
.. . • O • ••• •• •• O-•• •
......
CL
20
no
IO
adul1 0
o
\
•••
1970
..••.o
lalher
1980
1990
2000
2010
1.
Figure 8.2. Changes in famlly structure, 1970-2010
While each of these forms communicates the same data, readers respond to them in different ways:
• A table seems precise and objective. It emphasizes indrvidual numbers
and forces readers to infer relationships or trends (unless you s tate
chem).
• Both charts and graphs emphasize an image that communicates values
less precisely but more q uickly than do the exact numbers of a table. But
they differ:
A bar chart emphasizes comparisons among discrete items.
A line graph emphasizes trends, usually over time.
2.
lntroduce tables and figures with a sentence in your text chat states
how th e data support your point. Include in that sentence any specific
n umber that you want readers to focus on. That number must also appear in the table or figure.
Labe! every table and figure in a way that describes its data and. if
possible, their important relationships For a table, the label is called a
title and is set flush left above the table; for a figure, the label is cal1ed a
caption and is set flush left below the figure. (For the forms of titles and
captions, see chapter 26) Keep titles and captions short but descríptive enough to distinguish every graphic from every other one.
Avoid making the title or caption a general topic:
Not
Heads of households
But
Changes in one- and two-parent heads of households. 1970-2010
90
HAVTfR
~
I rR~~ ť Ti'IG E\l•Oi .,
0( ION 'll~lt~ /\"li> li
,,.. t,t.eus ,.,, o I (lu AES
But
Number of fam1hes that subscnbe to online streaming servlces
An11u,,I illile1 luoo,
l\nn.i• cor1>u,npt,on lg.I' ,
Number of families subscribing to online streaming servlces
Do not give background infor.natton or characterize what the data
imply:
Not
1970
1':!BO
1990
ioon
2010
95
103
10 S
11 1
750
750
520
533
U.2
515
Table 8.4. Per capiUI mlle:ire and gasoline consumption, 1970-2010
Weaker effe.cts of counseling on depressed chlldren before professional-
.!,nnual m, es (000}
('!. ctian_Ge vs 1970)
t,nnual c@SIJmpt on (l!al )
(% change YS. 1970)
ization of staH. 1995-2014
811!
91
Table 8.3. Gasoline eon.wmptlon
Use noun phrases; avo1d relative clauses in favor of paróciples:
Not
RE~
Effect of counseling on depressed children, 1995-2014
1970
198w
l'.190
2000
2011)
05
103
B l'!á
10 S
10 5'1!,
l! 7
7uD
5:>0
122
JBl!ló5l5
760
231
ill
m?%>
• Be sure labels distinguish graphics presenting similar data:
Not
Risk factors for hlgh blood pressure
Bul
Risk facton, for high blood pressure among men in Maywood, llhno1s
Or
Risk factors for h,gh blood pressure among men 1n Kingston, Jama,ca
4. lntroduce the table or figure wiů1 a sentence that explain!: how to in-
terpret it. Then highlight the part of the lable or figure that you want
readers to focus on, part1cu\llrly any number or relauonship men•
tioned in that introductory sentence. For example, we have to study
tahle 8.3 to see how it supports the sentence that introduces it.
3. lnsert into the table or figure information that helps readers see how
the data support yow point. for example, if numbers in a table show
a trend and the size of the trend rnatters, indicate the change in a
final column. lf a line on a graph changes in response to an influence
not mentloned on the graph, as in figure 8.3, add text to the itnage to
explain it:
We need another sentence explaining how the numbers s upport
or explam the claim We also need a more ínforrnative tit1e and visual
help that focuses us on what we should see tn the table (table 8.4):
Although reading and malh scores milially declined by al most 100 pomis followlng
redistrichng, that trend was substantially reversed by the introduction of supple•
Gasoline consumpt1on has not grown as predicted, Tfrovgh Americons drove 28
percent more m,les ln 2010 than m 1970, lhey used 32 percenl /ess (ue/
Most predictions about gasoline consumpt1on have proved wrong.
mental malh and reading programs.
The added sen Lence tells us how to imerpreL the key data in table
8.4, and the highlight tells us where lo find ÍL
600
8.3.2
550
........
500
• fot AU Graphics
,. lnclude only relevant data. lfyou indude data only for Lhe record, label
it accordmgly and put it man appendix (see A.2.3.2.)
2. Keep the visual impact sirnple.
Verba!
450
400
350
1990
]995
Figure 8.3. SAT scores for Mld-Cily Hígh, 1990-2005
7000
Keep Ali Graphics as Simple as Their Content Allows
Some gu1des encourage you to pul as much data as you can mto a
graph1c. But readers want to see only the data relevant to your point, free
of distracttons.
2005
Box a graph1c only if you group two or more figures.
Use caution in ernploymg shading or color to convey meamng. Even
if you princ your paper on a colm pnnter 01 sub1mt 1l as a PDf, it may
be printed or copied Iater in black and white.
92
CHM TU 8 I PR E5E1HlNG (
ID ENCt IN TrBltS • NO f l„URE~
Do not use a three-dimensional background for a two-dimens1onal
graphic. The added depth contributes nothing and can distort how
readers judge values.
3. Use clear labels.
■
■
■
■
■
Label rows and columns in tables and both axes m chans and graphs.
(See chapter 26 for punctuation and spelling in Jabels.)
Use tick marks and labels to indicate intervals on the vertical axis of a
graph (see fig. 8-4).
If possible, label lines, bar segments, and the like on the image rather
than in a caption set to the side. Do so in the caption only if labels would
make the image roo complex to read_
When specific numbers matter, add them to bars, segments ar segments
in charts ar to dots on lines in graphs.
ForTables
Never use both horizontal and vertical lines to divide columns and
rows. Use light gray lines if you want to direct your reader's eyes in
one direction to compare data or if the table is unusually complex.
For tables with many rows, Jightly shading every fifth row will improve legibility.
To ensure legibility, do not use a font size smaller than eight points.
■
8.3.3
8 3 3.1
• Round numbers to relevant values. lf differences of!ess than r,ooo don't
matter, then 2,123,499 and 2,124,886 are irrelevantly precise.
• Sum totals at the bottom of a column ar at the end of a row, not at the top
or left. Compare tables 8.5 and 8.6. Table 8.5 has a vague title and its items
aren't helpfully sorted. Table 8.6 is clearer because it has an informative
titie and its items are organized to let us see pattems more easily
I
Bar charts communicate as much by visual ímpact as by
specific numbers_But bars arranged in no pattem irnply no point. If possible, group and arrange bars to create an image that matches your point.
For example, look at figure 8.4 in the context of the explanatory sentence before it. The items are listed alphabetically, an order that doesn't
help readers see the point. ln contrast, figure 8.5 supports the claim with
a coherent image.
ln standard bar charts, each bar represents 100 percent of a whole. But
sometimes readers need to see q,ecific values for parts of the whole. You
can do that in two ways:
83,32 BAR CHARTS .
• Divide the bars into proportional part.s, creating a ''stacked bar,'' as in the
chart on the left in figure 8.6.
Table 8.5. U"employment in major industrial nations, 2010-2015
For Charts and Graphs
Use grid lines only if the graphic is complex or readers need to see
precise numbers Make all grid lines light gray.
Color or shade lines or bars only to show a contrast. If you do use
shading, make sure it does not obscure any text, and do not use
multiple shades, which might not reproduce distinctly_
Plot data on three dimensions only when you cannol display the
data m any other way and your readers are familíar with such
graphs.
Never use i conic bars (for example, images of cars to represent automobile production). They can distort how readers judge values, and
they look amateurish.
Follow Guidelines for Tubles, Bar Chans, and Line Graphs
TAB LES . Tables with Jots of data can seem dense, so organize them to
help readers.
• Order the rows and columns by a principle that lets readers quickly find
what you want lhem to see. Do not automatically choose alphabeoc
order.
93
DESIGN TA BL[S AN(• flGUP E~
Aushalia
Canada
France
Germany
Italy
Japan
Sweden
Unlted K,ngdom
Un,ted States
2010
2(115
52
8 .0
97
7 l
84
62
s.o
86
79
96
69
10 7
52
11 9
3.9
Change
1.0
( 11)
10
9)
{l
35
( 1 1)
77
(O 9)
b .6
62
( 13)
(3 4)
Tahle 8.6. Changes in unemployme"t rales of industrial nations,
2010-2015
2010
2015
Change
(3 4 )
Un,ted States
96
6. 2
Germany
Untted l<ingdom
Canada
Japan
Sweden
Aostraha
France
Italy
7 l
5.2
(19)
79
80
50
86
52
66
{l 3)
69
(11)
39
(1 l)
77
(O 9)
ó2
10 7
11,9
10
97
6~
LO
35
C H AHl R 8
92
Do not use a three-dimensional background for a two-dimensional
graphic. The added depth contributes nothi.ng and can distort how
readers judge values.
3.
DESIGN 7ABLES AND flGURES
P!<ESt1, TING EVIDENCE IN f.;BLES AriD íh.:UFE5
■
■
Use dear labels
■
Labe! rows and columns in tables and both axes in charts and graphs.
(See chapter 26 for punctuation and spellmg in labels.)
■ Use tíck marks and labels to i.ndicate intervals on the vertícal axi.s of a
graph (see fig. 8-4)
■ lf possible, labe\ lmes, bar segments, and the like on the i.mage rather
than in a caption set to the side Do so in the captíon only if labels would
make the image too complex to read.
■ When specific numbers matter, add them to bars, segments or segments
in charts or to dots on lines in graphs.
■
■
s 3.3.1
I
Bar chans communicate as much by visual impact as by
specific numbers. But bars arranged in no pattem imply no point. If possible, group and arrange bars to create an image that matches your point.
For example, look at figure 8.4 in the context of the explanatory sentence before it. The items are listed alphabetically, an order that doesn't
help readers see the point. ln contrast, fi.gure 8.5 supports the claim with
a coherent image.
In standard bar charts, each bar represents 100 percem of a whole. But
sometimes readers need to see,specific values for parts of the whole. You
can do that in two ways:
83.3 2 BAR CHAR TS.
■
Divide the bars into proportional parts, creating a "stacked bar," as in the
chart on the left in figure 8.6.
Table 85. Unemployment in major industrial nations, 2010-2015
For Charts and Graphs
Use grid lines only if the graphic is complex or readers need to see
precise numbers. Make a11 grid lines Iight gray.
Color or shade lines or bars only to show a contrast. !f you do use
shading, make sure it does not obscure any text, and do not use
multiple shades, which might not reproduce distinctly.
Plot data on three dimensions only when you cannot display the
data in any ether way and your readers are fam11iar with such
graphs.
Never use iconic bars (for example, images of cars to represent automobile production) They can disten how readers judge values, and
they look amateurish
8.3.3
Round numbers to relevant values. If differences of less than r ,ooo don't
matter, ů1en 2,1 23,499 and 2, 124,886 are irrelevantly precise.
Sum totals at the bottom of a column orat the end of a row, not at the top
or left. Compare tables 8.5 and 8.6. Tahle 8 s has a vague title and its items
aren't helpfully sorted. Tahle 8.6 ís clearer because it has an inforrnative
title and its items are organized to let us see pattems m ore easily.
I
ForTables
Never use both horizontal and vertical lines to dlvide columns and
rows. Use light gray Iines if you want to direct your reader's eyes in
one direction to compare data or if the tahle is unusually complex,
For tables with many rows, Iightly shading every fifth row will improve legib1lity.
To ensure legibility, do not use a font si.ze smaller than eight points.
Follow Guidelines for Tables, Bar Charts, and Line Graphs
Tables with lots of data can seem dense, so orgamze them to
help readers.
T ABLES.
■ Order the rows and colurnns by a pnnc1ple that 1ets readers quickly find
what you want them to see. Do not automatically cboose alphabetic
order.
93
Australia
Canada
France
Germanv
Italy
Japan
Sweden
Un,ted Kingdom
Un,ted StatP.s
2010
2015
Change
5.2
62
69
10 7
(1 1)
8.0
97
, 1
84
50
86
79
96
52
11 9
39
77
66
62
10
10
(1 9)
35
(1 l)
(0 9)
11.3)
(3 4)
Table 8.6. Changes in unemployment rates of industrial nalions,
2010-2015
20]0
United States
Germany
Un1ted Klngdom
Canada
Japan
Sweden
Australla
France
Italy
201'>
Change
62
(3 4)
52
(] 9)
79
6.6
(l
80
50
86
52
97
69
(] 1)
3.9
77
6.2
10,7
11 9
(ll)
96
71
8d
3)
(ú 9)
10
1O
35
C>tAPHR
Q
I)[ IGN lABlES "•
I Pl!E\ENT 1,G fýlOE~CE IN 1A61l At4D tJGIJA[S
Mosl ot the desert ared "' thP world 1s concenlratrd 111 Nunh Alnca ;,od lhe M,ddle Eil!iL
1,,000,000
3.~00,000
3,000,000
11 UR[S,
95
■
Arra11ge segrnents i11 a logical 01der. lf possible, pul the largest segment
al lhe bottom in the dat kest shacle.
■ Label segrnents wilh specific numbers and connect corresponding segments with gray lines Lo help clarify proportions.
rigure 8.7 shows how a stacked bar chart is more 1e;idabl~ when irrelevant segrnents are eliminated and those kept are logicall7 ordered and
1
fully labeled.
A grouped bar chart makes it easy for readers to compare parts of a
whole, but difficult for them to compare different wholes because they
must do mental arithmetic. lf you group bars because thc segrnents are
more 1mportant than the wholes, do this:
2,500,01111
!,000 nO(l
1,500,000
1,000,000
~U0,000
ll
■
Arrange groups of bars in a logical order; if possiblc, pul bars of similar
size next to one another (order bars within groups in the same way),
~
Figure 8.4 WO<ld s ten largest deserts
100%
90
80
eo•,,
Most of the oesen area in lhe world 1s concentrated 1n North Alrica and the Moddll! Easl,
N Atr,ca
M1ddle East
4.000 ...-- -- - - - -----,,-
S Alroca
N Am1•r
Auslr.itoa
- -- - - - - -- -- - ,
70 ,
■ Nonh
30%
20%
■West
~o
■ Norlh
20
0%
3 950
1 150
li
151
Olr
140
9(10
7.sl
Jst
,si
lsl
2S1
351
4st
Otr
Otr
Olr
Otr
Otr
Olr
Otr
Fl~re 8.6 Stacked bar chart compared to grouperl bar chart
E
: 000
E' 1 ~:io
600
I
..
i
Fí11ure 8.5 Worfd distribut,on ol large deserts
Use stacked bars only when iťs more important to compare whole
values than it 1s to compare th eir segrnenlS Readers, however, can't eas•
ily gauge proponions by eye alone, so if you do use stack.ed bars, do this:
Atnca
zuuo
§E
OE. Europe
□ rr E.11/
U
Cke,1•
2,001)
I M1dea,;1
i1
IN Arnrncřl
I
W E.uropP
EUIVPP
o
.V Eun:iµ,
J 500
~
;
Give each part of che whole its own bar, then group the bar into clusters,
as in the chart on the right in figure 8.6.
1,!.00
I
500
500
■
□ Easl
60
10%
=
j 2.000
} 1000
■Wesl
~o'\(
l.500
~
~.000
C
:l'
g 7.500
□ Easl
1,0
50''11
J,500
100
1
nao
500
500
1900
''IP.~
l't70
1'•9~ lf'N
Figure 8.7 Stacked bar chart s show,n.<i generato~ of nuclear energy, 1980-1999
r
96
■
I.IM
97
II A•IIIC. [.,\ A flHICA , L,
LalJel groups w1th lhe n11mber for the whole, either above each group or
below che labels on the bottom.
11,.noo.ooo
Most data that fit a bar c.lta1t can also be represented in a p1e chart. Pie
charts are popular in magazines, tabloicis, and annual reports, but they're
harder to read chan bar chartsand invite misin1e1 p1etat:1on because readers must compare proportions of segment.s whose sizes are often hard to
judge. Most researchers avoid pie charts, especially to convey quantitative data. They use bar c:harts
12,000 DO(
-
Europo
-
A,,a
-
Africa
c=,
o,e-,m,1
L Amrr,<a
• •
10 000,000
.
• • • • N Am~rica
,,
J
6.000,000
I
I
0,000.000
Because a line graph emphasizes trends, readers must see
a clear 1mage to tnterpret it correctly Do the foUowing:
aJ.33 LIN E GRAPHS
■
■
■
■
Choose the variable chat makes the hne go in the direction. up or down,
that suppons your point. lf the good news 1s a reducnon (down) in hígh
school dropouts, you can more effecbvely represent the same data as an
increase in retention (up), lf you wam to emphasize bad news, find a way
to represent your data as a falhng line.
Plot more chan six lines on one graph only if you cannor make your point
in any other way.
Do not depend on different shades of gray to clistinguish lines , as in figure 8 8
lf you plot fewer than ten or so values (called data points), indlcate each
with a dot, as in figure 8.9. lf those values are relevant, you can add numbers above the dots. Do not add dots to hnes plotted from ten 01 more
data po1nts
Compare figure 8.8 and figure 8.9 Beyond its general story, figure 8.8 is
harder to read because the shades of gray do not disongujsh the lines
well and because our eyes have to flick back and forth to connect Unes
with variables and their numbers. Figure 8.9 makes those conneclions
clearer.
These different ways of showing the same data can be confusing. To
cut through chat confusion, test difterent ways of representing the same
data (Your software program will usually let you do that quickly.) Then
ask someone not familiar Wlth your data to judge the represencations
for their impact and clarity. Be sure to introduce your graph.ics with a
sentence that states the claim you want the figures to support
8.4
Communicating Data Ethlcally
Vour graphics must bt not only clear and ;,ccurate but also honcsL Do no1
distort the image of your data to make a point For example, the two bar
charts in figure 8 JO rhsplay 1dentlcal data yet send different messages,
,.000.000
,
I
2.000.000
•••••••
··················,·
I
1900
1870
........
1960
1930
F13ure 8 8. Fore,gn-bom res.dents in the United States 1870-1990
l l - . - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - ,
12
-;;
C
C
~10 + - -E
..
~
"0
8
.,,;;
a:
E o
o
o
~,.
"'
ř:.
tf
r A trica
o
1870
1900
1930
1960
oce.inia
1990
Figure 8.9 Foreign•bom residenls in the Unrted States, 1870-1990
The 0-100 scale in the figure on che lefl creates a fairly fiat slope, which
makes the drop in pollution seem small The vertical scate in the figure
on the nght, however, begins not al o bul at 8o. When a scale is ouncated,
its sharper slope exaggerates small contrasts.
Graphs can also mislead by implying false correlations. Someone
98
CHAPTER S I f'P[SENftNG [ VIDENCl IN TABLE5 ANI) FIGURE5
100
-
--- 101
98
~9
94
93
_
92 _
75
-
90
25
85
04
06
·os
99
-
94
-
.
-
92
93
-
90
-
10
12
14
02
·01.
06
'08
10
12
·14
o:
E
15
6
~
..
c
E
>.
..9
a.
..
C:
o
i:
E
C:
◊ Unemploymenl Rale
04
05
40
30.1--- - ~
30
20 ;..---_,,,,..
20
5
06
07
08
09
N ,rth Coun1y
Soulh County
,I
10
Eas1 Cou11ly
West Counly
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
f.',gure 8 .12. Representation of collar counties among State U. undergraduates (percentage
of total)
*;...
a.
i;
14
40
+---.---,---,--,---,.---,--r--l
7
'i!'
~
60
50
1970
16
.,E
60
50 L - - - ~
r----u
17-.------------------------~ 8
..
70
10
Figvre 8.10. Capitol City pollution index. 2002-2014
.o
99
?O
98
95
50
·02
-101
100
90
COMMUfllG",TING O.ATA EfHICAllV
~
10
Year
Figure 8.11. Union membership and unemployment rate, 2004-2010
daiming that unemployment goes down when union membership goes
down might offer figure 8. r 1 as evidence. And indeed, in that graph, union
membership and the unemployment rate do seem to move together so
dosely that a reader might infer one causes lhe other. But the scate for
the left axis m figure 8. ri (union membership) differs from the scale for
the right axis (unemployment rate). The two scales have been deliberately skewed to make it seem the two downward trends are related. They
may be, but the distorted image doesn't prove it.
Graphs can also mislead when the image encourages readers to misjudge values. The two charts in figure 8 . 12 represent exactly the same
data but seem to communicate different messages. These "stacked area"
charts represent differences m values not by the angles of the lines but
by the areas between them. ln both charts, the bands for south, east, and
west are roughly the same width throughout, indicating little change
in the values they represent. Thll'band for the nortl1, however, widens
sharply, representing a large increase in the value it represents. In tl1e
chart on the left, readers are likely to misjudge the top three bands because they are on top of the rising north band, making those bands seem
to rise as well. ln the chart on the right, on the other band, those three
bands do not rise because they are on the bottom. Here only the band for
the north rises.
Here are four guidelines for avoiding visual rnisrepresentations:
• Do not manipulate a scale to magnify or reduce a contrast.
■ Do not use a figure whose image distorts values.
■ Do not make a tahle or figure unnecessarily complex or misleadingly
simple.
• If the table or figure supports a point, state it.
Table 8 .7. Co mm on g tap hic form s and theí r uses
Data
Table 8.7. (con tinued)
Rhetorical uses
Bar chart
Data
Rhetoncal uses
Comparts CMllnuous variables
Best for show1ng 1rends, deemphas,zes
Unegraph
Compares lhe value of one
Creates s1rong v,sual contrasts among
variable a1 mss a se:11es of item':,
called cas~s (eg .• aserage
rndivldual
~ases emphas1z1ng comparisons
for soecifrc values add numbers l o bars.
s;ilaries for se,s1ce worke•vanable Can show •anks 01 t1ends. Vertical
ln Si> companiescasesl
bars
(called columns) are most common but
bars car, be honzontal 11 cases are numerous
ar hav"' complex labels See section 8 3.3 2
fo, ont or moH: cases (e g ,
sµec1flc values. Usefui fo, tlme series To
lemperatu, •var,aolt and
show specif1c values. add numbers to data
viscos11yvariable in two
potnts To show the s,gni~cance of a trend,
flurdscases)
segment t he gnd (e.g. btlow or above
aYerage performance) 6ee B 3.3 3.
Area chart
Bar chart. grouped or split
Compares two continuous
Shows trends. deemphas1zes spec,fic salues.
Conlfasts subsets w,tlun and acro,ss
var tabler; tar one or more u ses
Can be used fo, Ume se11es. To sho" spec.k
vana hle d1v111ed ,nto sut>~els
1nd,v1aual uses, not u;etul ~r comparřng
leg read,ng lest scoresvariable
values, add numbers to dala points Areas
acro~ťi
tolal values for c:.1ses For specrfic values
oser 11mevar1able 1n a school
below the lines add no 1nformat1on and
d1st11ctcase l
Comparrs lhe •alue ol one
a .sette'\ ol cas~ (ť! g
average sala11esvar1able for
adJ numbers to bars. Grouped bars shol'v
men and women st:-rv,cP
worM?•Ssubsel s ,n s,,
rankong or 1,ends pourly, useful lor l1me
se<1P.S
companiescasesJ
sect1on 8 3 3.2.
only
,t trends are unimporlanl See
w11! lead some ,eaders to mis1udge values
Conlus1ng w1th mult1ple lines/areas.
Area chart, slacked
Bar chart, staclced
Compares lwQ rontmuowJ>•
Shows the trend ío, the total o1 all cases.
var1ables for two or more
plus how much each case contribules l o
lhal lota! L,kelv to m,slead readers on the
Compares Ille valut' of one
Best for companng tolals arn:,ss cases and
cases ~eg p1ofit 11anable
vartable, dív1ded ,nto two or
subsets wirhin cases, drff1cult to compa,e
over 11me.,,ar1atlle for 5eve,al
value o, the trend for any md1v1dual c.;se, as
rriore ~ubsets ouoss a ;erte~
subsets across cases (use gmuped bars).
productscases>
e,plained 1n sect,on 84
Comoares two vanables al
Best for showing tne distribulion of data,
mult ,ple data po1nts for a
espec1ally when there rs no clear t rend or
of case, (e.g • harassment
For spec1l1C values add numbers to bars and
compla,msvanable ~gmrnted
segmenls LJseful for t ,me ser1es Can show
by regmnsubi;e.ts ,n s111:
ranks o< trends íor teta! value~ onlv See
1ndustries,::a5~)
sect,on 8 3 3 2
Scatterplot
,. o
Histogram
Compares two var1ables, w1th
Best for comparrng segments ;.r1th1n
one segmenled ,nto ranges
cóntlnuou~ dala set~ Shows trends but
that fun~t,on 1,,e the cases
ernphas,ze,
,€smeflls (eg
3 :;udden
r. .
~
when lhe focus ís on outly,ng data po,nts
sal~svar,able and d,stance
oni~ a few data pomis are plotted, 1t allows a
from downtownvariablE 1n
focus oo ,ndividuol v~lue~
one til Vcase>
o, at one data
,na bar grapt, (e g. se,v,ce
sp1ke at $5-10,000 reNeset1ling oart·hme
prnnt for mul11ple c,ises (e g ,
workersco"Unu@s whose salarv
worke,s) ~or specrf1, values add numben;
brand loyaltyvariablc
to llars
rep31J lrequencyvarial>le for ten
IS
)0-S,000 ~5-J0,000. $10-
15 000 etc segmented vaoablel
and
manufacturerscases>
Image chart
Bul>ble chart
Shows value of one 01 more
Shows the cJ,str1but1on ol lhe data ,n relation
Compares th,ee variables al
to pree>1sting categories deemphas,zes
mult ,p!e data po,nts for a single
th,rd vanable (bubblesl and the řirst two
on 3 map. diagrarn or ether
spec1t1C vah,es. Best when the ,mage 1s
cJse (e g hous,ng sales,variable
most usefut when the Quest,on is whether
Image (eg , statescases colored
fam,lra, as in a mop or di~gram ol a process
distance from downlown variable the lhird var,able is a product ol the
arrables for cases d,sr,layeu
Emphas,zes lhe relahonsh1p between the
red or blue to shoN vot,ng
t1nd pricesv;,, ,able 1n 1Jne
uthers Readers eas1lv 1rnstudg~ relative
patternsvanable J
ci!yc.,,~l o, at one dala
pa1nt for mult1plP c3i:;p5 , ... g.,
'IJlues shown by bubbles addmg number~
m,t,gates that probtem
Hna~e advert,sing.vanable
Shows the proport,on of a single
Best for compar 1ng one segment to the
va, able for a series ol c:.1ses
whole i.J;elul 011ly with few segments or
(e &- the budget ,hareva, 13ble of ,egrnents that are verv diflerent
US c.abmet depa, tmentscases I
in
size,
otherw,~e ,Qmpar,sons among segments are
d,fticult For spec,f,c values add numbers
lo segmeuts Common 1n popular venues,
frowned on by profes;1onals See 8 3 3 2.
li
single case 1e.g. hoos,ng
reoa11 frequency vonable and
l)rand loyaltyv3 ,rabl~ for ten
rnanufactur~rscases>
Ci-ifC
9
Revising Your Draft
91
Check for Blind Spots in Your Argum ent
9.2
CheckYour Introduction, Conclusion, and Claim
9.3
Make Sure the Body ofYour Paper ls Coherent
9.4
Check Your Paragraphs
9.5
let Your Draft Cool, Then Paraphrase lt
Some new researchers think that once they have a draft, they're practi•
cally done. Experienced researchers know better. They write that first
draft not for their readers but for themselves, to see whether they can
make the case they hoped to (or even a better one). Then they revise
until they think their draft meets the needs and expectations of their
readers. Thaťs hard, because we all know our own work too well to read
it as others will. To revise effectively, you must know what readers look
for and whether your draft helps them find it. To that end, our advice
may seem mechanical. But only when you can analyze your draft objectively can you avoid reading into it what you want your readers to get
out of it.
We suggest first revising overall organization, especially the "outer
frame" of the introduct:ion and conclusion; then sect:ions, paragraphs,
sentences; and fi.nally stylistic issues such as spelbng and punctuation
(for guidance on these issues, see part 3). Of course no one revises so
neatly. All of us fiddle with words as we move paragraphs around and
reorganize as we revise a sentence. But you're likely to work best if you
revise from whole to part.
Many experienced researchers find that they can edit hard copy more
reliably than they can edit text on a screen. Even if you prefer to edit on a
screen, consider reading at least one later draft on paper. You may catch
more errors, and you'll get a better sense of your paper's overall structure
than you can from the screen alone.
,oz
►,
FO~ BlltHl SPOTS IN 'rOUR ARGUME•JT
103
9.1
Check for Blind Spols in Your Argument
Completing a draft is an accomplishment, but don't move immediately
to fine-tuning sentences. After the first draft, parts of your argument will
likely still not stand up to a robust chaUenge. lf you spend a lot of time polishmg sentences, ít can be hard to later accept that whole sections need
to be rearranged or even cut. lnstead, check your argumeJťs reasoning.
Have you considered the strongest relevant counterarguments? Have you
looked for evidence that challenges or complicates your reasons? Have
you considered altemative interpretations of your evidence? lf not, now is
the time. lf you find it difficult to think of significant alternatíves to your
argument now that you have completed a draft, talk with your instructor
or advisor about where your argument overlooks Jikely objections.
9.2
Check Your lntroduction, Conclusj.on, and Claim
Your readers must recognize three thmgs quickly and unamb1guously:
■ where your introduction ends
• where your conclusion begins
■ what sentences in one or both state your claim
To make the first two clearly visible, you might insert a subhead or ex-
tra space between your introduction and body and another between the
body and conclusion. (Chapter 10 discusses revising your introduction
and conclusion in detail.)
9.3
Make Sure the Body of Your Paper 1s Coherent
Once you frame your paper clearly, check its body. Readers will fmd your
pa per coherent wben they can see the following:
■
what key tenns run through all of its sections
where each section and subsection ends and the next begins
■ how each secoon relates to the one before it
■ what role each section plays in the whole
• what sentence in each section and subsection states its point
■ what distinctive key terms run through each section
■
To ensure that your readers will see those features, check for the following:
1. Do key terms run through your whole paper7
Circle key terms in the claim as stated in your introduction and
conclusion (review 7.3).
105
104
tence that expresses 1ts point and c1rcle in it the key terms that distin
guish that secl:Jon from the others. Then check whether those terms
run through thar section, If yo11 tínd no tenns that díffe1 f10m those
running through the whole, then you readers might not see what dis
tinct ideas Lhat section contributes to the whole.
• Cucle Lhose same tem1s in the body of your paper
Undealine other words related to concepts named by these circled
terms
lf readers don't see at least one of your key terms m most para.
graphs, they may thmk your paper wanders Revise by working those
tenns into parts that Jack them ff you underlined many more words
than you circled, be sure that readers will recogmze how the under
lined words relate to the concepts nametl in your circled key terms.
lf readers might rruss the connecLions, change some of those related
words to Lhe key tenns. U ů1aL's difficulL, you may have gouen off track
and will need to rewrite or d1scard some passages
2. 1s the begmning of each section and subsection clearly signaled?
You can use headings to mark. trans1tions from one section or s ubsection to the next (review 6 2.4) ln a relatively short paper, rather
than use headiugs, you rrught add an extra space at the major joints.
lf you can t dedde what words to use in headings or even where to pul
them, your readers will likely have a problem with your paper's organization. {For styles of differem levels of heads, see A.2 2.4.)
3. Does each major section begin with words that signal how that sec
tion relales to the one before itl
Readers must not on1y recogmie where sections begin and end but
also understand why they are ordered as rhey are (see 6.2 5-6.2 6)
Signal the log1c of your order with words such as C0t1sequent!y . .. , Jn
controst
, Some haue ob1ected that . . or even just First, .. St?cond, .
4 . 1s it clear how each section relates to the whole?
For each section, ask, What quesuon does thrs section answer? tf it
doesn't help Lo answer one of the five questions whose answers con•
smute an argument (see 5.2), think about its relevance: does it create
a context, explam a background concept or issue, or help readers in
some other way? If you can't explain how a section relates to your
claim, consider cutting it.
s . ls the point of e.ich section stated in a sentence at the end of a bnef
íntroduction lo that section (orat its end)?
lf you have a choice, state the point of a section at the end of 1ts
introduction. Under no circumstances should you bury the point of
a section in ns nuddle. tf a section is longer than four or five pages,
you might conclude by restating your point and summarizing your
argument.
6 . Do lhe spectfic terms that disringuish a section run through it?
Each section and subsection needs its own key terms to unify and
distinguish it from others. Repeat step 1 tor each section: find the sen·
9,4
Check Your Paragraphs
Each paragraph should be relevam to the pomt of 1ts sectton And Jike
sections, each paragraph should haw a sentence 01 two mtroducíng it,
usually stating tts point and incl11ding the key concepts that the rest of
the paragraph develops lf the opening sentences of a paragraph don't
state its poinl, then its last one should, Order your sentences by some
principie and make them relevant to che point of tht> paragraph (for principles of order, see 6 2 s)
Paragraphs vary in length depend111g on the type of writmg m wh1ch
they appear For example, they tend to be shorter in brief research repons
and longer m cntical essays or book chapters lf you lind you,self stnng·
ing together several short paragraphs, it may mean your points .irt not
well developed. tf your paragraphs run more than a page, it may mean
you are losing focus. Reserve Lhe use of two- or three-sentence paragraphs for lists, transitions, introducltons and conclusions to sections,
and statements that you wane to emphasize (We use short paragraphs
bere so that readers can more easily skim-rarely a consideraúon m
scholarly wriong.)
9.5
Let Your Draft Cool, Then Paraphrase lt
Cf you start your project early, you'll have time to let your revised draft
cool. Wha t seems good one day oflen looks different the next. When
you retum to your draft, don't read it straight chrough, sk1m its top-level
parts: its mtroducoon, che firsl paragraph of each major section, and the
condus1on. Then, based only on what you have read, paraphrase it for
someone who hasn't read it. Does the paraphrase hang together? Does
it fairly sum up your argument? Even better, ask someone else to sk1m
your pape, by reading just lts 1mroducuon and the introduction to each
major section. how well that person summarizes your paper will pred1ct
how well your readers will understand it.
Finally, be receptive to feedback, especially from more experienced
researc:hers and your teacher or adVisor You don't have to follow every
suggestion, but you should consider each carefully. ln chapter 12 we tel1
you how to get the most out of comments on wntmg
t,RJ\FT YOUR FIMAL INTRODUC flON
10
107
• gíve ů1em a framework for understanding it (which sometirnes, but not
always, includes announcing your clairn)
Writing Your Final Introduction
and Conclusion
Most íntroductions run about ro percent of the whole (in the sciences
they are often shorter)
Your conclusion also has three airns. lt should do the following:
• Ieave readers with a clear idea of your claim
• make readers understand its importance
• suggest further research
10.1
Draft Your Fin al lntroduction
101 I
Conclusions are usually shorter than introductions. ln article-length
papers, they are usually sections: m theses and dissertations, they are
usually separate chapters.
Establlsh a Contexl of Prior Research
10 1 2 Restate Your Question as Somelhing Not Known ar Fully Understood
10 1.3 State the Significance of Your Question
10 1 4 State Your Claim
10 1 5 Draft a New First Sentence
10.2
DraftYour Fina! Conclusion
10.21 Restate Your Cla,m
10 2.2 Po,nt Out a New Signlficance, a Practlcal Appl1cat1on, ar Opportunlties for
Further Research (ar Ali Three)
10.3
Write Your Title Last
Once you have a final draft and can see what you have actually written,
you can write your final introduction and conclusion. These two framing
parts of your paper crucially influence how readers will understand and
remember the rest of it, so iťs worth your time to make them as clear
and compelling as you can ln chapter 2 we showed you how to develop
a project around a research problem. Here we show you how to use that
problem to craft an inrroduction likely to engage your readers and a condusion likeJy to solidify their understanding and prompt new questions.
What seizes readers' attention in a research paper is not a snappy
hook but a problem they think needs a solution, and what holds their
attention is a promíse that you've found it. As we've said, you can always
work w1th readers who say I don't agree. Wbat you can't survive are these
who shrug and say I don't care.
Your introduction has three aims. lt should do the following:
• put your research in the context of other research
■ make readers understand how your paper addresses a problem they care
about
106
10.1
Draft Your Final lntroduction
íntroductions to papers in different fields can seern different, but behmd
most of them 1s a pattem with the four parts described in 6.2.2:
1. Opening context or background. When this sumrnanzes relevant re-
search, iťs called a literature review that puts your project in the c:ontext of other research and sets up the next step. Keep it short_
2. A statement of your research question, or your research problem's
condition. This is typicaJJy a statement of what isn't known or understood or of what is flawed about the research you cited in step 1. It
often begins with but, however, or another word signaling a qualification.
3. A statement of the significance of your question, or your research
problem's consequence. This answers So what? lt is key to motivating
your readers.
4. Your claim or a promíse of one. This addresses the research problem
expressed in step 2 . Here is an abbreviated example (each sentence
could be expanded to a paragraph or more):
For centuries, risk analysts have studied risk as a problem in statistics and the ratlonal uses of probability theory.context Sut risk communicators have discovered that
ordlnary people think about risk in ways that seem unrelated to statistically based
probabilities,question/ problem-condit,on Until we understand how nonexperts think
about risk, an lmportant aspect of human cognition will remain a puzzle.5 ,gnificance/
problem-consequence lt appears that nonexperts judge risk by visualizing worst-case
scenarios, then assessing how frightening the image is,c1a,m
I l'\IRITING
(0UR F NAL ir,TRODLJCTION ANi) ~ONCLU51ťlN
108
C hAPTE R 10
10.,1.1
Establish a Context of Prior Research
Not every paper opens with a survey of research. Same begin directly
with a research question stated as something not known or understood,
followed by a review of the relevant literature. This is a common strategy
when the gap in knowledge or understanding is well known
DRAFT YOVR fl•lAL IN[RIJOUCTION
il. ff so, imagine your reader as someone like yourself before you started
your research. What would you have wanted to know' Whal did you get
wrong that your research has corrected? How has lt improved your own
flawed understanding? This is where you can use a working hyµothesis
that you rejected: It might seem that X is so, bul
(see also 4.r.2).
The relationsh1p between secondhand srnoke and heart disease is slili contested.
But if that gap ísn't well known, such an opening can feel abrupt, like
this one:
109
10.1.2
Researchers do not understand how ordinary people think about risk.
As a rule, a research paper prepares readers by describing the prior
research that it will extend, modity, or correct. If the paper is mtended
for general readers, the context it provides can be brief:
I
Restate Your Question as Something Not Known or Fully Understood
After establishing the context, state what that prior research hasn't done
or how iťs incomplete, even wrong. lntroduce that statement with but,
however, ar some other term indicating that you're about to modify the
received knowledge and understanding that you just surveyed.
Ever since Girolamo Cardano .. . mathernatical perspective.context Bur risk commun,ca•
We all take risks every day-when we cross lhe street or eat h1gh•fat food. and even
tors have discovered that ordinary people think obout risk in ways lhal are irrat,ona/ and
unrelated to statistica//y rea/is11c probabil,ties. What is not understaod ;s whelher such
nonexpert risk assessment /s based on ran<l,lm guesses or whether it has systemat,c proper•
when we take a bath. The study of risk began with games of chance, so it has long been
ties.quesloon restated
treated mathematícally. By the twentieth century, researchers used mathematical tools
to study risk in many areas: investments, commercial products even war. As a result,
most researchers think that risk is a statist,cally quanlifiable problem and that decislons about it should be rationally based
In a paper intended for other researchers, this opening context typically describes the specific research the paper will extend or modify. lt
is important to represent this prior research fairly, so describe it as you
think the researchers who conducted it would
10,1.3
State the Significance
ofYour Question
Now you must show your readers the signijicance of answering your research question. Imagme a reader asking So what?, then answer it. Frame
your response as the consequence of not knowing the answer to your
research question:
Ever since Girolamo Cardano . . . mathematical perspective.context But risk communicators have discovered lhal .
What is not understood is whether such nonexpert
Ever since Girolamo Cardano thought about garnes of chance in quantitat1ve terms in
risk assessrnent ,s based on randem guesses or whether it has systemat1c proper-
the sixteenth century (Cardano 1545), risk has been treated as a purely rnathemati-
ties questlon restated [So what?] Unti/ we understand how risk is understood by none,cperts, on ímportont aspect of hurnan 1easoni11g will remain a puzzle: the kind a( cagnitive
processmg that seems svstematic bul /ies outside the range of what is ca/led "rotional
thinking "s,gn1ficance
cal problem. Analyses of risk significantly irnproved 1n the seventeenth century when
Pascal, Leibniz, and others developed the calculus (Bernstein 1996). ln the twent1eth
century, researchers widened their focus to study risk in all areas of life: investments,
consumer products, the envíronmenl, even war (Stimson 1990; 1998). These problems,
too, have been addressed almost exclusively from a mathematical perspect1ve [Detailed discussion of contemporary research follows.]
Some papers, especially theses and dissertations, go on li.ke that for
pages, citing scores of books and artides only marginally relevant to the
topíc, usually to show how widely the researcher has read. That kind of
survey can provide helpful bibliography to other researchers, especially
new ones, but busy readers want to know about only the specifrc research
that the researcher intends to extend, modify, or conect.
Early in your career you might not be able to write this review of prior
research with much confidence, because you're unlikely to know much of
Altematively, you can phrase the consequence as a benefit:
Ever since Gírolamo Cardano ... mathemat1cal perspect,ve.conte.t But risk communicators have discovered lhal , . . What is not understood is whether such nonexpert risk
assessment is based on random guesses or whether it has syslematic propert1es.ques·
what?J ff we cou/d underslond how ordinary peop/e rnake decis1ons obout
risks in their doily lives, we could better understand a kind of cognitive processing that seems
systematic but lies outside the range of what ,s ca/led "rotianal thinkmg.\,gnilocance
110n restated [So
You may struggle to answer that So whac? It 1s a problem that only
experience can solve, but the fact is, even expenenced researchers can
be vexed by it.
i WKll I NG 'fOUR FINA
110
CHAPIE~ 10
10., .4
State Your Claim
Once you state that something isn't known or understood and why it
should be, readers want to see your claim, the answer to your researc])
question (we abbreviate a good deal in what follows):
I IHRODUC TION MIU CONClU~ ION
OP.UT YOVR flNAL CONGI U~IOM
111
2. A sbiking fact.
Many people drive rather than fly because lhe vivid ,mage of an a irplane crash terrifies
them e11en though they are many times more likely to d,e in a car crash than a plane
wreck.
Ever since Girolamo Cardano . malhematkal perspect1ve.conted But r isk communlcators have discovered that ordinary people think about nsk in ways lhat are sys-
3.
tematic but irrational and unrelated to statist1cally realistic probabilihes.questoon [ So
George Miller always drove tong distances to meet clients because he believed that the
whot?] Until we understand how risk is understood by nonexperts, an important kind
risk of an airplane crash was too great. Even when he broke his back in an automobile
accident, he slili thought he had made the right calculation ··At least I surv1ved The
odds of surv111ing an airplane crash are zero!"
of human reasomng will remain a puzzle: the kind of cognit1ve processing that seems
systematic but lies outs1de the range of whal 1s called "ralionat thinking.•slgmfic:ance
ft oppeors thot nonexperts ossess r,sk not by ossigning quontitotive probobilit1es to events
thot might occur but by visuo/izing worst-cose scenorios, then assigning degrees of risk
A relevant anecdote:
You can combme all three:
occording to how vivid ond fr,ghtening the imoge is.c1a,m
As Dale Carneg1e once said, "Ali ltfe 1s a chance. For example, many people drive
rather than fly because the v1vid image of an a1rptane crash terrif,es them. even though
they are more likely to die in a car crash !han a plane wreck. George Miller always
lf you have reason to withhold your claim until the end of your paper,
write a sentence to conclude your mtroduction that uses the key tenns
from that claim and that frames what follows:
drove tong d1stances to meet clients becaus,-he believed that the risk of an airplane
crash was too great. Even after he broke h1s back in an automobile accident. he stilt
thought he had made the right calculat1on. "At least I survived. The odds of surviving an
airplane crash are zerol "
lt appears that nonexperh, assess risk not by ass1gning quant1tat1ve probabilities but by
systematically using properties of their visual imaginat1on.prom1se of cla1m
Be sure to include in these openers terms that refer to the key concepts
you'U use when you write the rest of the mtroduction (and the rest of the
paper). ln this case, they include calculating, nsk, vivid 1mage, more Wtely.
Now the waming: before you write a snappy openmg, be sure that
others m your field use them ln some fields they're considered too journalistic for serious scholarship.
Those four steps may seem mechanical, but they constitute the introductions to most research papers in every field, both inside the academ1c world and out. As you read your sources, especially joum al arUcles, watch for that four-part framework. You will not only leam a range
of strategies for writing your own mtroduct1on s but better understand
the ones you read.
10.2
Draft Your Final Conclus1on
Your conclusíon sums up your argument, butjust as important, it offers
an opportunity to raise new questions suggested by your research. You
can build your conclusion around the same elements as your introduction, only in reverse order.
10,2.1
Rest:ate Your Claim
Restate your daim early in your conclusion, more fully than in your introduction:
Draft a New First Sentence
Some writers find it so difficult to write their fi.rst sentence that they fall
10.1.s
into chchés. Avoid these:
■
Do not repeat the language of your ass1gnment.
■ Do not quote a dictionary definition: Webster de.fines risk as
• Do not begin too generally: For centuries, philosophers have debated the question of . .. (Remember that you are not writing to everyone, only to your
research community.)
lf you want to begin with something livelier than prior research, tIY
one or more of these openers (but note the waming that follows):
t. A pithy quotation:
As Dale Carnegie once sa1d. "Ali life is a chance.
Ordinary people make decis1ons about risk not on a rational or quantif1able bas1s bul
on the basis of at least six psycholog1cal factors that not only involve emotion bul
systematically draw on the power of visual imagination.
At this point you're probably sure what your claim is, but even so, take
this last chance to rephrase it to make 1t as specific and complete as
you can.
,U
c ..i~PTEII 10 I WRITIIIG ~ o IR ílNAL tNT oi')[lUC ' •ON Al.O COl,~lui ON
10 .2.2 Point Out a New Significance , a Practical Application, or
Opportunitie s for Further Research (or All Three)
After stating your claim, remind readers of its significance, or better, state
a new significance or a practical application:
11
Revising Sentenc es
These findings suggest a hltherto unsuspected aspect of hu man cognition, a quantltative logic independent of 'itat1stu:al probabihlies mvolvIng degrees of precision or
reahsm ln v1sualization. Once we understand th1s imaginaltve bul systemat,c assessment o f risk, ,t should be possible for risk communicators to better explarn risk in
everyday Ilfe.
Fmally, suggesl further research. This gesture suggests how the community of researchers can continue the conversation . lt mirrors the operung
context:
11.1
Gel tr, lhc Sub1ect ol Vour s~nleflCe Owckly
111
111 :> Make Sub1ects Short ,1nd Conc,ete
1113 A~o,d ~t'paraltng Sub1ect, and Verbs Wtlh More !han a Word cr Two
ll 14 Put Key Actions 1n Ve,h~ Not 1n Nouns
Although these factors improve our understandIng of risk, lhey do not exhaust lhe "human" factors in Judgments of it. We most also invest,gate the relevance of age, gende,,
111 S Put lnlo,mat,oo Fam,ltilr IO Rea~ al lhe 81!gmn1ng ol a Sentence, New
lnformJlton dl lhe End
education, and rntelligence. For example, •••
When you state what remains to do, you keep the conversation alive. So
before you write your línal words, imagine other researchers who are
intrigued by your work and want to follow it up. What more would }'OU
like to know, as the1r reader? What research would you suggest they do?
10.3
Write Your Title last
Your title is the firsl thmg your readers read, bul it should be the last
thing you write. It should both announce your topic and c:ommunicat e its
conceptual framework. so build it out of the key lerms that you earlier
identified (review 9.3). Compare these three titles:
Risk
Thinking about Rrsk
lrrational bul Systematlc Risk Assessmenl The Role of V1sual lmagrnation in
Calculating Relal1ve Risk
The first title is accurate but too general to give us much guidance about
what is to come. The second is a bit more specific, but ilie third uses both
a title and a subtitle to give us advance notice of the paper's key tenns
When readers see the key terms from the mtroducaon tum up through·
out a paper, they are more likely to think Jt coheres, 01 holds together
'Iwo-pan utles-a main ntle followed by a subtitle~v e you more room
for key terms.
Focus on the Ftrst Seven or Eight Words of a Sentence
111 b
11 i 7
Choose Achvl' or Pa~~l•e Vrrb, lo Rellect lht! Previous Pnncfples
Use Flri :-P~1son Pronouns App1opriatelv
11.2
Diagnose What You Read
11.3
Choose the RightWord
11.4
Polish lt Up
11.5
Give lt Up and Turn lt ln
Your línal task IS to rnake your wnt1ng as und~rstanda ble as you can
for your readers, for 1t is their Judgment ot your 1deas-as you have expresscd them in your writing- that matters most. Readable wnting
of course, depends on more than clear s!•ntences, but clenr sentence~
will go a long way 1oward makmg your writing readable ln thts chapter,
therefore, we offer some adv1ce on how to reVJse your sentences so that
readers will find them clear.
_sometimes you Will know your writing is awkward, especially tf you're
wntmg about an unfamiliar and complex top1c for intimidating readers.
Other tm1es, though, you may overestimate your writing, thinkmg 1cclear
when your readers won't. You need a way to revise sentences in both of
~ese situations: to revise those you know need help and, even more, 10
identify ilnd improve those that you think are fine but that readers mighc
not.
We can't tel1 you how to fix r:.very problem in every i;entence, but we
can tel1 you how to deaJ with those that most often afílict wricers who,
113
ns
114
Those principles are not inviolable rules but gu1delines you can rely on
to communicate clearly with your readers. They add up to this: read
ers want co get past a short, concrete, familiar subject quickly and to a
verb expressing a spec1fic action. When a sentence lets them do that, che
rest of the sentence will usually take care of itself. To diagnose your own
wridng, skim the first seven 01 eight words of every sentence. Look for
sentences in which you don't follow om seven principles)ancl then revise
them as follows.
m strugglÍl1g to sound like "serious scholars," end up sounding mereJy
pretentious. Here is a short example·
1n. A beller understanding ol student learning could achieve ,mprovcmenl m leaching
effect,veness
However nnpressive that sounds, the student who wrote ll meant only
this:
1b. lf we better understood how sludents learn, we could leach them more elfecUvely
To diagnose 1a and revise Jt into 1b, you must know a few grammatical
terms: no1.1n, verb, acnve verb, passive verb, whole subjecc, simple subject, main
clause, subordi11ate clause. lf they're only a dim memory, skim a grammar
guide before you go on.
11.1
11.1.1
3a. ln vlew of claims by researchers on higher education indical ing al least one change
by most undergraduate students of their major field of study fir.st-year studen IS may
need better guidance when they choose a major.
...
Focus on the First Seven or Eight Words of a Sentence
Just as the key to a clearly wntten paper, section, or paragraph is in its
first few semences, so the key to a clearly written sentence is in its first
few words. When readers grasp these first seven or eight words easily,
they read what follows faster, understand it better, and remember it louger. ll is the diíference between Lhese two sentences:
3b. Reseorchers on h1gher educotion cla,m lhal most rtude11ts change the1r maJor lteld
ol study at least once duťlng their undergraduate career. lf that is so. then {irst-yeor
stvdenrs may need better guldance when they choose a major.
Most readers find 3a harder to read than 3b, because it makes them work
through a twenty· four-word phrase before they reach its subject (Jirstyear students) ln the two sentences in 3b, readers immediately start with
the subject (Researchers on h19her education) or reach it after a very short
clause (lf that 1s so).
The principie is this. start most of your sentences clirectly w1th their
whole subjects. Begin only a few sentences with mtroductory phrases
or clauses longer than tenor so words. You can usually revise long introductory phrases and subordinate clauses into separate independent
sentences, as in 3b.
2a. The United Nations' lnsistence on acceptance by all nations of the pnnc1ples of
equal rights and sell-determinat,on of peoples ,s a product of 1ts recognit,on lhal maintenance of stability in the world order requires that nations be gulded by vatues beyond
narrow self-interest
2b. The United Nat,ons 1ns1sls lhal all nalions accept t.he princip les of equal rights and
self-detcrm1nation of peoptes, because 1t recogn12es that ma,nlatn,ng a stable world
order requires that nattons be guided by values beyond narrow self-,nterest.
To write a sentence like 2b, or to revise one like 2a into 2b, follow these
seven princi ples:
■
Get to the subject of your sentence qu1ckly; begin senlences with long
phrases and clauses only occasionally.
■ Make subjects short and concrete, ideally nammg the character chat perfonns the acůon expressed by the verb that foUows.
■ Avo1d separatmg the subject and verb with more than a word or two.
■ Put key actions in verbs, not in nouns
■ Put mformation familiar to readers at the begmnmg of a sentence, new
information at the end.
■ Chaose ;m active or passive verb base<! on which lets you best apply the
preceding principles.
■ Use lirst-person pronouns appropriately.
Get to the Subject ofYour Se ntence Quickly
Compare these two sentences (mtroductory phrases are boldfaced, whole
subjects iralicized)
11.1.2
Make Subjects Short a nd Concrete
Readers must grasp the subject of a sentence easily, but they can't when
the subject is Jong, complex, and abscract Compare these two sentences
(the whole subject in each is italicized; the one-word sunple subject 15
boldfaced)·
4a. A school syslem s successful odoption o/ o new reodřng cumculum for its elementory
schools depends on the demonstrahon in each school of the commitment of lls princ,pal and the cooperation of teachers ln sel11ng reasonable goals.
4b, A scl>oo/ system w1ll adept a new reading curriculum lor elementary schools successfull y only when eoch princ,pol demonstrates tha l she 1s comm1tted to lt and leach-
ers cooperate to set reasonable goals.
116
>iAPl í P 11
R[ V
I
ror11
l NH •C.tS.
ln .µi , the whole subJect is fourteen words long, and its simple subject 1s
an abstraction-adoption. ln 4b, the clearer version, the whole subject of
every verb is short, and each simple subject is relatively concrete. schoot
system, each pnncipal, she, teachers. Moreover, each of those subjects performs the action in its verb: system wrll adopt, principal demonsrrates, she is
commttted, teachers cooperate
The principie is this: readers tend to judge a sentence readable when
the sub1ect ofits verb names the main character in a few concrete words,
ideally a characte1 that is also the "doer" of che action expressed by the
verb that follows.
But there's a complication We are not saymg that to be clear you must
write only about people an d concrete thmgs. ln fact, writers often tel1
clear s tories aboul abstract characters:
11.1.J
,ty wIII REMAtN limrted
Avoid Separating Subjects and Verbs with More th an a Word or Tu.o
Once past a sho1 t subrect, readers wanl lo get to a verb qy1ckly, so avo1d
sphtting il verb from its subject with Jong phrases and clauses:
In 7a, the because clause separates the subjecr some econom1s1s írom the
verb do not commumcate, forcing us to mentally suspend our brea1h. To
reV1se, move the mtem1pnng cla use to the beginning or end of its sentence, depending on whether Il connects more dosely co the sentence
before or the one after. When in doubt, pul it al the end (for more on this,
see 11.1.5).
~
7b Because some economrsts wnte m a style that ,s ,mpersonal and obiecttve, they do
rew readers have trouble with those abstract subjects, because they're
short and familiar: no sk1II, the ability to solve problems quickly, and ejfecti1.1e
problem solving Whal gtves readers trouble is an abstract subject that is
long and u nfamiliar.
To fu< sentences wiů1 long, abstract subjects, revise m th ree s teps:
regard to the creatlon of Job opportunitles, success in understanding etonomlc mob4I·
t17
7a. Some eco11omIsts, bt!cause they write ln a style that 1s 1mpersonal and obJect1ve, do
than one soluhon. ln lact, e{fective problem ro/v1ng may deíine general intelligence.
6a W,thout a means for analyzing lnteractions between social class and education ln
,cr
not communic.itl! wtth laypeople easily
5. No sk1/l Is more valued in t he profess1onal world than problem solving. The abllity to
For example, compare 6a and 6b (actions are boldfaced; verbs are capital1zed):
,f1T
Readers wanl subJects to nume the mam characters in your story,
ídeally flesh-and-ulood characte1s, and spenfic verbs to name their key
actions.
soll/e problems quick/y requlres us to frame s1tuatIons ln d,fferent ways and to ltnd more
• Idenofy the main character in the sentence.
• Find its key action, and if that is buried in an abstract noun, make it a
verb.
■ Make the main character the subject of that new verb.
rA
not cummunIcate wlth laypeople eas1ly. Th,s 1nab1hly to communIcatc .•
/C. Same economists do not communIcate w,th laypcople easrly becau~e they wrlte In
a style that is impcrsonal and ob1ecltve Thcy u~e passive verb!i and . ,
Readers manage short interruphons more eas1ly:
8 Few econom,sts delibl!rately write in a style that ,s 1mpersonal and obJectwe.
11.1.4
Pu t Key Actions in Verbs, Not in Nou ns
Readers want to get to a verb quicklv, but thcy also want that verb to express a key action So avoid using an empty verb such es havc, do, make,
or be to innoduce an accion buried in an abstract noun. Make the noun
a verb.
Compare these two sentences (nouns naming actions are boldfaced;
verbs naming actions are capítalized, verbs expressíng li1tle action are
italicized),
6b Economist s do not entirely ONDERSTAND econom,c mobility. because they cannol
ANALYZE how SOCtal class and education INTERACT to CREATE JOb opportun,tles.
ln both sen tences the main characler is economists, bu t in 6a ů1at character isn't the subject of any verb; in fact, 1ťs not in the sentence at all: we
must infer ít from actions buried in nouns-analyzing a.nd understandm9
(what economisls do} We revise 6a into 6b by makmg the mai n cbarac•
ters, econom1sts, social class, and educatton, subJec-ts of the explld t verbs
1mderstand, analyze, mteract, and create.
9a. During tt>e early years of the Arst World WM, the Great Power~• atlt!mpt at enlist•
ing the Un,ted Slates on their s1de was met w,th fa1lurc.
gb. During the eatly ye.ars of the First World War, the Greal Powers AT"rEM?TEO to
ENLIST the Un1led Slale5 on their side bul FAILE O.
ln 9a, three importanl actions aten't ve, bs but nouns tltlempt, enlisting,
failure Sentence 9b seems more direcl because it e.xpresses these actions
in verbs· attempted, e11hs1,Ja1!ed.
118
C ►<A?TE R
11.1.s
Put Information Familiar to Readers at the Begin ning of a Sentence,
New lnformation at the End
Readers understand a sentence most readily when they grasp its subject
easily, and the easiest subject to grasp is not just short and concrete but
also familiar. Compare how the second sentence in each of the following
passages does or doesn 't contribute to a sense of "flow"
FOC:US ON
11 i RE'I ISl'lG SENl E"ICES
TI-• '
Fi?~T )E\ fN OR El(;tlí WOR[ S
F ._ ~,'HENCE
119
The corollary of the old information-first principie is to put new information last, especially new technical tem1s. So when you introduce a
new term, put it at the end of its sentence. Compare these·
11a. Calcium blockers can control muscle spasm s. Sarcomeres are the small units of
muscle fibers in which these drugs work. Two filaments, one lhlck and one thm, are
in each sarcomere, The prote1ns act1n and myosin are contained In the trm filament.
When actln and myosin interact, your heart contracts.
10a. New insights into global weather patterns are emerging from recent research
on t he large low-pressure zones rotatlng above the Earth's poles. known as the polar
11b. Muscle spasms can be controlled w1th drugs known as calc,um blockers, They work
vortices. Environmental changes that are leading temperatures at the poles to rise, thl s
111 small un1ts of muscle fibers called
research suggests, are affecting the vortices. These temperature increases cause the
sarcomeres. Each sarcomere has two filoments, one
thick and one thin. The thín lilament conta1ns two proteins, actin ond myosin. When actin
vortices to dev1ate toward the equator, bringing with them the lrig1d air responsible for
and myosin interact. your heart contracts.
our recent colder w1nters.
ln r r a, the new tech nic al terms are calc1um blockers, sarcomeres, filaments,
the proteins actin and myosin, but they first appear early m their sentences
In contrast, m II b those new terms fust appear toward the ends of their
sentences. After that, they're old ilff'o rmation and so can appear at the
beginning of the next sentences.
No principie of writing is more important than th1s: old before new;
famihar information introduces unfamiliar information.
10b. New insights into global weather patterns are emerging from recent research
on the large low-pressure zones rotating above the Earth's poles, known as the polar
vortices. The vort1ces, th,s research suggests. are being affected by environmental
changes that are leading temperatores at the poles to rise. These temperature in•
creases cause the vortices lo deviate toward the equator, bnnging with them t he
frigid air responsible for our recent colder wInters
Most readers think rob flows better than roa, partly because the subject
of the second sentence, The vortices, is shorter than the longer subject of
10a: Environmental changes that are leading temperatures at the po!es to Tise.
But 10b also flows better because the order of ils ideas is different.
ln 10a, the first words of the second sentence express new informa·
tion:
10a ... the polar vortices. Environmental changes lhal are leading temperatures at lhe
poles to nse , . ,
11.1.6
Choose Active or Passive Verbs to Reflect the Preceding Prin ciples
You may recall advice to avoid passive verbs-good advice when a passíve verb allows you to write a sentence that contradicts the principles
we have discussed, as in the second sentence of this passage:
12a. Climate change may have many catastroph1c effects. Tropícal dlseases and
destructive insect life even north of the Canadian border could be 1ocreasedpass,ve verb
by ft.
Moreover, once we make that change, the end of that second sentence
inrroduces the third more cohesively·
That second sentence opens with an eleven-word subject conveying new
information: T'ropical diseases . Canadian border. ft is the subject of a passive verb, be increased, and thal verb is followed by a short, familiar bit
of information from the sentence before. the concept of clima te change
represented by the pronoun it. That sentence would be clearer if its verb
were active:
10b . . . leadmg temperatures at the pol es to rise. These temperature increases ,,,
12b Climat e change may have many catastrophic effects. lt could inc,easeactive verb
Those words about rising temperalures seem to come out of nowhere
But in 10b, the first words echo the end of the previous sentence:
10b . • the polar vortices The vort1ces .
tropical diseases and destruct1ve ínsect life even north of the Canad1an border
Contrast roa; the end ofits second sentence doesn't flow into the beginning of the third as smoothly;
10a. . .. the vort1ces, These temperature increases ...
That 1s why readers th.ink that passage 10a feels choppier than 10b: the
end of one sentence does not fiow smoothly into the beginning of the nexL
Now the subject is familiar, and the new information m the longer phrase
is at the end. In this case, the active verb is the right choice.
But if you always use active verbs, avoiding passive verbs entirely,
you'U write sentences that contradict the old-new principle. We saw an
example in 10a:
120
121
CHAf TLR II I iltldSlt,G Slt,Hl,d~
• A first-person l or we is also appropriate when iťs the subject of a verb
naming an action unique to you as the wnter of your argument. Verbs
refemng to such actions typically appear m introduc□ons (I will show/
argue/proue/c!aim that X) and in conclusions (I haue demonstrated/concluded
that Y). Since only you can show, prove, or claim whaťs in your argument,
only you can say so with I:
10a. New ins1ghts into global weather patterns are emerging from recent research
on the large low-pressure zones rotatIng above the Earth's poles, known as the polar
vortices, Enwonmental changes that are leading temperatures al the poles to rise, thls
research suggests, are affectingactive verb the vortices.
The verb in the second sentence is active, but the passage flows better
when iťs passive:
I
14. ln lhis report, I w,11 show lhal social d1stinct1ons at this university i!~ ...
10b. New ins1ghts into global weather patterns are emerging from recent research on
On the other band, researchers rarely use the first person for an action
that others must repeat to replicate their research. Those words include
di11ide, measure, weigh, examme, and so on Researchers rarely wnte sentences with active verbs like t.his.
the large low-pressure zones rotating above the Earth's poles. known as the polar vort,ces. The vortices, thls research suggests, are being aHecledpass,ve verb by environmental changes that are leading temperatures at the pol es to rise
A sentence is more readable when its subject is short, concrete, and familiar, regardless of whether its verb is active ar passive. So chaose active
ar passive voice by considering which gives you the right kind of subject:
short, concrete, and familiar.
15a. I calculated the coefficient of X.
lnstead, they're likely to write in the passive, because anyone can do
that:
,15b. The coefficient of
11.1,7
Use First-Person Pronouns Appropriately
Almost everyone has heard the advice to avoid using l or we in academic
wrinng. ln fact, opinions differ on this point. Some teachers tel1 students
never to use!, because it makes their writing "subjective." Others encourage using l as a way to make wnting more lively and persona!.
Most instructors and editors do agree that two uses of r should be
avoided:
Those same principles apply to we, if you're one of two or more authors. But many instructors and editors object to rwo other uses of we·
• the royal we used to refer reflexively to the writer
• the all-purpose we that refers to people m general
For example:
16. We must be careful to cite sources when we use data from them. When we read
• lnsecure writers begin too many sentences with I Lhml? ar I belíeve (or their
equivalent, In my opinion). Readers assume that you think and believe
what you wrile, so you don't have lo say you do.
• Inexpenenced writers too often narrate their research First I consulted ... ,
then I exammed . . , and so on. Readers care less about the story of yom
research than about its results (see 6. 1 ).
writers who fa1I to do lhal, we tend to d1strust them.
ln the end, though, those having authority decide. Jf your instructor or
editor flatly forbids I or we, then sobe it. When you have that authority,
you can make a different choice.
Here is a fmal piece of advice. If you follow our seven principles, your
readers will likely línd your writing c1ear But you can test your writing
by having someone read it back to you. lf that person stumbles over a
passage, you can bet your readers will struggle with 1t too
But we believe, and most editors of scholarly Joumals agree. that tbe
first person is appropriate on two occasions. That last semence illustrates one of them: we believe
that the ftrst person ...
• An occas1onal introductory I (or we) be!ieve can soften the dogrnatic edge
of a slatement. Compare this blunler, less qualified version:
13. Bul we-&elieve,aRG-~te,s ef sc"1elarl'I' Ieurnals agree. tAat the first person is
appropriate on two occasIons.
The trick is not to hedge so often that you sound uncertain or so rarely
that you sound smug.
X was ca/cu/ated.
11.2
Diagnose What You Read
Once you understand how readers judge what they read, you know not
only how to wnte clear prose but also why so much of what you must read
seems so dense. You might struggle with some wnting because lts content
1s difficuJt But you may also struggle because che writer didn't wnte clearly.
This next passage, for example, 1s by no means the thickest ever written·
U2
C H,t,PT{ 1' 11
RE ' S
r,ti Sfr.rc•1
PO l~'i IT l f
~
U3
15a. Recognition of the fact that grammars differ hom one language to anolher can
serve as the basis for seriou~ conslderahon oí the problems confronting translators oí
11,4
Polish lt Up
Before you submit your paper, read it one last Lime to fix errors m grammar, spelling, and punctuaůon, Many experienced writers read from the
last sentence back to U1e first to keep froin genmg caughl np in the flow
of their ideas and rmssing the words. Do not rely solely on your wordprocessing program's spelling and grammar checker. lt will sometimes
miss words that are spelled correcUy but used incorrectly-rheir/there/
they're, iťs/its, too/ co, acceptlexcept, affect. effect, already/all ready. comple
ment/compliment, principal/principle, d1screte/discreet, and so on- and it
will flag constructíons like the pass1ve vo1ce when they may be the best
choice. (See chapter 20 for more on spelhng.)
lf you have used d Jot of non-English words, numbers, abbrevíations,
and so on, check the relevant chapters in pan 3 of this manual.
Finally, if your paper has a table of contents that lists tilles and numbers for chapters and sections, be .,,enain lhat they exactly malch the
corresponding wording and numbenng in your paper's body. If in your
text you refer back or forward to other sections or chapters, be sure lhe
references are accurate.
Some students thmk they have to worry about the quality of their
writing only u1 English courses. Thaťs not true Instructors in every <lis
cipline appreciate clear and coherent wnting, and every course m which
you write is an opportumty for you to practice writing better
11.S
Glve lt Up and Turn lt ln
lf one thing is harder than starting to write, iťs stoppmg We all want
another day to gel the organization right, another hour to lweak the
opening paragraph, anolher minute to . {you get the idea). Expenenced
researchers know lhal nothing they wnte will ever be perfect and that
the benefit of getting the last I percent or even s percent exactly right is
rarely worth the cost Less expenenced 1esearchers should take this Iesson to heart. Dissertauon students in particular agonize over reaching a
standard of perfection that exists largely in the1r own minds No thesis
or dissertation has to be utterly perfect; w hatit has to be 1s do11e. At some
point, enough is enough
Page through it one last time to be sure that it looks the way you want
il to: look at page breaks, spacing in margins, positJons of tables and figures, and so on. Then give 1t up and turn it in.
the great works of world litera\ure ong,nally wntten ln a IJnguage other than Engllsh.
But in half as many words, it means only this:
15b Once we recognize lhal languages have different grarnmars we can consider thl!
problems of those who translale greal works of llterature into Engl1sh.
So when you struggle to understand some academic writing (and you
will), don't blame yourself, at least not first. Diagnose its sentenceG. lf
they have long subjects stuffed with abstract nouns expressing new lnfonnation, the fault 1s probably not yours.
Unfortunately, the more experience you get reading unclear acndenuc
prose, the greater yout nsk of 1m1tatmg 1t. ln fact, that risk is common
to all professions, acaciemic or not. So remrun aware of 1t as you grow in
expertise
11.3
Choose the Right Word
Another bit of standard advice is Choose che right word.
1. Choose the word w1th the right mearung Affect doesn't mean effect;
elicit doesn 't mean illicit. Commonly confused words are listed in many
2.
bandbooks. lf you're an inexpenenced writer. mvest in one.
Choose the word with the nght level of usage. tf you draft quickly, you
risk choosing words lhat might mean roughly what you thmk they do
bul are too casual for a forma] paper Someone can cnhcize another
writer or knock him; a risk can seem Jnghti>nmg or scary Those parrs
have similar meanings, but most readers would judge the second in
each pair to be a bit loose for academic writing.
On the other hand, if you try too hard to sound like a real Macademic,• you risk using words that are too forma!. You can th1nlt or cogi•
ture, drink or imbibe. Those pairs are close m meaning, but the second
in each is too fancy for a paper written in ordinary English. Whenever
you're tempted to use a word that you think is especially fine, look for
a more fam1liar one
The obVIous adv1ce is to look up words you 're not sure of. But they're
not the problem, lhe problem is the ones you are sure of. Worse, no
dictionary tells you that a word Jí.ke visage or perambulare is too fancy
for just about any context The shon-term solution is to ask someone
to read your paper befort~ you tum it in (but be cautious before accept·
ing too many suggestions; see 7.IO) The long-tenn solution is to read
a lot, write a lot, endure a lot of crilicism, and leam from il
"""'
l'IND C.ENER~l ORINC11'1rs IN ~PECH!( COMM[NF
12
might feel a strong obligation to accept a reader's advice, such as when
it comes from teacher, advisor, or editor. But even in those instances, you
are not obligated to accept it wholesale: as a writer, you are respons1ble
not only for your ideas but also for the choíces you make in expressing them.
When you treat comments as data, you don't accept or reject them,
you analyze thein to understand why yotir reader responded to your
paper as she did. And when you understand that, yoJ.1 can revise the
paper or make a different decision the next time You m1ghl know what
you wanted your paper to say, but only your reader can tel1 you what it
in fact said-at least to her Agaín, the writer is ultimately responsible; if
a careful reader misunderstood your pa per, you should not blame her for
that misunderstanding but use the data of her feedback to figure out how
and why that misunderstanding occurred.
In this sense, bad advice can be great data Even the most dedlcated
and careful reader is not infalli!-le, She might misunderstand your intentions or argument, or give you wrongheaded advice (even if she is a
teacher). ln such cases, ,gnore the advice but ask yourself, What about
my paper created chat misunderstanding) How did I lead my reader astray? lf
you can answer those questions, you can still improve your paper, or the
nextone
Here are some tips for making the most of the comments you receive,
however you choose to interpret them.
Learning from Comments
on Your Paper
12.1
1\vo Kind s of Feedb ack; Advice and Data
12.2
fin d Gen eral Prin ciples in Specific Comments
12,3
Tolk with Your Read er
Whether you're a beginner or an advanced researcher, you can leam
much from the feedback of careful readers. But to get the most benefit
from such comments-whether they are on a draft of a final versionyou need to know how to use them.
As you develop as a writer and researcher, you will receive feedbadc
from many different readers, some (like teachers and edítors) having authority over you and others beíng people whose responses you seek oul
Experienced writers know that nothing is more valuable than comments
from a trusted reader. None of us can accurately judge the way readers
will respond to our writing, for the simple reason that we know too much
about it. We need readers to show us, through their responses, what we
got right and where we went wrong
12.2
Find General Principles in Specific Comments
When you review your readeťs comments, focus on those t.hat you can
apply to your next proJect
■
12.1
124
Two Kinds of Feedback: Advice a nd Data
Commenting on a paper is hard (even if a reader is being paid to do it).
When giving feedback, thal reader's responsibility 1s to be honest and to
try to be helpful. Your responsibility as a writer is to make the most of
the comments you receive.
To do t.hat, you must deorle whether to treat a readeťs comments as
advice-observations about what you could do (or should have done) to
make the paper better--or as data documenting a particular reader's response. When you treat comments as adv1ce, you must decide whetherto
accept or reject them. Good adVJce, espec1ally from a trusted reader, can
be invaluable to new and expenenced researchers alike. Sometimes you
125
■
■
Look for a pattem of errors in spelling, punctuatlon, and grammar. If you
see one, you know what to work on
lf your reader says you made factual errors, check your notes: Did you
take bad notes or misreport them? Were you misled by an unreliable
source? Whatever you find, you know what to do in your next pro;ect
lf your reader reports only her JUdgments of your wnting, look for what
causes them. lf she says your writing is choppy, den se, or awkward, check
your sentences using the steps in chapter 1 r If she says iťs disorganized
or wandering, check it against chapter g. You won't always find what
caused the complainls, but when you do you'll know what to work on
next time.
12.3
Talk wlth Your Reader
Jf you receive comments that include words like disorganized, íllogical, and
unsupported but cannot find whal triggered them, make an appointmem
with your reader to ask. Such words are not descripoons of your paper
but descriptions of the reader's impressions of it. You need to find out
what it ís in the paper itself that 1s provoking these impressions. Follow
íng these guidehnes will help lhal conversation go well:
13
Presenting Research in
Alternative Forums
■
lf your reader marked up your spelling, punetuation, and grsmmar, correct these errors before your meeting to show that you took her comments senously. You might also jot responses to more substantive cornments, so that you can cliscuss Lhem.
■ tf your reader 1s your teacher, don't complain about your grade. Be clear
that you want to understand the comments so that you can do better
next time.
■ Prioritize: focus on those comments that address the most important issues, like your paper's argument and organiza□on. lťs tempting to zero in
on local concems that can be quickly corrected, especially 1f your reader
has done a lot of line ediUng, or to quibble over minor poínts of disagreement.
■ Rehearse your questions so that they'll seem amiable: not "You say tlus
1s disorganized but you don't say why," but rather "Can you help me see
where I went wrong with my organization so I can do better next time?"
■ Ask your reader to point lo passages that i11ustrate her judgments and to
explam what those passages should have looked like. Oon't ask ''What
didn't you likerbut rather uWhere e.xactly did I go wrong and what could
I have done to fix it?"
13.1
Pian Your Oral Presentation
13 11
Narrow Your Focus
13 1 2 Understand lh1: Dlflerence between Listeners .ind ReJders
13.2
Design Your Presentation to Be Listened To
13 ~ 1 Sketth Vour lnlroduchon
13 2 2 Des.gn Nole~ You C4n UNft:,-.;tand al a Gl ar1<e
13 2 3 Model Your Conclus,on on Vour lntroduct10n
n 24
Ant1cipate Queiloons
13 25 Create Handouls
13.3
Pian Your Poster Presentation
13,4
Pian Your Conference ProposaJ
lt may be too early in your career to think about publ1shmg your work, but
iťs not too early to presenL Researchers at all stages communlcate theu
work to others m oral presentattons to a class or at a conference or through
,esearch posters, a form espec1ally common m ů1e sciences. lncreasingly
undergraduale researchers share lhe1r work with audiences beyond the
classroom by participaling in Jocal research fairs or symposia. Experienced researchers also present their work to colleagues before publishing
it in professional joumals. Indeed, the ability to stand up and talk about
your work clearly and confidently is a crucial skill for any career.
ln this chapter we show you how to use your pian for a written text to
prepare a talk. We also discuss the research poster, whid1 combines elements of speech and writing. Finally, we discuss how to prepare a co11/erence proposal as a first step, of1en, in presenong your research
A fmal word forsrudents you m1ght think that meetmg with your teacher
is helpful only when a paper or yours receives a low grade Bul that would
be wrong. Even after a high grade, iťs useful to know how you eamed it.
Your next project will likely be more challenging, so 1ťs good to know
what successful practices you can build on. Of course, m that new proJect
you might agam feel like a beginner Thaťs the way it goes with research.
13.1
Pian Vour Oral Presentation
An oral presentation may be eas1er to prepare than a wntten paper, bul
lo benefit from the expenence of delivenng it, you must pian just as care-
DE I t, VO Rtn E' 1„11 li IOBE l"TEllE010
U8
fully ln giving a laik, you get immediate foedback lhat can be very helpful if you are testing new ideas or new data, You want to design your
presemation to elicit responses that help you refine your arguments and
your analysis
■
■
■
Problem statement w1th a slletch of your argument. lf your problem 1s n~w,
focus on its originality Start with a short mtroducrion (review chapter
10), then explam your reasons, summarizing your evidence for each.
Summary of a subargument. ff your argument is too big, focus on a key subargument. Mention your larger problem in your introduction and conclusion, but be clear that you're addressing only pan of iL
Methodoloqy or data report. lf you offer a new methodology or source of
data, explain why it matters. Start with a brief problem statement. then
focus on how your new methods or data solve it
Understand the Difference between Listeners and Readers
Unless you know and respect the difference between listening and reading, your audience will find your presentatlon ted1ous or hard to follow.
When we read, we can pause to reflect and puzzle over difficult passages.
To keep on track, we can look at headings and even paragraph indentations. lf we wander, we can reread. But as listeners in an audience, we c11n
do none of these things. We must be motivaced to pay attention, and we
need help to follow a complicated line of thought. tf we Jose its thread,
we may drift off into our own thoughts.
Thaťs why iťs important to not simply read yow paper with little or
no eye contact or, if usmg slides, merely introch1ce them and repeat their
content You musc engage your audience as in a conversation but with
extra care for what listeners need. You have to be explicit abour your
purpose and your organization. Further. you have to make your sentence
scructure far simpler than in a written paper. So favor shorter sentences
with consístent subJects (see r r.1.2). Use ~f." "we," and "you" a lot. What
seems dumsily repetitive to readers ts usually welcomed by IJsteners.
Design Your Presentation to Be Listened To
To hold your listeners' artention, you must seem to be not lecturing at but
conversing w1th Lhem. This is a skill that does not come easily, since few
of us can write as we would speak and most of us need notes to stay on
crack. ff you do read your paper, read no faster than about 150 words per
minute. Thaťs about two minutes per page. Th1s 1s faster ~an you speak
ordinarily. so time yourself. lnexperienced presenters tend to read more
quickly than their listeners can comfortably hear and digest.
Iťs important that your audience see you and not just the top of your
head, so build in moments when you look straight out at your audience,
especially when sayi.ng something important. Do so at least once or twice
per page, ideally at the end of a paragraph.
Remember as well that a paper dehvered orally differs in style from a
written one. For one, effectJve sentences tend to be much shorter and use
consistent subJects (see u.1.2). o;.erall, you need more repetition than
you would use in writing to help your listeners stay on track with you
lt is far better to talk from notes than just to read aloud. but to do that
well you need to prepare and pract1ce ln the next section we gíve advice
on how to structure your talk and notes for this kind of delivery.
NarrowYour Focus
'fypically, a talk delivered at a conference runs about twenty minutes (or
about eight to ten double-spaced pages fot lexl read aloud) This is not
much time to commuwcate your ideas, so you must boi! down yom work
to its essence or ptt~sent just a part of it. Here are three common options:
13.1.1
13.1.2
13, Z
129
13.2.1
Sketch Your ln troduction
ror a twenty-rrunute talk, you get one shot at motivating your audience
before they tune out, so prepare youi introduction more carefully than
any orher part of your Lalk Base tt on the Cour-part problem statement
described in section 10.1, plus a road map. (The tirnes in parentheses m
Lhe list below a1e rough estimates.)
Use your notes only to remind yourself of lhe four parts, not as a wordfor-word script tf you can't remernber the content, you're not ready to
give your talk. Sketch enough ín your notes to remind yourself of the following:
, . What research you extend, modify, or correct (no more than a minute).
2. What question your research addresses-the gap in lmowledge or understanding (thirty seconds or less)
3 . Why your reseruch matters-an answu to So whatl (thirty seconds).
Those three steps are crucial m motivating your listeners. If your
question is new or controversial, give it more rime ff your lísteners know
its significance, mention it quickly and go on.
4.
Your claim. the answer to your research question (Lhitty seconds or
less). Listeners want to know you1 answer up front even more than
130
Pi Al t , OUR PO!,T<P flif 5(NTATIOH
readers do, so state at least its gist, unless you have a compelling reason lo wait for the encl. lf you do choose to wa1t to give your answer,
at least forecast 1t.
s. A forecast of the structure of your presentabon (ten to twenty seconds). The most useful forecast is an oral tahle of contents: •nrst I will
discuss . , ." That can seem dumsy in print, but listeners need more
help than readers do. Repeat that structure as you work through the
body of your talk.
Rehearse your introduction, not only to get it right but also so you can
look your audience in the eye as you give it. You can look down at notes
later.
Ail told, spend no more than three minutes or so on yow introduction.
Design Notes You Can Understand at a Glance
Do not write your notes as complete sentences (much less paragraphs)
that you read aloud; notes should help you see at a glance the structure
of your talk and cue what to say at crucial points So do not rut and paste
sencences from a written text; create your notes from scratch.
Use a separate page for each mam pomt. On each page, write out your
main point not as a topíc but as cla1ms, e1ther m shortened form or (if
you must) m cornplete sentences. Above each point, you rrught add an explicit transiůon as the oral equivalent of a subhead. "The first issue is .. .''
Visually highlight those main points so thal you spot them instantly.
Under them, list the evidence that supports them. If your evidence consists of numbers or quotations, you'll probably have to write them ouL
Otherwise, know your evtdence well enough to be able to talk about 1t
directly to your audience.
Organize your points so that you cover lhe most importa11t ones first
lf you run long (most of us do), you can skip a later section or even jump
to your conclus1on without losing anything crucial to your argument
Never build up to a climax that you might nol reach. lf you must skip
something, use the question-and-answer period to retum to it
13.2.2
Model Your Conclusion on Your lntroduction
As in a written paper, your conclusion is your last opportunity to communicate your daim and its s1gnificance (see 10.2} Make your conclusion
memorable, because bsteners will repeat it when asked, Whac did Jones
say? Leam it well enough to present it looking at your audience, without
reading from notes. li should have these three parts·
13.23
■
your claim, in more detail than m your introduction (if tisteners are
mostly inlerested in your reasons or data, summanze them as well}
■
■
131
your answer to So what? (you can restate an answer from your introduction, but try to add a new one, even if iťs speculative)
suggestions for more research, whaťs still to be done
Rehearse your conclusion so that you know exactly how long it takes
(no more than a mmute or two). Then when you have chat much ume
remaining, conclude, even if you haven't fimshed your l~L (relattvely
unimportant) points tf you had to sk1p one or two pomts'. work tbem
into an answe1 during 1he question-and-answer period. lf your talk runs
shon.. don't ad lib lf another speaker follows you, make her a gift of your
unused time
13.2.4
Anticipate Questions
lf you're lucky, you'll get quest1ons after your talk, so preparc answers
for predictable ones. Expect questions about data or sources, especially
if you didn't cover them much m your talk. lf you address matters associated with well-known researche;s or schools of research, be ready to
expand on how your work relates to theirs, especially if you contradict or
complicate their results or approach Also be ready to answer quesoons
about a source yau never heard of. The best policy is to acknowledge that
you haven't seen il bul that you'll check it out lf the quesbon seems
friendly, ask why the source is relevant. Don'l prepare only defensive
answers. Use answers to questions to reemphasize your main points or
cover matters that you may have left 0\Jt.
Listen to every quesůon carefully; then, to be sure you understand
the question, pause before you respond and rhink about 1t for a moment lí you
don't understand the question, ask the questioner to rephrase it Don't
snap back an answer reílexively and defensively. Good questions are mvaluable, even when lhey seem hostíle. Use them to refine your thmking.
13.2.5
Create Handouts
You can read short quotations or important data aloud for your listeners,
but if you have many, create a handout. If you use slid.es, pass out printed
copíes. You can alsa hand aut an outlíne of your main points, w1th white
space for notes.
13,3
Pian Your Poster Presentation
A poster is a Jarge board on which you lay aut a summary of your resenrch
along with your most relevant evidence. lt is a cross between a talk delivered orally and a written paper. ln a poster presentanon you can go into
more detail than you can m a twenty-minute talk. But a poster is not ;ust
U2
C:tiAF IER
n
I PRESEt-.Tll, G > [ fARC H
a research pa per transferred to a larger canvas. l ťs a selection of key elements of a research project (question, claim, data, significance) designed
to welcome an audience of mdivtduals who choose to stop and visit.
Poster sessions are usually held in hallways or in a large room filled
with many presenters. People move from poster to poster, reading as
theiI interests dictate but also asking questions of the presenters, who
typically stand by the1r posters at designated times ready to discuss theír
research. In this sense, a good poster can tum your imagined conversation wilh your research community (see chapter 1) into a real one. Posters combine the advantages of writing and speaking. While posters, like
written reports, should be self-explanatory, they also encourage present
ers and their audiences (typically fellow researchers) to interact one on
one Those who read your poster have more control than a listener, and
they can rely on prominent visual signals thar you use to organize your
material-boxes, lines, colors, and larger and smaller titles.
You can design your poster using available software and templates
that produce a servíceable fmal producc. For the text of the poster itself,
however, tollow the gu1delines for a paper to be read aloud, with two additlonal considerations:
1.
Layer your argument. Present your argument visually in three levels 01
detail:
Highlight an abstract or a problem statement and summary at the
top of the poster (box it, use larger type, etc).
• Under that introductory material, list your reasons as subheads in
a section that summarizes your argument
• Under that section, restate your reasons and group your evidence
under them.
2. Explain all graphs and tables. In addition to providing a caption for
each graphic, add a sentence or two explaining what is important m
the data and how they support your reason and clarm (revtew 7.7 and
8.3.1).
13.4
133
, A rERt. ~, l ~t. l ORtlM
Pian Your Conferenc:e Proposal
Conferences are good opportunities to share your work, but to be invited to speak, you usually have to subm1t a proposal. Write it not as a
paragraph-by-paragraph summary of your work but as a thrrcy-second
"elevator story·-what you would tel1 someone who asked, as you both
stepped into an elevator on the way to your talk. What are you saying
coc:lay? ln fact, a caref11lly prepared and rel1e,nsed elevator story is very
useful for any rnnversation about your work, particularly interviews.
An elevator story has three parts:
■
a problem statement that h1ghlights an answer to So what?
sketch of your claim and major reasons
a summary ofyour most ímportant evidence
■ a
■
Conference reviewers are less interested in your exact words than in
why anyone should wam to hsten co them. Your aims are to pose your
research quest1on and to answer the reviewe1's So whar7 So focus on how
your claim c.ontributes to your field of research, especia11y on whaťs
novel or controversial about it. If you address a question established by
previous research, menuon 1t, then focus on your new data or your new
claim, depending on which is more original. Be aware that reviewers will
often know less about your topíc than you do and may need help to see
the significance of your question.
~
Besides gairúng acceptance to the conference, a conference proposal
has one other objective. lts title and often its abstract (or even the full
proposal) are used to attract an audience to the session in which the
proposed talk will be scheduled. A good conference proposal thus has
a clea1 and substant1ve title (see 10.3), one that lets an audience know
what to expect
135
14
On the Spirit of Research
As we've said, we can reach goud conclusions in many ways oůier
than research. But the truths we reach in those ways are persona!. We
can't present our intuítions and feelings as evidence to convince others
of our claims; we can ask only thal they take our report of our innet
experience-and our claims-on fa1th.
In contrast, the truths of research and how we reached them m ust be
available for public scrutiny. We base research cleims on evtdence avaíJ.
able to everyone and on principles of reasoning that, we hope, our readers accept as sound. And lhen those readers test all of that in au the
ways lhat they and others can 1magine.That may be a htgh standard, but
it must be tf we ex:pect others to base their understanding and actlons,
even their lives, on what we ask them lo believe.
When you accept the principles ů1at shape public, evidence-besed behef, you accept two more that can be hard to live by. One concem s our
relationship to authority. No more than five centuries ago, the search fur
better understandíng based on evidence was often regarded as a threat
Among the powerful, many believed that all the important truths were
already known and that the scholar's job was to preserve and transmit
them, cenaínly not to challenge them. lf new facts cast doubt on an old
belief, the belief usually trumped the facls Many who dared to follow
evidence to conclusions that challenged authority were banished, imprisoned, or even killed.
Even today, those who reason from evidence can elicit anger amoog
those who hold a chenshed belief. Fo1 example, most historians hold,
based on the sum of the evidence, that Thomas Jefferson fathered sev·
eral if not al\ of his slave Saliy Hemings's children. Others disagree, not
because they have better countereVJdence but because of a fiercely held
belief: a person of Jefferson's statute couldn't do such a chmg (see 5.5). But in
the wo1ld of research, both academic and professional, good evidence
and sound reasoning trump belief every time, oral least they should.
In some parts of the world iťs still considered more important to
guard setUed behefs than to test lhem. Bul in places mformed by the
1.34
values of research we think differently· we belíeve not only that we may
question settled beliefs but that we must, no matter how much authority
cherishes them-so Jong as we support our answers Wlth sound reasons
based on reliable evidence.
But that principie requires another. When we make a claim, we must
expect, even encourage, orhers to question not just our claim but how
we reached ít-to ask, Why do you belleve that7 Iťs often h11rd/to welcome
such questions, bm we're obliged to listen v.rith goodwill to objections,
reservanons, and quali6cations that collecovely imply 1 don't agree, at
least not yet. And the more we challenge old ideas, the more we must be
ready to acknowledge and answer those questions, because we may be
asking others to give up deeply held beliefs.
When some students encounter these values, they find it tlifftcult,
even painful, to live by them Some feel that a challenge to what they believe 1sn'La Lively search for truth but a persona] auack on their deepest
values. Others rerreac to a cynical ~epnc1sm, doubting everything and
believmg nothing. Others fall into rnindless relativism: We're all entitlcd
to our own beliefs, and so all belief!!> ure nght for rhose who hold chem' Many
tum away from an active life of the mtnd, rejecting not only answers that
might disturb their settled beliefs but even the questions that inspired
them.
But in our worlds of work, scholarship, civic action, and even politics,
we can'L replace tested knowledge and hard-won understanding with
persona! opinion, cynicism, a relattv1stic view of truth, or che comfortable, settled knowledge of•authority."
That does not mean we rejecl long-held and time-tested beliefs lighůy.
We replace them only after we're persuaded by sowld argument.s backed
by good reasons based on the best evidence avaHable, and after an ami able but searching give-and-take that tests those arguments as severely
as we can. ln short, we become responsible believers when we can make
our own sound arguments that test and evaluate lhose of others.
You may find it difficult to see all of this at work in a paper written for
a class. But despite its cold type, a research paper \Vntten for any audience is a conversation, nnagined to be sure, but still a cooperative yet
rigorous inquiry into what we should and should noc believe
Pa rt 11 Sou rce
Cit atio n
15
General Introduction
to Citation Practices
15.1
Reasons for Citing Your Sources
15.2
The Requirements of Citation
15 2 1 S11uat1ons RequltlnR Clt;itlons
15 2 2 lnformat,on Requ,red ,n Ci1at1ons
15.3
1\\fo Citation Styles
•
153 1 Notes Style
15 J 'l Author-Oate Style
15.4
Electronic Sources
15 .1 1 Sources Consulted Online
15.4 2 Other Electronlc Media
15.5
Preparation of Citations
15.6
Citation Management Tools
Your first duty as a researcher 1s to get the facts right. Your secon d duty is
to tel! readers where the facrs came from. To that end, you musl cite the
sources of the facts, ideas, or words that you use in your pa per.
15.1
Reasons for Citing Vour Sources
There at least four reasons to cite your sources:
, . To g111e cred1L Research is hard work. Doing it well can bring rewardsgood grades and a degree and, \acer, money and promotions. But no
less imponant is recogmtion, the pridc and prestige of seeing your
name associated wilh knowledge that others value and use. ln face, for
some researchers that is the only reward So when you cite the work
of olhers, you give them the recognition they have eamed.
2. To reassure readers about rhe accuracy of your facts. Researchers cite
source!'. to be fair to other researchers but also to eam thetr readers'
trust. lt is nol enough to get lhe facts righl. You must also tel! readers
139
Jttl HOUl-l "1FIH ~
1AO
ů1e source of the facts so that they can Judge their reliability and checlc
them if they wish Readers do not trust a source they do not know and
cannot find. lf lhey do not tmst your soun:es, they will not trust your
facts; and 1f they do not trust your facts, they will not LTUst your atgu.
menL You estabhsh the first link in iliat chain of trust by citing your
sources fully, accurately, and appropriately.
3. To show readers Lhe rťsearch tradition that i11Jorms your work. Researchers
cite sources whose data they use, but they also cite work chat they ex.
tend, support, contradict, or correcl These citattons help readers not
only understand your specific proJect bul connect il to other research
in your field.
4, To help readers follow or extend your reseorch, Many readers use sources
cited in a research pa per not to check its reliability but to pursue lheir
own work. So you.r citations help others not only to follow your foot•
steps but to strike out m new directions.
You must never appear to take credit for work that is not your own
(see 7.9), and proper citation guards againsl ilie charge of plagialism. But
it also strengthens your argument and assi!Hs others who want lo build
on your work.
15,2
The Requirements of Cit.ition
To fulfill the requ,remenls of citatton, you need to know when to mclude
a source c1tation in your paper and what info1mat10n about the source
to include.
15.2.1
Situa tions Requ irin g Citations
Chapter 7, part1cularly 7.9, discusses in depth when you should cit~
materials from other sources. Briefly, you should always provide a cita•
tion in the following situations
• when you quote exact words from a source (see also chapter 25 on quota•
ttons)
■ when you paraphrase idcas that are assoc1ated with a specific source, even
if you don't quote exact words from 1t
• when you use any 1deas. data. or methods attnbutable to any source you
consulted
As noted in 15.1, you may also use citaoons to po1m readers to sources lhal
are relevant to a parucular portlon oí your argument but not quoted or
paraphrased. Such Cltations demonstrate that you are fanůl.aa1 with these
sources, even if they present cla1ms al odds wíů1 your own.
F „ITA I N
141
15.2.2 ln formation Required in Citations
over the long lradition of citing sources, as 1esearchers in diíferent fields
began to write in differenl ways, they also developed distincrive ways of
ciang and documenůng their sources. When citabon methods became
standardized, researchers had to chaose from not just one or two standards but many.
Citation styles differ in the elements included and in tbe format of
these elements, but they have lhe same airn: lo give reader!i the information they need to identify and find a source Fo, most sources, 111cluding
books, articles, and other written materinl, that mformation must answer
lhese questions:
■
Who wrote, edited, or translated the text (somecimes all three)? ln other
words, who created it?
■ Whal data identify the text? This includes the title and subtitle of the
work; volume number, edition numjler, or other identifying inlormation;
and page numbers or other locating information if the reference is to a
specific part of a larger text.
• Who published the text and in what context? This includes the name
of ilie publisher, Joumal, or other entity responsible for making ilie text
available and, in some cases, the title of any collection or series Ul which
the work appears.
• When was the text published? This will consist of a year of publication
and sometimes a season, month, ar specinc day (and sometimes a time).
■ Where can the text bc found? Most prínted sources can be found m a
library or bookstorc, mformaaon that does not need to be menuoned m
a citation. For a source consulted online, a link to the work (in the form of
a URL) or the name of a commercial database will help readers find it. For
a physical document from a one-of-a-kmd collection, data will include
the place wh ere the collection is housed.
Details vary for other types of sources, such as sound and video recordings, buc they answer the same five quesaons: Who was respons1ble for
creating the source? What title or other data identify it? Who published
il? When? Where can it be found;,
Your readers will expect you to use the citat1on style appropriate to
their particular field, not just because they are familiar with iliís style
but because when you use it, you show them that you understand their
values and practices. The details may seem trivia)· Quotatton marks or
1talics? Capitals ar lowercase? Periods or commas (or parentheses and
colons)? But if you do not get these small matlers right, at least some
of your readers will quesnon whether they can trust you on the bigger
ones. Fortunately, you don't have to memorize al! iliese deta1ls. lnstead,
142
I 11rttr. \5
15.3
GLl-.dlAl
1•1 ROO IJCT10N - o
CilAT t<l N PRACTl~f\
r EC1ROtM: 501JHCíS
you can leam the forms of the citations you use most so that you do not
need to look them up repeatedly. The !atest citation management tools
can help, especially for more common source types. For sources that are
less cornmon or have unusual elements, and for double-checidng yout
final draft, you can consult a book hke this one.
N:
Two Citation Styles
This book covers the two most common citatlon forrns: 11otes-b1bho9rop~y
style, or simply notes style (used widely in the humanities and in som~
social sciences), and aut11or-date style (used m most sociaJ sciences and Ul
the natural and physical sciences) ifogether, these two styles are often
referred to as the Turabian or Chicago systems of source citation.) lf you
are not certain which style to use, consult your instructor.
You may be asked to use different styles in different settings (for ex
ample, an art history course and a polit:Jcal science course). Within a
given paper, however, always follow a single style consistently.
lí you are new to research, read this section for a brief description
of how the two citaůon styles work. Then, if you are using notes style,
read chapter 16 for an overview of this style, and refer to chapter 17 for
detailed guidelines and examples that show how to cite most types of
sources, including the ones you are most likely to consult. lf you are using
au1hor-date style, che overview and detailed gu1delines are in chapters
18 and 19, respectively.
8: Lepore, Jill. T/1e Serret H1st01y of Wo11der Woma,1 New Yotk: Vintagc B~uks, 2015
1 lepore,
143
Wonder Woman , 28- 29.
In most cases, you also list sources at the end of the paper in a bibhography That list normalty includes every source you dted in a note and
sometimes others you consulted but d id not cite Each bibliography entry
includes the same informanon contained in a full note, but in a slightly
different form ·
1s.3.2
Author-Date Style
ln author-date citations, you signal that you have used a source by placing a pare11thet1cal rttation (including author, date, and relevant page numbers) next to your reference to il:
By 1911. according to or,e expert, an Amazon was "any woman rcbel-wt,ich, to a 101 of
people. meanl ;my ii1rl who lelt home and 'ftnt to collegc (lepore 2015, 17).
At the end of the paper, you Jist all sources in a reference list That list
normally includes every source you cited in a parenthetical citation and
sometimes others you consulted bul did not cite. Each reference List entry
includes complete bibliographical information for a source. The publication date immediately follows the name of the author, making it easy
to follow a parenthetical citation to its corresponding entry in the reference list:
R! lepore. JIII 2015 The Seere I H,stary of Wander Woman. New York: Vintagc Buo►.s.
15.3.1
Notes Style
ln notes-style cilations, you signal that you have used a source by plac·
ing a superscript number al the end of the sentence in which you quotr
il or refer to it:
By 1911, according to onc expert, an Amazon was '"any woman rebel-wh,ch, to a lot nf
pl!opl~ meanl any g1rl who ltfl home and w~nt to college."1
You then cite the source of that quotation in a correspondingly num·
bered note thaL provides inforrnation about the source (author, title, and
facts of publication) plus relevant page numbers. Notes are placed at the
bottom of the page (called foornotes) or in a list collected at the end of
your paper or the end of each chapter (called endnotes). Ali notes have the
same general fonn :
N;
, Jlll 1.epore The Sl'C,el N1s1nr~ of Woode1 Womon CNew Vorli. Vintage Books, 2015), 17
H you cite the same text agam, you can shorten subsequent notes:
15A
Electronic Sources
The standard c1tation forms evolved in the age of print, bul researchers
now not only fmd their sources online but also increasingly consult them
online and in a variety of electronic forrnats These sources have been
used Jong enough for researchers to have created standard c1 tation forms
adapted to their special characterisůcs.
IS.4.1 Sources Consulted Online
When you cite sources consulted online, you
include many of the same pieces of information as you would for print
sources. For some types of sources, such as published books and joumal
artides, it makes little difference what fonnat you consult. Renders will
be able to follow your citations and find the same sources in the same
formats. But other types of sources can be difficult to find or subject to
15.1.11 INFORM AllO N IN CITATIONS
·URC(
( HAPT tR 15 I G[NERAL ltH RODUC TIUN TO C PTl0 N H ._CT Cl~
144
(see 15,4, 1.5). Examples of how to cite these ilems appear in 17.5 (for
notes style) and 19,5 (for author-date style).
change, or disappear without notice_ These factors may make you ques.
tion the authority and reliability of a source.
■
A lot of content found online has no identifiable author. publisher, or
sponsor. This makes it the equivalent of any ether anonymous source,
unlikely to be authoritative or reliable enough to use without serious
qualification (see 3.3.2).
■ Online content can be revised without notice, and though some websites
are meticulous about documenting revisions, many are not Further, a
revision date on one s1te may indicate correction of a spelling error wh1le,
on another it may mark changes in factual data or cla1ms
■ Online content may be simultaneously available from more than one site,
some more reliable than others,
■ Most online sources are located through a URL (uniform resource locator)
or a search, but URLs come and go, and search results vary over time. You
cannot always be certain that a given source wil1 be available at the same
URL mon ths, weeks, or even days la ter, and 1ts disappearance could make
it difficult or impossible for you or your readers to find the content you
originally consulted.
Choose online sources carefully. When informahon is available from
multiple websites or in multiple media (p1int and online), consult the
most reliable version ava1lable, and always cite the version you consulted. As you do your research, save a screenshot or other pem1anent
copy of any source that is likely to change or disappear
15.412
TWO CATEGORIES OF SOU RC ES .
15 4.13
URLS . For any source you consult online, you must always cite the full
facts of publication m add1tion to a URL. lf r.he URL changes, interested
readers will often be able to find your source by searching for the author,
title, and other facts of publication.
I
Copy the URL exactly as it appears with the source. Do not make any
adJustments to capitaltzation. tf the URL ends in a slash, include it. Do
not enclose the LJRL in brackets. lt 1s best not to break a URL at the end of
a line, but if you need to do so, see 20 4 2 for some guidelines.
Somet1mes you can find a shorter version of a very long URL. lf a "permalink" or other preferred form of the URL lS mcluded along with the
citat1011 data for a source, use that rather than the URL in you1 browser's
address bar. Seme sources are 1dent1fied by a DOJ (digital object idemifier). URLs based on DOls are more re\rsble (and often shorter) than most
ether types of URLs To cite a source that mdudes a DOi, append the DOJ
to https://d01.org/in your citat1on For examples, see the sections on journal articles in figure 16.1 (for notes style) or figure 18.1 (for author-date
style) and in chapters 17 and 19.
15414
COMMERC IAL DATABASES . Many online sources, including certain books
as weU as articles in joumals and other types of perioclicals, are accessible only through a commercial database with restricted access (often
through a university or other maJor library) lf such a database lists a
recommended URL along with the source, use that one mstead of the
one in your address bar. A URL based on a DOi, if available. is the best
optíon (see 15.4 1.3) If no suitably shon and direct URL exists, however.
you may substitute the name of the database for the URL (e.g., LexisNexis
Academie). For examples, see 17.1 10 and 17.4.2 (notes style) and 19.r.10
and 19-4.2 (author-date style).
1541.5
ACCESS DATES. Most sources found online lisl either a date of publication
or posting or the date the source was last modified or updated, but many
do not. For these that do not, your citation must include the date that you
accessed or retneved the content in addition to the URL An access date
stands in for the date of publication and helps readers assess the source
For examples of cited access dates, see 17 5.1 and 17 9.1 (for notes style)
or r9-5 1 and 19.9.1 (for author-date style) Note that some instructors m
some fields may require access dates even for sources that include a date
of publication or revisíon (check with your instructor). For this reason, it
Online sources fall mto two categories.
Many online sources are like print sources in everything except
medium-for example, an article published in an online joumal instead ofin a printed joumal. Other sources of this type include onlíne
books, newspaper and magazíne articles, and public documents, To
cite these, begin with the standard facts of pubhcation (author's name,
title, date, and so forth). At the end of the citation, add the URL (see
15-4. r .3) or the name of the data base through which you accessed the
source (see 15.4-r.4). You can find examples of how to cite such items
under the relevant type of source in chapter 17 (for notes style) and
chapter 19 (for author-date style).
2. Other types of online sources, such as institutional or persona! web·
s1tes and social media, are unique to the medium and must be cíted
accordingly, In addition to recording each of the details relevanl to the
particular source, add a URL and, for undated content, an access date
145
1.
t c1 ř-PTER
146
IS I G EIJ E~Ac INl <1)0 J C i 10'4 l ~
lfl',T t( t'< PRAC
CITAIIOIJ MA.NAGEMEN
Ci5
r
roo1S
147
what you'll need and manage the process from the beginnmg, you can
complete even this least e.xciting part of research faster, more eas1ly, and
more reliably.
is generally a good idea to record access dates as part of your research .
Cítation management tools can help to automate this task
tSA.2 Other Electronk Media
Sources consulted in other electronic media-for example, a book down.
loaded for a specific app or <levice, or a reference work published on
dísk-can usually be cited sirrularly to a source consulted online, but with
the addition of information aboul the fom1at rather than a URL. For examples, see 17.1.10 and 17.9.r (for notes style) or 19 r.10 and r9.9. r (for
author-date style)
If a source is available in more than one format, consult the most reliable and authoritative version (see 3.3), and always cite the version you
consulted.
Preparation of Otations
15.5
You can ease the process of preparing and checking ciLations if you anticipate what you will need.
■
Use the most authoritative sources, in their most reliable vers1on, If you
fmd second- or thirdhand inforrnation, track down the original source.
■ If a source is available in multiple versions, always a te the one yot1 actually consulted There may be small but important differences between
the versions that could affect the accuracy of your quotations or other
references to the source
• Record al! bibliographical information for your sources as you consult
them and before you take notes. See figure 16. 1 (for notes style) or figure
18 r (for author-date style) for templates showing what mformation is
needed for several common types of sources.
■ Record the page number(s) for every quotation and paraphrase.
■ As you draft, clearly indicate every place where you may need to cite a
source. Jt is much ea51er to remove an unnecessary citation when you
revise than to remember where you may have relied on someone else's
ideas,
■ When your draft is in íts final form, consult chapter 17 or 19 to ensure
that each citation is in the correct form and indudes al! the require<i
data.
■ You can assemble your bibliography or reference list e1ther as you consult
your sources or as you draft and revise. Be sure to check each detail carefully.
Getting each citauon right can be tedious, even with the help of the
latest tools. But as with every other phase of research, if you anticipate
15.6
Citation Management Tools
I
As you do your research, you may want to consider using one of a number of available citation management tools to collect data about your
sources. Most sources available online 01 listed in a library catalog or
other database include b1bliographic infonnation that can be used as
the basis of your source otations. Programs like EndNote, Retworks, and
Zotero are designed to help you by capturing this information and adding it to a library of citations, where 1t 1s filtered by source type and can
be further organized by research topíc or paper You can also add sources
and ediL infonnation manually Then citations can be plugged directly
into your paper as needed in one of t:11'e citabon st:-yles descríbed in this
manual (and referred to in most programs as either "Turabian" or "Chicago" notes or author-date style). A few thmgs to keep in mind:
• Double-check your data. As you bu1ld your library, check each field against
the actual source as soon as you acquire the data for it. Make sure that
authors' names, tit!es of works, dates, and so forth are accurate and that
they are entered in the appropriate fields. Check also for missing or redundant data. (It is okay, however, to collect more data than you will use
in your citations.) You will need to do this whether you entered the data
yourself or exported the citation from a library catalog or other database.
• Double-check your citations. Once they've been ínserted in your paper,
make sure your citations are correctly formatted according to the citation style you've chosen. Things to look for include errant punctuation
or capitalization and, more important, missing or superfluous data. Enter
corrections m the citation management program (or adjust its settings,
as applicable) and double-chedc the results. Review your fmal draft with
extra care. These tools do make errors, and it remains your responsibility
to ensure th at your citations are accurate. For examples of notes-style
citations, see chapters 16 and 17; for author-date style, see chapters r8
and 19.
• Always keep at least two copies of your citations library. If your school lets you
keep a copy on its server, make sure you also have a copy on a local drive.
Such backups m ight be needed m the event your paper must be resubm1tted for any reason or if you pian to do research m the same subject
area after graduation.
,.
Citalion management tools work. best for papers that cite only a few
types of the most common sources Articles in academic Joumals, especially, are easy to work wit.h. lf you cite many different types of sources,
expect to spend extra time making adjustments to your citalions library
and editing your final paper.
16
16.1
Notes-Bibliography Style:
The Basic Form
Basic Pattems
lbll
Order of Efements
lb 1 ~ Punctuat1on
1t; 13 Capitalizat,on
Ibl<: ltallcs and Quota11on Marks
161: Numbers
1t> 6 Abbrev,ations
,.
1617 lndenlat,on
16.2
Bibliograph.ies
Types of B1bl1ograph,cs
6~
lb 2 2 Arrangement of Entr1es
16 2 3 Sources That May Be Omitted
16.3
Notes
footnotes versus Endnotl!!>
oj
16 .l 2
1o 3 3
16 3 4
' iS
16.4
lleferencing Notes ln T~•l
Numbering Notes
Formatt,,.g Nul~
Comple~ lllo't!s
Short Forms for Notes
,6 4 1 Shortened Nole~
16 4 2 lbid.
lb 4
j
Parenthetical Not~
A citalíon slyle used widely m the humamoes and m some social sciences
is the notes-btbhography style, or notes style for short (also known as Turabian or Chicago notes-bibliography or notes style).1h1s chapter presents
an overview of the bastc pattern for citations m noles style. rnduding
bibliography entries, full not.:s, shortened notes, and parenthet1cal notes.
Examples of notes are id1cntified with an N; examples of bibliography
entries are identified wiU1 r1 B,
ln notes style, you s1gnal t hat you have used a soun:e by pladng a
FigtJre 161. Templates for notes and b1bl1ography entries
150
The followtng templates show what elements should be included tn what order when
superscript number at the end of the sentence in wh ich you qu ote or
otherwise refer to that source:
According to o ne scho lar, " The railroads had m ade Chicago t he most imp ortant meet-
ing place between East and West."'
You then cite the source of that information in a correspondingly num.
bered note that provides information about the source (author, title, and
facts of publication) plus relevant page numbers. Notes are placed at the
bottom of the page (called footnotes) or in a list collected at the end of
your paper or the end of each chapter (called endnote5). AU notes have the
same general form·
N:
N:
citmg several common types of sources
notes (N) and b1bliograph1es (8) They also
would actually appear in a c,tation /1# stands ln for foolnote number. XX sta11ds 1n for page
number(s) actually c1ted. YY-YY for a full span of page numbers for an article or a chapter
For lurther e~amples, e~planat,ons. and vanat,ons. see chapter 17 For templates of
shortened note forrns. see f1gure 16.2
Books
1. Single Author o r Editor
N:
, . Wilham Cronon, Noture's Metropolis: Chicago ond the Greot West (New York: W . W.
;:t;;. Authoťs First and Last Names. Title of Book Subt1tle of Book (Place of Publtcatíon Publtsher's Name, Date of Publ1cat1on). XX
L. Angel.a Duckworth, Grit: Tite Power of Passion and Pem11erance (New York
Norton, 1991), 92-93.
Scrlbner, 2016), 82.
lf you cite the same source again, you can refer to it in a shortened fonn:
Author's Lasl Name Author's First Name Title of Boo~• Subt,tle of Book Place of Publicat1on: Publishe, s Name Date of Publtcat,on
2.
Cronon, Noture's Metropol/s, 383.
ln most cases, you also list sources at the end of the paper in a bibliography. That list normally indudes every source you c1ted in a note and
sometimes others you consulted but did not cite. Each bibliography entry
includes the same infonnation contained in a full note, but m a s lightly
different forrn:
Duckworth,Augela. Gnt. The Powcr ~f P11ss1on and Perseveronre. New York: Scrib
ner; 2016.
For a book w,th an editor instead of an author, adapt the patterr, as follows.
N:
to n, 1991.
Readers expect you to follow all the rules for correct!y citing your
sources. These rules cover not only what data you must include and in
what order but also punctuation, capitalization , italics, and so on. To get
your c1tations exactly right, you must pay close attention to the kinds of
details that few researchers can easily remember and that even the best
citation management tools can help with only part of the way. Read this
chapter for an overview Then use chapter 17 to look up the details.
Basic Patterns
Although sources and their citations come in almost endless variety, you
are likely to use only a few kinds. White you may need to look up de tails
to cite some unusual sources, you can easíly leam the basic pattem s for
the few kinds you will use most often. This will help you to record accurate and reliable bibhograph1cal data quickly and efficiently as you do
your research
The rest of thís section describes the basic pattems, and figure 16.1
provides templates for and examples of several common types of sources.
##. Ed1tor's First and Lasl Names. ed .• Title of Booll
2. Gyan Prakasb. e(!.• Noir Urbnnisrns . .
B: Editoťs Lasl Name, Editor's First Name, ed Title
B: Cronon, WIiiiam. Noture's Metropol,s: Chicago ond the Greot West. New York: W, W. Nor-
16.1
in
show punctual1on, capitalizat,on of ltlles. and when to use lalics or QU0ldl1on rnarks
Gray shad1ng shows abbrev,atrons (ar the,r spelled-out versmns) and other terms as they
oJ Book
Prakash, Gya.11, t!d Noir Urbmusms •.
For more !han one editor adapt lhe examples 1n template 2 and use eds
2. Multiple Authors
For a booi< with two authors, use the following pattern:
N:
#;i Author itl s First and Last Names and Author #2's First and Lasl Names.
TIiie of Book Subtítle of Book (Place of Publ,cat1on Publ,sher s Narne. Date of Publication), XX
3. Susannc Y. P. Choi and Yínni Peng, Mosculin~ Promíse: Migratum. F<m111y.
1md Gender i11 Chi,1a (Oakland Umversicy of Califorma Press, 2016), 111- 12.
B: Author #1 s Last Name, Author lil s First Name and Author /t2's fosr and Last
Narnes. Title of Book.- Subt11/e of Boo!. Place o! Publicatlon Publt3ht!r's Name Dale
of Publicat1on
Choi, Susanne Y. P., and Yinnt Peng. Masc1.1lttte Ptom1se: Mtgrat,011,
fam,ly. and
Gemter mClu no Oakland: University of Califomia Press, 2016.
For a book w1th three authors, adapt thP pattern as follows·
N:
#::/ . Author #l's First and Lasl Names. Author a2's First and Last Names, and
Author /+3 s First and Lasl Narnes Trt/e o( Book
4 Karen Wlute, Beatriz Williams, and Lauren Willig. Tht> for9011en Room , ,
---
Figure 16.1. Tem plates for notes and b1bliography entrles (cont,nued)
Figure 16.1. Templates for notes and b,bliography entnes (continued)
B: Author #l's Last Name. Author #l's First Name. Author #2'!> First and Lasl Names,
and Author µ3·5 First and Last Names. Title of Boo/,
8 : Chapter Authoťs Lasl Name, Chapter Author's First Name ·'Title of Chapter Sob·
title of Chapter " 111 Title of Book: Subt,tle of Book, ed,ted by Editor's First and Last
White, Karen, Beatriz Williams, and Lauren Willig. The forgotten Room .. ,
Names YY-YY Place of Pubhcation Publisheťs Name, Date of Publicat,on
Gillespie, Kelly. ''Before the Commíssion: Ethnography as Public Tesnmony."
ln lfTruth 8e Told. The Politics of Public Ethnography, edited by Didter Fassin,
6~95. Durham, NC. Duke University Press, 2017.
For a book. with íour or more authors, adapt the note pallern only, as follows.
N:
# # Author ttl's First and Last Names et al Title of Book
s. Barry Eichengreen et al., The Korean Eronomy .
Journal Articles
3, Author Plus Editor or Transl ato r
6. Journal Article-Basic Format
For a book w,th an aut hor plus an editor, use the lollow,ng pattern
N:
4#. Author s First and Lasl Names.
## Authoťs. First and Lasl Names, "Tille of Art ,cle. Subt1tle of Art,cle," Title of
N:
Title of Bock. Subtitle of Bock, ed,
Edi-
Joumol Volume Number. lssue Number (Dale of Publrcation):
tor s First and Last Names (Place of Publícation. Publisher's Name, Date of Publ1cat1on), XX.
6. Jane Austen, Mansfield Park:An Annotated Edition, ed, Deidre Shauna Lynch
(Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press ofHarvanl University Press, 2016), 221--24.
B: Author's Lasl Name Author's First Name "Title ol Art ,cle Subt,tle of Art,cle." Title of
Journal Volume Number lssue Number (Date of Publication) YY-Y'Y
li a book has more than one editor in add1tion to the author use ed. (not eds.) in the note.
Mercer, Ben
Ed,tor's First and Lasl Names, Place of Publication: Publisher's Name, Dale of
For
Publication
template
li a book has a translator instead of an editor, substitute the words trans. and Translated
by and the translator s narne for the editor data
"Specters of Fascism: The Rhetoric or Historical Analogy in 1968.'
Joumol ofMod.em History 88, no. 1 ~arch 2016): 96-129
8: Aut hor's Last N ame, Author's First Name. Title of Book; Subt,t/e o( Book. Ed1ted bt
Austen, Jane. Mansfield Park. An Annotated Edition. Edited by De1dre Shauna
Lynch. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2016
XX.
9. Ben Mercer, "Specters of Fascism:The Rhetoric or Historka! Analogy in
1968," Joumal ofModem History 88, no. 1 (March 2016). 98.
an
article w,th mulliple authors. follow the relevant pattern for authors' names in
2
7. Journal Article Onlin e
For a 1ournal art1cle consulted online, 1nclude a URL For articles lhal 1nclude a DOi lorm
the
URL by appending the DOi to httpsf/doi.org/ rather Ihan us,ng the URL in yOl" ad-
dress bar The DOi for lhe Fernandez arlicle in the .-~ample below is 10.1086/ 685998
4. Edition Number
N:
N:
tt#- Authoťs First and Last Names, Tille of Book: Subt1tle of Book, Ed1t1on Number
ed. ( Place of Publication Pubhsher's Name Dale al Publicat,on),
XX
7, Maiy Kinzie, A Poeťs Gu1de to Poetry, 2nd ed. (Clůcago; Universityof Chi·
cago Press, 2013), 83.
B:
Authoťs Last Narne, Author's First Name
Title o/ Book. Subt1t/e of Book Edition Num-
ber ed Place of Publicat1on Publisher's Name. Dale of Publication
Kinzie, Maiy. A PoPťs Guide to
Poetry
2nd ed. Chicago; University of Chicago
Pre~s. 2013,
##. Chapter Aut hor s First and Lasl Narnes, ' Tille of Chapter Subt,tle ol Chapler," 1n Title o( Book: Subt1tle of Book, ed Editoťs Ftrst and Lasl Names ( Place of Pubkation Publ,she, 's Name, Dale of Publication). XX
8. Kelly Gillespie, "Before the Commission. Ethnography as Public Testimony," in
ff Tmth Be Told · The
10. Patrióo A. Fernandez., "Practical Reasoning Where the Action Js," fthics
126, no. 4 (July 2016) 872, https://doi.org/10.1086/685998.
8: Aulhor s Lasl Name, Author's First Name. "Title of Article Subtitle of Art1cle " Titteof
Joumol Volume Number, lssue Number (Date of Publicat1on) YY-YY URL
Femartdez, Patricie A. "Practi.cal Reasoning· Where the Action !s." Et'11cs 126,
no. 4 Quly 2016): 869-900. https://doi.org/10.1086/685998.
See 15.4 1 fo, more detads
5. Single Chapter in an Edited Boole
N:
## Authors First and Last Name~. " Title or A, ticle Subt1\le of Art1cle," Title of
Journa/ Volume Number, lssue N umber (Date ol Publication)· XX. URL
Politics
of Public Ethnography, ed. Didier Fassin
(Durh1;1m, NC Duke Uruversity Press, 2017), 72.
1S4
HA H l< ih
NOíE S W
Chapter 17 includes examples of a wide range of sources, mcluding ex.
ceptions to the pattems d1scussed here.
16.t.1
155
IOGR1\P•I Y ~ Tlf THE BHI( FOMM
Order of Elem ents
The elements in notes and bibliography entries follow the same general
order for all types of sources author, btle, facts of publication. However,
notes present authors' names in standard order (first name first), while
bíbliography entries present them in inverted order (last name firs t) for
alphabetical listing. Notes c1ting specific passages usually include page
numbers or other locating information; bibliography entries do not,
though iliey do include a full span of page numbers for a source that is
part of a larger work, such as an article in a periodical or a chapter in a
16., .6
Abbreviations
ln notes, abbrev1ate terms 5uch as editor or edited by (ed) and trar1slator or
lTanslated by (ITans.). ln b1bliography enuies, these tem1s are often spelled
oul when they mlroduce a narne (Ed1ted by) but abbreviated when they
follow it (ed.) The plural of a noun form ts usually fonned by adding s
(eds.) unless the abbreviation ends in an s (use trans for both singular
and plural). Abbreviations for edited by (ecl) and the like ar.i never plural.
Terms S\tch as uolume, ed1tion, and number (uol, ed., and ,io.) are always
abbreviated.
16
.u
lndentation
Notes are indented like ether paragraphs m the text: the first line of each
note is indented, and a.nything rhat nms over to a new !"ne 1s flush left.
Bibliography entries have hanging indents: U1t! fírst line of each entry is
flush left, and anything that runs over is indented.
16,2
Blbliographies
Papers that use the notes-bibliography c1tation style typically include
both notes and a bibliography that lists a.li sources cited m the notes.
Although the same information appears in both notes and bibliography,
readers need it in borh places because they use notes and bíblíographies
differently. Notes let readers quickly check the source for a parucular ref •
erence without disrupting the flow of lheir reading. A bibliography shows
,eaders ilie extent of your research and 1ts relationship to pňor work, A
bibliography also helps readers use your sources in their own research.
So unless you have only a handful of sources or your instructor tells you
otherwtse, always include both notes and a bibliography in you1 papers.
lf you do not include a bibliography, make sure that your notes present
complete information for each source, at Jeast Lhe first time you cite it
16.2.1
'fypes of Bibliographies
ln most cases, your bibliography should include every work you cite in
your text. (For except1ons, see r6.2.3.) You may also include works that
were 1mportant to your thinking but that yo\t did not specifically mention
in the text. Labe I this kind Bibliography or Sources Consulred See ftgure A. t s
in the appendix for a sample page of a bibliography,
There are other opuons:
book.
16.1.2
Punctuation
ln notes, separate most elements with commas; in bibliography entries,
separate them with penods ln notes, enclose facts of publication in parentheses; in bibliography entries, do not. The styles are different because a note is íntended to be read like text, where a period might signal
lhe end of a citation. Bibliographies are des1gned as lists in which each
source has its own entry, so periods can be used without confus1on to
separate such elements as author, title, and publication data
16.1.3
Capitalization
Most ritles can be capttalized using headline style. But for ůtles in languages other than English, use sentence style. (See 22.3. r for botl1 styles)
Capitalize proper nouns in the usual way (see chapter 22).
16.1.4
ltalics and Quotation Marks
Use italics for utles oflarger entíties (books,journals); for tiůes of smaller
entities (chapters, artides), use roman type and quotation milrks. Also
use roman type and quotation marks for t1tles of works that have not
been fom1ally publíshed (such as manuscnpts or d1ssertaoons), even if
they are book length. See also 22 3.2.
16,15
Nu mbers
In títles, any numbers are speUed out or given in numerals exacUy as
they are in the original. Use towercase roman numerals to r~fer to page
numbers that are in roman numerals in the original. References to all
oth~r numbers (such as chapter numbers or figure numbers) are given
in ambic numerals, even if in the onginal they arem roman numerals or
spelled out.
■
Seleeted btbliography. Some b1bhographies do not include al! works etted in
notes, e1ther to save space or to omit minor references unlikely to interest readers. You may use a selecced b1bliography if you have good reasons
►
1.56
81 Bl1 0 GRAPHIES
■
■
and your instructor 01 advisor approves Label it Selected B1bhography anct
add a headnote that exptains your principle of selection.
Single-author bibliography. Some writers list works by one person, usually
as a separate list m addibon to a standard bibliography, but sometimes
as the only bibliography in a single-author study with few other sources.
Label such a list Works of {Author's Name) or use a more descriptive title
(Published WorRs of, Writings of, or whatever is appropriate) You can arrange it chronologically or alphabetically by title. lf your líst is chron0 •
logical, ntles published in the same year are listed alphabetically.
Annotated bibliography. Same writers annotate each bibliography entry
with a brief descripllon of the work's contents or relevance to their research In most cases, if you annotate one entry you should an notate
them all. But researchers sometimes annotate only the most 1mportaht
works or those whose relevance to their research may not be evident lf
your annotat1ons are brief phrases, add them in brackets after the publication data (note that there is no period withm or after the bracketed
entry).
157
21.7.3). For edited or translated works, put a comma and the appropri ate designation (ed., trans , or the like) after the dash. List all such works
before any that the individua! coauthored or coedited. Successive entries
by two or more authors in which only the fust au thoťs name i.s the same
are alphabetized according to the coauthors' last names. Note that it is
best to m ake all these adjustments manually-afteryou have sorted your
1
com plete bibliography alphabetically by name.
B: Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. Americo be/und lhe Co/or Line: D,a/ogues w,th Africon Americons
New York: Warner Books 2004.
- -. Black in Latin Amenco. New York: New York University Press, 2011
- -, ed. The C/ossic Stave Norrotives. New York: Pengu,n Putnam,
- -. The Sign,fy,ng Monkey: A Theory
Ol\ford University Press. 1988.
2002
of Africon-Arnericon L,terory Criticism
New York:
- - Troditlon ond the Black Atlontic• Crrtical Theory ,n the Africon D,ospara. New York:
BasícCivltas, 2010 .
Gat es, Henry Louis, Jr , and Cornel West. Tl!te A(rrcan·Americon Cen tury: How 8/ock Ameri·
cons Hove Shoped Our Country. New York: free Press. 2000
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. <1nd Donafd Yacovone. The A(ricon Arnericans: Muny Rivers to
B: Toulmin, Stephen. The Uses o( ArgumPnt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958,
Cross Carlsbad, CA: SmileyBooks. 2013.
[ a seminal text describing argument in nonsymbollc language]
You may also add full sentence annotations on a new line indented
from the left margin.
The same principles apply to works by a single group of authors
nam etl in the sam e order
8: Marty, Martin E., and R. Scott Appleby, eds. Accountmg for Fundomentolisms Chicago;
B: Toulmin, Stephen. The Uses of Argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1958.
Thls is the semlnal text describing the structure of an argument in nonsymbollc language.
16.2.2
Arrangement of En tries
A bibliography is normally a single list of all
sources arranged alphabetically by the last name of the author, editor,
or whoever is first m each entry. (For alphabeuzmg names from languages other than English, compound names, and other special cases,
see 16.2.2.2.) Most word processors and citation management tools can
sort entries alphabetically. For all bul the simplest of lists, however, the
results will typically need some adjusting. If you are writing a thesis or
dissenation, your department 01 university may spec1fy that you should
alphabetize the entries letter by letter or word by word; see 16.58-61 of
The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edibon (2017), for an e.xplanabon of these
two systems.
If your bibliography mcludes two or more works written, edited , or
translated by the same mdividual, arrange the entries alphabetically by
title (ignoring articles such as a and the). For all enlries after the first,
replace the individual's name with a Jong dash. called a 3-em dash (see
Un1vers1ty of Chicago Press, 2004
- -. The Glory ond the Power: The Fundomencullst Chollenge to the Modern World. Boston: Beacon Press. 1992.
Marty, Martin E, and Micah M arty When True Simplicity /s Gained· Findin9 Splfltuol C/ority
,no Complex World Grand Rapids. Ml W1ll,am B. Eerdm ans, 1998.
16 2. 21 ALPHAB ETICA L BY AUTHOR .
If a source does not have a named author or editor, alphabetize it
based on the lirst element of the c1tation, generally a title. Ignore articles
such as a and the.
B: Account of the Operat1ons of the Greot Trigonometrical Su,vey o( India. 22 vol s . De hra Dun:
Survey of India, 1870-1910
"The Great Trigonometncal Survey of India Colcutto Review 38 (1863)· 26-62
"State and Prospects of Asia." Quorrer/y Review 63, no. 126 (Ma,ch 1839) : 369- 402.
Same authors' names consist of more than a
readily identifiable "fi.rst name" and ''last nam e." ln many cases you can
determine the correct order by consulting your library's catalog. For historical names, the biographlcal entries at Merriam-Webster.com can be
helpful. This section ou tlines some general principles for alphabeňzing
such names in your bibliography. In shortened or parenthetical notes, use
16.2.2.2 SPECIAL TV PES OF NAMES .
......
159
, sa
the last name exactly as mverted (shown below in bold). If your paper in.
vol ves names from languages other Lhan English, follow the conventions
for these languages
■
Compound names Alphabetize compound last names, including hyphen.
ated names, by the first part of the compound. Jf a woman uses both her
own family name and her husbanďs but does not hyphenate lhem, gen.
erally alphabenze by the second sumame While many languages bave
predictable pattems for compound names (see below), others-such as
French and German-do not.
name), do not invert the name or u1sert a comma between the "first'' and
~1ast" names. lf the author follows Westem1zed usage (given name followed by family name), treat the name as you would an Enghsh name.
Trodřtlono/ usoge
Westernized usoge
Cha0W11-chi
kurosawa, Nonaki
Kim Oae-jung
Yoshida Shigeru
Lee Chang-rae
Tsou, Tang
Occas1onally readers will find an order other
than alphabeacal more useful. Single-author bibliographie:; are often
more usefully arranged chronologically, as are specialized listings such
as newspaper articles, archival records, and so on You may also find it
useful to invent an order for a spccific purpose-for example, a list of
topographical maps arranged by state or region. lf you do use an orde1
ether than alphabetical or chronoldgical. explain your clto1ce in a headnote.
162.2.3 OTH Efl T HAN ALPHABETI CAL.
Hille, Daflene Clark
Kessler•Harrls, Ahce
■
Mles van der Rohe, Ludwig
Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre
Numcs with particles Depending on the language, particles such as de, di,
D', and van may or may not be considered the first part of a last name for
alphabet1zing. Consult one of the resources noted above if you are unsure
about a particular name Nole tha t particles may be e1ther lowercased ot
capitalized, and some are followed by an apostrophe.
Beauvoir, Simone de
de G1111lle, Charles
di Leonardo, M1caela
■
■
■
Medici, lorenro de'
Van Rensselaer, Stephen
Names beginnmg with ''Mac," ~Saint," o, ''O'." Names that begin with Mac,
Saint, or O' can have many variattons m abbreviaůon (Mc, St), spelling
(Sai11te, San), capitalization (Macmillan, McAlhster), and hyphenntion or
apostrophes (O'Neill or Odell, Saint-Gaudens or St. Denis). Alphabetize all
such names based on the letters actually present; do not group them
because they are similar.
Spamsh names. Many Sparush last names are compound names consisting of an ind1vidual's patemal and maternal family names, sometimes
joined by the conjunction y Alphabetíze such names under the firs t part.
Ortega y Guset, José
■
Koonlng. Willem de
s , nchez Mendoz.a, Juana
Arab1c names Alphabeůze Arabic last names that begin with the particle
al- orel- (the) under the element following the particle. Names that begin
with Abu, Abd, and Ibn, like English names beginning with Mac or Sarn1
should be alphabetized under these terms
Abu Z.far Nadvl, Syed
Ibn Saud, Aziz
Haklm, Tawfiq al•
Jamal, Muhammad Ham1d al•
Chmese,Japanese, and Korean names. lf an author with a Chinese,Japanese.
or Korean name follows traditlonal usage (family name followed by given
You may orgaiúze a longer b1bliography into categories to help reatlers see related somces as a group. Common ways of
categorizmg longer bibliogrnph,es mto sect1ons include these:
16 224 CATEGOfllZEO LISTI NGS.
• By Jomiat You can creare separate lists for manuscnpts, archival colleclions, recordings, and so on
■ By pnmacy You cau separate pruna1y sources from secondary and tertiary
ones, as in a smgle-autho1 b1bhography.
■ By fiPld. You can group sources by field, either because your readers will
have different mterests (as in the b1bliography to this book) or because
you mix work frorn fields not usually combined. For example, a work on
the theory and psychology of comic literarure m1ght cntegorize sources
as follows Theory of Comedy, Psycholog1cal Studies. Literary Critlctsm, Comic
Works.
lf you categorize sources, present them either 111 separate bibliographies or in a single bibliography d1v1ded mto sections. Introduce each
separate bibliography or section with a subbeading and, if necessary, a
headnote ln a single bíbliography, use the same principie of order within
each section (usually alphabetical), and do not list a source m more than
one section unless it clearly could be categorized in two or more ways. lf
you use different princi ples of order, create separate b1bliograplues, each
with 1ts own explanatory headmg.
160
161
llO E
Sou rces Tha t May Be Omitted
By convent10n, you may omlt the following types of soinres from a btb
liography:
16.2.3
■
report unattract1ve and difficult to read Also, endnotes better accommodate t ables, quoted poetry, and anything else th a l requires a lot of room
or complex formatting.
lf you use endnotes and mclude only a few substantive notes, you
can reduce the nsk that readers Wlll m1ss them by separatmg substantive notes from source notes Number source notes and present them as
endnotes. Signal substanllve notes w1th asterisks and otherJymbols (see
16.3 3) and present them as footnotes.
bnef published items, such as abstracts (1 7 2.8) , pampWets and reporta
(17.7.3), anrl reviews of publish<.'d works or performances (17.9.2)
■
newspaper arcicles (see 17-4)
blog posts and comments (17,5.2). postings to social media (17 5.3) or to
online forums or mailinglists (17.5.4), and interviews and persona! communicaoons (17.6)
■ individual documents in manuscript collections (17,7.4 and 17.7.5)
■ classical, medieval, and early English literary works (I 7 8. 1) and (in some
ca ses) well-known English-langliage plays ( I 7. w,i.2)
■ the Bible and other sacred works (17.8.2)
■ well known reference works, such as major diccionarics and encyclopedias (17.9.1)
■ some sources in the visual and performing arts, including artworki;
(r7.10.1) and live performances (17.to.2)
■ tht: US Constitution (17. r r s). legal cases (17.11.7), and some other types
of public documents (17 I t.2.5)
■
16.3,2
Magie was a slapte of the Kinahan charm
"This," wrote George Tem pleton Strong
Notes
Writers use several different kinds of notes, depending on their field,
their readers, and the narure of their project, Th1s secuon explains your
options and how to choose among them.
16.3 .1
Footnotes versus Endnotes
Your department may spectfy whether you should use footnotes or eodnotes, especially for a thests or dissertation. lf not, you should generally
choose footnotes, which are easier to read. Endnotes fo1ce readi:rs to
flip to the back of the pa.per or of each chapter to check every citation. lf
you include substantive commenrs in endnotes (see 16 3 5), readers may
ígnore them because they cannot tel1 without tuming to the back which
notes :ire substantive and whlch only cite sources
On the other hand, chaose endnotes wben your footnotes are so long
or nurnerous that they take up too much space on the page, mnking your
·,swhat our ta,lor!. can do."
Cin an earher book he had sa,d qu,te the oppos1l~.)
You may choose to include ín your bibliography a specióc item from one
of these categories thar is critical to your argument or frequently cited.
lfyou use many such sources trom a single larger entlty-for example,
several documenrs from a single manuscript collection-you may cite
tht! larger entity, as discussed in the relevant sections of chapter 17.
16.3
Referencing Notes in Text
Whenever you 1efer to or otherwise use material from a source, you must
insert into your text a superscript number that directs your reader to a
note that gives bibliogrnphical in formation about that source Put the
number at the end of the sentence or dause containmg the quotation or
ether material (see also 25.2) Normally the note number should follow
any mark of punctuaaon, indudmg,11 closmg parenthesis.
lf, however, the note refers to material before a dash, put the reference
number before the dash:
The b1as surfaced in the Shotwell !ter1~1- though nul obv1ously.
Do not mclude more than one reference number at the same location
(such as ' ). lnstead, use one number and indude all citations or comments in a single note (see 16.3 s)
Avoid putting a note number ínside or at the end of a chapter title
or subtit le. lf your note applies to the entire chapter, omit the number
and put an unnumbered footnote on th e fi rst page, befote any numbered
notes. You may, on the other hand, attach a note number to a s ubhead.
16.3.3
Numbering Notes
Number notes consecutively, beginmng with 1. If your pa per has separate
chapters, restart each chapter with note I Do not sldp a number or use
numbers such as 5a.
tf you use endnotes for source citations but footnotes for substant.Jve
comments (see r6.3.1), do not number the footnotes. Jnstead Jahel the
Cirst footnote on a page with an aste1isk ť) !f you h ave more than one
footnote on a page, use superscript symbols in the sequence • t :j" §.
For notes to tables, see 26.2.7.
162
CHA PTER 16 I NOHS-BIBLIOGRAPHY STVLE. 1HE 8"-SIC fORM
16.3.4
Fonnatting Notes
use regular paragraph indents for both footnotes and endnotes. Begin
each note with its reference number, formatted not as a superscript but
as regular text Put a period and a space between the number and the
text of the note. For notes labeled with symbols (see 16.3.3), a space but
not a period should appear between the symbol and the text of the note.
lf your local guidelines allow it, you may instead use superscripts for
reference numbers and symbols in notes. (By default, Word processors
typically apply identical formatting to the number or symbol in the text
and its corresponding number or symbol in the note, making this the
easier option.) You should then begin the text of each note wilb an intervening space but no period.
Begin every footnote on the page on which you reference
it. Put a short rule between the last line of text and the first footnote on
each page, including any notes that run over from previous pages (your
word processor should do this automatically). li a footnote runs over to
the next page, it is best if it breaks in midsentence, so that readers d o not
think the note is finished and overlook the part on the next page. Singlespace each footnote. lf you have more than one footnote on a page, put a
blank line between notes. See figure A. 10 for a sample page of text with
footnotes.
S HORT FORMS fOP "IO [ES
rnan's Curious Warble: Reminiscence and Reconclliation; · in The Presence of Whitman.
ed. R. W B. Lewis (New York: Columbia Universit y Press, 19 62), 28 - 51, Coffman." 'Crosslng Brooklyn Ferry' : A Nole on the Catalogue Techmque ,n W h,t man's Poetry," Modem
Philo/ogy 51, no. 4 ( M ay 1954): 225- 32; Coffman. " Form and M ean1ng in Whitman·s 'Passage to India,'· PMLA 70, no. 3 (June 1955): 337-49.
It is also useful to group c1tations when you refer readers tp a number
of additional sources (called a "string ate"):
N:
2 . On actlvist s, school reforms. and school protests, see Ray Sant ana and M ario
Es-
parza, "East Los Angeles Blowouts," in Porometers of lnstitut1onol Chonge. Chicono Exper,-
ences in Educotion, ed. A r mando Valdéz ( Hayward, CA : Sout hwest Network, 1974), 1-9 0
Mario T. Garda and Sal Castro, Bfow Out! Sol Castro ond t/1e Chtcario Strugq/e for Educationol Justice (Durham: Universit y of North Carolina Press. 2011 ); and Henry J. Gut,errez,
"The Ch icano Ed ucatlon Rights Movernent and School Segregation, Los Angeles, 1g62-
16 3.4.1 FOOTNOTES .
1970" ( PhD diss., University of Californ,a, Irvine, 1990 )
lb.3.5.2
CITATIO NS AND COM M ENTS_ lf a notlincludes both a citation and a substantive comment, put the citation first with a period after it, followed by
the comment in a separate sentence.
To come to Paris was to experience the simultaneous pleasures of the bl!st contemporary art and the m ost vibrant art center.'
N:
1 Natt, " Paris A rt Schools," 269. Gi lded A ge American art ists traveled to ot her Euro-
pean art cent ers, most notably Mun,ch, but Paris surpassed al! ot hers in size and lmport ance.
Endnotes should be listed together after the end of the text
and any appendixes but before the bibliography. Single-space each note,
and put a blank line between notes. tabel the list Notes_ lf you restart
nurnbering for each chapter, add a subheading before the first note to
each chapter: "Chapter r" and so forth. See figure A.14 for a sample page
of en dnotes.
163.4.2 ENDNOTES.
16 .3.S Complex Notes
16.3.51 CITATI0NS. Jf you cite several sources to make a single point, grou p them
16 3
When you include a quotation in a note, put the citation after the terminal punctuation of the quotation.
Property qualifications dropped out of US practlc.e for petit juries gradually during t he
ninet eenth century but remained in force for grand juries in some junsd,chons until the
mid-twentieth century.'
N:
2. "A grand Jury inquires into complaints and accusations brought before it and, based
on evidence presented by the state issues bills of indict m ent " Kermit Hall,
into a single note to avoid cluttering your text with reference numbers.
List the citations in the same order in which the references appear in the
text; separate citations with semicolons_
The Magie
Mirror: Low in American H1story (New York: Oxford Universit y Press, 1989) . 172
Be judicious in your use of s ubstantive comments in notes. If a point
is critical to your argument, include it in the text. If it is peripheral. think
carefully about whether it is important enough to mention in a note.
Only when we gather t he wo rk of several scholars-Walter Sutt on's exphcations ol
some ol Whitman's shorter poems: Paul Fussell's careful study ol structure in "Cradlť:
s. K. Coffman's close readi ngs of " Crossi ng Brooklyn Ferry" and "Passage to lnd,a"do we begin to get a sense of both the ext ent and the specificity of Whitmarťs torms.
N:
1 Sutton, "The Analysis of Free Verse Form, lllustrated by a Readi ng of Whitman,"
Joumol of Aestheticj and Art Criticism 18, no. 2 (December 1959)· 241-54: Fussell, "W hit·
16.4
Short Forms for Notes
ln some fields, your instructor may expect you to give full bibliographical
data in each note, but in most you can give a complete citation the firs t
11>4
CHAPTH I I •,OílS 81BllOG~MHV ~1 Lt I Hl 8A$ 1C FO~M
time you cite a work and a shortened one in subsequent notes In a few
fields, writers use a shortened form fot all citations, w1th complete data
listed only in the bibllography.
lf you don't know the practice common in your field, consult your loea]
guidelines.
16.4,1
N;
Shortened Notes
A shortened note should include enough information for readen; to find
the fuU citation ín your bibliography or in an earlier note. The two rna1t1
ch oices are author-only notes and author-title notes. ln some tields, writ
ers use the author-title form for all s hortened notes; in others, writers
use the author-only form for most shortened notes, but the author-titJe
form when they cite more than one work by the same author. (Unles,
your local guidelines specify otherwise, pre fer the author-title fonn.) lf a
source does not have an author (or editor), you can use a title-only note.
Figure 16.2 provides templates for each type of shortened note.
An author-only note includes the authoťs last name and page numbers (or other locator), separated by a comma and followed by a period. lf
the work has an editor rather than an author, use the editoťs lest name
but do not add ed. An author-title note adds a shortened title c:omposed
of up to four distinctive words from the full title. Use a comma to separate the author and the shortened title, and put the title in italics or
quotation marks as you would in a full note.
Figur I! 16.2. Temptates for shortened notes
The following templates show what P-lements should be included 1n whal order ,n tl,e
three types ol shorlened notes (~ee 16 4 1 for when to use each type) They also show
pun(tuation cap1tal1zat,on of t,l les and typography o f the t!lements. Gray shading
.show;. terms as they would actually dppe.ir ,na ritat,on 1/d. stands in for note nurnber,
\ )( $lands ,n for page numbers c,ted
Author•Only Notes
1, Single Author
N:
tli: Author's
Lasl Name, XX
1 [)l)clcworth, 88
ror a wnrk c1ted by editor or l ranslator instP;id n f author (see 171 1), use the editor or
Ir ~nsl;it,Jt lít place ot the autho, Do not add ed or trans.. as 1n a íull note
N:
tl:: Editor's or Translator's last
Name X (
2 Prnkash, 41-4?
r
lf two or mo,e aulhors ha,e the same lasl name d1st,ngu1sh them by adding lirsl n;imes
or 1n,11dls
2. Two or Three AJJthors
N:
#R Aulhor /:l's Lasl Name and Author #2's Lasl N.irne, XX
3. Chol and Peng. '140.
N:
li;; Author ::1's Lasl Name. Aul hor ~2·s Lasl Name and Aulhor l/3's La~t
N.irne X)(
, Dana Velasco Murillo. Urban lnd,ans ,r1 a Si/ve, City. Zacolecos. Mexico. 1546-1810
(Stdnlord. CA· St;inlord Un111ersily Press, 2016). 140.
i Velasco Mur1llo. Urban lrtdiott5. 142
4. Whlte, Williams,a.nd Wlilig, 122.
3. Four or More Authors
or
i Velasco Mur tllo. 142.
N:
1 Charle' W Colher "The Dealh of Gun Contiol. An American Tragedy," Criticollnquiry 411 no t (2014) 102.
•I Coll,.,r, Gun Control " 127-28.
;: li Author i+l's Last Name et al~ XX
5. E1chengreen et al, 215.
Author·Title Notes
4. Book5
or
4 , Cullit!r, 127-28.
s-Hasan Kwame Jeffrres, • Remaktng Hrslory. 6arack Obama, Pol,t,cal C,11toons and
Civ,I R1ghli Mo11ement," ,n c,v,I Rlglits H,~tory /rum Ille Ground Up. Locol Strug,Jlol! "
Not,onal Movemc:nt, ed. Em,lye Crosby (Athens: Uni11ers,ty ol Georgia Press. ;ao11), 26o
6 Jelfr,es, ' Remakrng H,~tory • 261-62
the
or
6 Jeflrtes. 261-62,
N.
::1: Author s ta,1 Name ShtJrtened Titl<' X,-
6 Duckwl'rth. Gnt 88
Fo, buo~s b)' mor1: lhan ,Jne aulhn,
:1 i!nd,
follí,w the pattern for authors' names ,n lemplates
166
CHM H R 16 I NOH >·81BLIOC,í..\P ►t \ HYll THE 81\~IC í ORM
IBID
Fleure 16.2. Templates for shortene_d_n_o_te_s_;_(c._o_n_t,n_u_e_d _
) __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
number of a reference is the same as in the previous note, do not include
a page number after ibrd. Do not use ,brd after a note that contams more
than one citation, and avoid using ibid. to refer to footnot~ that do not
appear on the same page
Unless your local guidehnes require the use of ibrd., you may mstead
use one of the shortened forms d1scussed m 16.,p to refer ran munediately preceding nute.
5. Artides
t:.# . Author's La!.t Name. "Sho,tened Title. X>.
H;
7 Femande:t, "Prnctical Reasoning; 880-$1,
for arlicles by more than one autlior follow the pattern ~or authors names 111 tcmplates
2 and 3
' Title-Only Notes
16.4,3
6. Books without an Author
N:
You may want
to use parenthetical notes if you are discussing a particular work at
length and need to cite it frequently. Such in-text references can rnake
your text eas1er to follow. The fint time you cite the work, provide full
bibliographical data in a footnote or endnote, for subsequent references,
use parenthetical notes instead of shortened notes (see 16.4. 1). For examples, see 16.4.3.2.
~
You may also use parenthetical notes for certa.in types of sources that
readers can idenúfy with only a few eleme nts, such as a newspaper article (see 17.4), a legalcase (17.11.7), an older literary work (17.8 1). a biblical or other sacred work (17 .8 2), or a source in the visual and performmg
arts (17.10). These sources can often be omilted from your bibhography
(see 16. 2 3).
ln studies of language and litera ture, parenthetical notes have generally replaced footnotes or endnotes for most source citacions, including
the first reference to each work.
## Shortened Title, XX
7. Articles without an Author
## "Shortened Tille," XX.
9. "Great Tdgonometrical Survey: 26-27.
For multiple authors or editors, list the last names in the same order in
which they appear in a full note.
7 Ellen G. Friedman and Miriam Fuchs, eds . 8rrokmg lhe SPquence· Women's EKpen•
N:
Parenthetical Notes
PARENT H ETICAL NOTES VE RSUS FOOTNOTES OR EN D NOTES
8. Account of Operations. 2Sl
N:
167
Prmceton University P,ess, 2014). 312.
8. Friedman and Fuch, , Women's Experimentol hct,on , 320.
menlal Fiction (Princeton, NJ
or
8 . Friedman and Fuch5 3 2 0
16,4.2
N:
lbid.
At one time, writers shortened citations in notes by using Latin terms and
abbreviations: idem, wthe same": op. cit., for opere citato, "in the work citeď;
and loc. cit., for Joco citaro. "in the place c1led."This practice has fallen out
of favor, so avoid all Latin citation tenns except on~ibid , from ib1dem or
"in the same place." Some writers still use ibid. to shorten a citation to a
work cited m the immediately preceding note.
1.
2.
Suchan, Advice to Mothen, 71.
lbtd . 95.
3 lbtd
ln notes, ibrd. should not be italicized; at the start of a note, it should
be capitalized. Since ibid. is an abbreviation, it must end with a period; 1f
the citation includes a page number, put a comma after ibid. If the page
1643 2
lnsert a parenthetica] nole where
you would place a reference number for a note: at the end of a quotation,
sentence, or cla use. The note comes before rather than after any comma,
period, or ether punctuation mark when the quotation is run into the
text. With a block quotation, the note follows the terminal punctuation
mark (not shown here; see 25. 2 .2 .1 for an example).
The fullest parenthencal note includes the same information as the
author-title fonn of a shonened note, wilh the elements separated by
commas. (Note that both the elements and the punctuation are slightly
different from those used in parenthetical citations in author-date style,
described in chapters r8 and 19; do not confuse or combine the two styles.)
FORMATTI NG PARENTHETICAL NOTES
"What on introspection seems to happen ,mmed,ately and w1lhout effort ,s oltcn a com•
plex symphony of processes that take t,me to complete" (LeDou~. Synapt1c Seif 116).
Accordtng lo one expert, the norms of frlendshtp are different '" the worl plílte (L,lt11',
Norms of Collegial1ty,· 330)
CH <\!'T[R 16
168
J
NOTES 6 18IIOG?APH'r ,rv LE THE BA\IC f ORM
For most types of sources, you will have three additional options for
shortening parenthetica l notes, as follows:
■
17
Page numbers on!y. You may include m the parentheses only the page
number(s) or other locator if readers can readily identify the specific
source frorn your text, either because it is a main object of your study
(as in the first example below referring to a particular edition of Harriet
Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin) or because you mention the author or
title in your text. Either way, you must provide full b1bliographic infonna.
tion elsewhere.
Poor John!" 1nterposes Stowe's narralIve voIce, "ll wos rather natural; and the lears
lhi!I fell, as he spoke. came as naturally as 1f he had been a wh1l e man· (169).
17.1
Author and page number. You should include the author and page number(s)
or other locator if readers cannot readily identify the source from your
text, as long as you cite only one work by that author.
...
Wh1le onP school claims that "material cullure may be the most objective source of
informat1on we have concerning America's past" (Deetz, 2s9), others disagree.
■
Title and page number You should include a shortened title and page
number(s) or other locator if readers can readily identity the author from
your text but you cite more than one work by that author.
letters and Other Communicat1ons in Pubhshed Collect,ons
17110 Electronic Books
171.9
17.2
ff you cite a work often, you can abbreviate the title lf the abbrevia-
T, Franco,s Furet The Pns~,ng
17.3
17.•1
of on 11/us,on The Idea of Commun,sm in the TwetU,eth
17 5
Magazíne Articles
News paper Articles
Websites, Blogs, and Social Media
17.51 Webs,te Content
17 5 2 Blog Posts
A ccording to Furet, the Second World War completed what the First had begun-the
dom1nat1on of the great pohtical religIons over European publ1c opin1on" (PI. 360)
For newspaper articles and other types of sources in which author,
title, and page number are not the key identifying elements (see r6.4.3.1
and the relevant sections of chapter r7), modify the parenthetica l note
style as needed. For an example, see 17.4.3.
lssue lnformat,on
Page Numbers
17 4 1 Name of Newspaper
17 4 2 Citing Newspapers in Notes
17 4 3 Cil1ng Newspapers m Text
Century. trans. Deborah Furet (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 1999). 368 (cited in
text .;s PI)
Authoťs Name
Arlicle ntle
Joumal Tille
17 2 6 Special lssues and Supplements
17 2 7 Abstracts
//lus,on, 360)
N:
Journal Articles
17 2.1
17 2.2
17 2 3
17 2.4
17 2.5
Accord1ng to Furet "the Second World War completed what the First had begun-lhe
dominatlon of the great pol1t1cal relig 1ons over European public opin1on" (Possmg o( ar,
tion 1s not obvious, you may specify it in the note for its first citation. (lf
you use more than five such abbreviation s in your otations, list them in
a separate section of your paper, see A.2. 1. r r.)
Books
17.1.1 Authoťs Name
171.2 Title
171,3 Ed11ton
1714 Volume
1715 Series
1716 Facts of Publicatton
171 7 Page Numbers a11d Other Locators
171 8 Chapters and Other Parts of a Boole
Ernst Cassirer not es thls in Longuoge and Myth (59-60).
■
Notes-Bibliography Style:
Citing Specific Types of Sources
175 3 Social Medla
17.5.4 Online Forums and Ma,ling Lists
17 ,6
lnteTVJews a nd Persona! Com munications
17 6.1 lnterv,ews
17 6 2 Personal Communicat,ons
--170
GHAFH~ 17 I NOHS BIBL!OG~Af•HV STÝLE TYFE5 Clf SOURCES
BOOKS
17.7
Examples of sources consulted online are included alongside most
other types of examples . Electronic book formats are díscussed at 17. r. ro.
For some general considerations, especially if you are new to research,
see 15-4. For tips related to citation management tools, see r5.6.
Examples of notes are identified with an N and bibliography entries
with a B. ln some cases, the examples show the same work cited in both
forms to illustra te the similarities and differences between t:Hem; in other
cases, they show different works to illustrate variations in etements even
within a specific type of source. For shortened forms of notes, see 16.4.
lf you cannot find an example in this chapter, consult chapter 14 of
The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition (2017). You may also create your
own style, adapted from the principles and examples given here. Most ins tructors, departments, and universities accept such adaptations as long
as you apply them consistently.
Papers, Lectute s, and Ma nuscript Collections
1771
Theses and D1ssertalions
17 7.2 Lectures and Papers Presented at Meetmgs
17.73 Pamphlets and Reports
1774 Manuscript Collect1ons
177 5 Online Collections
17.8
Older Works and Sacred Works
17 8 .1 Classical, Medieval, and Early English Literary W orks
17 8.2 The Bible and Other Sacred Works
17 .9
Reference Works and Secondary Citations
17 9 1 Reference Works
179.2 Rev1ews
17.9 3 One Source Quoted in Another
17 .10 Sources in the Visual and Performing Arts
t7t
1710 1 Artworks and Graphics
1710 2 L1ve Performances
1710 3 Mulllmedia
17.10 4 Te~ts in the Visual and Performing Art s
t1'
Books
17.1
Citations of books may include a wide range of elements Many of the
variations in elements discussed in this section are also relevant to other
types of sources.
17.11 Public Documents
17 111 Elemenls to lnclude, Their Order, and How to Format Them
17.11.2 Congressional Publications
17.11.3 Presidenllal Publ1cations
Authoťs
Name
Give the name of each author (and editor, translator, or other contributor)
exactly as it appears on the title page, and in the same order. If a name
indudes more than one initial, use spaces between them (see 24,2. 1). For
multiple authors, s ee figure 16.r.
In notes, list authors' names in standard order (first name first).
17.1.1
17.114 Publlcations of Government Departments and Agencies
17.11.5 US Constttut,on
1711.6 Treaties
1711 7 lega! Cases
17.11.8 State and local Governmenl Documents
17.11.9 Canadian Government Documents
17.11 10 British Government Documents
17 11.11 Publications of lnternational Bodies
17.11.12 Unpubhshed Government Documents
N:
,. Ankh1 Mukherjee, Whot ls o Clossic? Postcoloniol Rewriting ond /nvention o{ the Conan
(Stanford, CA. Stanford University Press, 2013), 184-85.
2
G J. Barker-Benfield. Ab,ga,1 ond Jnhn Adams. Tite Americonizot,on of Sensrbdity (Ch i-
cago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 499
Chapter 16 presents a n overview of the basic pattem for citations in the
notes-bibliography style, including bibliography entries, full notes, shortened notes , and parenthetical notes. If you are not familiar with this citation style, read that chapter before consulting trus one.
This cha pter provides detailed information on the form of notes and
bibliography entries for a wide range of sources. lt statts with the most
commonly cited sources-books and journal articles-before addressing
a wide variety of other sources. The sections on books (17.1) and journal
a rticles (17 .2) discuss variations in such elements as authors' names and
titles of works in greate r depth than sections on less common sources.
3. Dona Id R. Kinrler and Alllson Dale•R1ddle. The End o( Roce? Oboma. 2008. and Racral
Politics ,n Americo (New Haven, CT· Vale University Press, 2012), 47,
In bibliography entries, put the first-listed author's name in inverted
order (last name first), except for some non-English names and other
cases explained in r6.2.2 . 2. Names of any additional authors should follow but should not be inverted.
B: Barker·Benfield, G
J. Ablgo/1 and John Adams: The Americanizat,on o{ Sens1b1lity Chicago:
Un1vers1ty of Chicago Press. 2010
Kincler, Donald R„ and A llison Dale· Riddle. Tne Enda{ Roce" Obama. 2008. und Rac1af Po/,.
tics in America. New Haven, CT· Yale University Press, 2012.
CHAPTER 17 I NOTES -b 18LIOGRM' Hr ;J\lE lH E, O•
172
eoo~s
sc•uo( [ >
Mukherjee, Ankhi Whot /5 a Classic? Pnstcoloniol Rewriting ond /nvent,on o( the Conon
N:
Stanford CA: Stanford Un1vers1ty Press, 2013.
ED ITOR OR TR ANS LATO R IN ADDITION TO A N AUT HOR. !fa title pagelists an
editor or a translator in addition to an author, treat the author's name as
described above. Add the editor or transiatoťs name after the book's title
If there is a translator as well as an editor, list the names in the same order
as on the ti tle page of the original. lf the author's name appears in the title,
you m ay omit it from the note but not from the bibliography entry.
1n notes, insert the abbreviation ed. (never eds., since in this contexL
it means "edited by" rathe[ than ''editor', ar trans. before the editoťs or
translator's name.
17111
N:
Giovanni (Cambndge: Cambridge University Press. 2010), 642-43.
University of Texas Press, 2015). 140-41.
B: Heaney Seamus, trans. Beowulf: A New Verse rranslat,on. New York. W. W Norto11, 2000
Logroňo Narbona, Maria del Mar, Paulo G. Pinto, and John Tof,t... Karam, eJ. Crescent
over Another Horizo,1. ls/om ,n Latin America, the Coribbean, ond Latino USA. Austin·
Un,versrty of Texas Press, io15
171.13
8 : Elizabeth I Co/lec1ed Works. Edited
ORGAN IZAT IO N AS AUTHOR , lf a publication issued by an organization,
association, comm.ission, or corporation has no persona} author's name
on the title page, list the organization itself as author in the bibliography,
even i.fit is also given as publisher. For public documents, see r7.11.
8: Arnencan Bar Assoc1at1on. The 2016 Federal Ru/es Book. Chicago: American Bar Assoc,a·
tron, 2016.
...
3 The Noé Jitnk Reader: Selected Essays on Latin American LJl eroture, ed. Daniel Balderston, trans. Susan E. Benner (Durham, NC: Duke Universily Press, 2005), 189
In b ibliography entnes, insert the phrase Edited by or Translated b}'
before the editor's or translatoťs name.
1 Seamus Heaney, tran!>., Beowulf A New Verse Translation (New York W . W Norton,
2000), 55.
2 Maria del Mar Logroiio Narbona Paulo G. Pinto, ilnd John Tolik Karam, eds, Cres
cent over Anothet Hanzon: /slam in Latin Amer,co, the Caribbeun, ond Latino USA (Austiri:
, Elizabeth I, Col/ected Works, ed Leah S. Marcus, Jane! Mueller, and Mary Beth Ro! ie
(Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 2000), 102-4.
2. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, The Science o( Log,c, ed and trans. George ai
173
Nahonal Cornm1ssion on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States The 9/ 11 Comrn1s;irin
Report. New York: W W Norton. 2004
171.l.4
Treat a widely recogriized pseudonym as if it were the
real nam e. If the name listed as the authoťs is known to be a
pseudonym but the real name is unknown, add pseud. in brackets after
the pseudonym.
PSEU DO NYM
authoťs
by Leah S Marcus Jane! Mueller, and Mary Beth
Rose. Chicago: U niversity of Chicago Press, 2000.
Hegel, Georg W ilhelm Friedrich. The Science o( Log,c. Edited and translated by George di
Giovanni. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
N;
J1trik, Noé The Noé )/trik Reader: Selected Essoys on Lot,n Amertean Uterature Edited by
Daniel Balderston. Translated by Susan E. Benner. Durham. NC. Duke Urnversity
Press, 2005.
Wh en a title page identifies an editor or translator with a compli•
cated description, s uch as "Edited with an lntroduct1on and Notes by" or
"Translated with a Foreword by," you can simplify this phrase to edited by
or translated by and follow the above examples. ln general, 1f a foreword
or a n i ntroduction is written by someone other than the author, you need
not mention that person unless you cite that part specifically (see 17. 1 8).
17.1.1 .2
When an editor or a
ttansla tor is listed on a book's title page instead of an author, use that
p erson's nam e in the author's slot Treat it as you would an author's name
(see the beginning of this section), but add the abbreviation ed. or trans.
following the name. lf there are multiple editors or translators, use eds. or
trans. (singular and plural) and follow the pnnciples for multiple authors
shown in figure 16.r.
ED ITOR OR TRANSlATO R IN PLACE OF AN AUTHOlt
, . Mark Twain, The Prince and the Pauper: A Tole for Young Peapleof Ali Ages (New Yo, k.
Harper and Brothers, 1899). 34 .
8: Centinel [pseud.] ''Letters „ ln The Comp/ete A11ti-Fede1a/i}/, ed1ted by Herbert J, !'>toring,
Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1981.
17.1.15
N:
ANONVMOUS AUTH OR. Ifthe authorship is known or guessed at but omitted from the book's title page, include the name in brackets (with a question mark if there is uncertainty). lf the author or editor 1s unknown,
avoid the use of Anonymous in place of a name (but see below), and begin
the note or bibliography entry with the title.
1. [James Hawkes?], A Retrospect of the Boston Tea·Party, w1r/J a M~morr o/ George R. T.
Hewes, by a Cihzen of New-York (New-York, 1834) 128-29
2.
A True and Smce,e Declarat1on of the Purpose ond Ends of lhe Plantat,on Begur,
111
Virginia, of tne Degrees W/11ch lt Hath Rece1ved, and Means by Whrch lt Hoth BePn Adva11ced
( London. 1610). 17.
B: [ Hawkes, James?] A Retrosped a{ the Boston Tea-Party, w,th a Mi:mo,r of Georgť R.
Hewes. By a Cit,zen o/ New-York New-York 1834
T.
,,
CHAPTER 17 i NOTfS-e 1~liOGRAPH, STYLE. fYPES O F SDURCES
174
A True and Sincere Declorot1on a( the Purpose ond Ends o( the Plantotlon Begun in Virginia,
l75
N:
o( the Degrees Wh,ch li Hoth Pecetved, ond Means by Wh,ch lt Hoth Been Advonced,
1. Romain Hayes, Subhas Chandra Bose ,n Naz, Germany: Pol,trcs, lntell,gence, ond Pro·
pagonda, 1941-43 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011) , 151- 52.
London, 1610.
B: Sorenson, John L., and Carl L. Johannessrn. Wotld Trade and Biofagical Excho119es
If the author is explicitly listed as "Anonymous" on the title page, cite
the book accordingly.
e:
before 1492 Bloom ington, IN: IUniverse, 2009
■
Titles within titles. When the title of a work that would normally be itali•
cized appears within the italicized title of another, enclosé the quoted
title in quotation marks. {lf the title-within-a-title would normally be endosed in quotation marks, keep the quotation marks.)
N:
2. Elisabeth ladenson, D,rt (ar Arťs Sake; Books on Tria/ from "Madame Bovary" to '"Lalita " (lthaca, NY· Cornelt University Press, 2007), 17.
Anonymous The Secret Uves of Teachers. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015.
Title
List complete book titles and subtitles. Italicize both, and separate the
útle from the subtitle with a colon. {In the rare case of two subtitles, either follow the punctuation in the original or use a colon before the first
and a semicolon before the second.)
17.1,2
N:
1. Philip M ar sden, Rising Grovnd: A Search for the Spirit of Ploc:e (Chicago: University of
B: McHugh, Roland. Annotations to "Frnnegons Wake " 2nd ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1991.
Chicago Press, 2016), 113-14,
Capitalize most titles and s ubtitles headline-style; that is, capitalize
the first Jetter of the first and last words of the title and subtitle and all
major words. For titles in languages other than English, use sentencestyle capitalization-that is, capitalize only the first letter of the first word
of the title and subtitle and any proper nouns or other terms that would
be capitahzed under the conventions of the original language (in some
Romance languages, proper adjectives and some proper nouns are not
capitalized) (See 22.3 . 1 for a more detailed discussion of the two styles.)
However, when the entire main title of a book cons1sts of a title v..ithin
a title, do not add quotation marks'{but keep any quotation marks used
in the source).
N:
J A lan Light, Leťs Go Crazy· Prince and the Moking o( "Purpfe Rain" ( New York: Atria
Books, 2014), 88.
B: W ilde, Oscar The P,cture o( Dorron Gray: An Annototed, Uncensored Edition. Ed,ted by
Nicholas Franke! Cambr1dge, MA· Harvard University Press, 2011,
■
( headline style) How to Do lt; Gu,des to Good Living for Renaissance lta/íans
ltalieized tenns. When an italiazed title includes terms normally italicized
in text, such as species names or names of ships, set the terms in roman
type.
(sentence sty le) A quoi révent les algorithmes: Nos v,es ti l'heure des big data
N:
Preserve the spelling, hyphenation, and punctuation of the original
title, with two exceptions: change words in full capitals (except for initialisms or acronyms; see chapter 24) to upper- and lowercase, and change
an ampersand (&) to and. Spell out numbers or give them as numerals
according to the original (1\.uelfth Century or 12th Century) unless there is a
good reason to make them consistent with other titles in the list.
for titles of chapters and other parts of a book, see 17.r.8
17.1.2.1
SPEC I AL ElEMENTS IN l'ITLES.
■
B: Lech, Raymond B. The Trag,c Fale of the U.S S. Indianapolis: The U.S. Novy·s Worst D1saster
at Sea, New York Cooper Square Press, 2001.
■
Severa! elements in titles require special
treatment.
Dates. Use a comma to set off dates at the end of a title or subtitle, even
if there is no punctuation in the angina! source. But 1f the source introduces the dates with a preposition (for example, ''from 1920 to 1945") or
a colon, do not add a comma.
4 T, Hugh Penn,ngton, When Food K,1/s: BSE, E. coli, ond D1sasler Science (New York
Oxford University Press, 2003), 15
Questwn marks and exclamation pomts. When a title or a subtitle ends with
a question mark or an exclamation point, no ether punctuation nor•
maily follows. One exception: if the title would normally be followed by
a comma, as in a shortened note (see 16-4. 1), keep the comma. See also
21.12.1.
N:
S Jafari S A llen, iVenceremos? The Erotics of Black Self-Making m Cubo (Durham NC:
Duke University Press, 2011) 1 210-11.
6. Allen iVenceremos-:> 212.
B: Wolpert Stariley. India and Pokistan: Contmued Confllct or Cooperotion" Berkeley: Umver•
s,t y of C.-,lifornia Press, 2010,
CHAPHR 17 I NOíES 61BllOGRAPHV
176
s,
l[ TV!'['-
or 50URC[5
eom
17.1.2 2 O LDE R TITL ES. For titles of works published in the eighteenth century or
earlier, retain the original punctuation and spelling. Also retain the original capitalization, even 1f it does not follow headline style. Words in all
capital letters, however, should be given m upper- and lowercase. If the
title is very Jong, you may shorten it, but prov:ide enough information for
readers to find the full title in a library or publisher's catalog. lndicate
omissions in such titles by three ellipsís dots. Put the dots in square
brackets to show that they are not part of the onginal title, {Square brackets are also used in the first example to show that the place of publication
is known but did not appear with the source.) If the omission comes at the
end of a title in a bibliography ent:ry, add a period after the bracketed dots.
N:
1. John Ray,
177
8: Furet, Fran~o1s. le pa~~e d une 11/us,an Paris: Editrons Robert Laffont, 1995. Translated
b~ Deborah Furet as The Possing of u11 11/us,on (Chicago: Universrty of Chicago Pr~ss,
1999)
or
Furet, Fran~ors. The Possmg o( on 11/usion. Translated by Deborah F'uret Chicago Un1·
vers1ty of Chicago Press, 1999 Onginally published as Le passe ďune ///us,on ( Pari~·
Edihons Robert Laflont. 1995)
11.1.3
Edition
Some works are published in mo1e than one ed1tion Each edition differs
m content or format or both. Always include infmmation about the editJon you actually consulted (unless 1t is a first edition, which is usually
not labeled as such).
Observat,ons Topographical. Maro/, and Physiological: Made ,no Journey
Through part o[ t/Je Law·Co1mtries. Germany, Italy, and France. with A Catalogue of P/ants
not Nat,~e of England [ .. , ] Wliereunto ,s odded A Brief Account o( Francis Wil/ughby, Esq.
lus Voyage through o great part o[ Spain ([London). 1673), 15
8 : Escalante, Bernardino. A Discourse af the Navigatian which the Portugales dae maketo lhe
Reolmes and Provinces of the fas t Partes of the World!! [
17.1.31
] . Translated by John Framp•
ton London, 1579.
1712.3
N:
NON· EN GLI SH TITLES. Use sentence-style capitalization for non-English
titles, following the capitalization princ1ples for proper nouns and other
tenns within the relevant Ianguage. lf you are unfamiliar with these principles, consult a reliable source.
1.
José Reveles, Écha/e la culpo o la heroine: De lguala a Chicago ( New York: Vintage
Espaňol, 2016),
94
2 . Lj iljana Pilet1é St ojanovié, ed
8: Kelek. Neclil D,e fremde Braut. Ein Bericht aus dem lnneren des túrkischen Lebens in Deutsch-
Po//cy, 8t h ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopk,ns University Press. 2005), 157-58.
B: F'oley, Douglas E. Learning Cap1ta/,st Cu/ture· Deep in the Heart of Te10s. i nd ed. Ph,ladel·
ph,a: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010.
Lev,t t, Steven D., and Stephen J. Dubner Freakonomics A Rogue Econom1st Exp/ore$ t/1e
lond Munich. Goldmann Verlag, 2006.
If you add the English translation of a title, place it after the original.
Endose it in brackets, without italics or quotation marks. and capitalize
it sentence-style.
N:
Hidden Side of f verythmg Rev. ed. New Yo, k: HarperColl,ns, 2006
17,1.3.2
3. Henryk Wereszyckr, Koruec s0}11,zu rrzech resarzy [The end of the Three Emperors'
League) ( W arsaw; PWN, 1gn). 5.
8: Yu Guorn1ng. Zhangguo chuan me, fo zhon q,an yon tan suo [New perspectives on news
and com municatronJ Beijing Xin hua chu ban she. 2011.
lf you need to cite both the onginal and a translation, use one of the
following forms, depending on whether you want to focus readers on the
original or the translation
1. Paul J. Bolt, Daman V. Coletta and Col lins G. Shackelford Jr., eds.. Amer,can Defe11se
N:
Gut(reund i češki kub1zam (Belgrade: M uzej s;,vremene
11í"letnost1, 1971) 54-55.
RE V I SEO ED I TIONS . When a book 1;;.-"\"e1ssued with significant content
changes, it may be called a "rev:ised" edition or a "second" (or subsequent)
edition. This infom1ation usually appears on the book's title page and 1s
repeated, along with the date of the edit10n, on the copyright page.
When you cite an edition ether than the fi.rst, include the number
or description of the edition after the title. Abbreviate such wording as
"Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged" as 2nd ed. , abbreviate "Revised
Edition" as rev ed. Include the publication date only of the edition you are
citing, not of any previous edirions (see 17 I 6)
REPRI NT EO IT I ONS. Many books are reissued or published in more than
one fonnat-for example, in a paperback edition (by the original publisher or a different publisher) or in electroníc form (see 17 1 10), Always
record the facts of publication for the version you consulted. If the edit1on you consulted was published more than a year or two after the origi·
nal edition or is a modem printing of a classic work, you may include the
publication dates of both the original and the edition you are citing (see
17
N:
I
6.3).
1. Randall Jarrell P,ctures from on lnst,tution· A Comedy (1954; repr . Chicago: Univer•
>itv of Chicago Pre!>S 2010). 79-80.
(t<I,• T[ft 7
178
e:
179
llOH'> ~ El10GRA~l1V ~TY L T Pb Cif SO RCES
B: Carson, Clayborne. ed The r>opers af Martin Luther King, Jr Vol 7, Ta Sem, the Soul a{
Amer,ca, Jonuory 1961- August 19621 ed1tcd by Temsha Armstrong. Berkeley. University
o ( C.aillorrua Pruss. 2014 ,
0Ickims Charles. P,ctur<'5 f,om /tni~. 1846. Reprtnt, Cambridge. Cambrtdge Un1\le1'5,ty
Pre~~. 2011.
Volume
If a book is part of a multivolume work, include this information in your
citations.
17.1.4
To cite a specific volume that carries its own title, lí.c;t
the title for the multivolume work as a whole, followed by the volume
number and title of the specífic volume. Give the publication date of the
individua! volume. Abbreviate vol. and use arabic numbers for volum.e
numbers.
11.1...• 1
or
Armstrong, Temsha, ed To Scve the SClul o{ Am~r1co. January 1961-Augusl 1962, Vol. 7 of
The Popers of Mariin Luther King I, , cditl!d by Clayborne C.irson. Berkeley/ University
of Cal1forma Press, 1992-
SPECIFIC VOLUME.
N:
To cite a multivolume workas a whole,
give the title, the total number of volumes, and, if the volumes hf!ve been
publíshed over several years, the full span of publication dates.
1714.2 M ULT IVOLUME WOR I< AS A WH OLE,
B: Ansto1 le. Complete Works o( Ar1$t0tle: The Revis11d Oxford Tronslolion. Ed1ted by J, Barn~
2 vols. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983.
1 Hamid Nahcy A Socro/ History of lranian Cinemo, vol, 4, The Globol,zJng Ero, 198.12010 (Dur ham, NC Duke Un,11er!.ity Press 2012), 44•
Ti111ch, Paul. Systemalic Theology 3 vols. Chicago: Un1vers1ty ol Chicago Press, 1951- 63
....
B: Naflcy, Hamrd. A Soc,ol H,story of lromon Cimimo. Vol, 4 The Globalrzing Era. 1984-2010
Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 2012.
If the volumes are not indiv1dually t1tled, list each volume that you
cite in the bibliography (see also 17.1 .4.2). In a note, put the specific volume number (without vol ) immediately before the page number, separated by a colon and no intervenlng space
Ill:
2.
For works that include individua! volume titles or volume edilors (see
17 l A.t), it is usually best to cite the volumes individually.
11.1.s
Muriel St. Clare Byrne ed ,, The Li;II! L~llers (Chicago Universlly of Chicago Ptt:.u,
1981) 4·243
B: Byrne. Muriel St. Clare, ed. The Lisle Lette,s. Vols. , and 4. Chicago: University ol Chicago
Press. 1981.
some multivolume works have both a general editor and editors or
authors for each volume. When ciůng a specific volume in such a work,
include information about the volume editor(s) or author(s) (see 17.1. 1)
as well as information about the editor(s) of the multivolume work as a
whole. The example from The History of Cartography shows not only how
to cite an individua! contribution to such a work (see 17, 1.9) but also how
to cite a volume published in more than one physical part (vol 2, b~ 3),
The examples from The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. show how to ote a
specific volume under the editor(s) of the work as a whole (useful when
oting more than one volume from the same work; see also 17 r.4- 2) or
lmder the editor(s) of an individua} vol ume.
N:
3, Barbara E. Mundy, "MesGamerícan Cartography;· ln The H1story o( Cortogror,/lv, ed.
J Bťian Harley .ind David Woodwdrd, vol
2,
hk, J. Cortog,ophy in lhe Trad1l1or1ol Afr,con
Americon, Arclic, Austra/ian, and Poc1f1c Soc1t!tll!s. ed David Woodward and G. M alcolm
Lewis (Chicago University of Chrc.igo Press, 1998), i33.
N:
Series
lf a boo k belongs to a series, you may choose to include ínformation abour
the series to help readers locate the source and understand lhe context in which it was pubHshed. Place the series information after the title
(and any volume or edition number or editor's name) and before the ff!cts
of publication
Put the series title in roman type with headline-style capitalization,
omitting any initial The. If the volumes in the series are numbered, include che nurnber of the work cited following the series title. The name of
the series editor is often omitted, but you may ínclude 1t after the series
title. lf you include both an edJtor and a volume number, the number is
preceded by vol.
1. Blake M, Hausman R1d1ng the Troil of Tt:ors, Native Stoners. A Series of American
Narrat1ves (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2011 ), 25.
B: lu"nlng. F,~nchy, ed. Worfd Renewal Mechi'1dem1a 10. M inneapolis. Un,vl!rs,ty of M1nne-
sot 11 Press 2014
Stein, Gertrude. Se/ections. Edited by Joan Retallad Poel!. to, the M,llenn,urn, edlted by
Piene Jons and Jerome Rothenberg, 1101 6 Berkeley· University of Callforma Press
2008.
17.1.6
Facts of Publication
The facts of publication usually include three elements: the place (aty)
of publication, the publisher's name, and the date (year) of publication.
CHAPlC R 17 I r, onS-filB dOc,R'-PH STl'll T
180
eoo,
r s ot SOUktE
lt is common for books published more recemly through mode, n selfpublishm g platfonns not to list„ place of publication. lf you cite such a
source, the pl~ce of publication can usually be omitted (see 17, 1,6. 2 for
an example) .
Jn notes these elements are enclosed in parenlhe ses: in bibliography
entries they are not.
N:
1. Ta •Neh,s1 Coates Betwroen 1/t~
181
Wor/d ond Me (N~w Yorl • Spiegel & Grau, 2015).
122-23.
B: Coates, Ta•Neh1!>1 eetw,·tn the World ond Me New Vorle Sp,!!gel & Grau 2015
N:
1716 i
for books publíshed before the twentieth centu!)', you may omit the
publishe r's name.
1871),
2. Charles Darwin, The Desrent of Man. ond Select,on ,n Relotion to Se~ (London,
Harcourt Brace and World
Harcourt Brat" Jovanovich
1.16-17
Harcourt, Brace
and Selection in Relat,on to Sex 2 ~ols London, 1871
8 , Da, wtn, Charles Thl! Oe5eent of Man,
171 b 1
Give the pubhsher 's name for each lxy>k exactly as
it appea1s on the title page, even ,r you know that the name has since
changed or appears in a díflerent íonn for other books in your h1bliography.
PUB LI SHER' s NAME .
You may, however, om1t an initial The and such abbreviations ;is 1111:., Ltd ,
S.A., Co, & Co., and Pubhshmg Co (and the spelled-o ut forms of such corporate abbreviations).
o r PUBLIC ATION The place of publication is the city where the
book publishe r's main editorial offices are located. If you do not see tt
listed on lhe title page, look for 1t on the copyright page mstead Where
two or more cities are given ("Chicago and London," for example), include
PL A C E
University ol Texas Press
Houghton M ,lflin
tttstead of
instead of
mstead of
The University ol Texas Press
Houghton M,lfhn Co
only lhe first
l1ttle, Brown
Los Angeles Gclty Pubhcalton s
New York: Columbia U rwers,ty Press
For non•English publishers, do not translate or abbrevtate „ny part of
~1e publisher 's name, but give lhe city name in its English form (.is noted
m 17 1.6. 1). When the publisher is unknown , use just the place (1fknown)
and date of publication, ff a book has been self-published, however, this
fact may be noted (see also 17, r,6.1).
lf the city of publicati on might be unknown to readers or confused
Wlth another city of the sa.me name, add the abbreviarion of the state (see
's name
24.3.1), provmce , or (íf necessary) country. When the publisher
includes the state name, no state abbreviation is needed.
8:
Cheshire, CT: Graph1cs Press
H.irmonds worlh, UK Penguin Books
Cambridge, MA. MIT Press
Chapel Hill: University of North Carollna Press
Prefer current, common ly used English names for c1ties whenever
such forms exist (When in doubt about which form to use, record the
name of the city as it appears w1th the source.)
Belgritde (not BeogriJd)
M1 c1n (not M1lano)
When the place of publicatton 1s not known (an uncomm on occurrence for older works, which typically specify a city of publicatton), you
may use the abbrevia tion n.p in a note (or N p. in a bibliography enny)
before the publisher 's name lf the place can be guessed, include it in
brackets and add a questlon rnark to ind1cate uncertainty.
(n.p ~ W111dsor, 1910)
(Lake Bluf/. ll?J Vhet and Edward~. 1920
1116 3
Uttle, Brown 6 Co
Plate!
A lbin Eleal.&r A Natural H1story of 8,rds 11/ustrated 1,~11r u Hur,drf'd onrl One CoppPr
1738
author,
the
by
printed
London.
L1fe.
lhe
/rum
Engrovcn
Rilt, A l1sha. Se1v,ng P/,,osure. Self-publish ed, CreateSpace. 2015.
The publication datt> for a book consists only of a
year, not a month or day, and is usually identical to the copyright date. lt
generally appears on the copyright page and sometim es on the t• tle page.
Revised _ed1tions and reprints may include more than one copynghL
date. In th1s case, the most recent indicates 1he publication date. for
example, 20 7 in the string MC) 2003, 2010, 2017,- See 17 1.3 for clling pub•
lication dates in such works.
lf you cannot detennm e the publication date of a pnnted work, use
the abbreviat1on nd. in place oí the year. lf no date is provided but you
believe you know it, you may add it in brackets, with a question mark to
índicate uncertain ty
D ATE OF PUBLI CATION
B; Agnew,John
A 80e>k o{ V•rtues Edinburgh, n d
Mlller, Samuel Anoth111 Book af Virtuc5 Boston, l175o?J
taz
CHAPTEM 17 NOTES 81ELIOGR ArHV STYlf TYPE.S or ~OURCES
1100~
lf a book is under contrac t with a publish er and is already lltled but
the date of publication is not ye t known, use forthcoming in place of the
date. Treat any book not yet under contrac t as an unpubli shed manuscript (see 17.7.4)
n after the page number (with no intervem ng space or punctua tion), lf
lhere are other footnotes or endnotes on the same page as the note cited,
tive notes
hSl the page number followed by n or (if two or more consecu
are clled) nn and the note number(s)
N·
1,
N:
ng)
Jane Q. Aulhor, Boole Title ( Place of Publicat,o n: Publisher ·~ Name, forthcomi
Page Number s and Other Locator s
Page number s and other informa tion uscd to identify the localion of a
oted passage or elemen t generall y appear in notes but not in bibliogra.
phies. One exception: if you cite a chapter or ether section of a book in
a bibHography, give the page range for that chapter or seclion (see r7.1.8
17.1.7
for examples).
For guidelines on express ing a span of number s, see 23.2.4. For page
number s and other locators in e-book formats , see 17.1.10.
The locator is usually the last
item in a note. Before page number s, the word page or the abbreviation
p or pp. ,s generall y omitted . Use arabic number s except for pages numbered with roman numera ls m the original
on Col/ege
Richard Arum and Josipa Ro ksa , Academically Adr1/t · lím,ted Learning
46
1452011),
Press,
Chicago
of
y
Universit
(Chicago·
Com~s
o( Sorrow; 8/od
2. Jacqul!hne Jones. preface to the new cdlt,on o f Labor of Love Labor
Basic Book5,
Wome11, Wor/c, ond the Fom,/y, from Slovery to the Present, rl!v, ed. (New Yorl<:
N:
1.
N:
N.
Ille MBA: Buj,3. S11kan1 M . Datar, Dav ,d A . Garvin and Patrick G, Cullen, Rethmk,ng
2.
i
p
2010)
Press,
Busu,ess
ness fducalion ot o Crossroods (Bost on Harvard
N:
1'7.1.8
1/172
Sometim es you will want to cite a specific
note, a f1gure or tahle, or a number ed line (as m some works of poetry)
notes. lf the note
■ Note numbers. Use the abbrevi ation n (plural nn) to cite
cited is the only footnote on its page or is an unnumb ered footnote, add
OTHE R T VPES Of LOCATO RS .
4 Ogden Nash, ·song for Ditherers ~ l1nes 1-4.
Chapter s and Other Parts of a Book
I~ most cases you can cite the main tiUe of ;iny book that offers a contmu~us ar~men t, narrativ e, or theme, even 1f you actually use only a
secLion of it. But sometim es you wtll want to cite an indepen dent essay
or chapter if chat is the part most relevant to your research By domg so,
you help readers see how the source fits into your project.
,n Suphan•
B: Níshiza~,'• Yosh,nori 81g ls Good. The Banharn-Jaemsa, Observato ry Tower
Tho,londbun ln A So,ong for Clio. Essoy~ on the lntellt cluol ond Cutturo/ H,story o(
Cornell
lnspired by Cro,9 J Reynolds, r.d,ted by Maurmo Pelegg1, 143•62. lthaca NV:
Un,vl!rsrty Press 2015-
Some books pnnted before 1800 do not carry page number s but are
diVlded into signatu res and then into Jeaves or folios, each with a front
s1de (r&to, or r) and a back side (verso, or v) To cite such pages, mclude the
relevant string of number s and identtfie rs, run togethe r without spac-es
or italics: for exampl e, G6v, 176r, 232r-v, or (if you are citing entire folios)
fo) 49
Conlro A,d
3 Richard Sobel. Pub/,c Opin,on m U.S fore,gn Po/,cy. The Contro~el"$y o~e,
(Boslon Rowman and Littlefíeld, 1993), 87, table 5,3.
• Line_ rtumbers. For poetry and other ~"rks best 1dentified by line number,
a~o1d the abbre111ations I. (line) and li (lines), they are too easily confused
with the numera ls r and 1 I. Use hne or hnes, or use numbers alone where
you have made it clear that you are referring to lines
2010), XIV-XV
Sometim es you may want to refer to a full chapter (abbreV1ated chap,),
part (pt.), book (bk.), or section (sec) instead of a span of page numbers,
dge, MA Harvard Un,~er1 Anthony Grafton, The Footnote; A Curious Hislory (Cambn
11ty Press. 1997), 72n
g8o), , n _
2. Dw,ght Bol1nger, Languuge: The Looded W~pon ( London. Lon11man /,
92 23
192n30, 199m4, 201nn16-17.
• lllustration and table numbers Use the abbreviation jig for figure, but spell
out table, map, plate, and names of oŮler types of illustrations, Give the
page number before Ůle illustration number.
PAGE, CHAPTER . ANO OIVIS ION NUMDERS
17171
113
instead o(
History of
Peleggí, Maunz,o, ed A Sarong for Clio Essoyi on the lntelll!Ctuo / ond Cu/tura/
Thorlond- lnspued by C1019 J. Reynalds. lthaca, NV Corneli University Press, 2015 .
171.8.1
If you cite a chapter OT other tiUed part
of a smgle-a u~or book, mclude the title of the part first, in roman type
a_nd enclos~d quotatio n marks. After the designa tion i11, give the book
btle ln a bibhography entry, include the full span of page number s for
that ~art following the book tiUe; in a note, give the page number(s) for 8
spec1fic reference as you would for any other quotaoo n.
PART~ Of SIN GLE - AUTHO ~ BOO k S.
m
18 5
184
N:
, Roxane Gay, " The Carele~ Language ol Sexual V,olence.' in Bad Femmist
York Harper Perennial, 2014), 130.
liographical informatio n about both the part and the book as a whole.
Thereafter, if you cite another part from the book, provide the full authoťs name and title of the part, but give Lhe informatio n about the book
in shortened form. Subsequen t notes for individua) parts follow one of
the shortened note fonns (author-only, shown here, or author-title)
(New
e: Gay, Roxane. "The Careless Language of Sexual V,olence." ln 13od Feminist, 128- 36. Ni:w
York. Harper Perennial, 2014
Jf you cite a part with a generic title such as mtroductlon , preface, or
afterword, add that term before the title of the book in roman type With.
out quotation marks. If the part 1s written by someone ether than the
mam aulhor of the book, give the part authoťs name first and the book
authoťs name after the title.
N:
N;
Chicago Press, 2008), 259.
5. Retfl, 57
ln your bibliography, provide a full citation for the whole book and a variation on the shortened note form for individua! parts,
2013), XII.
3 Cra,g Calhoun. foreword to Mult,cultural Pol1t1cs: Roc,sm, Ethnic,ty_, and Musflrru 111
Br,tain, by Tariq Modood (Minneapolis University of M10nesota Press, 2005), )(lt.
8: Bruegmann, Robert. "Built Environment of the Chicago Region. ln Keat,ng, 76- 31 4
Keating, Ann Durhn, ed. Chtcago Ne,ghblthoods ond Suburbs: A Histcmca/ Gu,de Chicago:
University of Chicago Press 2008.
lf the author of the generic part is the same as the author of the book, cite
the book as a whole in the bibliography, not JUSt the part.
by Tariq Modood, •~-xv Minneapolis: University of M1nnesota Press, 2005.
Re1ff, Jamce, l. "Contested Spaces " ln Keat1ng, 55-63.
171.8.3 WORKS IN ANTHOLOG IES . Cite a short story, poem, essay, or ether work
published in an anthology in the same way you would a contributio n to
an edited collection with muluple authors. Give the ntles of most works
published in anthologie s in roman type, enclosed in quotation marks. An
exception is a book-lengt h poem or prose work that is anthologized in
full or in part; its title should be 1talic1zed (see 22.3.2).
Kesler Grant H. Conversatton P,eces Community and Communicotion in Modern Art. Up
dated ed Berkeley University of California Press, 2013
171.8.2
lf you cite part of an edited coUection
list the part author and title [ln
authors,
with contributio ns by multiple
roman type, enclosed in quotalíon marks) nrst. After the designation m
give the book title and the name of the editor ln a bíbliography entry, ndude the full span of page numbers for that part following the book title;
in a note, give the page number(s) for a specific reference as you would
PART S OF EOITEO COLLECTIO NS .
N:
B: Wiggleswo, th, Michael Excerpt from The Day of Doom ln The Nel'! Anthnlogy of Am~n,on
Paetry, vol. ,, Trod1t1ons ond Revolut1ons, 8eginnmgs to 1900, edited by Steven Gould
Axelrod, Camlllt Roman, and Thomas Trav1sano, 68-14 New BrunswtCk
University Press 2003.
1. Cameron B1nkley, ·saving Redwoods: Clubwomen and Conservat,on, 1900-1925,
N:
Col1fom1a Women ond f'ofltlcs; From the Gold Rush lo the Greot Depression, ed. Robert W
2011) 155
Nebraska Pre.!>!>. 2011
If you cite two or more contributio ns to the same edited collect1on,
you may use one of the space-savm g shortened forms discussed in 16.4-t
The nrst time you cite any part from the book in a note, give full bib·
NJ. Rutgers
lf the original publication date of a work is 1mportant m th e context
of your paper, include ít after the title of the work and before the title of
the anthology in both your notes and your bibliography.
Cherny, Mary Ann Irwin, and Ann Marie Wil$on (Luicoln· University of Nebrask.1 Prus.
W Cherny, Mary Ann Irwin. and Ann Marie Wilson, 151- 74. Lincoln. Untver!,oty ol
1 Isabel Allende " The Sp1rils Were W 1lling," in The Oxford Book a( Latm Amencon f s-
5ays, ed. llan Stavans (New York. Oxford University Press, 1997), 463-64,
for any ether quotation.
B: Btnkley, Cameron. Saving Redwoods· Clubwomen and Conservatton, 1900-1925 " ln Ca
formo Women and Pofiltcs. From th~ Gold Rush lo lhe Greot Depression, edite<I by Robfrt
'
3 Janice L Re1ff, ·Contested Spaces," in Keat,ng, 55,
4. 8ruegmann, 299-300.
2. Grant H. Kesler, preface to the 2013 ed,tlon ot Conversot,on P,eces· Commun,ty ond
Communicotíon ,n Modem Art, updated ed (Berkeley: University of Cal1fornia Pre1s
8: Calhoun Cra,g. Foreword to Mu/t,cu/!uro/ Po/11.ics Racism, Ethnicity, ond Mus/1ms ,n Br,ta,
Chicago Ne,gh•
University of
(Chicago.
ng
Keat1
Durkin
Ann
ed
de.
Gu1
H,staricol
borhoods ond Suburbs: A
2 . Robert 8ruegmann ''Budt Environment of t he Chicago Reg1on,7 1n
N:
2. ,sabel A llende, The Sp1rits Were W1lling (1984), 1n The Oxford Book „
B: W1gglesworth, Michael, Excerpt from The Day of Doom. 1662, ln The New Ar,thalngy.
17
.1.9
Letters and Other Communications in Published Collections
To cite a letter, memorand um, or other such item collected m a book, give
the names of the sender and recipient followed by the date of the cor-
Cl-tAPlER
186
lOt••ri AL ARTIC
17 l~Ol[S-BIH IOG " A[ l-tV ~fYll HP{, or SOURC E!,
1 HeflfY James to Ed1t h Wharton November
187
3- Jessa Cr1sprn, The Deod Lodies P101ect, Exiles, &pats, ond EK·Countrtťl (Chicago; Um-
respondence. (Fot unpublished pe1sonal communications, see 17.6.2; for
unpublished letters in manuscripl collections, see 17.7 .4.) The word letter
is unnecessary, but label othet forms, such as a report or memorandum.
Give the title and other dala for the collection in the usual form for an
edited book. Subsequent notes to the same item can be shortened to the
names of the sender and recipient (plus a date if necessary).
N:
rs
versity ol Chicago Press, 2015), 100- 101, Adobe Digital Ed1t1ons PD F.
4 , Malcolm Gladwell, Out/1ers: The Storyof Succe55 (Bost o11 little, Brown, 2008), chap.
1, i.e<:, 4, Kindle
5- Harper Lee. Go Sel a Wotchmor, ( New York: Harper, 2015) chap 19, i8ooks.
6 Fyodor Oosloevsky, Crimc and Punishmer,t, trans Constance Garnclt ( Project
Gutenber g, last updated Novembe, 5. 2012), pt 6, chap. 1, http://gul l!nberg.org/files
/255412554-h /255,1-h ht m
'
8, 1905. in Letters, ed Leon Edel, vol. 4,
1895-1916 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press ol Harvard University Press 1984), 373-
or. betle,,
2. James to Whar ton, 375.
6. Fyodor Dost oevsky, Cnme ond Punishment, trans. Constance Garnett, ed W 1I•
3. E. B W hite to Harold Ross, m emorandum, May 2. 1946, in Lelters o( E. B. White, ed.
11am Allan Neilson ( New
York; P F. Colher & Son, 1917), 444, ht1ps:11archl\le 0,g;details
/ crimepunishmentoodostuolt
Dorothy Lobrano Guth (New York· Harp!!r and Row, 1976), 273,
ln the blbliography, cite the whole collection.
B: Crn.p,n, Jessa. The Dead l ad,es Pro1!'ct. & ,les. Expats, ond Ex-CountriPs ChKago: University
8: James, Henry letters Ed1ted by Leon Edel Vol. 4, 1895-1916, Cambndge MA; Belknap
of Ch,cngo Press. 2015. Adobe D1g1tal Ed1t1ons PDF
Press ol Hilrvard University Press, 1984.
White, E. B l etters o( E. B. White. Ed 1ted by Dorothy lobrano Guth. New York: Harper
Davi\ , Janet M. The Gospel af 1Ci11dness· Animol Welfare ond the Mokmg of Modern
Amerrco. Oxford : Odord University ~re!>s 2016. https.//do1 .org110 1og31acprof 050
19780199733156.001 0001.
and Row 1976.
Dostoe-.,sky, F)'odor Crrme ond Pur11shment, Translated by Constancc Garnelt Eďrted by
Electronic Books
Electromc books, or e-books, are cited just like print books, as discussed
throughout 17.1. ln addition, you will need to include information about
the format you consulted. If you read the book online, indude a URL. li
you consulted the book in a commercial database, you can instead give
the name of tbe database. See 15.4. 1 for more details.
on the other hand, if you downloaded a book from Amazon or Apple
or the like in a format that requires a specific app or device, include that
11.1.10
mfonnation instead.
Many e -book formats Jack lixed page n u mbers. Avoid citing app- or
device-s pecific screen or location numbers, which may not be the same
for others even if they consult the same fonnat. lnstead, cite by chapter
or section number (see 17, 1.7.r) or, if these are unnumbered, by thename
of the chapter or section (see 17 , .8). Especially for a frequently cited
source, it may be better simply to consult a version that rep roduces the
pagmation of a printed edition. ln the Dostoevsky example below, the
page ímages from the Internet Archive are easier to cite than the reflowable P-roject Gutenberg text, and because they reproduce the original text
exactly, they are also more authoritative
N:
1 Janet M . Davis. The Gospel o( K,ndness· Animal Weffare oncl the Mok,ng of Mod~rn
Amertca (Oxford: Oxford Universit y Press w16), 144 -45, ht tps://do1.org110.1093/acprof
:oso/ 9780199733156.001.0001.
2. Eric Schlosser, Fast Food Nation; The Dark 5,de of the American Mtal ( Bost on: Hough·
Ion Milllln 2001). 88, ProQuest Ebr.iry.
WIiiiam A llan Ne,lson. New York: P F, Collrer, 1917. https.//arch1ve.org/detalls1crime
punishmentoodost uoft.
Outl,ers The Story af Succe.n Boston: L1ltle. Brown, 2008 Kindle.
Lei!, Harper. Go Sili o Wo tc/1man. New York· Harper, 2015. 1Books
Gladwell, Malcolm
Schlosser, Enc. Fast Food Nol1on. The Dork Side of rhe Amer,con Meol Boston: Houghton
M1ff11n, 2001 ProQuest Ebrary
17.2
Journal Articles
Joum~ ar_e sc~olarly or professional periodicals available primarily in
aca~em1~ li~ranes and by subscription. They often melu de the word ;ournal 1n their tltle (Journal of Modem History), but not always (Signs). Joumals
are not the same as magazínes, which are usually intended for a more
general readership. This dis tinction is 1mportant because joumal articles
and magazine articles are c1ted differently (see 17.3). lf you are unsure
whether a periodical is a joumal or a magazine, see whether its articles
include citations; if so, treat it as a journal.
Many joumal articles are availnble online, often through your school's
library ~ebsi~e or from a commercial database. To ote an art1cle that you
read onhne, mclude a URL lf a URL is listed along with the article use
that instead of the one in your browser's address bar lf a DOi is li~ted,
append the DOi to https://do1.org/ to form the URL. lf you consulted the
article in a commercial data base, you may give the name of the database
instead of a URL. See 15.,p for more details
189
188
l7.2.1
11.2.2
N:
Author's Name
Give authors' names exactly as they appear at the heads of their nrticl"'
d
Names in lhe notes are hsted m standard order (first name first), In the
bibliography the name of the first-lisred author 1s invened. For sorne
special cases, see r6.2., .2.
Artide Title
List complete article titles and subtitles. Use roman type, separate the
title from the subntle with a colon, and enclose both in quotation marlts
Use headline-style capitalization (see 22.3.1).
11.2,3 Joumal Title
After Lhe arncle title, hst the Joumal title tn 1lalics, with headline-style
capitalization (see 22 3.1) Give the title exactly as it appears on the title
page or on the joumal webs1te; do not use abbreviations, although you
can omit an initial TI1e (see also 22.3.2.1). If the official tllle is an initialism
such as PMLA, do not expand it For non-Engllsh joumal titles, you may
use either headline-style or sentence-style capitalizati~n. bul retai.11 all
mjtial articles (Der Spiegel).
,,.z.A lssue Information
Most Joumal citations mclude volume number, issue numbPr, month or
season, and year. Readers may not need all of these elements to locate
un orticle, but inclucling them all guruds against a possible error in one
ofthem.
1 Quentin Taylor "The Ma~k of Publius Ale~ander Hamilton and the Pohtics of Exped1ency,'' Amer1can Politicol Tha!lghl 5, no. 1 (Winter 2016) 63, http~ //do1.or&110.1oa6
/ b84559.
B: Taylor. Quentin. "The Mask of Publius: Alexander Hamilton and the Polil it!. of ExpeclJ•
t'ncy," American Poltt1cal Tlwugll l 5 no, 1 ( W inter 2016), 55-79. https-.11do1,org/m 1066
1684559
Tenns normally itahcized in text, such as species names and book
titles, remain italicized withm an article title; terms quoted in the title
are enclosed in single quotation marks because the title itself is within
double quotation marks, Do not add either a colon or a period after a title
or subtitle that ends in a question mark or an exclamation point lf the
title would normally be followed by a comma, as in the shortened note
example below (see 16.4, 1), use both marks. See also 21.12.1
N,
17241 VOlU ME A ND ISSUE NUMIIERS J)le volume number follows the joumal
title without mtervening punctuation and is not italic:ized. Use arabic
numerals even if lhe joumal itself uses roman numerals lf there is an
issue number, it follows the volume number, separated by a comma and
preceded by no
N:
B: Ionescu. Fehc,a. Risky Human Cap,tal and Alternat1ve Bankruptcy Reg1mes for Student
Loans Jaumat of 1-/uman Capital
2. Lisa A. Twomey, "Taboo or Tolerable? Hemingway's for Whom thl! Bell Tol/s m Post•
2 (Sp, ing 2011) 55
J, Twomey "Ta boo or Tolerable?,'' 56
1sh Aristocracy, 1558-1959 " Journal of Brit,sh Studies 37, no. , (January 1998): 26-53
N,
8: Beattie, J M "The Pattern of Crime in England, 1660-1800." Post ond Presenl, no 62 (Feb•
ruary 1974): 47-95
17.24 2 D ATE
OF PUIIL ICATION. The date of pub!Jcation appears in parenlheses
after the volume number and issue inforrnation. Follow the practice cf
the joumal regarding date 111fonnation; it must include the year and may
include a season, a month, or an exact day. Capltalize seasons in joumal
citations, even though they are not capitalized m text.
4. Anto010 CarTeno•Rodrígul!z, "Modemidad en la literatura gauc:hesca Carnaval1zac,on y parodra en el Fousto de Estaníslao del Campo, H1spanio cµ, no. 1 (Marc.h 2009):
13-14, hllp/ ;www.1stor orgtstable/40648253
8: Kern W. 'Waar verzamelde P1gafetta z1jn Maleise woorden"" íWhere did Pigafolta
collect h1s Malaysian words?J TTjdsch11ft vonr lndische raol•. /onrl•en valkenltunde 18
(1938 ): 271- 73-
2 (Summer 2011) · 1s3- .zo6. https:/1doI org/10
When a Joumal uses issue numbers only, without volume numbers, a
comma follows the journal title
http./ /Www.jstor org/stable,t176034.
Titles m languages other than English should generally be capitahzeó
sentence-style (see 22 3 1) according to the conventions of the particular
language lf you add an English translation, enclose it in brackets, with•
out quocation marks.
s. no
10861661744
wa, Spain," Hemmgwoy Review 30, no
8: Lew,s Jud1th. " Tis a M 1sfortune to Be :i Great ladie': Ma\l!rnal Mortality in the 6111-
1 Camphell Brown, 'ConsequentIalIze Th1s. flll1cs 1i1, no 4 (July 1011) : 752, hllps://
do1.org;10 1086/660696.
N:
1 MarJorle Garbcr, 'Over the Influence," Cr,ticot tnqurry .p no 4 (Sommer 2016): 735,
hl tps.// doi.org/10.1086/ 6869óo.
B: Bartfeld, Judi, and Myoung K,rn "Part1c1pation
in
1hr: School Breakíasl Program· New
Evidence from t11e ECLS-K.'' Socíol Service Rev,ew 84, no 4 (December 2010): 541-6 2
https ✓/dol
org/lo 1086 657109
190
CHAPTER 17
I !<OTES
191
MAGAZ INE AR TI CLES
BIBLIOGRArto' jii)L( T YPES Of SOIJRCES
If an article has been accepted for publicallon but has not yet ap.
peared, use forthcoming in place of the date and page numbers. Treat an
article not yet accepted for publication as an unpublished manusctii
(see 17-7.4).
Jar issues of the joumal, often with S as part of its page numbers. Use a
comma between the vohrme number and the supplement number.
N:
2 . Ivar Ekeland, James
J. Heckman, and lars Nesheim, " ldent1flcat1on and Est imation
of Hedonic Models," in "Papers in Honor of Sherw1n Rosen," Journal o( Pahticol Economy
112, S1 ( February 2004): S72, https://doi.org/10.1086/ 379947.
N: 2. Margaret M . Aut hor, "Article Title," Journa/ Name 98 ( forthcoming),
B: Ekeland, Ivar, James J Heckman. and Lars Neshe1m. "ldent ,ficat iop and Esti mat ion of
Hedonic Models " ln "Papers 1n Ho nor ol Sherwin Rosen." Journd! o( Polit,ca/ Economy
B: Author Margaret M. ''Art,cle Tit le." Journal Name 98 ( fo rthcoming).
112, 51 (Febr uary 2004): S60-S109. ht tps://doi.org/10.10861379947.
17.2.S
N:
Page Numbers
lf you cite a particular passage in a note, give only the specific page(s)
cited. For a bibhography entry or a note that cites the entire artide, give
the full span of page numbers for the article (see 23.2.4). By conventioa
page numbers of journal articles follow colons rather than commas. '
1. Tim Hitchcock, ''Beggi ng on the Streets of Eighteenth-Century London,"
l 7,2.7
Journo/ of
Br/t1sh Stud,es 44, no. 3 (July 2005): 478, https./ /doi.org/10.1086/429704.
N:
N:
Special Issues an d Supplem ents
A journal issue devoted to a single theme is known as a specia.l issue. lt
carries a norma! volume and issue number. lf a special issue has a title
and an editor of its own, include both in the citations. The title is given
in roman type and endosed in quotation marks.
17,3
Magazíne Articles
Articles in magazines are cited much like joumal artides (see r7.2), but
dates and page numbers are treated differently.
Cite magazines by date only, even if they are numbered by volume
and issue. Do not enclose the date in parentheses. lf you cite a specific
passage in a note, include its page number. But you may omit the article's
inclusive page numbers in a bibliography entry, since magazíne articles
often span many pages that include extraneous material. If you include
page numbers, use a comma rather than a colon to separate them from
the date of issue. As with joumals, you can omit an initial The from the
magazíne title (see also 22.3.2.1).
1. Rajeswan Sunder Raian, "Ze1tge1st and the L1terar y Texl India, 19471 ln Qurratuh1lr
Hyder's My Temp/es, Too and Salman Rushdie'!> M,dnighťs Children," ,n "Around 1948: ln•
t1:rdisciplina1y Approaches to Global Transformat inn," ed Leela Gandhi and Debordh L
Nelson, speclal 1ssue, Critica/ lnqu/ry 40, no. 4 (Summ er 2014): 440- 41, https:/ / dol.ort,110
1086/ 676415.
8: Sunder Rajan. Rajeswari, "Ze1tgeist and the literary Text. India, 1947, ln Qurratulaln Hy-
der 's
My Temp/es Too and Salman Rushdie's M,dmght's Children." ln "A round 1948.
1. Campbell Brown, " Consequentia~e This," abst ract. Eth,cs 121, no. 4 (July 2011): 749.
In your bibliography, cite the full article (or other work) and not the
abstract.
8: W ang, ShiPu. "We Are Scott sboro Boys. H,deo Noda's Vísual Rhet or ic of Transracial Soli•
darity.'' Amerlcan Art 30, no. 1 (Spring 2016): 16- 20. https./tdoi.org/10,10861686545-
17.2.6
Ab stracts
You can cite information in the abstract of a joumal article or other work
in a note. Indude the full citation for the Joumal article (or other work,
such as a dissertation) and insert the word abstract within the citation,
following the title.
N:
1. Jill Lepore, ''The Woman Card," New Yorker, June 27, 2016, 23.
lnterdiscipl inary A pproaches to Global Transformationt edited by Leefa Ga11dh1 and
Deborah L Nelson. Special ,ssue, Critical lnauiry 40, no. 4 (Summer 2014): 439-65
B: Lepore Jtll "The Woman Card." New Yorker, June 77, 2016
https://do,.org/10.1086/676415
If you ote a department or colurnn that appears regularly, capitalize it
headline-style and do not enclose it in quotation marks.
Ifyou need to cite the issue as a whole, omit the artide information.
8: Gandh1, Leela, and Deborah L. Nelson, eds, "Around 1948: lnterd1sc,pltnary Approaches
to Global Transfor mation." Special issue, Cntical /nquiry 40, no. 4 (Surnmer 2014).
A joumal supplement may also have a title and an author or editor of
its own. Unlike a special issue, it is numbered separately from the regu-
N:
:z. Barbara Wallraff, Word Court
Atlantic Month/y, June 2005, 128.
Magazíne articles consulted online should include a URL (see 15-4-1 3)
or the name of a commercial database (see r 5.4.1 .4). Typically there will
be no page numbers to cite.
,
NEWSPI\PER •RTICLE<
192
N·
pages or may even be dropped. You may clarify which edition you consulted by adding.finaf editíon, Midwest edition, or whatever applies. Articles
read online should include a URL. For articles obtained through a commercial database, you may give the name of the database instead. See
r 5.4.1 for more details.
3. Gabriel Roth, 'Old England !> Overthrow " Slote, June 24. 2016, http://Www.slate,c01n
1art1cles/ news_and politics/ polit1cs;2016/ 06/ the_brit1sh_establishment_conspired
_with_voters_to_destroy_1tself.ht ml
4. Michael K. W ,lllams, interview by Eliana Dockterman TTme, July 25. 2016, ESSCOhost.
B: luk1anoff, Greg, and Jonathan Ha1dt. ''The Coddhng ol the Amencan M 1nd." Atfantic, Sep-
193
N:
tember 2015. http://www theatlantíc com/ maga1me1arch1ve/ 2015/09/ the·coddhng
1. "Res1dency Ruling· Stale Supreme Court Guts local Control-/' Milwaukee Journal
Sentinel, editorial, June 24, 2016.
-of- the•american-mind/ 399356/
2 . Fergus M c:lntosh, letter t o the edito1, New York Tlmes, June
24, 2016.
3 John Pareles. obitua,y for David Bowie, New York 1,mes. January 26, 2016, New
Magazme articles published online sometimes mclude readers' comments. These are cited like comments on blog posts (see r7.5.2).
York edit1on
4 . Sa1f al-lslam Gaddali interview by Simon Oenyer, Washington Post. April 17. ::011
5. Rob Pegoraro, "Apple's ,Phone ls Sleek, Smart and Simple, Wash111gton Post July 5,
2007, LexisNex1s Academie.
6. Assoc1ated Press, "Ex UConn Student Applies for Probat1on over Mac and Cheese
17.4
Newspaper Articles
17.4.1
Name of Newspaper
You can usually omit an initial The from the name of an English-language
newspaper (see also 22.3.2. 1) lf the name of a Jocal newspaper does not
include a city. it may be added to the official title. lf a name is shared by
many cities or ís obscure, you may add the state or province in parentheses (for abbreviations, see 24 3 1), for national papers, you may need to
identify the country. For non-English newspapers. you may use headlinestyle capitalization. but retain an initial article 1fit is forma Hy part of the
name; add city or other information after titles for clarity, if necessary,
Chicago Tribune
New York Times
Hackensack (NJ) Record
Somr Paul (Alberta 01 AB) Journal
Meltdown,' USA Today Co//ege, November 23, 2015. htt p:11college usatoday.com/ 2015/11
/ 23/mac-and- cheese-uconn·probal io!J(
"' of Gtmerat1on Z," Globe ond Mail (Toront o) ,
7. Erin And erssen, "Through the Eyes
June 25, 2016, http://Www theglobeandmail com/ news/nationailthrough-lhe·eyes ot
-generatlon-Z1art1cle30571914/
8. Dara Und, " Moving to Canada, Explamed" Vo~. Sept ember 15, 2016, http://WWW
.vox.com/ 2016/ 5/ 9/ 11608B30/move-to-canada-how.
8: Svrluga, Susan. " Harvard l;iw School Will No Lenger Require LSAT for Admission." Washington Post, March 9, 201r https:/Jwww.wash1ngtonposl. com;news/grade-poinl/wp
/ 2017/ 03/ 08/ harvard-law•school-w1ll·no·longer·require·the·lsat·for·admiss10n/
To cite a comment, refer to a shortened form of the article (which
must be cited or mentioned in full elsewbere). See also 17.5.2.
LeMonde
La CrómCJl de Hoy (Me ...lc:o City}
Al·Akhbar (Be1rut)
Times (UK)
N:
Articles from Sunday "magazíne" supplements or other special sections should be treated as you would magazíne articles (see 17.:3).
The name of a news website can usually be treated in a similar way, except that a Jocation will rarely be necessary.
Huffmgton Post
Va.-.
For blogs, whlch are treated similarly, see 17 .5.2 For websites, see t7.5.r
17.4.2
Citing Newspapers in Notes
In most cases, ate articles and other pieces from newspapers {or news
websites) only in notes. Include a specific article in your bibliography
only if it is critical to your argument or frequently cited.
Foliow the general pattem for otation of articles in magazines (see
r7 3). Omit page numbers, even for a printed edition, because a newspaper may have several editions in whlch items may appear on different
9. lauren K., March 9, 2017, comment on Svrluga, " Harvard l.iw School "
17.4.3
Citing News papers in Te xt
Often you will be able to cite an article by weaving severa l key elements
into your text. At a minimum, include the name and date of the paper
and the author of the article (if any). Some of thís information can appear
in parentheses, even if 1t does not follow the form for parenthetical notes
described in 16.4-3.
ln his op·ed in support of a challenge by student s over the use of Woodrow Wilson's
name at Princet on (New York Times November 24 2015), Davis traces the negative
impact of Wilson's polic1es on his paternal grandfather's career at the Government
Printing O ffice
WEBSITES BLOGS ANO SOCI Al MlOIA
C'1'1PTE R 171 NOH~ 8 BLIOGR-'Pl-lV STYLE TYPES OF SOURUS
194
17.5
Websites, Blogs, and Social M edla
11.s.1
Websit e Conten t
ts:
Cite web pages and related conten t by 1dentifying the following elemen
marks),
on
quotati
in
d
enclose
type,
author, title of the page (in roman
), the
title (or description) of the site (usually m roman type; see 22.3.2.3
publica
a
and
title),
owner or sponso r of the site (if not the same as the
).
15.4.r.3
tion or revision date. lnclude a URL as the final elemen t (see
For a frequen tly update d source (such as a wiki). you can record a time
the
stamp if the source include s one lf no date can be determ ined from
the
in
t
conten
webs1te
Cite
1.5).
source, include an access date (see 15.4
to
critical
is
it
if
only
notes, include a specific item in your bibhography
your argume nt or frequen tly cited
25 2016, http://
1 " Pnvacy Pohcy, Privacy & Terms, Google, last modif1ed March
N:
;~u
cite multipl e pos ts rrom the same blog, you may chaose to cite lhe
og as a whole m the bibliogiaphy.
N:
Makes Be
2. Lindy West, "Sweden lntroduc es New Gender•Neutral Pr~oun
oduces- n;!
ei:len-intr
com1s.,..
zebel
http://Je
a Man ILLEGAL." Jezebel, Apríl n. 2013.
akes•bei
ronoun-m
neutral-p
·gender•
4724920 79
of H19her Ed
_3, William Germano, "Futurist Shock,'' Lmguo Franco (blog) Chrnmc/e
• guafranc a t;,0 17102 u·
15
cat,an' February 15, 2o17, hl lp'.//ww w chronicl e comt blogsflin
I f uturist•shock/.
of H,gher fd11cutwn
B: German o, William "Futurist Shock." Lmquo Franco (blog) Chron,cle
futunst
~
,
Fehbruary 15, 2017, http:/ / www.chr onicle.co m ·blogs/ hnguafranca 201710 151
·s oclv.
or
L,nguo Franco (blog) Chron,cIe of Hl9 her Educotior1. http:/; www chron1cle .com1blogs
/ linguafranca/.
l
Comn:ients can be _cited in lenns of a shorten ed form of the origina
name
the
post (wh1c~ must be c1ted or menúo ned m full elsewhere) Cite
eexactly as tt appears , along with any identify ing mfonna tion m parenth
(though
ses. List the date of the comme nt rather than the date of the post
same)
the
be
they may
le.
09·57. http //en.wikipedía org;wiki1Wlk1pediJ•Manu al_ol_Sly
Facing American
4 , Susan 8. Híggíns. " High School Students Explore Ke-,, l ssues
23, 2016, https://
June
ty,
Universi
n
Indian Commun ,tles • News al Princeto n Princeto
www.pn nceton.edu/ rna1n1news/ arch1ve/ S46166;o 2A46/,
ww columb1a edo
5. History," Columbi a University, accessed July 1 2016 , http:;;w
ln a b1bliography, list a source that doesn't include an author under
the title of the website or the name of its owner or sponsor.
B: Google. "Pnvacy Pohcy
Privacy & Terms. last mod1fied March 25 2016 hltp://WW't'I
google com/ intl/en/ privacyp olicy.htm l
Articles from news website s can usually be cited like arbcles in newspapers (see 17.4). For blogs, see 17.5.2.
11.s.2
Blog Posts
and
Blog posts (also called entries} are similar to articles m magazi nes
.t).
17
newspa pers and can be ated in much the same way (see 17.3 and
1tal·
Put the title of the post in quotati on marks and the title of the blog in
title).
the
from
clear
not
is
it
if
eses
ics (you can mdicate "blog" in parenth
lf the blog is part of a larger publica úon such as a newspa per or website,
s of
give the name of the publica úon after the title of the blog. Citation
your
blog posts can usually be limited to notes. lnclude a specific item in
if
bibliography only if it is criůcal to your argume nt or frequently cited;
' We/1 (bl ) N
, Sharon Jayson. " ls Self1e Cultu,e Making Our K1ds Self1sh?
ew
og
•
23 2016 htt p.//we li .blogs.nyt1mes.com/ 2016106/23/is•se
lf1e-cultu re
York Timl!5' June
'
' .
.
.
· mak ing•our· k1ds-self1sh/ .
www.google.com/ polic1es/ privacy/
,c Diversity ac•
2 ·sal~an ffoman1," Endangered Languages, All1ance for Linguist
1
lang. 5342.
cessed June 10, 2016, http://w wwenda ngeredla nguages.com/
June 271 2016 ,
3, "Wik1ped1a . Manual of Style M Wik,med ia Foundatíon las! mod1!1ed
/ contenV history.h tml.
195
,"
4 . Muberra (Istanbu l), June 26, 2016, commen t on Jayson, Self1e Culturt?
N:
l7.5,3 Social Media
in
Soc1a~ media conten t is nonnal ly cited in the text or notes but not
Jt
if
only
raphy
b1bliog
~e ~1bhography. lnclude a specific item m your
es
messag
ts cntlcal to your argume nt or frequen tly cited. To cite direct
citin
and other persona ! or private conten t, follow the gu1delines for
17 6·2) · Fot publicly posted conten t modelg
persona
. ! commu nicano ns (see
eleyour Cttattons on the examp les shown here. lnclude the followi,ng
ments·
of
The author of the post. List a screen name in additio n to the name
the
use
just
íse,
Otherw
n.
the person or group on the accoun t, ifknow
screen name.
first r6o charac2. ln place of a title, the text of the post. Quote up to the
zed as in the
capitah
e),
messag
text
typtcal
the
te:s.(enough to capture
to repeat
need
no
is
there
text,
your
m
ongmal . (lf you quoted the post
1.
1t 1n a note.)
INTfRV l t\'JS ANO P[RSOFlAL COMMUNICl1T 1ONS
CHAPH R 17 I NOTE S BIBLIOGRAPH-Y <TYLE TYP[S OF SOURCE'i
196
3.
The type ofpost. This can include a description (photo, video, etc.).
N:
197
1 Caroline Braun. reply to "How did the ' cool k1ds' from hlgh school turn aut?," Quora,
4. The date, includmg month, day, and year You can also include a time
August 9 2016, https://www.quora com1How d1d•the-cool•kids-from•h1gh- school-turn
stamp to help differentiate a post from others on the same day.
s. A URL. A URL can often be found via the date stamp for the item.
-OU!/,
2 Sharon Naylor, " Removing a Thesis " email t o Educ. & 8ehav1or Science ALA D1s·
cussion List. August 23, 2011 (1:47'54 p m, ETl, h1tp://ltstserv.uncc.edu1archives1ebss-1
.htm l.
Comments are cited in reference to a shortened fonu of the original
post, which must be cited in full elsewhere. Like newspaper articles or
blog posts, social media can often be cited in the text, as in the first ex.
ample. If it is especially important to Iink back to the originaJ post, use
a note instead.
or
Sharon Nay lor, In her email of August 23, 2011, to the Educ. & Behav,or Science ALA
O,scussíon list (http✓/l1stserv,uncc.edu/arch1ves/ebss-1 html), po1nted aut that ...
Conan O'Br1en's tweet was characte, 1st,cally deadpan: "ln honor of EMth Day, l'm re•
cycl ing my tweets" ( .o,ConanOBrien. April 22, 2015)
N:
1. Junot Diaz, "Always surprIses m y student s when I tel1 them that the 'real' medieval
17.6
lnterviews and Persona! Communications
17.6.1
Interviews
Unpublished interviews (including those you have conducted yourself)
should usually be cited only in n.sites. lnclude a specific interview in your
bibliography only if it is critical to your argument or frequently cited.
Begin the note with the names of the person interviewed and the inter•
viewer; also include the pJace and date of the interview (if known) and
the location of any recordings or transcripts (íf available) Notice the form
for a shortened note, which differs from the usual pattem (see 16. 4.1).
was more diverse than the fake onP.s m ost o l us consume," Facebook. February 24, 20161
https://www.facebook.com/1unot diaz.wr,te,; posts/ 9724955 72815454
2
Conan O'Bríen ( á ConanOBroen), ln honor of Earth Day, I m recycling my
t weets " Twitter, April 22 20 15, 1110 a.m, https://tw1t t er.com/ConanOBrien1statl&
; 590940792967016448
3 Chicago Manual ol Style. " ls the world ready lor singular they"" We thought so back
In 1993," Facebook, Apríl 17 2015, https./ / www facebook.com/ ChicagoManual/posts
110152906193679151
4. Pele Souza ( ti petesouza), ''President O bam a b,ds farewell to President X1 oi
Chin;; at the conclusion of the N uclear Secur íty Summit." lnstagram photo, Apríl 1, 20161
N:
2. Ben1amin Spock, 1ntervIew by Mi lton J. E. Senn, November 20, 1974, Inte1view 67A
https:/;www.instagram.com/ p/ BDrmf XTtNC t/
transrnpt, Seno Oral H1story Collect1on, National Ubrary of Med1cine Bethesda, MO.
3. Shields, rnterv1ew. Spock, interview.
s Knstaps LIc1s, February 24, 2016 comment on Diaz, "Always surposes.'
6 Michele Truty, A pni 17, 2015 commcnt on Chicago Manual of Style, "singular they:·
B: Chicago Manual of St yle. ·1~ t he
If you cannot reveal the name of the person interviewed, cite it in
a form appropriate to the context. Explain the absence of a name ("AU
interviews were confidential; the names of interviewees are withheld by
mutual agreement") in a note or a preface.
world readv for s1ngular they? We thought so back m
1993 " Facebook, Apríl 17 201c; htt p!> //WWW facebook com/ Ch1cag0Manual/posts
/ 10 152906193679151.
ltems shared on social media tend to dísappear; always keep a screenshol of whatever you cite in case you need to refer to it Jater (see also
N:
15.4.1.1).
17.5 4
Online Forums and Mailing Lists
To cite material from an online forum or maíling list, include the name of
the correspondent, the title of the subject or thread (in quotation marks
and capita1ized as in the original), the name of the forum or Jist, and the
date and time of the post or message. Omit email addresses {Posts on
privace forums or lists s houJd be cited as personal communications; see
17.6.2.) lnclude a URL (see 15,4 1 3). As w1th social media (see 17.5.3), such
items should nonnally be cited in a note but may instead be incorporated
into the text.
1 David Sh1elds, interview by author, Seattle, July 22, 2016
4 . Interview wot h a home health a1de. July 31, 2017.
Cite a published interview according to the ruJes for that type of publication, wíth one difference: the interviewee is treated as author. If the
identity of the interviewee is clear from the title, it need not be repeated
in a note but should be listed in a bibliography.
N.
5, "Edward Snowden Explams How to Reclaim Your Privacy " interview by Micah Lee,
Tfie lntercept.. November12, 2015, https:// theint ercept.com/2015/ 11/ 12/edward-snowden
·explains-how-to-recla,m-your·privacy/.
B. Snowden, Edward. "Edward Snowden Explains How to Reclaim Your Privacy " Interview
by M ,cah Lee. The /11l ercept, Novem ber 12, 2015. https.//theintercept.com/2015/ 1111:;.,
t edward·snowden·explains·how-to· reclaim ·your·privacy/.
CH ... P1ER p I NOTtS• BIBLIOG ~.,.PH V STY LE lYPES O f S0lJ8C ES
191
For more exampl es, see 17.3 (magazme), 17 4.2 (newspa per), i7.10.3.G
(video). See also 22.3.2.1
PAPERS IEC.TURES AND MANUSCRIPT COllfC"IO N!>
, :i
11 1
Persona l Commu nication s
Cite convers ations, letters, email or text message s, and direct or private
message s shared through soda\ media only in notes. The key element s
are the name of the other person, the type of comrou nication , and the
date of the commu nication . ln many cases, you may be able to use a parenthetic al note (see r6,4.3} or include some or al! of this in~ormation in
the text. omit email address es. To cite content shared publicly through
social media, see 17 . .3; for online forums and mailing lists, see 17.5.4.To
5
cite letters in publish ed collectio ns, see 17.1.9. For items in manuscript
collections, see 17 .7 .4.
17.6.2
A copy of the postcard, postmark ed San Diego, M arch 7, 1965 ( Emma
f enton to autho,
1. Viviana Hong, "Censorsh ,p in Ch1 ldren's Literature during Argenlina
's D11ty War
(1976-198 3)" (lecture. University of Chicago, Chicago, IL April 30, 2015)
.
2. Julie Leininger Pyclor, "Trailblazers and Harb,ngers. Mexicans in New
Yorl before
1970" (paper pr esented at the 130th annual meeting of lhe American H,storical
Soc,ety
Atlanta, GA, January 8, 2016),
8: Carvalho Filho, lrineu de, and Renat(J'P. Colisl ete " Educat1on Performan
ce· Was lt
Ali Determined 100 Years Ago? Evidence from Siio Paulo. Srazil" Paper
presented
at the 70th annual meeting of the Econom,c Hist ory Assoccat1on E11anston.
ll, Sep·
tember 24 -26, 2010. http://mp ra. ubun t • mu enc he n . de/24494 11/MPRA_
papťr
lnstagram direct message, M arch 25, 2017),
N:
Lecture s and Papers Present ed at Meeting s
Cite a lecture or a paper present ed at a meeting by the name of the
speaker or presente r and the title of the speech or presenta tion (m quotation marks), followed by the sponsor ship and location of the meeting
and the date of the speech or presenta tion. lnforma tíon about the meeting is enclosed in parenth eses in a note but not in a bibhography. If you
consulte d a text or transcri pt of the lecture or paper onl.iiie, indude a URL
(see 15-4.1 3). Ifyou watched or listened to the presenta tion online, adapt
the example s here to the advice at r 7. ro.3.3.
N:
ln a conversal ton with me on M arch ,, 2017, Carla C. Ramirez confirmed
that ••
199
1 Roland J. Zuckerm an, email message to author, June 1 2017.
_24494 pdt
17.7
Papers, Lectures, and Manuscript Collectl ons
17.7.1
Theses and Dissert ations
.
Theses and disserta tions are cited much like books except for the tJtle,
which is in roman type and enclosed in quotatio n marks. After the author
and title, list the kind of paper, the academ ic instituti on, and the dat_e.
Like the publica tion data for a book, these are endos~d in pa~entheses m
a note but not in a bibliography. Abbreviate d1ssertatton as d1ss. lf you 1ve
consulte d the paper online, include a URL. lf you consulte d the paper in
an instituti onal reposito ry or commer cial database , you can lis~ the name
of the reposito ry or databas e instead. See 15.4. r for more detatls.
N:
Karen Leigh Culcas, Cartographu: Representations of l<urd,stan 111 the
Prinl Me1
dia" (masteťs thesi!,, Syracuse University, 2003), 15
• Dana
Levin, 'Leť 5 Talk about Sex . Educat10n Exploring Youth Persp~~11
2
;:
lmplic,t Message s, and Unexam1ned lmphcahons of Se• Education
in Schools {
diss., University of M ichigan. 2010), 101-2 http:;;hdl.handle.nev2027
421758o9.
d
Guadalupe Navarro-G arcia, "lntegratl ng Social Justice Values in Educat1on
al Lea
3
ershtp A St udy a l Afr1can American and Black University Pres1dents·'
(PhD dt~~~" •
1
versity of Californ,a , Los Angeles, 2016), 44, ProQuest Díssertat1ons &
Theses Glo
17.7.3
N:
1. Hazel V. Clark, Mesopolam,a Between Two R,vers (Mesopotam,a, OH.
Trumbull
County H1st orical Society. 1957).
2 Elisabeth Hrrschhom Donahue, ed., Woodrow Wilson School o/ PuMc
and Interno•
tional Affo,rs: Annual Report 2014- 15 (Princeton. NJ: Princeton Un1vers1ty, 2015) http·
/
s.
8: Navarro-Garcia, Guadalup e l ntegraltng Social Justice 1/alues 1n Education
al Lea~e~hip
A Study of Afncan American and Black University Pres1 den ts. PhD diss Umver;ity
·•
of California , Los Angel es, 2016 ProQuest D1sserlat1ons & Theses Global.
Pamphlets and Reports
Cite a pamphl et, corpora te report, brochur e, or similar freestan ding
publicat ion as you would a book. If you lack data for some of the usual
element s, such as author and publishe r, give enough other informa tion
to identify the docume nl. Such sources should usually be cited only in
notes. Include such an item in your bibliography only if it 1s cntical to
your argume nt or frequently cited. Sources consulte d online should mclude a URL (see 15.4. 1.3).
wws.princeton edu/ about·ww s; wws-annu al-report
17.7.4
Manusc ript Collecti ons
Docume nts from physical collectio ns of unpubli shed manusc npts involve more complic ated and varied element s than publishe d sources . In
your citations , mclude as much identify mg mforma tion as you can, forrnat the element s cons1stently, and adapt the general pattems outlmed
here as needed.
l HAP rE < •
200
N TES 6 BLIOGF.APH~
s T ť,l
T\'PES
or <;OUl:CES
P ... PEPS LECTU~ ,s ÁNO t,1,t.NUSCR1n COLL[C IONS
20 1
1774 1 ELE ME NTS TO I N C LUO E A ".., O THEIR O RO ER.
lfpossi ble, identif y the authot
.
the title or type of docum ent, the name o f t h e
and date of each item,
.
. th
collectJon and the name of the deposi tory ln a note, begm
with. e au' 1f a docum ent has a aůe but no author , or the btle is more
thor's name;
impor tanl than the author , list the title first.
1. George Cr1:el lo Colonel House. Septem ber
25 1918. Edw ard M . House Papers Val!
Un1vers1ty L1bra1y. NPw Haven, CT.
2 James Ogletho roe to the lrustee s, January 13, 1733,
Ph1lhpps Collecll ori of Egmont
M;inusc r,pts, 14 200:13, U nIversI IY o r Georgia L1brary Athť!ns Cher1:aller c1ted r1s Egmont
MSS) Burton
.
JJr,uary 26 1923, bo~ i6, !older 17 Charles E. M er•
to Me,11am te Ieg,am,
3
r1am Paper~ Univer!>ily r,I Chicago L1brary.
4 M1nut~s ol the Comn11tlf:e for linprovm g the Cond1tion ol Frl?e 8 Iacks, PennsyIva•
nIa Abolitio n Soc,ety, 119o-18OJ papers of the Pennsylvan1a !>ocletv for t he Abol1t ,ori
•
of Slavery, H,storic aI SocIet v o I Pennsylvania Phihdel phia (hereaf ter c1ted as Mmutes,
Pe11nsvlvar1ta Soc,ety )
5, Mernora nd um bV Al
B: Egmont M ,muscrip ts Ph,lhpps Collect,on, Un,vers ,t y ol
Georgia L1brary, Alhcns
House, Edward M 1 Papers, Vale U111vrrs ,t y library, New
Haven Cl
Pennsylvania Soc1ety for th~ Aboh11011 ol Slavery. Papers.
H,ston c;il Sot1ety ol
varna, Ph1l,1delph1a
Strothe r, French and Edward Lowry U11dated co rrespon
dence Herber t Hoovcr Pre~1den
t 1al Library, West Branch, IA.
Women 's Organiz alron for Nationa l Proh1b1t1on Reform.
Pllpt r~ Alit e Bel,n du Pont Ides
Pierre S. du Pont Papers Elcuthe rian Milis H,stor1c al l
1bri!ry W1lm1 ngton, DE .
17742 HOW TO FORM AT THC El EME NTS Here are
some specia l format ting rec-
omme ndatio ns for docum ents m manus cript collect ions.
• Specific versus generic titles. Use quotat lon marks for specific titles
of documents but not for generi c tenns such as report and mmute
s Capita hze
generi c names of this kind only if they are part of a forma! headm
g in the
manus cript, not 1f they are merely descnp tive
■ Locarmg ínformation. Althou gh sdfue manus cripts may includ
e page numbers tha t can be mclud ed in notes, many will have other types
of loca tors,
or none at al!. Older manus cnpts are usuall y numbe red by
sígnat ures
only orby fohos (fol..fols.) rather than by page. Some manus
cript collections have tdentif ying series or file numbe rs that you can
mclud e in a
citatio n ltems on microfilm may have roll (or sheet) and frame
numbe rs.
■ Papers and manuscripts ln ntles of manus cript collect ions
the term s papers
and manuscripts are synony mous. Both are accept able, as are
the abbreviation s MS and MSS (plural)
■ Letters. To cite a letter in a note, start with the name of
the letter writer,
followed by to and the name of the recipie nt. You may omit first
names if
the identit ies of the sender and the recipie nt are clear from the
text Omit
the word letter, which 1s unders tood, but for other forms of
comm unication, specify the type (telegram, memo randum ). For letters
m publis hed
collect ions, see 17 1.9.
"'° Johnson·1937'file 36' Horace Kallen Papers, y IVO Ins1·1, liI
Nr.w York
f
6 Joseph Purce li. "A Map of lht! Souther n Indian
. D1str1ct o
,pil MS 228, Ayer Collect, on Newber ry L1brarv Chicago
@.
North
Amenca [q
For shorte ne d no t e S, ad apt the usual pattem of eleme
. nts (see 16.4. r)
to accom modat e the available ínfonn ation and idenuf y the
docum errt
unamb iguous ly.
N:
7 R. S Baker to Hou~e. Novem ber, 1919 House Papers.
8 Minutes , April 15. 1795 Pen11sylva11Ia Soc,ety
lf ou cite only one docum ent from a collect ton and lt is
critical ~o
your ~rgum ent or freque ntly c1ted withm your paper, you may.ch
oose_.~
. .
raphy Begin the entry with the author s name, 1
1
melu de 1t m your b.bliog
·
•
rtant than
a docum ent has a title but no author , or the title ís more impo
the author , list the title first.
B: Dinkel, Joseph Descrip t1un of Lou,s Agass1z written 1 lh equest of Elizabeth
a
e ,
·1 Cam·
C11rv Agass,z 1869 Agass1z Papers. Hought on L1brary,
Harvard Univers
17.7.5
Online Collec tions
Some manus cript collect ions have been scanne d and organi
zed for consultati on online. Cite such items by adapú ng the rules for
manus cript
collect ions in I7,7A- lnclud e a URL for the item or items cited
(see also
, y,
bnd1:e MA
If you cite multip le docum ents from a collect ion, list the
co~lecti; n
as a whole in your bibliography, under the name of the coll;cn
o~~la:
author (s) of the items in the collect ion, or the depos1tory
.. or s1hives,
types of unpub lished materi al that have not been placed
m ar~- che
replac e inform ation about the collect ion with such wordm
g as :;:e lo•
author 's posses síon" or "privat e collection," and do not mentto
n
cation
Pťnn~yl•
15.4.1 3)
N:
1 Da1ly Expenses. July 1787. Images 7, 8, George
W;1~h,ngton Papers, Serit!s 5 F1nanc1al Papers 1750- 96, l1brary of Cong,es s. Washin
gton, DC. http://m emory loc.,gov
/ ammem / gwhtml rgwserin ~5 htrnl
11: Washin gton, George, Papers. Serres 5: f1na11c1al Papers.
1750-96. Library o f Congres s,
W.:ishín gton, DC hltp.//m emory.loc.gov/ <1mmem / gwhtm
l/gwser1es5.htrn
l
( ... AM ER 17
17.8
Older Works and Sacred Works
11.s.1
OlD(R W OHi ) l\t; D UCRfO W OR ~ 5
NOH~ BI l OGRAPH f ~TVll TYPl ~~ \Ounccs
202
and so
f ~~a n abbre~ ate the names of authors . works, collections,
Classical, Medieval, and Early English Literary Works
al Europe,
Literary works produc ed in class1cal Greece and Rome, mediev
literary
modem
and Renais sance England are cited differently from
s
works. These soUTces a,e often organized into numbe red section (books,
li nes, stanzas , ancl so forth) that are generally cited in place of page numand
bers. Because such works have been published in so many version s
edimodem
for
uon
pubhca
of
translaůons over the centuri es, the facts
uons are generally less import ant than in other types of c1tations.
For this reason , classical, medieval, and early English literary works
in
should usually be cited only in footnotes or, for fTequently cited works,
the
parenth etical notes (see 16.4.3), as in the first exampl e below. lnclude
numerarabic
in
(given
r
numbe
author' s name, the title, and the section
and
als). See below regardi ng differences 1n punctu ation, abbreviations,
numbe rs among differenc types of works.
o . . e most widely accepted abbreviations appear in the Oxford Classi. refca1 D1cttonary. Use these abbrevtations rathe r th an t.bId m succee dmg
h
ex
first
erences. to t h e same
ampIe, t e author ffhucydides)
. work ln the
stan d s m for the otle so no comma is need ed .
,.:
The fo rrn ~or ctass1ca I references works equally well
.
written m languages o ther than Enghsh
works
al
for mediev
178 12 MEDIE VAL
. WORKS .
,.:
2,
In addition to the general pnncip les hsted above
,
the ~ollowmg rules apply to ci&uon s of early Enghsh l1terary work
s.
k
b
by
Cite poems and plays
oo • canto, and stanza; stanza and line· act
• •
scene, and hne; or s1m1lar divis1ons
N;
Edited by J Barnes
B: Anstotle . Complete Worlrs o/ Atislotle The Rev1sed Oxford Tronslo t,on.
Univer,,ty Press, 1983.
ln additio n to the general principles listed above, the
followmg rules apply to citation s of classical works.
Use no punctu ation betwee n the tillc of a work and a hne or section
numbe r. Numerical d1visions are separat ed by periods w1thout spaces
Use arabic numera ls (and lowercase letters, if needed ) for section num·
and
bers. Put comma s betwee n two or more c1tations of the same source
.
semico lons betwee n citation s of diffeten t sources
).
3 Milton. Parod,se Los: , 83-86 (rel!!•ences are to book and line numbc:rs
. .
g line numbe nng, a n d even scene d1vtsio
nlf edition
. s differ in wordin '
bibho
your
in
work
the
clude
comm~ n m VJOrks of Shakes peare-m
y~e
specif
raphy
bibhog
pdh:•. Wlt.h ed1tJon specified. lf you do not have a
'
e 1t1on m the lirst note
l L,brary 18 (CamlHldre.
4 Prop„rtlu~. fJi•g,t1~ ed and trans G P. Goold, Loeb Classica
N:
MA- Harvard Un111ers1ty P,ess 1990), 45
2 vols. Princeto n, NJ Princeto n
"W1fc of Bath'!o Prologue. Carte,bu,,~ T',aIes, lini!.$ 105-14
Chaucer,
.
:z. Milton, Porad,~ Lo11, book 1 hnes 83_86
1.
;~u may. shorten numbe red d1vis1ons by omittin g words such as act
see
a n me, usmg a system similar to the one for class1cal references
(
note.
fust
the
in
syslem
your
explain
to
sure
17 .8.1. 1). Be
canto 8, st. 14
lf your paper 1s in literary studíes or anothe r field concem ed with
in•
close analyst s of te xts, or if differences in transla tions are relevant,
transother
dude such works m your bibliography. Follow the rules for
lated and edíted books ln 17.1.1, 1.
, . Augu,tmc, De civ,tate Dei io:2 .
:z. Abelilrd fp1stll' 17 lo Heloise (M,gnc, PL 180.375c -378a)
17,8.1.3 EARLY ENGLISH WORKS
H;
I, O~•d. Arnores 1 7 27.
2 Beo,v11lf, line!. 1401- 7
:I, Spen~er, The Foer,p Outtne, bk
4 . Thuc :- 40 2-3,
5, P,nda,. litlun 7.43-45.
Peloponnesian
Tht• eighty davs of lnactn,11\1 reported by Thucyd1des (8 44.4) for the
.
sugges~
2-3),
(8.6o
w1nler
ol
end
the
lleet al Rhodes, terminat,ni: belore
Ill:
203
T.i)tlor Arden Sil k
B: Shake~rieare, W11!,arn Hamlet Ed,led by Ann Thomps on aoo Nt?tl
a e•
2006.
espeare
Sha
Arden
London
'3
spl!arc
CLASSI CAl WORICS .
17811
N:
, Aristoph anes. f,ogs 1019-30.
2 Cicero, ln Verrem 2 .1.21. 2.3 120; Tacitus, Germon,o 10 2-3,
3. Anstotle, Metaphys,cs '3 2.996b5- 8, Pl11to. Reµ11bl1c 36oe-361b
17.8.2
The Bible and Other Sacred Works
es
Cite the Bible and sacred works of othcr religious traditions in footnot
: dnotes, or_parenth etical notes (see 16.4.3) You do not need to includ~
ese works m your bibliography.
For citation s from the Bible, include the abbreviated name of th e book ,
the chapt num be r and the verse numbe r- never a page numbe
r De
er
.
ab~
shorte;
or
m!I
pen~m.g on the context , you may use either tradtoo
(
b reviaoons for the name s of b ooks see 24.6); consult your instruc tor if
litfEFE Htt WOP•
CHAPl [~
204
17
I
OH S •. B IOC.1</IP V S V(t l Pl
books.
lr.ldi tiona l abbreviaůons:
N:
, 1 Thcss 4':11 s:2-5, 5 14
2 2
Srn 11·1-17 n:.26-27, 1 Chr 10 13-14.
17,9.2
1 2 Kings 11·8 (New Rev1sed Sta"dard Verslon)
4 1Cor, 61-10 (NAB) ,
~us tradiůons, adapt
For c1tations from the sacre d works of other religi
(see 24.6 5).
Ille gener al patte rn for biblical citali ons as appro pnate
17.9
17.91
Reference Work s and Secondary Citations
lope. dictionaries and encyc
Refer ence Work s
. I d
d
maJor
as
such
,
works
nce
refere
wn
kno
well
Hy nee not mc u e
.
•
to inclu de a specific
!::::
::uc
n::s~
mh
only
cited
be
ly
usua~
d
dias, shoul
d W1th in the note
t
.
1
ug y
them in your b1bliography, altho
rgum ent or frequ ent y c1 l espedf y the cd1t1on
.- I
work th at 1s cntJca to your a . .
consu lted online
you may omit the facts of pub~~atl~n, but you
ess date
d
.
ied).
n IS spea.f
(if not the first, or unles s no ed1t1o
e an acc
dated items . melu
f
)
a dicuonary or
h
will requi re a URL (see I 5.4 1.3 ' or un
ed by
as
suc
(see I S 4 I s) For a work arran ged by key rerms
d
prece
er)
numb
page
or
e
ency d~ped1~, cite the item (not the volum
s.u (sub verbo, "unde r the word ... pi. s vv.)
~~=ms
N:
.icces'>ed M.irch 9 2017, http //WWW oed com
.
s.v "ROFL •
1, Oxford Eng/,51, D,ct,ooorv,
lc I Entry/1569421:1eid1211101031J "D~mc Marga ret
2. fnnclopoedio Britann ica s v
D
ra
bbl • acccss ed June 26, ~16
e,
ph"/ Marga ret•Dr abble
,._
http://WWW bntann1ca com,uiogra ,
· n nbou t the
Reference work s on disk shoul d inclu de infor mauo
dium .
N,!.., Vorl.: Oxford Un1vers1ty Press, :ioog
B: O•/ord (nglísh O,cl,onary 2nd e d
ve~1o n4.o.
n Languagc Assoct at,on
3 MLA Hondbook 8th ed (llcw York Moder
2016). 3,3 2
or Amerl ca
Nev.lda Pres5, 1989
cited like a chapt er m a
An mdividual entry by a name d autho r can be
book (see 17.1.8).
. differ amon g verSions of the
h
th ures,
' th script
Since book s and numb enng
er t e
e1
w1
on
citatt
first
your
•n
.
• .
ident ify the vers1on you are usmg I
n (see 24.6.4),
viano
abbre
ted
accep
an
or
name
t
d-ou
spelle
N:
205
Reno Unlve.rs,ty of
li: Aulest ,a Gorka Bosq1,11.-...fn9/1~/i D1c1,011<11v
Short er abbrevtations;
N:
To\ ION•
well known. inFor reference works that are more spec1ali1.ed or lcss
the work in your bib,
clude the pubhcatfon details in your notes , and list
liography.
rals for chap.
. h form is appro pnate. Use arabic nume
b d
d r
lne
w
e
unsur
are
ou
Y
.a co Ion betwe en thein) an ,or num ere
.th
(w1
ers
ter and verse numb
N:
AltO HCONO AR\
r11e•
CD·ROM
N:
Reviews
appea r in a vanet y of
Rev1ews of books, performances, and so forth rnay
cited only in d note.
penod icals and other sourc es and shoul d usual ly b1
i1 is criucal to your
if
only
y
lnclude a specific rev1ew in your bibliograph
r
argum ent or f1equemly cited
of, followed by the
lnclu de the name of the rev1ewer; the words rev1ew
oser, direc:tor, or the
name of the work reviewed and its autho1 (or comp
o or location of
studi
film
as
(such
like); any other perun ent inform aaon
e in which the
sourc:
other
a performance); and, finally, the penod ical or
e a URL (see
mclud
e,
review appea red. lf the review was consu lted onlin
15.4. r.3).
t lil th~ Roya! Albert Hall, lo11don
1 Richard W1lhams re111ew ol Bob O)lan 11 concer
com,, ,11usie1:>0151o cv2~ ob
rd1an
UK, Guurd/Qn, October ,2, 2015, hllps: t/\vWW thegua
london
I•
-<lylc1•1 ·rcview-,oyal•albe1 I •hal
Brody rcv1ew ni Gro, ly, d11ccted by
lurcs New \orker, Oclol cr .,1 2013
2 Rrcha,d
Alfons D Cu.iro n W1Jrncr Br!>S PIC·
Womcn ml(/ 1hr. Pot,ric, of thL• Body, bv
B: Co,, Kathar tne. Rei,1cw <>f Cov,red m ln~ Tattnos,
25 no 3 <:io1ó) 1-19-50 https:/ /
Beverly Vuen Thompson Journal o{ Gender Studie:;
do, org110 1080/0 9589:3 6 ,016 1171889
17.9.3
One Sourc e Quote d in Anoth er
that they have not
Responsible resea rcher s avoid repea ting quota tions
a useful quota l!on
des
actually seen in the original. Jf one sourc e inclu
the ongin al to verify
from anoth er source, readers expec t you to obtai n
it fairly repre sents
not only that the quota lion is accur ate but also thal
what the original mean t.
lt as "quot ed m"
lf the original sourc e is unavailable, however, cite
entry, adapt the
y
graph
the secon dary source in you1 note. For the biblio
"quoted in'' forma t as neede d .
HA•TtR •7
206
N:
u
TlS·IIIBL ()G;(APt1
Sl
v
l nFFS Of SO\JRCE~
207
(Februar y 1911). 26g,
1 Lolu~ Zukofsi\y, ·s,ncertl y und Object,f, cat,on,• Poetry 37
ge, MA: Har(Cambrid
ns
Possessio
y
/mogmor
Moo,e
quolt!d in Bonn,e Costeflo, Mor,onne
v
3 Ansel Adams, North Dome Bas~·el Daml!, Mount Ha'/
11mo,i ,osem,te, ca 1935 sdver
l 6
Gall,•ry, Wash1n Ion
Renw,cl
.
Museum
A,t
n
Amer1ca
prrn • , S„ 21 9 cm S~1th~on~an
g
DC. http /ledan.s l.edu, s.iam , ,dl objecl/ig g4 91 ., .
vard UmvC!rslt y Press, 1981), 78
Art New
4. Erich Buchhol1 Untrtled, 1920, gouache on paper Museum of Modern
y 1931): 269. Quoted
B: Zukofsky. Louis "Sincerity and ObJectilicat lon." Poet,y 37 (Februar
s (Cambridge, MA. Harvard
,n Bonntc Costcllo Marianne Mooreolmoginary P=ion
Unia..:rs1ty Press, 1981)
York hllp;t/w ww moma orR,o'collect,on/works/ 38187
, lnstead of using a note, you can somen mes cite arnworks b weav.
y
tng the elemen ts into your text Some of lhe e Iements can appear
m
th
.
paren eses, even if they do not foIJow the f.orm fior parenth et1cal
notes
·
d escn"bed m r6. 4 .3 .
The same situatio n may arise with a quotati on you find in a secondary source drawn from a primary source (see 3 r). Often you will notbe
ished
able to consul t the pnmary source, especially if it 1s m an unpubl
above
d
outline
les
pru1cíp
the
follow
manusc ript collecůon. ln th1s case,
exhíbited
lf, however, you consul t a primary docum ent or other work
d to
oppose
(as
by tht holding institut ion as part of an onlme collection
consid,
a copy posted by someo ne else), such a source can usually be
for
ered primary for the purpos es of researc h See 17 7.5 and 17.to.r.1
exampl es.
(1938 M,lwauk e' A t
O'Keeffe ílrsl df'monst rated lhls technique '" r~ C/1{{ Ch1mneys
t. r
Museum ).
a
lf you viewed the artwork in the contex t of anothe r work such as
give
source,
this
~ok a:,~ yo_ur l~cal guideli nes require you to ídentify
e_pu tcanon mform auon ín pikice of the mstitut iona1 name and lo cauon.
N:
17.10 Sources in the Visual and Performing Art.s
g
The visual and perform ing arts generace a variety of sources , includin
van.
in
ngs
recordi
s,
stream
and
asts
broadc
artwork s, Jive perform ances,
ous media, and texts. Citing these sources involves determ ining wluch
conelemen ts are needed to fully 1dentify chem, format líng the elemen ts
.
needed
sistently, and adaptin g the general pattern s outline d here as
Some of the sources covered in this section , where noted, can be cited
h you
in notes only orby weavin g the key elemen ts into your text, althoug
cnucal
is
that
raphy
bibliog
your
in
may choose to include a specífic item
the
to you1 argume nt or frequen tly cited If your paper is for a coUise in
tor
arts, media studies , ot a similar field, consul t your instruc
( princeton, J Princeto n Un,11e1s,1y Pr~J 2004) 25
Cite graphíc sources such as print adverti sement s m
• aps,
cartoon s and so fonh I ·
on~ m notes, adaptin g the bas1c pattem s for artworks a~d . .
givmg as much mform ation as possible. Give any title or capti .
of
on I~ r~man type, enc!ose d in quotatt on marks, and identify the type
.
F
ti'tl
graphic, m parenth eses, if lt is unc!ear from the e. or Hems consult ed
onlin · 1 d
'
e, mc u e a URL (see 15·4 I -3)·, ,or
und ated sources , aJso include an
access date (see 15 .4 .1.5).
17101 2 GRAPHIC ARTS
N;
11.10.1 Artwor ks and Graphi cs
171011
N:
ee Art M useum;
1• Apple Inc., Shol on 1Phone 'Sb A h N I
., ull-page adverme merit, Ne» Yor~er
y n
o
4 201 6 , ba c k covcr
J•·ly
•
u
Stcles Mu<tum X
2 . Yu Ji lu [Map of the tr.icl.s of Yu 1 AD 1136, F'orest of Stone
1
' " "·
•
l
Chlna, :.tone rubbmg 1933 , St. 8 „
ww fnc g
hllp✓/W
• " • cm, •brdry of Corigr,.,ss•
·
'
11em
ov.
tgm710050801,
Cite paintm gs, sculptures,
lnclude the name of
notes.
photog raphs, drawm gs, and the like only in
(pre•
the a mst, the ntle ot the artwork (in italics) and date of its creation
thal
ceded by "ca." (circa) if approx imate), and the name of the mstituůon
houses ít (if any), includí ng locatio n You may also include the medium
and 1elated inform ation, if relevan t For images consult ed online, include
the
a URL (see also r5.4.1.3). Whene ver possible, consult the item through
located
lly
website ofthe insntut ion at wh1ch the item is phys1ca
PAINTIN GS 5CULPT URES ANO PHOTOG RA PHS
1, Georgia Q'Keeffe, The Clil( Chimneys , 1938, 011 on carwas, Milwauk
hltp:/lcoflect1on.mam or&1details php?,d:11207
2. Mlchel~n gelo, Dav.d, 1501•4, Galleria dell Accadem,a, Florence
Lesley Pol,ngK 5 Georg,a O Kceffe. The Cl,ff Ch,mneys, 9_:18 rn Barh.lra BuhlPr lynes,
I
,,.
G
Turner
w
Frede11ck
and
empes,
, eorg,c O "eef e and New Mexico: A Se11Se o/ Place
·
N
3. Chnssv Te!:.:en cr1lng dl
,h„ 2015 Golden Glob A
d
e wa, s, il•Umtllc d GIF GIPHY ac'
'I 3, 2016 http://gi phy com1g1fs1g,rl•lol•cry,ng P;I.EMJjHusUU •
&
d
Co
The
"
Brown
10
4 Evan
1c, De~1gnMantlc,
Apr,t n , 2014 http;//w w d mman mMts of Typographv " iníogr,,ph
;mrlmC!nl~•ol
te,1-comm
h,cs/
inlogr11p
blo"
w es1gnman1,c.com.,
·typogr;i phy1.
cened Jul
17.10.2
Live perfonn ances
Cite Jive theatric al mu · I'or d ance perform ances only m notes. lnclude
s1ca
'
the titl f h
e o t e work perform ed, the author, any key contrib utors or per•
CHAPTE~ 17 I
208
NOTES 8IBll0URAPHV STYL(
\ P[~
or
50U~CES IN T ti V
2.
, and
fonners and a n indicat ion of theír roles, the venue and its location
but
itions,
compos
l
musica
long
the date. ltahcize the atles of plays and
marks
on
quotati
in
d
set the titles of shorter works in roman type, enclose
except for musica l works referred to by genre (see 22 3.2.3).
N:
Al AN
PERfOR'MI,(, Aa 5
209
~(JURCE S
ww ni,tfh~
3 Oope, d11ected by R1cls. fdmuy1w a (Op.-n Road F,lms 2015), hltp~://w
com/ watch/80 037159
B11,graph 1903)
4 A E. Weed, Al the Foot of I/Je F/ot11.:m (Am,:rocan Mul o~copt! and
Ye>rk, ,89~-,906
Ne.-.
of
F1lms
35mm film from L1brary ot Congres s Thl" L,fc of n C,rv. Eorly
ed by Thomas Kail, cho
1. Hamilton, musIc and lyrrcs hy Lon-Man uel M ,randa, direcl
York, NY, February 2
New
Theatre
Rodgers
Richard
ehler,
reograph ed by Andy Blakenbu
8.
MPEG video 2.19 a l 15 los, h ttp~://ww w lo~ g,1v/ 1tem 10069437
I
of
ln _the bibliography, you can list the movie either under rhe name
the directo r or under the title.
2016
no. 2 by Johannes Brahms.
2. Simone D1nnerstein, p1anist, lnte, mezzo in A, op. 118.
15, 2012
Portland Center for the Performu1g Art~ Por tl.ind, O R, January
Instead of usmg a note, you may be able to weave the elemen ts into
they
your text. Some of the elemen ts can appear in parenth eses, even tf
3
16-4
ín
ed
descríb
notes
etical
do not follow the form for parenth
Gro~1ty, dorected bv Alfonso Cu.uon (2013, Warner Bros P,ctur~s. 2014 ) Blu-r:iy
D1sc, 108op HD
B: Oope D,rccted by Rock Famu~ 1w;i Open Ro ad f ,tins. _, 01 ,., 1 1u 43 m,n https / /WWW
netfl1x com/ watch/ 8oo37159,
or
A, op 118, no. 2 (January 15
S,mone D,nnerst ein's perfo11nanc.c of Brahms·s lnterme110 in
bul 1ntermed iate .
io12, al Portland Center for the Perform1ng Arts) was anythong
.13 mI11 https·11w ww ne:fl,,
fdmuy1w a, Rick, dírectot, 0Copt:. Open Road F1lms, 2015. 1h1 •
com/ watch , Boo3775 9
To cite recordings and broadc asts of live perform ances, add infonna
es.
exampl
tion about the medium . See r7.10.3 for similar types of
lnform ~tion about ancillary materia l include d with the movie should
be woven mto the text.
sohn. Ambassador
Artur Rubonstein. pIan1st. 'Spinning Song." by Fehx Mendets
( BMG CIIISSlCS
Israel
for
Recrtol
lost
The
on
1975,
15,
January
CA,
a,
College, Pasaden
~.
ln a spec,al teal ure t 1tled "Complc te S1le11c·'
real1sm and audience Pxpectat1ons
,.
3
N:
cua,on acknowledges a lension bctwcen
1992). VHS
Multimedia
and
Citatlons of moVles, televisi on and radio program s, recorde d music,
of
type
other works in multim edia format s will vary depend ing on th e
cresource At a mimmu m, identify the atle of the work, the date it was
or
ated or publish ed or otherw ise made available, the name of the s tudio
in
and
work,
the
tmg
distribu
or
other entity respons ible for produc ing
ed
formation about the medium in which you consult ed it Jf you consult
11.10,1
. program
• . or radio
c1·te a teIeV1s1on
.
mclude, at a m1mmum, the title of the program, the name of the eptSode
and
or se&f1:ent, the date on which it was first aired or made ava1lable,
an
include
also
may
You
work.
the
ast
the ent:Jty that produc ed or broadc
segor
episode
the
of
author
ep1sode nu~be r, the name of the directo r or
ers
me~t.' and (1f relevan t to your d1Scuss1on) the names of key perfonn
·
d
.
f
the t1tles of program
ltahc1ze
. s • but put the ti"tles o ep1so es or segmen ts
.
t
m roman type, enclose d m quotati on marks. Finish with any relevan
(see
URL
a
include
online,
d
watche
you
lf
mforma tlon about the medium
1710 3 2 .TELEV I SI ON
the source online, include a URL (see 15,4. 1.3),
1710 31
N:
In the notes, list the tiůe of the movie {in italics) followed by the
strib·
name of the director, the name of the compan y tha t produc ed or d1
1Se
otheTW
or
created
or
d
uted the movie, and year the moV1e was release
record
the
for
date
m ade available. (You may also include a publica tion
forth
m g.) Include inform ation about writers, actors, produc ers, and so
tion
if it is relevan t to your discuss ion Fintsh with any relevan t informa
. li
source)
the
with
ed
d1splay
as
umings
ing
about the m edium (ínclud
you watche d online, include a URL (see 15.4-1 3)
1 5-4
MOVI ES
the Bomb, directed bv
, Dr. Strongelove, or How I Leorned to Stop Woay,ng 011d love
Sterling Hayden (Columbia,
St anley Kubr,ck, featurmg Pet er Sellers, George C. Scott, and
7K4
1964), o 11 43 to 0.14:54. hllp4/w ww amazon com/dp, BoooP40
N:
AND .RAD I O PROGRA MS • lio
1.3)
Me ," hosted b D 'dB
1 "Pen-Pal P,1ssíon Is Rev1ved ln Broo1dway's 'She l01,es
Y M o 1an
•
cuth Fresh A,, 0 1 NPR JUilP. 24, 2016, http'//WWW npr.org/20 16106/23 (483245 382
I
•
/ Pcn•pal• pass,on •1s rev,ved on broadwa ys-shP·lo vés me
by Alan Tavlor, re.i
. 2 Mad Men S1:ason 1, eµ1sode 12 N,xon vs Krnnedv " drrected
11 2007 on
October
aired
er
Karthc1s
Vincent
and
turing J~n Hamm El,sabeth Moss
A MC CL1ons Gate Telev15Ion ; 007) DVD, d,sc 4
1z a1red Ma,ch 7
2, chaptcr 3 6 d1recled bý Ut" Bri0•uw,
~~ ~
„ 63 Iane the v,,am, season
• 01 , on the CW Telev,sio n Networ~
Marc,a Mar•
~ Atr1e11,an Crome Story· The ~Ople v. O J S,mpson, ep1sotJe 6. " Marc,a
Cl il ll1rected bv Ryan Murphy, wn tt~
cn b v O. V 0 t!V111ce111is. fea tunng Sl erl,,ig K Brown
210
CH API[~ 11 1 NOTE~ E1&llOGRAPt◄
.SOURCE5 IN Tt1E VISIIAL ,\l\fO l'fRí0 , M1f,jG •~ f
~lY!t nPE~ or SOi HCE~
identifying number of the recordmg, the copyrig ht date (if differen t from
the year of the recording), and any relevant ínfonna tion about the mediu~. TitJes of alburns should be in 1talics; 1nd1vidual selections should
be m quotat1on marks except for musical works referred to by genre
22
(see -~- 2 -3). Abbreviate compact d1sc as CD. Recordings consulted online
sho~Id mclude a URL (see 15.4 1.3); in some cases lhe nal'}'le of a music
I
service can stand in for a URL.
ww,amaz on
Kenm•th Choi. and Sarah Paulaon, aired March 8, 2016, on FX. https://w
com1dp1801ARVPCOA/
5- The Brody Buttch. season
3
ep,sode 10, Her S,steťs Shadow," d1rccted by Russ
ch.
Maybcrry, atred Novembe r 1g, 1971 on ABC. https://w ww hulu com/lhe-b rady-bun
lnstead of using a note, you can often cite such program s by weaving
the key element s mto your text, especially if some or all of the addition al
element s are not relevant to the citation.
1971). the l1tle
By allu ding to The Brody Bunch (sp1mf1cally 'Her Sister's Shadow- from
to the
attent,on
calls
onlv
not
2016)
8,
March
Marcia,"
of ep1sode 6 ( Marcia. M arcia.
N:
episode 10, ·Her Siste,·s Shadow" Directed by Russ May•
•bunch
bcrrv. Aircd Novembe r 19. 1971, on ABC. https://w ww.hulu.c om/ the-brady
e, Brody Bunch, The. Season 3
4, Pink Flo~d, •Atom Heart Mother,• rec,rdcd Apnl 29, 1970, F,llmore West.
ln the bibliography you can list the recordmg under the name of the
c~mpo~er or the performer, dependm g on which 1s more relevant to your
d1scuss1on
- 6] RCA Victor/
B: Rub1n~letn, Artur. p1an1st The Chopin Collttt,on Re:corded 1946, 1958
BMG 6o82:,,-,2 RG. 1991 11 CDs.
by Leonard
Shostíl~ov,ch. Dm1trJ Symphon y no. S/ Symphon v no. 9 Conducte d
(no, ,, and
Bernste,n Recorded w1th the New York Philharrnonrc October 20, ,959
5
October 19 1965 (no 9) Sony SMK 61841, 1999 CD.
music 111dl!o 4:25, https://yo utu.bc1Qx smW1xou lM
y of Chicago.
2. Fred Donner, How l~lam Began • Alumm Weekcnd 2011, Un,11ers1t
June 3, 2011. video of lecture. https.//yo utu be15RFK5u51khA
3. M1ke Danforth and lan Ch1llag, • f -Bombs, Ch,cken, and Exc amaltM Pcunts;
podcilst, MP3 au
Apnl 21, 2015 1n HolV to Do f,eryth,ng , produced by Gillian Donovan.
/business 11000000 03662208Jth~driver less-now htm l.
Citations of videos and podcast s can normally be limited to the notes
or, like citation s of newspa per artldes, woven into che text (see 17.4.3).
lf a source is critical to your paper or frequently cited, however, you may
include it ín your bibliography.
s:
1710 3 4
New York, NY. TED
Ly,scotL Jam,la . "3 Ways to Speak English." F1lmed February 2014 in
_enghsh
_to_speak
video. 4 ·29. https://w ww.ted.corn/ talks/jamil11_ly1scott_3_ways
To cite recorded music and the like, mclude as much
informa tion as you can to distingu ish it from s1milar recordmgs, including the date of the recording, the name of the recording company, the
SO U ND RECORD IN GS.
San r,an•
vpink•floy dlflllmore
c1sco, Concert Vaull strearr11ng aud,o, hltp://ww w.concert vault.corr
•west-apr il-29-1970 .html
or
17.103.3 VI OEOS AND POOCASTS . To cite videos other than movies (17.10.3 1)
ac·
televis1on program s (17. 10.3.2), adapt the example s in these sections
cordingly. To cite a podcast , adapt the example for citing a radio program
at I7 10.3.2.
g.
dto. 18:46, http//Ww w.npr.org ;podcas1s 15103031 how·to-do-l!vervthm
and Jess1ca
Teng
St
Poh
by
produced
4. Aaron M Kessler, " The Drivcrless Now,com/ v1deo
w.nytímt!s
hltp.//ww
2:01.
video,
Naudz1uoas, New York T,mcs. May 2, 2015,
I m a Fool t o Want You,ff by Joel Herron, Frank Stnatra, and
in 5 ;,,, Columbia
01
Jack Wolf, recorded February 20. 1958, with lyy Ellts, track 1on Lody
B,11,e Holiday, vocalisl
Island Del Jam
2. R,hanna Umbrella .• featurmg Jay•Z. ttack I on Good G,rl Gon~ Bau
'
wo7, Spot,fy streaming aud,o, 320 kbps
the Phila
3, Richard Strau~s. D,m Qu,xote, with Emanuel fouerman n (violonce llo) and
. 8,ddulph
delph,a Orchestr. i conducte d by Eugene Orm,111dy, recorded february 24 1940
lAB 042, 1991, CD
ln the bibliography, radio and teleVlsion programs are normally cited
by the title of the program or series.
June 22 2016,
1 Beyoncé, " Sorry.• d,rccted by Kahlll Joseph and Bcyonce Knowlt!s.
1
Cl 1l57, 33'1.1 rpm
centra! role of lelev1s1on in lht trial but abo ••
N!
211
. Treat recordings of drama. prose or poetry readings, lectUies, and Lhe
hke as you would mus1cal recordings.
N:
,ecorded
S- Dylan Thomas. Under i\11/k Wood, pcrfo,me d by Dyla11 Thomas et 11 1,
d
CD
14, 1953, 011 Oy/011 Thomas. The Coedmon Cnllection Caedmon 2 ~
May
0 2 11
s. •~s
9-1o
·
·
"
Read by 8ernadett e
B: Strayed Chery! Wild from Lost to Found on thll Poc,{,c Crest Troil
, 13 hr , 6 ,.,,,.,.
cd
audio
Dunne. New Vor!.: Random House Audio, 201::! Aud1ble
'd
'Ji •
· o cite Vl eo games and apps, adapt the ex•
.
amples mcluded through out this secnon on multime dia as needed. Titles
of Video games, like títles of movies, can be 1talic.-ized fnclude a version
number and information about the device or operatm g syslem required
, the pubt~ ~n the game or app. ln the first bibliography entry example
lishing mformation for Gerns and Gemstones 1s in parenth eses because
such annotao ons are styled like notes
17103 5 VI DEO GAMES ANO APPS
►
I UBL IC DOC Mfl• rs
212
N:
, Ge,n~ and Jewel~ ,Pad .-d , v. 1.01 <Touthpres5, 2011), adaµled from Lance Grande
llib1tI011 ol thc sanie name al New Yorl<. Un111crstty'!>
Anci~11t World. October 22, 2015-JanuiltY 17, 2010.
and Allison Augusty 11, Gems ,,nd G„mstnne~.• l1mPles~ Natuwl Beauty o( t/le Minera/ Worla
(Ch1ca110: u,,1,e,s1ly or Ch,c..go Pres~ woq)
:z Angry Birds T,orr:sformers, v 1 4 ,s (Ro~,o Ente, lJinment 2014) Android 4.0 or I/iter.
Sounrltrack by V111ce D1Cola and Kenny Menedeth.
B;
Nnturol Bcoult or tlte Míneral Wcrld <Ch1tago: University ol Chic~Ro Press, 2009).
Rov,o Entertainmenl. At1gry Birds Trans(,>rmers. V. 1.4.J!). Rov10 En tertatnment , 2014 Android 4,0 or later Sou ndt,ack by Vm,e DiCola and Kenny Meriedeth
N:
1.
Be, nic, Sanders 111terv1ew by Rachel Maddow, Tht Rochel Moddow Show, Septem•
ber 18. 2015, on MSNBC, video, 19:51, https://youtu.be18jV4sv9wa80
th;; Study ol lhe
ln some cases you can cite well-known English-language plays in
notes only (See also 17.8 . 1.) Ornit publication data, and cite passages by
act and scene (or other d1vision) instead of by page number.
!
N:
1. l:ugcne O 'Neilt, Lang Doy's Journey •nto Night, act 2, SC!:ne 1,
lf your paper is in literary stud1es or another field concemed with
close analysis of texts, or if you are citing a translanon or an obscure
work, cite every play as you would a book, and include each in your bib·
liography Ctte: passages e1ther by ctiv1sion orby page, according to your
Jocal guidelines.
;110 3 b INTERVIEWS. To ate inlerviews in multimedia formats, treat the person
interviewed as che author, and identify the mterviewer in the context
of the t.itarion Also include the program or publication and date oí tbe
interview (or publication or air date). Interviews are normally cited only
in the notes. List the interview in your bibliography only if 1t is critical
to your paper or frequently cited. For unpublished interviews and interviews in ether types o( published sources, see 17,6.1.
Institute for
,11042 Pl AVS.
Grilncfo l;ince, ~nd A l hson Augustyn Gems ond Jewels. lPad ed., v 1.01. Touchpress, 2011.
AdJpted Irom Lance Grande and Allison Augustvn. Gems ond Gcmstones· TimeleSi
213
N:
2 . En1d
Bagnold. Th~ C/10/~ Gcmlen (New York· R,1ndom House 1956) 8 - ci
B: Anouilh Je.in Bectcl ar Th-> Honni a/
Tr.:in~l;ited by luc1enne Hill New York R1ve1•
head Books 1996
17104.3 MUSIC AL SC0RES ,
N
I Giuseppe Verdi
Cite a pubhshed musical score as you would a book.
Giovonno dArco, drommo lr11co 111 four acts libretlo b~ Te.1111s1ocle
Solcra ed A lberto R,z.zut,, 2 vols., Wo, ks ol Giuseppe Verd i, ser, 1, Opcras (Chicago
Cite advertisements from televis1on, radio, and the
Jike only m notes orby weaving the elements into your text.
171037 A0VERT ISE MENTS
University of Ch1r.ago Press, Milan G, Ru:ord1 2008).
9;
1 Fitb1t 'Ouahl11!S
adverllsemenl, aired February 7. 2016, during Super Bowl SO 0<1
CBS, 30 sec„ http.//www.superbowlcommcrcials2o16.org/ htb1t1
As with television shows (17 10.3.2), you can often cite advertisemenlS
by weaving the key elements mto your text rather than using a note,
especially if some or al\ of the additional elements are not available or
relevant to the citation.
Mozilrt, Wolfgang Amadeus Sonatas ond fanlos,es for lhe Piano Prepared from the i!Ulo•
graphs anc1 earliest prrntcd sources by Nathan Broder Rcv, ed Bryn M~wr, PA Thco·
dme Presscr 1960
Cite an unpublished score as you wonld unpublished materia\ in a
manuscript collection.
N:
2. Ralph ShaptJy "Pc1rhta fo , V1ol111 and Th1rteen Players, ~core. 1966, SptJcial Collerhons, Joseph Ret:enste111 L,b,a,y Un11re,,,1y of C111ngo
Fitb,t s Duality a thirtv•second spot lhal .med during the th,rd quartc, ot Super Bowl
50 (CSS, February 7, 2016)
17.10.4 Texts in the Visual and Performing Arts
Cite an art exhibition catalog as you would P
book. ln the bibliography entry only, include infonnation about the exhi·
bition following the publication data.
17 1í d 1 ART EXHIBITION CATAL0GS.
N:
1 Jenn,for Y Chr, ed ,
The Eye of l hc Shah · Qa101 CourI Photography ond the Persion Pll5I
IPnnce on, NJ Princl.!lon Unrver51ty Press 2015), 33-
8: Ch,. Jenntlcr V, cd Thc E}e o( rhe Shuh: QaJar Court Pholography ond lhc Pt?rsian Past
Prinr:P\nn NJ P, inci.tori Un1vers1ty Pres~ 2015. Pubh~h~d in conjunction wil h an l!.l·
17,11
Public Docume nts
Public documents include a wide array of sources p10duced by govemments at all levels throughout the world. This section presents basic
pnnciples for some common types oí public docurnems available in English; if you need to cite other types, adapt the closest model.
Such documents involv~ more cornplicated and varied elements than
most types of published sources. ln your citations, include as much identifying infonnation as you can, fom1at the elements cons1sten1ly, and
adapt the general patterns outlined here as nee<led
PVBL
CH APH R 7
21,
PlOTES g BLIO ?I\PHY ~TVLE TVPE O
hed by US
The bulk of this section is concer ned with docum ents publis
the govby
hed
govem menta1 bodies and agenci es For docum ents publis
bodůonal
emme nts of Canad a and the United Kingdom and by intema
see 17.11.12_
ies, see 17.1r.9-11. For unpub lished govem ment docum ents
17.11.1
Eleme nts to Includ e, Their Order, and How to Fonna t Them
as you can:
ln your citatio ns, includ e as many of the following eleme nts
ether division)
• name of the govem ment (country. state, city, county , or
court bument,
depan
ive
execut
and govem ment body 0egisla nve body,
ent
docum
the
reau, board, commiss1on, or comm1ttee) that LSSued
• title, if any. of the docum ent or collection
• name of individ ua! author , editor, or compiler, if given
of pubhca• report numbe r or other 1denlifying inform ation (such as placl'
llems in
for
or
tions
pubhca
tion and publish er, for certam freesta nding
second ary source s)
• date of public ation
• page numbe rs or other locator s, if releva nt
ted online (s~
• a URL, or rhe name of the databa se, for source s consul
u)
17.11.
,and
17.11,7
15.4.1 and,fo rexam ples, 17.11.2.2, 17,11 ,3,
Cerln genera l, hst the releva nt eleme nts m the order given above.
the
in
ed
includ
be
should
bul
tain eleme nts may be left out of the notes
ng
followi
the
in
bibhog raphy Other types of except ions are explai ned
Since
. 1873, congress1onal debate s have been publis hed b th
t the Congr~ss1onal Record (in notes, often nbbrev iat:d a:
~:~ge~:e)nWhm
enever possib le cite th
•
which often
retlect change :, from the da'l ' d . e perma nent volum es,
. i y e iuons of the Record (for c1tations of the
.
dail H
y ouse or Senale ed10on, retain the Hor S in page numbe rs.)
N:
in d mstead
Note that, by conven tion, ordma ls m public docum ents end
of nd (2d mstea d ot :md)
Congr ession al Public ations
begin with
For congre ssiona l pubhca llons, bibhog raphy entnes usually
ntatives
Represe
of
House
or
Senate
by
ed
follow
ss,
the design ation US Congre
notes,
ln
House.)
US
or
Senace
US
to
this
(or House) (You may also símpli fy
and
ittee
comm
e
includ
nts
US is usually omitte d. Other comm on eleme
aod
ess
Congr
the
subcom m1ttee , if any: utle of docum ent: numbe r of
of
date
n),
se„s1on (abbre viated Cong. and s~s 1especttvely in this pos11.Jo
le,
examp
public ation and numbe r and descrip rion of the docum ent (for
H. Doc 4B7), if avmlable.
1, (0119.
Rec.. 110t h Cong., 1st se~s., 2008 vol 153, pl. 8. 1629-36
8: US Congress Co"gre~sionol Rec:o,d 110th Cong •• ,st sess , 2008 Vol 153, pi. 8.
.
Occasionally you may ne d •d
, the subject, and a date in a note. e to• ent..Jfy a speake r in a debate
N:
2 Senator Kenn~ y of M assachu setts speak,n f
g or t he Joint Resofutt0n on Nuclea,
W e~pon~ Freeze and Reduct ,ons o M ' h
to t he Comm1t1Pe on Fore,gn Rel,11982
10,
tlons SJ Res 163 971h Cong 1st ' n Care
seu. or19 Rte 128, pi, 3· 3832-34
I.ti
·
Before 1874 con
pthubhshed in Am1als of the
Congress of the 'unite ~~:::: ~als;b ;res webre
nown Y O er names dhd cov ·
th
enng
.
e years 1789-1824), Regíster. of.Debaces (1824-37), and Congrcss,onal Globe
(1833-73) c·c h
ssiona/ Record.
J e I ese works s1m1larly ro the Congre
17112 2 RCPORTS AN D OOC UMENTS · Wh en you cite reports and do
f
ts o the
cumen
(H
Hou
the
and
S.)
viated
(abbre
Senate
mclud c both the Congress and sessio n numbe rs and tf ps:ssib.!oer HthR),
, e senes numbe r N 0
'
th i
• o ce
th
e orm for a shorte ned note which differs fr
(see
pattem
usu~)
~
lt::'cn
consu
r6.4-1) The bibliography exarr:ple was
offic1al
an
usmg
~me
.
G
US
govem ment resour ce (the
ovemm ent Pubhsh ing Office) See also
15 4.1.3.
ty Acl of 2002 I07lti
1 Select Com m1ttee on Homela nd Seconly, Homcla nd Secur
Con&. 2d scss , 2002, HR Rep 107- 609, p• 1, 11- 2
Comml ltee on Homcla nd Securoty
B US Congress, House of Represc ntat,ves, Select
sess, 2002. HR Rep 107-609 , pt t
2d
Cong~
Hom eland 5ecurit y Act of 2002. 107th
n .11.2
ru
171121 DEBATE S.
secoon s of 17, 11.
N.
DO UM(N T
OURC l
N:
1 Select Comm 1ttel! on Homela nd Securit H
V omeland Security Act of 2002, 107th
Cong' 2d ses s., 1002, HR Rep 107-609• pt . 1 11-12
G
2. Declara t,ons of a Stbte of War w,th J
apan crmany, and Italy, 77th Cong. at ses~
1941. S Doc 148 nr al 10575 2-5.
3. Setect Comrn,t tee. Homeli!nd Secu,tty Ac!, 11
I
4 RPOrga11 zat,on of the Federal Jud,cia, y 75th Co ng. 1s sess, 1q37 S. Rep. 711
E
8: US Congre~s House • BIoc,L. ng prol)C!rty and Suspend
ntry of Cert o1111 Persons En•
gaging ,n S1gn1flcan t Mat,c1ous Cyber-Enabt d A ing
114th Cong ist sess 2015
c11v1t1es
e
/f
H Doc 114·:!2, hl t ps / i.vww
g po.gov dsysrpkg;CDOC-114tidoc22
.
.
C
ongress1onal b11ls (proposed Iaws) and resolu .
nons are publis h d ·
resolu tions
ongina ting in theeH~n pa7ph let form. ~ cHations, b1lls and
01 H Res
HR
1ated
abbreV
u_se o Representat1ves are
. .
and th
.,
ose ongma tmg 10 th e senate S. or S. Res Includ e public ation details
17112 3 Bill S ANO RESOLUTIO NS
PUBLIC O!)CUM(l l"l'S
216
in the Congresstonal Rccor(l (if available). lf a bili has been enacted, cite it
as a statute (see 17
N:
11
17,11. 3 Presidential Publications
Presidential proclamations, executive orders, vetoes, addresses, and the
like are published in the Weeldy Compilation of Pres1d1mtial Documents and
in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States. Proclamations and
executive orders are also carried in che daily Federal Register and then
published m title 3 of the Code of Federal Re9ulatíons. Onde they have been
published in the Code, use that as your source Put individua! titles in
quotation marks. The example of a proclamation was consulted online
from an official govemment resource (see also T5.41. 3).
2.5).
1 E111<1il Pnvacy Acl. H, Res 6g9, 114th Cong , 2d sess., Co11gr~$1onoJ Record 162, no
65. da,ly ed ( April 27, 2016) H2022
B: US Congr= House E111a1I prr vacy Act • H Res · 699 114Ih Cong , 2d se~s. Conqressionol
Recard 162, no. 65, daíly ed. (Apnl 27, ;1016). H2022-28
aiven before congressional commíttees
Record s o f teso·mony b'
.
•
. h ed WI'th forma! titles , which should be_ tncluded in
are usually publ1s
otations (in italics). The relevant committee is normally_ hsted as pan
of the title. Notice the form for a shortened note, wh1ch differs from th<?
117
17112.4 HE ARINGS.
N:
1,
Bar;icl- Obarna, Proclama1,on 9465, " Establishment of 1t,e Stonewall Nahonal Mon-
2 William J Cltnton. E•ccutlve Orde, 13067, " Bloc~ 111g Sudanc;P. Go11ernment P1op•
usual pattem (see 16-4.1).
N:
1
ument,• Federa/ Reg1!>ter 81 no. 115 (Ju11e 29. :2016) 4221s, httris./,fcderalreg,ster gov/ .:i
12016-15536.
erty and Proh1b1tm11 Ttansachons w,th Sud:m." Codl! o( (eďernl Pt•gulat,ons, titre 3 ( 1997
comp) ~30
Hea,ing befo,,; lhé Select Committee on Homelond Secu,ily. HR 5005, Homeland s~
curíty Act ol 2002. dav 3. 107th Cong , 2d sess July 17 2002, 119•20.
2
HR 5005, H~ar,,ig, 203.
B: US Pre~1dent. Procli1mat1on 9465 Establishment ni thc Stonewall Nat,onal Monument.
Fcdcrul Reg1ster 81, no. 125 CJumi 29, 2016) 422 15,.20 https:r/fedr•ralreg,sler.gov/ a
12016-15536
B: US Congress, Senat e. Fomine Jn Africa·' Hearmg before the Comm1ttee on Forefgn Re/ohon,.
99th Cong.. 1st se5s , January 17, 1985
The pubhc papers of US prcsidenls are collected in two multivolume
works: Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, I789-1897
and, starting with the Hoover adrrůnistration, Publřc Papers of the Pres1de11ts
of the Unued States (Papers not covered by either of these works are published elsewhere.) To cite items in these collections, follow the recommendations for multivolume books (see 17.1 -4)
17112 5 STA run
s . Statutes, which are bills or resolunons that have been passed
into law, are first published separately and then collecte~ m the annual
bound volumes of the United States StaLuLes <H Large, wh~ch began pub•
!kation m 1874. Later they are incorporated into the Um_ted States Code.
Cite US Statutes, the US Code, or both. Section numbers _in the Code are
preceded by a secoon symbol (§; use§§ and et seq. to ind1cate more than
one section}.
.
Cite statutes in notes only; you do not need to include them m your
b1bliography. Notice the form for a shonened note, which differs from the
17.11.4 Publications of Govemment Departments and Agencies
Executive departments, bureaus, and agencies 1ssue reports, bulletins,
orculars, and other materials. ltalicize the title, and include the name of
any 1dentified author(s) after the title
usual pattern {see 16.4.1)
N:
1,
Atom,c Energy Atl of 1946, f'ublic law 585, 79th Cong., 2dses.s (August I, 1946)
1~, 19
<
2. íair C,edit Reporting Act ťlf 1970, US Ccufo 15 (2000). ,. 1681 et seq.
002)·
l Horneland Secm,ty Act or 2002, Pubhc law ,07-296, US5talutesnt torge n6(2
.
N;
1.
US Departmi,nt of the Treasury, Report o( the Seetl!ta,y o/ the Trwsury Tra11s1111t11ng
o Report (,om t he Reg1ster of the T1cosu0 uf the Cf 1•11•1erce aad No, l~ut,un u/ ll•i: lJn,111rl
S/otes far the Year End111g I~ J0th of June, 1850, 31~1 Cong , d ~ess Houst.! fa„ruhve
Documefll 8 (Washington, DC 18.50-51)
2163-64, cod1f11!d at U5 Code 6 (200.2), §§ 101 et seQ.
4 Homeland St!c:urit~ Ad 2165
Before 1874 laws were published m the seventeen-volume Statut~ at
'
· ·
0 f this coUecoon
States of America, 1789-1873. Citauons
Large of tl1e United
include the volume number and its publication date
ti: US Depart ment of the lntertor, M inerals Management Serv1ce, Envlronmental Divis,on
Otl-Sp,/1 Risk Ar1a/y~1s· G11lf o( Mexrrn Outer Cont1nent11/ Shel{ (OCS) LPose Sule~ Ct'ri·
trat P/Qnni119 Awo a11d We~/ern Planmng Area, 2007-101.z, 1md Gu/f.,. ,ae OCS Pronram,
2007-2046, by Zhen Gang Ji, Walter R lc,11115011, and Charles r Mar5'1all [dth!d by
Elleen M lear. MMS 2007-040, h,ne 2007
CHAPT[R li
218
I NOH
Pll BLIC. DOCUMEN TS
S 6 1BLIOGRAPH{ STY LE TYP( 5 O F SOU RCES
in italics. lnclude the volume number (arab1c), name of the reporter (abbreviated; see below), ordinal series number (if applicable), opening page
number of the decision, abbreviated name of the court and date (together
in parentheses), and other relevant information, such as the name of the
state or local court (if not identified by the series title). Actual pages cited
follow the opening page number, separated by a comma.
Cite cases in notes only; you do not need to inclpde them in your
bibliography.
11.11.s US Constitution
The VS Constitution should be cited only in notes; you need not include
it in your bibliography. Include the article or amendment, section, and, if
relevant, clause. Use arabic numerals and, if you prefer, abbreviations for
terms such as amendment and section.
N:
1
US Constitut1on, art 2, sec. 1, cl. 3
2. US Constitution,
amend. 14. sec 2 .
ln many cases you can use a parenthetical note (see 16-4-3) or even
include the identifying information in your text. Spell out the part designations in text. Capitalize the names of speciftc amendments when used
in place of numbers.
N:
A shortened note may consist of the case name and, if needed, a page
number.
N:
The Fifst Amendment protects the nght of free speech.
The one element that depetlds on the Jeve! of the court is the name of
the reporter. The most common ones are as follows.
17.11.6 Treaties
The texts of treaties signed before 1950 are published in United States
Statutes at Large; the unofftcial citation is to the Treaty Series (TS) or the
Executive Agreement Series (EAS). Those signed in 1950 or Jater appear in
United States Treaties and Other Tnternational Agreements (UST, 1950-) or Treaties and Other lnternational Acts Series (TlAS, 1945-). Treaties involving more
than two nations may be found in the Umted Nations Treaty Series (UNTS,
1946-) or, from 1920 to 1946, in the League ofNations Treaty Series (LNTS).
!talicize titles of the publications mentioned above and their abbre•
viated forms. Unless they are nametl in the title of the treaty, list the
parties subject to the agreement, separated by hyphens. An exact date
indicates the date of signing and is therefore preferable to a year alone,
which may differ from the year the treaty was published. Notice the form
for a shortened note, which differs from the usual pattem (see 16.4. r).
N:
■
N:
US Supreme Court. For Supreme Court decisions, cite United States Supreme
Court Reports (abbreviated US) or, if not yet published there, Supreme Court
Reporter (abbreviated S. Cl.).
4. AT&.T Corp.
v
lowa Ulilittes Bd , 525 US 366 (1999)
S Brendli11 v Californ,a, 127 S. Ct. 2,100 (2007 )
■
N:
Lower federal courts. For lower federal-court decisions, cite Federal Reporter
(F.) or Federal Supplement (F. Supp.).
6 United States v. Denn1s. 183 F. 201(2d Ctr. 1950)
7. faton v. IBM Corp , 925
r. Supp. 487 (5D Te~ . 1996).
■ State
and local courts. For state and local court decisions, cite official state
reporters whenever possible. If you use a commeroal reporter, cite it as
in the second example below. lf the reporter does not identify the court's
name, include it before the date, witlún the parentheses.
1. Trealy Banntng Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, In Outer Space, and Un·
der Water US-UK-USSR, August 5, 1963, UST 14, pt. 2, 1313
2. Convention concerntng M ilitary Service, Denmark-ltaly July 15, 1954, TIAS 250,
no. 3516, 45
3. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 1317•18.
,. United States v. Christmas, 222 F3d 141, 145 (4th Cir. 2000).
2. Profit Sharing Pian v. MBank Dallas, N.A., 683 F, Supp 592 CND TeK. 1988).
The US Const1tution, 1n art1cle 1, section 9, forbids suspens1on of the writ "unless when
in Cases of Rebell1on or lnvas1on the public Safety may require it."
219
N:
8. W1l/1oms
v Davis 27 Cal 2d 746 (1946)
9 Bivens v Mobley, 724 So. 2d 458. 465 ( MIss. Ct App. 1998)
Gases consulted online should normally be cited to the appropriate
reporter(s) as described above. A URL that points directly to an official
resource may be added as the final element (see also 15.4. 1.3).
B: Unlted States. Naval Armament Lim1tat1on Treaty w1th lhe Br1tish Emp1re, France, Italy.
and Japan. February 6, 1922. US Statutes at Large 43, pl. 2 .
11.11.1 Legal Cases
Citations of legal cases generally take the same form for courts at all
levels. ln notes, give the full case name (including the abbreviation v.)
N:
10. Stole v. Grif(in, 211 W. Va 508, 566 S.E.2d 645 (2002), http.//WWW courtswv.gov
/ 5upre111e-court/docs/ spr1ng2002130433.htm.
!'I/ULIC (lQ(IJlyl(Nf~
220
Many researchers use Le.x.is or Westlaw to research court cases and
other lega! materials. To cite a case in one of those dalabases, add any
identifying date and number supplied by the database (see also 15-4-1.4).
J>age or screen numbers are typically preceded by an asterisk.
N:
11.
date (in paremheses), the volumt! munber (if any), the abbreviated name
of the reporter, and the opemng page of the decision
N:
11.11.10 British Govemm ent Documents
Cite British govemment documents similarly to OS public dociunents
End citations with the phrase Umted Kingdom (in parentheses) unless it is
obvious fTom the context
Acts of Parliament should usually be c1ted only in a note Include a
specific act in your bibliography only if it is critical to your argument or
frequenůy Clted. ldentrfy acts by tllle, date, and chapter number (arabic numera! for national number, lowercase roman for local). Acts from
before 1963 are cited by regnal year and monarch's name (abbreviated)
and orclinal (arab1c numera!).•
17.11.8 State and Local Government Oocuments
Cite state and local government documents as you would federal documenls. Use roman type (no quotallon marks) for state laws and municipal ordinances; use italics for codes (comp1lations) and the titJes of freestanding publicattons.
1 llhr,015 lnsl1lute
for En1111onmental Qu.1tity (IIEQ), Rc~rew ar1d Synopsí~ o( P1,blic Por-
t,e1pat1v11 regarding Sulfur D,o.ldP. ond Par1iculnlc fmiss,ons, by Srdnev M. Marder, IIEQ
Oocumer,t 77121 (Chicago, 1977), 44-45
2,
Met hamphetamine Com,ol and Commun,ty Protcction Acl, 1/11110,s Cvinpiled Slot•
ures, chap 720. r,c, 6461 sec 10 (2005)
3. Pt,ge s Oh,o Rel'ised Code A11notat~. htle 35, sec 3599.0112011).
N:
Document 77121. Chicago, 1977.
Canadian Govemment Documents
Cite Canadian govemment documents símilarly to US public documents.
End citations with the word Canada (in parenlheses) unless it is obvious
from the context.
Canadian statutes appeared through 1985 in the Rev1sed Statutes oj
Canada, a consolidation thal was published every tifteen to thlrty years,
federal statutes enacted since then are cited as session laws in lhe an•
nua1 Stat11tes of Canada. ldentify the statute by title, reportet, year of corll·
pilation, chaptcr, and section.
Canada Wildlife Act, R~v,sed Stotutes of Canodo 1985, chap W -9 sec:. 1.
2 . Ass1sted Human Reproduct,on Acl,
Stututt.-s u/ Coooda 20(14, chap. 2 . sec. 2
Canadian Supreme Court cases since 1876 are published m Supreme
Court Reports (SCR). Federal Court cases are published in Federal Courts
Reports {FC, 197 1-2003i FCR, 2004-) or Exchequer Court Reports (Ex. CR, 1875r971) Cases not found in any of these sources may be found in Domm1011
Law Reports (Dl.R). lnclude the name of the case (in italics), followed by the
3. chap
2
Most Bntish legal cases can be found in the applicable report in the
Law Reports, among these the Appeal Cases (AC), Queen's (King's) Bendl
(QB, KB), Chancery (Ch.), Family (Fam ) and Probate (P.) rcports. Until recently the courts of hrghest appeal in lhe Umted Kingdom (except for
criminal cases in Scotland) had been the House of Lords {HL) and Lhe
)udicial Commirtee of the Privy Council (PC). ln 2005 the Supreme courl
of the United Kingdom (UKSC) was established.
lnclude the name of the case, in italics (cases involving the Crown
refer to Rex or Regma), the date, m parentheses: the volume number (if
any~ ~nd abbreviated name of the reponer; and the opening page o( the
dec1s1on lfthe coun is not apparent from the name oflhe reporter, 01 ú
Lhe Jurisdiction is not clear from context, include either or both, as necessary, in parentheses.
o/ Public Partie/,
pot,on rPqorrling Sulfur D,o~ide and Por1,culole fm•ss ions by Sidney M. Marder, IIEO
1
of Set tlemerit, 1701, 12 & 13 Will
3, Marichest er Corporat,011 Act 1967, chap •'
8: llhnois Institute for Erivironmental Qual,t)' (IIEQ) Re~iew ,md Synops1J
N:
1. Act
:-, Consolidated Fund Act, 1963 chap , (Unit.-,d Krngcloml
4 New Me~,co Constit ution, art . ,i, sec. 7,
11.11.9
3, Robe,tso11 v T/iomson Corp. (2006) 2 SCR 363 (Ca11ada>
•l Conodu v, CBC/Rorlio·Conoda, \2014) 1 FCR 142
Fomlly Scrvice Ass()l"1otron ů( Steubťn,11/e _, Wells Tmvnslilp. 2015 US Dist. LEXIS
75017, · 7 (SD Ohro, June 10, w15), leA1sNcx15 Academie
N:
Ut
N:
4 Regina v. Dudley ond Stept,.,n (185~) 14 QBD .;:73 (DC)
5 Regol (Hastmgs) Lid ~. Gull,vtt, (1967) 7 Ač 134 (HU ( opr,cal taken f1om Eng.)
b , NML Capitol L1mired (Appel/on() v Rc~lilblic
o/
AriJi.'/llm,1 (Rewr,n,1,,nt ) 12 011 ,
UKSC 31.
17.11.11 Publications of Intemation al Bodies
Documents published by intemational bodies such as the Umted Nations
can be cited much like books ldenufy the authorizing body (and any au-
Cti APTER 171 NOTES 61BLIOGRAPH< ~i ,LE TYPES
222
or
SOURCES
thor or editor), the title or topic of the document, the publisher or place
of publication (or both), and the date, followed by a page reference in the
notes. Also include any senes or other identifying publication inforrnation. For documents consulted online, indude a URL (see 15.4-1.3)
N:
18
Author-Date Style: The Basic Form
1 League of Arab St at es and Unlt ed Nations, The Th,rd Arab Report on the Millenn111m
Development Goals 2010 ond the lmpocl of the Global Economic Crises (Be1rut; Economic
and Social Commiss1on for Western tl,s1a, 2010), 82.
e~
United Nat1ons Security Council. Resolution 2222, Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict. S; RES/ 2222. New Votic UN, May 27, 2015. h ttp://www.un.org;en/ sc/ documenli
/ resolutions/2015.shtml
18.1
11.11.12 Unpublished Govemment Documents
If you cite unpublished govemment documents, fo1low the pattems
given for unpublished manuscripts in 17.7.4Most unpublished documents of the US govemment are housed in
the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) in Washington, DC, or in one of its branches, and cataloged online. Cite them all,
induding films, photographs, and sound recordings as well as written
materials, by record group (RG) number.
The comparable institution for unpublished Canadian govemment
documents is the Library and Archives Canada (LAC) in Ottawa, Ontario.
The United Kingdom has a number of depositories of unpublished gov•
emment documents, most notably the National Archives {NA) and the
British Library (BL), both in London. Each of these resources has been
cataloged online.
Basic Pattems
181.1
161.2
1813
18.14
181.5
1816
18.17
18.2
Order of Elements
Punctuation
Capitallzation
Jtalics and Quotation Marks
Numbers
r1'
Abbrevlatlons
lndentatlon
Reference Lists
18 2 1 Arrangement of Entries
18.2 2 Sources That May Be Omitted
18.3
Pa renthetica l Citations
18 3.1 Placement in Text
18.3.2 Special Elements and Forma! tssues
18.3.3 Footnotes and Parenthetical Citat1ons
A citation style used widely in most social sciences and in the natural
and physical sciences is the author date style, so called because the author's name and the date of publication are the critical elements for identifying sources. This chapter presents an overview ofthe basic pattem for
citations in author-date style, including both reference list entnes and
parenthetical citations. (The citation style presented in this chapter is
also known as the Turab1an or Chicago author-date or reference list style.)
Examples of parenthetical citations are identified with a P; examples of
reference list entries are identified with an R.
In author-date style, you signal that you have used a source by placing
a parenthetical citation (induding author, date, and relevant page numbers)
next to your reference to that source:
A ccording to one scholar, "The ra,lroads h.id made Chicago the most Import.ml meet•
ing place between East and West" (Cronon 1991, 92- 93)
At the end of the paper, you list al! sources in a reference list. That list
norrnally íncludes every source you cited in a parenthetical citation and
sometimes others you consulted but did not cite. Srnce parenthetical citations do not include complete bibliograplucal information for a source,
you must include that infonnation in your reference list. Ali reference list
entries have the same general form:
R: Cronon, William 1991. Nature's M etropo/ls: Chicago and the Great West New York· W W
Figure 18.1. Templates for reference list entr,es and parenthetical citations
The follow1ng templates show what elements should be 1ncluded In what order when
cit,ng several common types of sources ln reference lists (R) and parenthetical cita•
tions (P). They also show punctuation, cap1tal1zalion of titles and when to use ,tahcs or
quotal1on marks. Gray shad1ng shows abbrev,at1ons (or the1r spelled-out versions) and
other terms as they would aclually appear In a c1tation. XX stands in for page number(s)
actually cited. YY-YY for a full span of page numbers for an art1cle ~r a chapter.
For furt her examples. explanat1ons, and variations, see chapter 19.
Norton
Books
Readers expect you to follow all the rules for correctly citing your
sources. These rules cover not only what data you must include and in
what order but also punctuation, capitalization, italics, and so on. To get
your citations exactly right, you must pay dose attention to the kinds of
details that few researchers can easily remember and that even the best
citation management tools can help with only part of the way Read this
chapter for an overv1ew. Then use chapter 19 to look up the details.
1. Single Author or Editor
R: Author's Lasl Name. Authoťs First Name. Year ot Publ1cation Tttle of Boak: Subtitle
of Baok. Place of Publicat1on. Pubhsher'.s Name
t>uckworth ,Angela. 2016. Grit· The Power o/ PasSJon and Perseuerm1ce. New York·
Scribner
'
P;
(Author's Last Name Year of Publillo19tion, XX)
(Duckworth 2016, 82)
For a book w1th an editor Instead of an author, adapt the pattern as follows·
18.1
Basic Patterns
Allhough sources and their citations come in almost endless variety, you
are likely to use only a few kinds. While you may need to look up details
to cite some unusual sources, you can easily leam the basic pattems for
the few kinds you will use most often. This will help you to record accui ate and reliable bibliographical data quickly and effi.ciently as you do
your research.
The rest of this section describes the basic patterns, and figure 18 r
provides templates for several common types of sources. Chapter 19 indudes examples of a wide range of sources, including exceptions to the
pattems discussed here.
R: Editor's Last Name Editor's First Na,ne, ed, Year of Publ,cation
Pra.kash, Gyan, t!d. 2010 ..
P: (Editor's Lasl Name Year of Publicat1on, XX)
(Prakash 2010, 89-90)
For more than one editor adapt the examples in lemplate 2 and use eds.
2. Multiple Authors
For a book with lwo authors use lhe follow1ng pattern
R: Author lffs Lasl Name. Author #l's First Name. .-ind Author #2's First and Lasl
Names. Year of Publ1cat1on. Title o( Book. Subcitle of Book. Place of Pubfication
Publisher's Name.
1s.1.1
Order of Elem ents
The order of elements in reference list entries follows the same general
pattern for all types of sources: author, date (year) of publication, title,
other facts of publication. Parenthetical citations include only the first
two of these elements. Jf they cite specific passages, they also indude
page numbers or ether locating information; reference list entries do not,
though they do include a full span of page numbers for a source that is
part of a Jarger work, such as an article in a periodical or a ch apter in a
book.
Choi , Susanne_Y. P.,_and Ymni Peng. 2016 Masc-uline Promíse· Migral!on, Family,
and Gender lit Cluna. Oakland: University of Califom1a Press.
P: (Aulhor m ·s Lasl Name and Author t:2"s Lasl Name Year of Publ,cation. XX)
(Ch01 and Peng. 111-12)
For a book with three authors adapt the pattern as follnws.
R: Author #l's Last Name, Author #l's First Name, Author #2's First and Last Names
and Author #3's First and Lasl Names. Year of Publ1cat1on
'
White, Karen, Beatriz Williams, and Lauren Willig. 2016 ...
·
227
Figure 18.1 Templates for reference list entries and parenthetical c1latIons (continued)
P:
Figure 18.1. Templates for reference li!'>t entne!'> and parenthetical citat1ons (contmued)
(Aut hor #1's Last Name, Author #2's Lasl Narne, ,md Author #3's Lasl Name Year of
Journal Articles
Publication, XX)
6. Journal Article-Basic Format
(White, Williams, and Willíg 2016, !H)
R: Author's Lasl Name, Authm s F,rs\ Name. Year of Publteat1on 'Tille of Art1cle Subl1tle of Art1cle." Title o{ Journal Volume Number, lssue Number {Addit1onal Dale
lnformation) YY-Y'r
For a book with four or more aulhors, adapl the parenthet,cal cltation pattern only, as
follows.
I
P: (Author #l's Lasl Name et al Year ot Publicat,on, XX)
Mercer, Ben 2016 ·specters of Fascism: The Rhetoric of H/stoncal Analogy in
1968 "Journal ofModem Histo,y 88, no. 1 (March)· 96-129.
(Elchengreen et al. 2015, 120)
P: (Author's Last Name Year of Publication XX)
3. Author Plus Editor or Translator
(Mercer 2016, 98)
For a book w1th an aulhor plus an editor use the follow1ng pattern.
For an article w1th multiple authors. follow \he relevant pattern lor authors' names in
R: Author's Lasl Name Aulhor's First Name. Year of Publicat1on Title o{ Book. Subt,tle
of Book. Edited by Editor's First and Lasl Names. Place of Publication: PubHsheťs
template
Name
Austen,
Jane. 2016
2.
7. Jour nal Article Online
Mansfield
Parit: An
Annotated Ed1oon. Edited by Oeidre
Shauna Lynch. Cambridge, MA· Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
For a 1ournal art1cle consulted onhne il"nclude a URL. For art,cles that 1nclude a DOi. lorm
the URL by appending the DOi to https //do1.org/ rdther than using the URL ,n youi ad·
dress bar The DOi for the Fernandez article In the example below is 101086/68599 8
P: (Aul hor's Last Name Year of Publication, XX)
R: Author's Lasl Name, Author s First Name Year of Publication Title of Art1cle: Sub·
lilie of Article" Title o{ Journal Vol ume Number, lssue Numbe, (Add1t1onal Date
(Austen 2016, 223-24)
lf a book has a lranslator instead of an editor, substitute t he phrase Translated by and lhe
translator's name for the editor data in the reference list entry
lnformation) YY-YY URL
Fernandez, Patncio A 201fi, "Pracncal Reasoning: Where the Action ls.• Eth1cs
126, nu. 4 (July): 869-900. https//doi.org/1 0.1086/685998 .
4. Editio n Number
R: Author's Last Name, Authoťs First Name. Year of Publication. Title o( Book.
of Book Ed1t1on Number ed , Place of Pl1blicat1off Publisheťs Name.
P: (Author's Lasl Name Year of Pubhcat1on. XX)
Subt,tle
(Fernandez 2016, 872)
Kinzie, Mary 2013. A POeťs Guide to POetry. 2nd ed. Chicago: Uruversity of Chi
cago Press
See 15 d 1 for more deta1ls
P: (Author's Lasl Name Year of Pubhcation. XX)
(Kinzie 2013, 83)
18,1,2
Punctuation
ln reference list entries, separace most elements wíth penods; m parenth etical citations, do not use a punctuation mark between the author
and the date, but separate the date frorn a page number wíth a comma.
18.t.3
Capitalizatio n
Most titles can be capitalized using headline style. But for llt..les in languages oth er than Engbsh, use sentence style (See 22.3.1 for both styles.)
Capitalize proper nouns in the usual way (see chapter 22) In some fields,
you m ay be required to use sentence style for most t1tles except for titles
of joumals, magazines, and newspapers; check your local guidelines.
S. Single Chapter in an Edit ed Book
R: Chapter Author's Last Name, Chapter Aulhoťs First N am e Year of Publication
"Title of Chapter· Subtitle of Chapt er" ln Title of Book. Subtltle of Book, l!(l,ied b\l
Editor s First and Lasl Names, YY-YY Place of Publication Pubhsher's Narne
Gillespie, Kelly. 2017 ~Before the Comrrussion. Ethnognphy a~ Pubhc T~nmony" ln lfTtuth Be Told· The Politics oJ Pubfic Ethnography, ed1ted by Did1er
Fassin, 69-95. Ourham. NC· O\Jke University Press
P: (Chapter Authoťs Lasl Name Year of Publicalion, XX)
(Gillespie 2017, 72)
228
18.1.4
ltalics and Quotation Marks
Use italics for titles of larger entities (books,journals); for titles of smaller
entities (chapters, articles), use roman type and quotation marks. Also
use roman type and quotation rnarks for otles of works that have not
been formally published (such as manuscnpts or dissertations), t>ven if
they are book length. See also 22.3.2.
1s.1.s
Numbers
ln titles, any numbers ate spelled oul or given in numerals exactly as
they are m the original. Use lowercase roman numerals to refer to page
numbers that are m roman numerals m the origmal. References to all
other numbers (such as chapter numbers or figure numbers) are given
in arabic numerals, even ifín the onginal they are in roman numerals or
spelled out.
18.1.6
Abbreviations
Abbreviate terms such as editor and translator (ed. and trans.) when they
come after a name, but spell them out when they mtroduce it (Edited by).
The plural is usually formed by adding s (eds.) unless the abbreviation
ends in an s (use trans. for both singular and plural), Terms such as uolume, edition, and number (uol., ed., and no.) are always abbreviated.
18.1.7
Indentation
Reference list entries have hanging indents: the firsl line of each entry is
flush left, and anything that runs over to a new hne is indented. Parenthetical citations are placed within the text and are not indented.
1s.2.1
Arrangement of Entries
18211
A reference list IS normaily a single list of all sources arranged alphabetically by the last name
of the author, editor, or whoever is first in each entry. (For alphabetizing
names from languages other than English, compound names, and other
special cases. see 18.2.r 2.) Most word proccssors and citdUon manage
ment tools can son entries alphabetically. For all but thl? simplest of lists,
however, lhe results will typically need some adjusting. If you are writing
a thesis or dissertation, your department or university may specify thal
you should alphabetize the entnes letter by letter or word by word; see
16.58-61 ofThe Chicago Manual o/ Style, 17th edition (201 7). for an explanation of these two systems.
If your reference list includes two or more works written, edited, or
translated by the same mdividual, arrange the entries cluonologically
by publicatlon date. For all entries after the first, replace the mdividual's name with a Jong dash, cailed a 3-em dash (see 21.7.3). For edited
or t1anslated works, put a comma and the appropriate designation (ed ,
trans., or the like) after the dash. List all such works before any lhat the
individua! coauthored or coedited Successive entries by two or more authors in which only the first authoťs name is the same are alphabeti2ed
according to the coauthors' last names. Nole lhat it is best to make all
these adjustmenLs manually- after you have sorted your complete refer•
ence list alphabetically by name.
ALPHABETICAL ANO CHRONOLOGICAL BY AUTHOR .
R: Gates, Henry Louis. Jr. 1988. The Srgmf,-ing Monkey; A Thenry of Africon-Amcr,con l,teral}'
Cr1ticism. New York: Oxford University Press
- -. cd. 2002. The Clossic Slove Norrotlvr.s, New York· Pcnruin Putnam
-
- . 2004. Americo behind lhl! Co/ar Lint>· D10/ogues with Af,ícon Amcr,cur11 New York
Wamer Boaks.
- - 2010
18.2
Reference Lists
In papers that use author-date style, lhe reference list presents full bibliographtcal mforrnation fo1 all the sources cited in parenlhetical citanons {other than a few special types of sources; see 18.2.2). You may also
include works that were important to your thmkmg but that you did not
specifically mention in the text. ln addition to providing bibliographical
information, a reference hst shows readers the extent of your research
and its relationship to prior work, and 1t helps readers use your sources
in their own research. lf you use the author-date otatlon style, you must
include a reference List in your paper.
Label the list ReJerences See figure A.16 in the appendix for a sample
page of a reference list.
Tradilton ond t/1e Black Atla111/c· Crrtical fhcary m the A(ricnn D,osporo New
Yorlc 8as1cCiv1tas
-
- , 2011. Black ln Lot in Americo. New York• New York UmVl.'rs1ty Press,
Gat1.s, Htm y Lou,, Jr., and Cornd West
2000.
Tne A{r,can Amer,co11 Lt'•tt111y- How řJlack
Amer1cons Ho~c 5hope,d Our Country, New Vor ls. frec Press
Gat,s, Henry Louis, Jr., ilOO Dona Id Yacovone, 2013, The A/r1rn11 Amerirnns: Mnný R,vers to
Crass Carlsbacl. CA Sm1ley8ooks.
The same principles apply to works by a single group ot authors
named in the same order.
R: Marty, Martin E., and R. Scott Appleby 199;;,.
Tne Glory and the Pawer· The Fur•domr:i•lolrsl
ChallFnge- to Ille M ode,n World Boston· Beacon Press
- -, eds 2004. Accauntmg far fondome11to/is111s. Ch1Lago· Ur11vers,tv ol Ch1caiio Pres~
s
230
CH/\PTER 18 1 AIJTt<OH l)ATE ST\IE IHE BI\ SIC fORM
RCFf R.NCI Ll5t~
Marty, Martin [ , and Micah Marty 1998 When True S1mpl1cily /s Gamed. Frndmg Spmtuo/
Hine, Darlene Clark
Kessler-Harris, Al,ce
Clarity in o Comple) World Grand Rap,ds Ml William 8 Eerdmans
lf your reference list includes more than one work published in the
same year by an author or group of authors named in the same orcler,
arrange the entries alphabetically by title (ignoring articies such as a and
the). Add the letters a, b, c, and so forth to the year, in roman type without
an intervening space. Yourparenthetical citations to these works should
include che letters (see 18.3.2).
R: Fogel Rob ert WIiiiam. 2004a The Es,ape from Hunger and Premature Deoth, 1700- 210 0.
Eurape, Amer,ca, and l he Third World New York Cambridge Un1vers1ty Press.
- -. 2004b. 'Tec.hnophys,o Evolut ron and the M easurement of Ec.onom,c Growth.•
Jaurnal a( Evo/ut,onory Ecanom,cs 14 no. 2 · 2 17-21
lf a book or journal article does not have an author or editor (or other
named compiler, such as a translator), put the title first in your reference
list entry and alph abetize based on it, ignoring articles such as a and the.
R: Accounl o( thc Ooerotians rif t he Grttol Triganometrica/ Survcy af India. 1870-1910 22 vols.
Dehra Dun. Survcy of India.
"The Great Tngonometncal Survey of India 1863 Calcutta Review 38:26-6.2
"Slate and Prospt!ctS of Asia.' 1839 Quorlt!rly Rewew 63, no. 126 (March): 369-402.
For magazíne and newspaper articles withoul authors, use the title of
the magazíne or newspaper in place of the author (see 19.3 and 19.4). For
other types of sources, see the relevant secůon in chapter 19 for guidance; if not slaled otherwise, use a title in this posioon.
18 212 SPECI AL ťt'PES OF NAME S.
Some aulhors' names consist of more than a
readily identifiable "fust name" and Mlast name." ln many cases you can
determine the correct order by consulting your library's catalog. For his•
torical n ames, the biographical entries at Merriam-Webster.com can be
helpful. This section outlines some general principles for alphabetizing
such names in your reference list. ln shonen ed or parenthetical notes,
use the Jast na me exactly as inverted (shown below in bold). lf your paper
involves names from languages other than English, follow the conven•
tions for those languages.
■ Compound
names. Alphabetize compound last names, includmg hyphenated names, by the first part of the compound. If a woman uses both her
own family name and her husbanďs but does not hyphenate them, gen·
erally alphabetize by the second surname. Whiie many languages have
predictable pattems for compound names (see below), others-sucb as
French and German-do not
231
Mies van der Rohe Ludwig
Teilhard de Chardin Pierre
■ Names with particles. Depending on the language, particles such as de, di,
D,' and van may or may not be considered the first part of a last name for
alphabetizing Consultone ofthe resources noted above ifyou are unsure
about a particular name. Note that partides may be e1ther lowercased or
capitalized, and some are followed by an apostrophe.
'
Beauvoir, Simone de
Kooning Willem de
de Gi1ulle, Charles
dl Leonardo. M1caela
M edlci, Lor<!1lZ<> de'
Van Rensselaer, Stephen
■ Names begin11ing
with "Mac," "Satrtt.,nor "O' " Names that begin with Mac,
Saint, or o· can have many vanations in abbreviatíon (Mc, St.), spernng
(Sainte, San). cap1talization (Macmilla,1, McAlhster), and hyphenalion or
apostrophes (O'Neíll or Odell; Saint·Gaude,1s m St. Denis). Alphabetize al!
such names based on the letter!i actually present; do not group them
because they are similar.
■ Spanish names. Many Spanish last names are compound names consisting of an individual's patema1 and matemal family names, someumes
joined by the conjunction y Alphabetize such names under the first part.
O rtega y Gasset, Jose
Sánchez Mcndoza, Juana
■ Arabic names. Alphabetize Arab1c
last names that begin w1th the particle
al-orel- (the) under the element following lhe particle. Names lhal begin
with Abu, Abd, and lbn, líke Enghsh names beginrung with Mac or Saint,
should be alphabetized under these terms.
Abu Zafar Nadvi. Syed
Hakím, Tawfiq al·
Ibn Saud, Az,z
Jamal M uhammad Hamid al·
■ Chinese, Japanese, and Korean names. lf an author wich a Chmese, Japanese,
or Korean name follows trad1t1onaJ usage (family name followed by given
name), do not invert the name or msert a comma between the "first" and
"last" names. lf the author follows Westemized 1.1sage (given name followed by family name), treat the name as you would an English name
Trod,t,onal usoge
Western11ed usage
Chao Wu-chi
Kim Dae·jung
Yoshida Shrgeru
Kurosawa Noria~i
Lee, Chang-rac
Tsou, Tang
182.13 CATEGOR IZEO LISTINGS
Because readers following a parenilietical citation will have only an author and a date to help lhem idenufy the rele-
232
CHAP TE R 19 I ALl1HOK - DATE Sl • lt 1Hf ~A,1 ( ro PM
PARENTliHICAl LITATl(H;S
vant reference list entry, organize the list as described above except in
rare cases. Under the following circumstances, you may consíder dividing the list mto separate categories:
and the punctuation in parenthetical citations are slightly different from
those used in notes-style parenthetical notes, which are described in
16-4-3; do not confuse or cornbine the two styles.)
• If you have more than three or four ennies for a special type of source,
such as manuscripts, archival collections, recordings, and so on, list them
separately from the rest of your ennies
• If it is critical to distinguish prim ary sources frorn secondary and tertiary
ones, list the entries in separate sections.
18,3.1
If you categorize sources, mtroduce each separate section with a subheading and, if necessary, a headnote. Order the entries within each section according to the principles given above, and do not list a source in
more than one section unless 1t clearly could be categorized in two or
2ll
Placement in Text
Whenever you refer to or otherwise use maLerial from a !jOurce, you must
insert into your text a parenthetical citation with basic identifying mformation about that source. Normally the parentheticaJ citation should be
placed at the end of the sentence or cla use contruning the quotation ar
other material. But if the authoťs name is mentioned in the text, put the
rest of the citation (in parentheses) immediately after the author's name
The closing parenthesis precedes a comma, period, or other punctuat:ion
mark when the quotation is run into the text. See also 25.2.
more ways.
"W hat on introspect1on seems to happen 1mmediately and without effort 1s olten a
1s.2.2
complex symphony of processes that tjke t1me to complete" (LeDoux 200 3 , 116)
Sources That May Be Omitted
By convention, you may omit the following types of sources from a reference list:
While one school claims that "material culture may be the most obiective source ol
lnformation we have concerning America's past" (Deetz 1996, 259), others d1sagree
• comments on online magazíne or newspaper articles and blog posts
(19.3, 19-4.2, 19.5.2), postings to social media (19.5.3) or to online foru ms
or mailing lists (19.5-4}, and anonymous unpublished interviews and persona! communications (19.6)
■ classical, medieval, and early English literary works (19.8.1) and (in some
cases} well-known English-language plays (19.10-4.2)
■ the Bible and ether sacred works (19.8.2)
■ well-known reference works, such as major dictionaries and encyclopedias (19.9.1)
■ some sources in the visual and performing arts, including artworks
(19.10.r) and live performances (19. ro.2)
■ certain types of public documents (19. u), including the US Constitution
The culor blue became more prominent in the eighleenth century ( Pastoureau 2001
124).
According to Gould (2007, 428), the song 'sp,eads a deadpan liverpudhan irony over
the most d 1ched sentiment in all or popular mus,c "
With a block quotation, however, the parenthetical citation follows the
terminal punctuation mark
He concludes w1th the follow,ng observation:
The new society that I soughl to depid .ind that I wish to judge 1s only being born
Time has not yet f1xed 1ts form; the great revolution that created it st,11 endures,
and in what is happening in our day it is almost imposs1ble to d1scern what wlll pass
(1911.5)
away with the revolution ltself and what wi ll remaln after lt ( Tocquevtlle 2000, 673)
You may chaose to include in your reference list a specific item from one
of these categories that is critical to your argument or frequently cited.
See figure A. r 1 for a sarnple page of text with parenthetical citations.
18,3.2
18.3
Parenthetical Citations
Parenthetical citations include enough infonnation for readers to find
the full citation in your reference list-usually the authoťs name, the
date of publication, and (if you are citing a specific passage), a page number or other locating infonnation. The name and date must match those
in the relevant reference list entry exactly. (Note that both the elements
Special Elements and Fonnat Issues
The basic pattem for parenthetical citations is described in r8. 1, and
templates forseveral common types of sources appear in figure 18. 1 _Th1s
section covers special elements that may need to be induded and special
format issues that may arise in parenthetical citations of al! types.
In the following situations, treat the name of an editor, translator, or
ether compiler of a work as you would an author's name, unless otherwise specified.
234
CHAPl[N 16 I AUTHQl\-rJ<TE STYLE Hlt 11'\SIC IORM
p~REN THHIC.AL CITATION,
If you cite works by more than one
author with the same last name, add the aulhor's first imtial to each parenthetical c1tation, even if the dates are different. If the initials are the
same, spell out the first names
18.3 21 AUTHORS W ITH S AME LAST NAME .
(J. Smith 2011. 140)
( Howard Bloom 2005, 15)
(T Sm ith 2008, 25-26)
( Harold Bloom 2010. 270)
Severa I l heorists d1sagreed strongly w1th this posil ion (Armstrong and Malacinski
2003, Pickett and W hite 2009· Beigl 2010).
Additional works by the same author can be cited by date only
(W1ens 1989a: 1989b)
1a.3.3
If you c.ite more than one Work
published in the same year by an author or group of authors named in
the same order, arrange the entries alphabetically by title in your reference list and add the letters a, b, c, and so forth to the year (see 18.2.r.r).
Use the same des ignations in your parenthetical citations ~etters in roman type, without an inlervening space after the date).
(Hsu 2017b, 59-60)
tB 3 2.3 NO AUTHOR
If you cite a book or joumal article without an author, use
the title in place of the author in your reference list (see I 8.2 . r) ln parenthetical citations, use a shortened title composed of up to the first four
words from the full title (though you can usually omit a, an, or the), and
put the title in italics or roman as in the reference list.
(Account of Operations 1870- 1910)
( "Great Trigonometr1cal Survey'' 1863, 26)
For magazíne and newspaper articles without autho rs. use the title of the
magazíne or newspaper in place of the author in both locations (see t9.3
and 19 4). For other types of sources, see the relevant section in chap•
ter 19 for guidance, if not stated otherwise, use a shortened title in this
position.
18.3 2 4 NO OAT E. lf you
cite a published work without a date, use the designation
n.d. (no date) in place of the date in both your reference list and parenthetical citations. Use roman type and lowercase letters.
(Smith n.d., 5)
For ether types of sources, see the relevant section in chapter 19 for
guidance.
18 3.2 5 MORE THAN ONE WORK CI TED- lf you
cite several sources to make a single
point, group them into a s ingle parenthetical citation . List them alphabetically, chronologically, or in order of importance {depending on the
context), and separate them with sernicolons.
Footnotes and Parenthetical Citations
~f you wish to make s ubstantive comments on the text, use footnotes
mstead _o f parentl1etical citations. See 16.3.2-1 6.3 .4 for note placement,
numbenng, and format. To cite a source within a footnote, use the normal parenthetical citation form.
18.3.2.2 WORKS WITH SAME AUT HOR ANO OATE.
{Hsu 2017a, 74)
235
N:
' · As Jill Lepore {2015, 228) obse:rved, "Marston wanted the kids who read his comics
to imag1ne a woman as president of the United 'ilaks.
F
237
19
19.7
Author-Date Style: Citing
Speci.ftc Types of Sources
Papers, Lectures, and Manuscript Collections
19 71 These.s and o,~~erlations
19 7.2 lectures and Papers Presented at Meetings
19 7 3 Pamphlets and Reports
19 1..1 Manuscripl Collecttons
19 S Online Collectlons
„
19.8
Older Works and Sacred Works
19 8.1 Ctass,cal Medieval and Earlv Enghsh L1tcrary Woru
19 8.2 The Brble and Ott,er Sacred Works
19.9
19.1
Reference Works and Secondary Citations
Books
10 o I Re-fcrence Works
1911 Author s Name
191 2 Date ol Publ1cation
1° 9 3 Oni: Sou,ce Quoted rn Anothe,
10 3 Title
1<lH Ed1tion
19 Q 2 RPv1ews
19.10 Sources in the Visual and Perfonmng Arts
191 c; Volume
1910 I Artworks and Graph1c~
JOH, Senes
1'110 2 live Perlo,mances
1910 3 Mult,media
1910 a Te,ts on the Visual and Performmg Arts
19 7 Fads of Publication
191 ll Page Numbers and Other Locator•
191 9 Chapters and Othe, Parts of a Book
19110 [lectronIc Books
19.2
1911.2 Congressional Pubflcat,ons
19 21 Author's Name
1911 3 Presidential Publ,callons
1'l i
19 'l
19114 Publications of Governmenl Di,partments and Agencres
Oate of Pubhcation
Article Title
19115 lJS Constitullon
1011 ó Treaties
10 J S lssue. lnformation
1911 7 Legal Cases
19 ; 6 Page. Numbers
1911 8 State and Local Government Document~
19 • 7 Spe.c,al lssut-s and Supplemenl~
19 2
19.4
19 n l Elements to lncludt> Therr Ordcr. and How to Format Them
Joumal Articles
l'l 2 4 Journal TIiie
19,3
19.11 Public Documents
a Abstracl!>
Magazíne Articles
19119 Canadran Government Documenls
19,l] lOBrilrsh Government Oocuments
191111 Pubhcations of lntrrnatlonal Bodles
1a 1112Unpublished Government Oocumenb
Newspaper Articles
19 d 1 Name o[ Newspaper
19 4 2 Crting Newspapers rn Re.letence Lists and Parentheses
lil~ .3 Citmg Newspapers In Text
19. 5
Webs1tes, Blogs, and Social Media
19 S l Websrle Content
19 '>
Blog Posl5
19 o; 1 Social Medla
19 '> A Online Forums and Ma,hng Lisls
19.6
lnterviews ond Persona! Communicaa ons
19 6 I lntervlews
H 6 2 Pe~nat Commun,c.:1tIons
236
Chapler 18 presents an overview oť the bask patrem for citations in the
author-date style, including both reference list entries and parenthetical
citations lf you are not familiar Wlth this citatlon style. read that chapter
before consulting this one.
This chapter provides detailed information on the form of reference
list entries (and, to a lesser extent, parenthetical c1tations) for a wide
range of sources lt starts with the most commonly ated sources-books
and joumal articles-before addressing a wide variety of other sources.
The secttons on bool<s (19, t) and joumal arucles (19.2) dtscuss variations
z
238
.,,.~ f
19 A T,;o•DAHSIVl
vnsorSOUllel5
in such elements as authors' names and titles of works in grealer depth
lhan sectlons on Jess common sources
Cxamples oí sources consulted onhne are induded alongside most
other types of examples. Electzonic book formats are discussed at 19 1.10.
for some general consideranons, espec1ally if you are new to research,
see 15-4 For tips related to citation management tools, see 15.6
Most sections include gu1delines and examples for reference list
entries (identlfied with an R). Since most parenthetical cttanons follow
che bas1c pattem described m chapter 18, they are cliscussed here (and
idennfied with a P) only for cJarification or if unusual elements might
cause confusion m preparing a parentheacal citation (for example, when
a work has no author).
Jf you cannot find an example m this chapter, consult chapter 15 of
The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th ediůon (2017). You may also create your
own style, adapted from the principles and examples given here. Most
instructors, departments, and umversities accept such adaptations, as
Jong as you apply them cons1srently.
19.1
Books
Citations of books may include a wide range of elements. Many of the
variations in elements discussed in this section are also relevant to other
types of sources.
19.1.1
Author's Name
ln your reference list, g1ve the name of each author (and editor, translator, or other contribulOr) exacůy as it appears on the ntle page, and in
the same orde1. lf a name includes more than one mitial, use spaces
between them (see 24.2.1). Put the first listed author's name in mverted
order 0ast name first) , except for some non-English names and other
cases explained in 18.2.r.2. Names of any additional authors should follow but should not be inverted.
R: 8arker-Benllatd, G J. 2010. Ab1go1I ond John Adams The Ameri,on1zot1011 of SenSJb1hty. Chicago: University of Chicago Pres~.
K1nder. Dona Id R . and All,~on Oale·R1ddhá. 2012. The End of Roce? Obamo, .1008. ond Racial
Pol,lla ,,, Amenco New Haven, CT Yo1le Univ~ity Press.
2013 Whol ls o C/055,c~ Postcoloniol Rewritlng and lnve11tion of the
Mukheqee Ankh1
Conon. Stanford CA: Stanlord Uo1ver51ty Press.
ln parenthetical citations, use only the author's last name, exactly as
given in the reference list. 1-or works with three or more authors. see
figure l 8. T.
eoo•s
P: (8ar ker-Benf,eld 2010 499)
(K111de, and Dale-R,ddle 2010, 47)
( Mukheq ee 2013, 184-85)
191.l,1
lfa title page lists
an editor or a translator in addition to an author, treat the author's name
as described above. Add the editor or translatoťs name ~Her the book's
title If there is a translator as well as an eclitor, list the n.rrnes 111 the same
order as on the title page of the ongmal.
ln reference list entries, insert the phrase Edited by or 1Tanslaced by
before the editor's or translatoťs name.
tolTOR OR TRANSlATOR I N AOOI TI ON TO AN A UTH O R.
R: Elizabeth I 2000 Col/!!ctcd Works. Ed1tcd by Leah S. Marcus, Janci Mucller, ,1nd Mary
Beth Rose. Chteago· U111vcr~1ty ol Chicago Press
Hegel. Georg W ilhelm Fnedrrc-h w 10 The Sc,ence of logrc. Ed1ted and tr,m~l:ited by
George dl Giovanni Caml>rrdge: Cdrnbridge Universit y Prc~~
J,trlk Noe 2005. The Noe Jilflk Reod!'r Sf:R!cted Essoys 011 Lolm Amenrnn L,leratu,c &ltted
by Daniel Balderston. Tr~n$1.ited by Su,;an E. Benner Durham, NC Dub: Umversitv
Pre.ss.
Wben a title page identifies an editor or translator with a complicated description, such as "Edited with an lntroduction and Notes by" or
"Translated with a Foreword by," you can simplify this phrase to edited by
or translated by and follow the above examples. ln general, if a foreword
or an introduction 1s written by someone other than the author, you need
not mention that person unless you cite that pan specifically (see 19.1 .9).
In parenthetical atations, do not include the name of an editor or
translator if the work appears in your reference list under the author's
name.
P: (Elizabeth I 2000, 102-4)
(Hegel2010. 642-43)
(Jtlrik 2005 189)
When an editor or a
translator is listed on a book's title page instead of an author, use that
person's name in the authoťs slot Treatit as you would an authoťs name
(see che beginning of this section), but m che reference list, add the abbreviation ed. or trans. following the name. lf there are muluple eclitors
or translators, use eds. or trans. (singular and plural) and follow the principles for multiple authors shown in figure 18.1.
19.1.1.2 EDI TO R OR TRAN SLATOR IN PLA CE OF AN A UTHOR
R: Hean!!y, Seamus, trans
Norton.
woo.
8eowulf A New
Verse
Tronsl ntron New Yrirk W W
a
600 ►
240
lf the author 1s Pxplic1Uy listcd as uAnonymous" on the title page, c.1te
che book accordmgly.
log,olio Marbona Maria del Mar, Paulo G Pinto, and John Tol ik Karam , eds. ::io15. Cres•
cent over Anattie, Har,ro11 /slom in Latm Amcrica, tf1e Caribbean. and Lo tmo USA. Au\!111
University ol Te•ilS Prcšs
P: (Hl'aney 1000, 55}
(Log,oi'io Narbona, Pinto. and Karam 2015, 140-41)
O RGAN IZ ATIO N AS AU T HOR If a publication issued by an organizalion,
association, commission, or corporation has no persona] author's name
on the tit1e page, list che organization itself as author, even 1f it is also
given as publisher For public documenlS, see 19.9.
19,1 13
2A1
B: Anonymous :1015
The Senet t1vt!t o/ Tearhe1s Chicago Ur,,11.,,s,ty of Ch•c.Jgo Pre5:.
P: (Anonymous :>015, 202)
19.1,2
R: American Bar Associatlon. 2016 The 2016 Federal Rules Book Chicago: Am!:rican Bar As•
soc1at1on
Dale of Publication
The publication date for a book consists only of a yea,, not a month or
day, and 1s usually identical to the copyright date. lt generally appears on
the copyright page and sometimes on the title page.
ln a reference list entry, set off the date as its own element with periods In a parenLhetical citauon, put 1t after the authoťs name WJthout
intervening punctuation
P: (Americao Bar As5oc1alion 2016, 192)
Treat a widely recognized pseudonym as 1[ it wete the
author's real name. lf the name listed as the author's 1s known to be a
pseudonym but the real name 1s unlcnown, add pseud in brackets after the
pseudonym in a reference list entry, though not in a parenthetical c1tation.
19.11.4
R: Chen Cheng :io16. The Return o/ ltlea/09y. ThP Seorch fo, Reg11ne ldent/t,es m Posl·
communist Russ10 and C/11110. Ann Ar ť University of M1ch,gan Press
PSEUDO NYM .
R: Centinel [pseuc,l ]
Revised editions and reprints may include more than one copynght
date. In th1s case, the most recent indicates the publication date-for
example, 2017 in the string "@2003, 2010, 2or7." See 19.1.4 for citing publication dates m such works.
lf you cannot dctcrmine the publicanon date of a pnnted work, use
the abbrevianon n.d in place of the year lf no dare 1s provided but you
believe you lmow ít, you may add il in brackets, Wlth a quesuon mark
to indicate uncerta inty. (For the use of access dates for undated sources
consulted online, seP 19 s r.)
1981. "Lette,s.'" ln The Compll'll' Anti·Federallsl. edited by Herbert J.
Sl oring Chicago: Universit y of Chicago Pres~.
Twain Mark
1899, Thc Prince arid Ille Pouper A Tole far Young People of Ali Ages, New York:
Harper and Brothers.
P: (Twain 1899, 34)
(Cenllnel 1981, 2)
1911
s
ANONYMOUS AUTH O!l. If the authorship is known or guessed ilt but omil•
ted from the book's title page, include the name in brackets (w1th a question mark if there 1s uncertainty) If the author or editor 1s unknown,
avo1d the use of Anonymous in place of a name (but see below), and begi.n
the reference list entry with the title. ln parenlhet:lcal citations, use a
shortened title (see 18.3.2).
R: [Hawkes, Jawes?]
1834
R: Agnew, John. n,d A Book of V1rlues. Ed111burgh
Miller. Samuel í175o?l Anort:e, Book of Vtrtues. Boston
P: (Agnew n.d„ 5)
(MIiier (1750? J, S)
If a book 1s under contiact with a publisher and is already utled but
the date of publicatlon 1s not yet known, use Jorthcomrng in place of the
date. To avoid confusion, include a comma after the autho, 's name in a
parenthetical citation of this type. Tteat any book not yet under contract
as an unpublished manuscript (see rg.6).
A Rl!lrospect of the Bo~ron Tea·Porly, w1th c MPmoir o/ Gťoroe R
T Hev.es. By a C1t12en of New-York. New-Vo, k
A True ond Sincere Declarolion of the Purposf.' and Ends o( the Plontot,on 8e91m III Virginia.
o/ rhe Degree.~ Which lt Holh Rece1ved, ond Meons by Wh1ch li Hoth Eíeen Adva11ced
1610
London.
R·
P: (lHaw~es. James?] 18311, 1~8-29)
( True and Smcere Oeclarutton 1(,10. 17)
Aut hor, Jal"'e Q For thcurnlny,, 8ook Tir/r. Place ol Pubh(dhun Publ1shl'r', Nam•i
P: I Author, forthconiing. 1ó)
20
242
Title
List complete book titles and subtitles in reference list entries. ltnlietze
both, and separate the title from the subtitle w1th a colon. (ln the rare
case of two subtitles, either follow the puncniation in the original or use
a colon before the first and a semicolon before the second.)
19.1.3
title in quotation marks. (lf the title-w1th10-a-otle would normally be enclosed in quotation marks, keep the quotation marks.)
R: Ladenson. Elrsabeth 2007, Dtrt for Arťs Sake: Boole.s on Trio/ from 'Madomt! Bavory" to
"Lal,to. llhaca, NY Comell University Press.
McHugh, Roland. 1991. Annototions to 'Flnnl!gons Wake 2nd ed Baltimore: Johns Hopklns University Press.
R: Marsden, Philip. 2016. R1s,ng Ground. A 5eorch for lhe Spirit o( Place!. Chicago: UnIvers,ty
However, when the entire main title of a book consi~ts of a LíUe within
a title, do not add quotation marks (but keep any quotacion marks used
in Lhe source)
of Chicago Press
Capttalize all tJtles and subtitles headline-style; that 1s, capitalize the
first letter of the first and last words of the title and subtitle and au major words. For ůtles m languages other than English, use sentence-style
cap1talization-that is, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of
the title and subtitJe and any proper nouns or other terms that would
be capitalized under the conventions of the original Janguage (in some
Romance languages, proper adjectives and some proper nouns are not
capitalized). (See 22.3 . r for a more detailed discussion of the two styles.)
R:
Light, Al,rn. 2014. leťs Go Crozy: Prince and t/Je Mo/c,ng o( "Purple Rain: • New Vor~: Atna
Bool-..s
Wilde, Oscar. 2011 The P1cture o( Dor/on Gray: An Annototed, Uncensored Edition. Edited by
Nicholas Franke!. Cambridge. MA: Harvard Universit)' Pn'!ss
■
ltaticized terms. When an italicized title includes terms normally italicized
in text, such as spedes names oř names of ships, set the terms in roman
type.
(headline style) How to Do li· Gu,des lo Good l •vmg for Reno1ssance ttol1ons
(sentence style) A quot reveni les algor1thmes· Nos v,es i, I heure des big data
Preserve the spelling, hyphenation, and punctuation of the origmal
title, with two exceptions: change words in full capitals (except for initial1sms or acronyms; see chapter 24) to upper- and lowercase, and change
an ampersand (&) to and. Spell out numbers or give them as numerals
according to the original (twelfth ce11tury or 12th cenrury) unless there 1s a
good reason to make them consistent with other titles in the list.
For titles of chapters and ether parts of a book, see 19 I 9.
19131
SP EC IAl ELEMENTS IN T ITLES .
Severa! elements in ntles require special
R: Pennmgton. T, Hugh, 2003. Wlten Food K/11s: BSE, E. col1, and D1saster Sc,en,e New York:
O>1lord University Press
lech Raymond B
2001 The Trogic Fole of tne USS Indianapolis· The U.S Novy·s Warst
Disoster ot 5eo New York: Cooper Square Pres.s.
■
Question marks and exclamanon points. When a tJtle or a subntle ends with
a question mark or an exclamation pomt, no other punctuation normally
follows (but see 21.12.1).
R: Allen, Jafan S :zon i Venceremos' The Erotics of Black Self-Moking in Cubo, Durham, NC:
Duke University Press..
Wolperl, Stanley. 2010 . India ond Pok,ston. Conltnued Conf/1,:t or Cooperolion' Berkeley;
University ol California Press.
rreatment.
■
Oates. Use a comma to set off dates al the end of a title ot subtitle, even
ú there 1s no punct-uation in the ongmal source. But if the source introduces the dates with a preposition (for example, "from r920 to 1945") or
a colon, do not add a comma.
R: Hayes Romain. 20 11 Subhos Chandro Bose in Noi, Germony; Polilics. lntelfigence, and Pro·
poganda, 1941-43. New York. Columbia Umverslly Press.
Sorl!nson John L and Carl L. Johannessen :zoo9 World Trade and Biologicol Excho11ges
be(ofl" 1492. Bloomrngton IN: 1UnIvcrSI!
■
Titles w1thm htles. When the title of a work that would nonnally be italicized appears withm the italic1zed title of another, enclose the quoted
191.3 2 OLOER TITlES
For titles of works published in the eighteenth century
or earlier, retam the original punctuation and spelling. Also retain the
original capitalization, even ifit does not follow headline st"jle. Words in
all capital letters, however, should be given in upper- and lowercase. If
the tJtle is very Jong, you may shorten it, but provide enough mformation
for readers to find the full title in a library or publisher's catalog lndicate omissions in such titles by three ellipsis dots. Put the dots in square
brackets to show that they are not part of the original title. (Square brackets are also used in the second example to show that the place of publication is known but did not appear with the source.) ff the omission comes
at ů1e end of a tiůe, add a period after the bracketed dots.
CHAi TER 19 I AU TH O~· D"-Tl H>'L l TY PES or :.OIJRCH
244
245
R: Escalante, Bernardino 1579 A D1scourse o[ the NavigatI011 whicl'l the Portugal~ doe mokt,
to the Rea/mes and Provinces of the East Pari es of lhe Worlde ( .
) Translated by John
tion you actually consulted (unless 1t is a first ed1tion. which is usually
not labeled as such).
Frarnpton. London
Ray, John, 1673. Observotions Topographico/, Mora/. and Physiolog,co/: Made in a Joumey
Through part o[ the Low·Countries, Germany, Italy and FranCP" wilh A Catologueof Pla11ts
not Notíve o( England [
] Whereun to is added A Brle( Account o( Francis Wtllughby,
Esq., hi~ Voyage thro11gh a great part o( Spam. [London].
1913.3 NON · EN GLI SH TITLES Use sentence-style capitalization for non-English
titles, following the capitalization principles for proper nouns and other
tenns within the relevant language lf you are unfamiliar with these principles, cansult a reliable source.
R: Kelek, Necla. 2006. Oíe fremde Braut. fin Bericht
011s dem
/nnere,1 des Wrkischen lebens ln
Oeutsch/ond. Mun1ch: Goldmann Verlag.
Piletic SloJanovié, LI!11ana, ed 1971 Gut(reund i é:ešk1 kubiwm. Belgrade: MuzeJ savremene
When a boak ís reissued with s1gnificant content
changes, it may be called a "revised" ed1tíon or a "second" (or subsequent)
edition. This information usually appears on the baok's title page and is
repeated, along with the date of the edit10n, on the copyright page.
When you cite an editian other than the first, include the number
or descnption of the editian after the title. Abbreviate such warding as
"Secand Edition, Revised and Enlarged'' as 2nd ed., abbreviate "Revised
Edition" as Rev. ed lnclude the publication date only a f the editian yau
are citing, not of any previous edi□ons (see 19 1.2).
lQ 14 1 itEVI SED EDITIONS.
R: foley. Douglas E 2010 Learning Cap,talist Cu/ture· Deep ;n the Heart of Te1as. 2nd ed Ph,la
delphia U11ivr.rsity of Pennsvl v<1nia Press.
tev1tt. Steven D , and Stephen J Duliner 2 0 06. f'reokonomícs: A Rogu„ fronom1st [<plores
umet11ostI
Reveles, José 2016. fcl!o/e lo culpa o la heroino: De lguala a Chicago. New York: Vintage
Espaiiol
tf you add the English translation af a title, place it after the original.
Enclose it in brackets, withaut italics or quotation marks, and capitalize
it sentence-style.
R: Wereszyckí Henryk. 1977 Kon,ec sa1uszu trzech cesorzy [The end of the Three Emperors'
League]. Warsaw PWN .
Yu Guoming. 2011 Zhongguo chuon me1 fn zhon q1an yan ton suo [New perspectives on
news and commun1cat1on]. Be1j1ng: Xin hua chu ban she.
Jf yau need to cite bath the ariginal and a translation, use ane of the
following forms, depending on whether yau want to focus readers on the
ariginal ar the translation.
R: Fu,et, Frani;:ois. 1995. Le passe d une 11/us,on Paris. Éo1\ions Robert Laffont Translated
by Debor;ih furet as The Possin9 o( an lflus1on (Chicago· University of Chicago Pres.s,
1999).
the Hidden Side o( Everythmg , Rev
t°'d
New York; HarperCol11ns
Many books are reissued ar published in more than
one fonnat-for example, in a paperback editian (by the original publisher or a different publisher) or in electronic fonn (see 19.1.10). Always
record tl1e facts of publicatian for the versian yau consulted. 1f the edition you consulted was published more than a year ar two after the origi·
na! edition, you may include the date of the original (see 1 g.1 .2) in paren•
theses in the reference list entry.
11114.2 REPR INT EDITIONS .
R: Jam& Randall. 2010 Pictures from on lnst,tution· A Comedv. Chicago: University of Chi·
cago Press. (Ong pub. 1954.)
P; Uarrell 2 0 10, 79-!io)
lf the reprint 1s a modem printing of a classic work, you should still
cite the reprint ed1tion, but if the ongmal publicatJ.on date is important
in the context of yaur paper, include it in brackets before the reprint date
in both your reference list and your parenthetical cJtations,
R: Dickens. Charles. 2 011 . P,ctures from Italy. Cambridge· Cambridge Univer sity Press. (Orig.
ar
Furet. fran~ois 1999 The Passrng of on 11/us,on. Translated by Dt:borah Furet Chicago:
Un1ve1sily of Chicago P1ess. Ongini!llv published a~ Le passe ďune I/lusio11 (Paris: EdI -
pub. 184b,)
P: ( Dickens 2011, 10)
t1ons Robert Laffont, 1995).
or
19.1.4
Edition
Some warks are published in more than ane edition. Each edition differs
in cantent or format ar both. Always include information about the edi-
R: Dickens. Charles. [ 1846] 2011. Pictures (rom Italy Cambridge. Cambridge Un1vers,ty
Press.
P: ( Oíckens [ 1846l
2 011, 10)
247
ilOOrS
246
19.1.S
Volume
Jí a book 1s part of a multivolume work, include this information in your
c1tations.
19 1.5 1
To cite a specific volume that carrtes íts own title, list
the útle for the m11ltivolume work as a whole. followed by the volume
number and title of the specific volume Use the publication date of the
individua! volume. Abbreviate vol. and use arabic numbers for volume
numbers. See also 18.2.r
SPECIFIC VOlUME
To cite a multivolume work as a whole,
give rhe title and the total number of volumes If the volumes have been
published over several years, list the full span of pubhcaoon dates in both
your reference list and your parenthencal citations.
19152 MULT IVOLUM E W O Rk AS A WHO LE.
R: Aristotle. 1983- Complete Worb a( Arislotre: The Revfr,ed Oxford Tronslat,on. Edlt ed by
J Bar nes. 2 vols Princeton NJ: Princet on University Press.
/
T,lllch, Paul. 1951- 63 S~temot,c Theology. 3 vols. Ch,cago, Univers}lY o f Chicago Press.
P: (Tillich 1951-63, 2:41)
For works that include individua! volume titles or volume editors (see
19.1.5 1), it is usually best to cite each volume in the reference list indívidually.
R: Naficy, Ham,d 2011. A 5oCJal H151ory af /raman Gnema. Vol, 2 , The lnduslroalrzmg Years,
1941-1978. Durham, NC. Ouke Un,vers1ty Press.
- - 2012 A Social Hístory o( /raman Cinema. Vol. 4, The Glabalizing frn, 1984-1010. Durham, NC: Duke Univ1m1ty Pre!>s.
P; (Hamtd 2011, 119)
(Hamid 2012. 44)
19,l ,6
lf the volwnes are not ind1vidually ntled, hst each volume that you
cite in the reference list (see also 19 t 5.2). In a parenthetical citation,
put the specific volume number immediately before the page number,
separated by a colon and no intervening space
R: Byrne, Munel St Cl;ire, i:d. 1981 The Lisle Letters. Vols. 1 and 4. Chicago. University of
Chicago Press
P: (Byrne 1981, 4:243)
Some multivolume works have borh a general editor and editors or
authors for each volume When citing a specific volume m such a work,
ínclude infonnation about the volume editor(s) or author(s) (see 19.1.1)
as well as informaoon about the edítor(s) of the multivolume work as a
whole. The example from The H1story of Cartography shows not only how
to cite an individua! contribulion to such a work (see 19.r.9) but also how
to cite a volnme published in more than one physical part (uol. 2, bk. 3).
R: Hausman, Blake M 2011. R1d111g lhe Trail of Tears. Naliv!! Storiers. A Series of Amertcan
Narrati11es l incoln: Uníverslty ol Nebraska Press
lunnmg Frenchy ed. :1014. Wortd Renewal. Mechadem1a 10. Minneapolis: Unrvers,t-y of
Mlnnesota Press
Stem, Gertrude. 2008. Select,ons. F.dited by foan Retallack. Poets for the M 1llenn1um, ed·
ited by Pierre Joris and Jerome Rothcnbcrg. vol 6 . Berkeley· Un,versity ol Cahfornia
Press.
R: A•mstrong. Tenisha. ed zo14 To So~e the Saul af Arneríca, January 1961•A11gust 1962. Vol,
7 of Thl! Papa,s of Mar 1111 Luthe1
Series
If a book belongs to a series, youJ111ay choose to include information about
the series co help readers locate the source and understand the context in wh1ch it was published Place the series information after the tltle
(and any vol ume or edition number or editor's name) and before the facts
ofpublication
Put the series title in roman type with headline-style capitalization,
omitting any imual The If the volumes in the series are numbered, include the number of the work cited followmg the series title.The name of
the series editor is often omitted, but you may mclude it after the series
title. If you indude both an editor and a volume number, the number i.s
preceded by vol
Ki11g, Jr. , ed1ted by Clayborne Cilfson. Berkeley: Uni•
versity ol Cali forma Press
Mundy, Barbara E. 1998 " Mesoamerican Cartography. ln The HistCJry of Carlographt,
edlted by J. Bnan Harley and Oa11,d Woodward, vol 2 , bk 3, Cartography in the Trod,t,onol Afrrcan. Amer,can, Arct1c Australiari. and Pocif,c .Saclet1ts, edIted by David Woodward and G. Malcolm Lewis, 183-256. Chicago. University ni Chicago Press.
19,1.7
Facts of Publlcation
The facts of publication usually indude two elements the place (city)
of publication and the pubhsheťs name. (A third fact of publication, the
date, appears as a separate element following rhe author's name 111 this
citation stylei see 19, r.2.)
P: (Armstrong 1014 181)
(Mundy 1998 233)
R: Coates, ia -Nehisi. 2015. ~tweerr t/1e Warld and Me. New York Spiegel & Grau
C. HAPTER '"
248
aoor.s
AU THOM o~H S' ' LE TY rESOF souwc~~
For books published before the twentietb century, you may omit the
publisher's narne
changed or appears in a different form for other books in your reference list.
R: Darwin, Charles. 1871 The Descent of Man. and Selection in Re/at,on lo Sex. 2 vols. Londo,,,
19.171
Harcourt Brace řlnd World
Harcourt Brace Jo11anov1ch
The plece of publicatio n is tbe city where the
book publisher's main editorial offices are located. If yo~ do not see it
listed on the title page, look for it on the copyright page mstead. Where
two or more cities are given ("Chicago and London," for example), include
only the first.
PLAC E OF PUBLICATI O N.
Hatcourl. Brace
You may, however, omit an initial The and such abbreviaao ns as Inc., Ltd.,
S.A., Co., & Co., and Pubhshing Co. (and the spelled-ou tfonns of such corporate abbreviations).
Un1versIty of Texas Press
mstead of
Lo!'> Angeles· Getty Publications
The Un,vers,ty of Texas Press
Houghton M 1ffltn
New York· Columbia Unive~ •IY Press
Houghton M 1ffli11 Co.
Uttle Brown
instead of
instead of
lf the city of publicatio n might be unknown to readers or confused
with another city of the same name, add the abbreviation ofthe state (see
_ _ ), province, or (if necessary) country. When the publisher's name
24 3 1
includes the state name, no state abbreviation is needed.
Cheshire, CT· Graph1cs Press
Harmondsw orth, U K Penguin Books
Cambridge MA M IT Press
Chapel Hill University of North Carolina Press
Prefer current, commonly used English names for cities whenever
such forms exist (When in doubt about wh1ch form to use, record the
name of the city as it appears Wlth the source.)
Belgrade (not Beograd)
R: Albtn, Eleazar. 1738 A Natural H,story o( B1rds. 11/ustrated w,th o Hund,ed and Ont! Copper
Plates, Engraven from Ille L,fe London: printed by the author
Rai. Alisha 2015 Servmg Pleosvre . Self-publ1sh'! d C,eateSpace.
19.1.8
Page Numbers and Other Locators
Page numbers and other informario n used to identify the Jocation of a
cited passage or element generally appear in parenlheti cal citations but
not in reference lists. One exception. 1f you cite a chapter or other section
of a book in a reference list, give Lhe page range for that chapter or section (see 19 1.9 for examples)
For guídelmes for expressing a span of numbers, see 23.2-4. For page
numbers and other locators in e-book formats, see 19. T IO
1°181
PAGE CHAPTE R AND DIVI SI ON NUMBER S. The locator is usually the last
item in a parentheti cal citation. Before page numbers, the word page or
the abbreviatio n p. or pp. is generally omitted Use arabic numbers except
for pages numbered with roman numerals in the angina!.
M ilan (not M,lano)
cate uncertaint y
N p ; Wlnd~ot
[Lake Biu ff, IL7 1 Vllet ;md Edwards
It 1s common for books published more recently through modem selfpublishing platforms not to list a place of publicati~n- If you cite such a
source, the place of publication can usually be om1tted (see 19.1.7.2 for
an example).
2
PUBLISHE R"S MAME Give the publisher's name for each book exacůy as
it appears on the title page, even 1f you know that Lhe name has since
L1ttl", Brown & Co
For non-Englis h publishers, do not translate or abbreviate any part of
the publisher's name, but give the city name in its Eng!ish form (as noted
in r9.1.7.1).When the publisher~ unknown, usejust the place (ifknown)
• however, tlus fact may
lf a book has been self-publis hed,
be noted (see
also 17 1,7,1).
When the place of publication is not known (an uncommo n occurrence for older works, which typically specify a city of publication), you
may use the abbreviation N.p. before the publisheťs n_ame. If the ~lac_e
can be guessed, include it in brackets and add a quest:100 mark to mdt-
1917
249
P; (Arum and Roksa 2011, 145- 46)
(Jone!> 2010 , x1v-•v)
Sometime s you may want to refer to a full chapter (abbreviated chap.),
part (pt ), book (bil.), or secuon (sec.) instead of a span of page numbers.
P: (Oatar Garvin, and Cullen 2010, pt . 2 )
250
CHAPTER 19
I AUTHOR - OAlE
~ T>
Some books printed before 1800 do not carry page numbers but are
divided into signatures and then into leaves or folios , each with a front
side (recto, or r) and a back side (verso, or v). To cite such pages, indude the
relevant string of numbers and identifiers, run together without spaces
or italics: for example, G6v, 176r, 232r-v, or (if you are citing entire folios)
fo!. 49.
Sometirnes you will want to cite a specific
note, a figure or table, or a numbered line (as in some works of poetry).
19.1 8 2 OTH ER TV PES OF LOCATOR S.
■
Note numbers. Use the abbreviation n (plural nn) to cite notes. If the note
cited is the only footnote on its page or is an unnumbered footnote, add
n after che page number (with no intervening space or punctuation). Jf
there are other footnotes or endnotes on the same page as the note cited,
list the page number followed by n or (if two or more consecutive notes
are cited) nn and the note number(s).
P: (Graiton 1997, 72n)
(Bolinger 1980, 192023, 192n30. 199n,4, 2010016-17)
■
lllustratton and table numbers. Use the abbreVIation ft9 . for ftgure, bul spell
aut table, map, plate, and names of other types of illustrations. Give the
page number before the illustration number.
P: (Sobel 1993, 87, table 5.3)
■
Line numbers. For poetry and other works best identified by line number,
avoid the abbreviations I. (line) and ll (lines); they are too easily confused
with the numerals rand 11 . Use line or !ines, or use numbers alone where
you have made it dear that you are referring to lines.
P: ( Nash 1945. lines 1-4)
Chapters and Other Parts of a Book
ln most cases you can cite the main title of any book that offers a continuous argument, narrative, or theme, even if you actually use only a
section of it But sometimes you will want to cite an independent essay
or chapter if that 1s the part most relevant to your research. By doing so,
you help readers see how the source fits into your project.
19.1.9
R;
N1sh1zakl, Yoshmori. 2015 ''Big 1s Good. The Banharn-Jaemsai Observatory Tower in
Suphanbun " tn A Sarong for CIio: Essays on the lnte//ectuo/ ond Cu/tura/ History o(
Tha1/and-lnsp1red by Crarg J, Reyno/ds. ed,ted by M aurizio Peleggl. 143-62. lthaca,
NY· Cornell University Press.
P: (Nlshiz.akl 2015, 143)
BOOKS
l[ H'PES Of SOURCES
/nsteod of
R: Peleggi, Mauriz10, ed 2015. A Sarong for Cl,o, Essoys on the lnte/lectua/ and Cu/tura/ Histoty
a( Thaíland-lnspired by Cra,g J. Reynalds. llhac11, NY· Cornell University Press,
p: (Peleggi 2015, 143)
19.1.9.l
Ifyou cite a chapter G>T ether litled part
of a single-author book, the reference list should include the title of the
part first, in roman type and enclosed in quotation marks. After the designation ln, give the book title, followed by the full span of page numbers
for that part.
PART S OF SI NGLE· AUTHOR BOO KS.
R: Gay, Ro~ane. 2014 "The Careless Language of Se~ual Violence," ln Bod Femrmst 128-136.
New Vorle Harper Perenntal.
Some books attributed to a single author indude a separately authored part with a generic title such as preface or afterword. To cite such
a part, add that term before t!"'e title of the book in roman type without
quotation marks, and capitalize the first word only. Parenthetical citations mention only the part authoťs name.
R: Calhoun, Craig 2005. Foteword to Mult1cultvral Po/,ttes. Racism, Ethnlcity, und Musl,ms in
Brrtam. by Tanq Modood. i~-xv Minneapolis: Un1vers1ty of M mnesota Press
P: (Calhoun 20051 xii)
lf the author of the generic part is the same as the author of the book,
however, cite the book as a whole in the reference list, not just the part
(the part, if relevant, can be mentioned in the text).
In a reference list, if you cite part of an
edited collection witl1 contributions by multiple authors, first list the part
author, the date, and the part title (in roman type, enclosed in quotation
marks). After the designation ín, give the book title, the name of the edi•
tor. and the full span of page numbers for that part Parenthetical citations mention only the part author's name.
19.19.2 PARTS OF EOITED COLLE CT IONS.
R: Binkley, Cameron. 2011 "Saving Redwoods· Clubwomen and Conservatmn, 1900-1925."
ln Californ,a Women and Polltícs: From the Gold Rush to the Greot Depression, edited by
Robert W Cherny, Mary Ann Irwin, and Ann Mane W ilson, 151- 74 Lincoln: Umvers,ty
of Nebraska Press.
P: ( Binkley 2011, 155)
ff you cite two or more contributions to the same edited collection,
you may use a space-saving shortened form. ln your reference list, provide a fu)] citation for the whole book and shortened citatrons for each
p
253
md1vidual part. For the latter, provide the full author's name, the pubiic;i.
tion date, and Lhe full ntle of the part; after the deS1gnation ln, add tne
shorlened name of the book's editor, the publication date, and the full
span of page nurnbers for that part
R: Bruegmann, Robert. 2008 " BuIll Environmcmt o f lhe Chicago R~g1on.• ln Keabng 2008
76-314
The word lener is unnecessary, but label ether fotms, such as a report or
n1emorandum. Give che title and other data for thc collection in the usual
forrn for an edited book. The dates of individua! correspondence should
be woven into the text
ll: James, Henry. 1984, Lellers. E.dited hy Leon Edel. Vol 4 , 1895- 1910 Cambridge, MA
Belknap Press of Harvard Unlvers,tv Prnss
/
l<eatlng, Ann Durk1n, ed. 2008. Chicago Ntighbo,haods a,1d Suburbs: A Hislar,cal G11lde.
White E. B. 1976 lette,s o( E. B. Wliltt• Edited by Doro t hv lo~rano Guth Mcw York:
Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Relfl, Jamce, L. 2008 "Conte~ted Spaces ln Keat1ng 2008. 55- 1)3.
H ar per &
Row
ln a letter to Ed,th Wharlon on Novcmbe, 8 1905 \fomt?S 1984, 373) James wrote
lf you use th1s form, your parenlhelical citations should refer to the pans
only, not to the book as a whole.
P- ( Bn,cgmann wo8. 299- 300)
(Reil' 2008, 57)
not
not
(Kealing 2008. 299- 300)
( Ke.il ing 2008, 57)
191 Q 3 WORKS IN ANTHOLOGIES
Cite a shon story. poem, essay, or other work
published in an anthology in the same way you would a conlribution to
an edited collection with multiple authors. Give the titles ofmosl works
published in anthologies m roman type, endosed iJ1 quotation marks An
exception is a book-length poem or prose work that is anthologized in
tuli or in part; its title should be italicized (see 22.3.2) ,
R: Allende, ls.:ibel 1997 ''The Sp,r1ts Wcre W ,lling." ln The O•iard 8(}(1k o/ Lotfn Americon
fsul)"S , edI led by
llan St.1v,1n~. 461•6/ ~ ew Vorle Oxtord Umvcrs1ly Press
W,gglesworth, Michael, 2003 E•cerpt lrom Tne Day of Doom ln Tlre Ne.., Anthology o{
American Poe Iry, vol.,, Tratllliam 011J Rl!volutions. Be91m11ny1 lo 1900, ed1ted by Steven
Gould A,1d1od, Cdmille Roman, and Thomas Travi~ano, 68- 74 .
New B1u11~wiLk. NJ·
flutgers lJni•1ers1ty Press
P: (Allcnde 1997, 463-6<1)
(W,gglesworlh 2003, 68)
Lf the onginal publication date of a work is important in the context of
your paper, include it in brackets before the anthology's publication date
in both your reference list and your parenthetical citations.
1c W,ggleswor01, Michael [1b6~J :2003 E•cerpt from .
P: ( W1gglesworth [ 1662) 2003 68)
Cite
a letter, memorandum, or ether such item m a published colletlJ0ll by
the date of che co1lecnon. (For unpublished persona! commu111cations,
see 19.6 2: for unpubLished letters in manuscript collect1ons, see r9.7.4.)
1919 4 LETTERS ANO OTHER CO MMUNICATION S IN PU0llSHEO COll ECTIONS .
White (1976 273) sent Ro~s an lnterofflce mcmo on May:, 194ó, po,nt ing oul that
19.1,10
Electronic Books
Electronic books, or e-books, are cited just like pnnt books, as discussed
throughout 19.1 ln addition, ypu wtll need to include information about
th e fonnat you consuJted. If you read the book online, include a URL. If
you consulted the book in a commercial database, you can instead give
the narne of the database. See 15.4 t for more details
On the ether hand, if you downloaded a book from Amazon or Apple
or the like in a formal lhat requires a specific app or device, include that
information instead.
Many e-book formats Jack fixed page numbers. Avoid citing app- or
devrce-specific screen or locanon numbers, wh1ch may not be the same
for others even if they consult the same format. lnstead, cite by chapter
or section number (see 19.1.8.1) or, if these are unnumbered, by the name
of th e chapter or section (see 19.1 9) Especially for a frequently cited
sou.rce, it may be better simply to consult a version that reproduces che
pagmation of a pnnted edition, ln the Dostoevsky example below, the
page 1mages from the Internet Archive are easier to cite than the reflowable ProJect Gutenberg text, and because they reproduce the origrnal tex t
exactly, they are also more authoritative.
R: Crispin. Jessa 1015 The lkod Lodi1:1 Pro1«ť E•1les. f~()iJll 111111 C•·Count,,e., Ch•cago: Um·
lfersItv of ChicoJgo P,~s.s. Adobe D1g1tal Ed1t1ons POF
Odvis, ldm,t M 2016 Th~ Gn~pel o/ Kmúness Arnmol Welfore ond tlrc Ma~u.g of Mnd•
ern Amer,co
Oxford : Oxford Un1vers1ty Press hll ps 11doI.org;10.10931~cprof:oso
/9780199733156.001.0001.
Dost oeYsky. Fyodor ,011. Crime onof Punishmenl/ Translated by Cor1s1ance Ga,nett
Pmject Gutenberg ust updatcd November 5, 201~. httr,.Jtgutenberg,orglf1les/2554
/2554- h12554-h hl m
or, better.
F
254
255
~HHlfR I~ I A\IT HOR DAH ,TYLE TYPnOf 50l•RC[5
Dostoe\lsky, Fyodor. 19I7. Cr1meondP,m1shment. Translated by Constance Garnctl Ed,teu
19,l •2 D ate
of Publication
The main date of pubhcation for a journal article consists only of a year.
Jn a refe rence list enLry, set it off as its own element w1tl, penods follow
ing the aulhor's name. ln a parenthetica l c1tatio11, putit after the author's
name wílhout intervening punctuation
by William Allan Neilson. New York: P. F. Collier & Son. hups:,t/arch,ve.org;detaíls
/crimepun,shmentoodostuoft.
Gladwell, Malcolm . 2008. Out/1ers. The Stary
Kindle.
of Succ-ess.
Boston: L,ttte. Brown. 2008
Lee, Harper. :zo15. Go Set o Wo1chman. New York: Harper. rBooks.
Schlosser, Eric. 2001. Fast food Not,on: The Dork S1de o( the Americon Meol. Boston: Hough,
R! &artfeld, Jud,, and Myoung K1m, 2010. ' f'art icipation in the Schopl B1eakfast P,ogram
New E111dence lrom the ECLS-K." Soetal St!rv1cc Remw 84 no , 4 (December) 541- 62.
ton Miffhn. ProQuest Ebrary.
http~ ✓ 1 do1org;10 1086/ 657109
P: (Crispin 2015, 100-101)
Garbr:r. Marione. ,016. ''Over !hl! Influence," Crt1irt1I lnqufry 42, no. 4 (Summer ): 731-59
(Dav,~ 2016, 144-45)
https· 1do1.org.n o .1086/ 686960
(Dostoevsky 2012, pi 6, chap. 1)
P: (Bortfeld and Kim 2010, SSO· s1)
ar. better.
(Garber 20 16. 735)
(Dostoevsky 1917, 444)
Notice th:n additional date infonnation appears in parentheses later m
a reference list entry, after the volume number a nd issue inforrnation
(see 19. 2 5).
~
Jf an artide has been accepted for publication but has not yet appeared, useforthcomin9 in place of the date (and page numbers) To avoid
confusion, include a comma after the aulbor·s name m a parenthetical
citation of this type. Treat any article not ye t accepted for publication as
an unpublished manuscnpt (see 19.6)
(Gladwell 2008, 193)
(L~ 2015, chap 19)
(Schlosser 2001. 88)
19.2
19.2..1
Joumal Articles
Journals are scholarly or professional periodicals available primarily in
academic libraries and by subscription. They often mclude the word journal in their title (Journal of Modem Hrstory) but not always (Sígns).Joumals
are not the same as magazines, which are usually intended for a more
general readership. This distinction is important because joumal articles
and magazine articles are cited differently (see 19.3) If you are unsure
whether a periodical is a joumal or a magazine, see whether its articles
include citations; if so, treat 1t as a joumal.
Many joumal arocles are available online, often through your school's
library website or from a commercial database. To cite an article that you
read online, include a URL. ff a URL is listed along with the article, use
that instead of the one m your browser's address bar. 1f a DOJ is listed,
append the D01 to https:// do1.org/ to form the URL. tf you consulted the
article in a commercial data base, you may give the name of the database
instead of a URL. See 15.4.1 for more details.
Author's Nam e
Give authors' names exactly as they appear at the heads of their articles.
Use last names in parenthetical citatJons. ln the reference list, the name
of the first-listed author is invened. For some special cases, see 18.2.r.2.
R: Author, Margaret M Forthcormng. "Arltde Title lourno/ Namc 98
P: (Author lorthcom1ng)
19.2.3
Article Title
List complete article titles and subtitles. Use roman type, separate the
title f'rom the subtitle wtth a colon , and enclose both in quotation marks.
Use headline-style capilalization (see 2.2.3.1).
R.: Taylor. Quentin :m16 "The Ma51( ol Publius: Alexander Hamilton and lhe Politic'> of
Ex·
pediency. Amt>rtcon Pol,tiwl Thought 5, no. 1 (Winter): 55-79 hltps~/doi.org/'lo 1086
1684559
Tenns normally italic1zed in text, such as speoes names and book
ntles, remain italicized within an article title, terms quoted m the tiUe
are enclosed m single quotation marks because the title 1tself is within
double quotation marks Do not add e1ther a colon OJ a penod after a
title or subtitle that ends in a question mark or an exclamation poinL
Butsee 2112.1
R.: Lewis, Judilh. 1998. ""Tis a Mlsfortun!! to Be a Gieat
Brítlsh A11stocracy 1558-1959 Journol
http://www 1storor g/stable/ 176034,
ladíe' Materna! Mortality 1n lhe
of Br,t1~h Stud1es 37, no 1 (January): 26- 40.
p
C HAPTER 19 I Al , I HO , l) ATE
256
~ l,
U
I I PLS
ar <l)IJ RCES
Twomey, Ll~a A. 2011 'Ta boo 01 lolerable1 Hem,ngway's Fnr Whom the Bell Tol/s m
JOUW" Al A, TIClfS
l'Qst-
When a joumal uses 1Ssue numbers only, without volume numbers, a
comma follows the joumal title.
war Spam." Hem,nqway R1mew 30.110 2 (Spring) 54-72
1ítles in languages other than English should geneli1Uy be capitalized
sentence-style (see 22.3. 1) according to the conventions of the particular
language. lf you add an English translation, enclose it in brackels, without quotatlon marks.
R;
12-24 http
For a reference list ent:Jy, g1ve the full spa n of p:ige numbers for the article
(see 23.2-4). By convention, page numbers ofJoumal articles in reference
lists tollow colons rather than comrnas.
P,gaft!tta z,in Maleisl! woordr.n7'' íWhere did Pigafelta
collect h,~ Mal ay~um v,ords 7 ] . T1JdS<hn(t vonr lncJ,sche lool·, lond-cn volkenkuná~
R: H1tc:hcoct T,111, 2005, Be,:g,ng on the Streets of E,ghli:'t!nth•Centurv Loriclon Jour11ar of
lintish St11d,es 44 no. J (July) ,t78-,;i8 https:J/do1org1101086/ 429704
Wang Sh1P1, 2016. We Are Scotl~boro Boys: H,dco l~oda s v,sual Rh~torlc ol lr,rnsrac,al
78:271 - 73
19.2.4
19.2.S
Joumal Title
After the article title, list the journal title in italics, with headline-style
capitalization (see 22.3.1). Give the title exactly as it appears on the title
page or on the joumal website: do not use abbreviations, although you
can orrut an 1rut1al The (see also 22 3 2 I). lf the officíal title is an initialism
such as PMLA, do not expand tL For non-English joumal titles, you may
use either headline-style or sentence-style capitalization, but retain all
imtial art1cles (Der Spiegel).
Issue lnformation
ln addinon to a date of publication, most reference list entries mclude
volume number, issue number, and month or season. Readers may not
need all of these elements to locate an article, but includmg them all
guards against a possible error in one of them
The volume number follows the journal ntle without intervening
punctuation and is not italie1zed. Use arab1c numerals even if the Joumal
1tself uses roman numerals lf there 1s an issue number, it follows lhe
volume number, separated by a comma and preceded by no.
Include additional dale mformation beyond the year of publlcation
(see 19.2.2) in parentheses after the volume and issue number Follow
the pracúce of the joumal regardmg such information; it may mclude a
season, a month, or an exacl day. Capitalize seasons in joumal citations,
even though they are not capitalized in text.
R: Brown, Campbell 2011 ''Consequentiah1e Th,s " Ethic 121, no 4 (July): 749-71 , http~://
doi .org/10 10861660696
Ionescu, felictil 2011 "Risky Human Cap1tal and Alle,nalo\/~ Bankruptcy Reglmes fo,
Student Loans "Jc,umal o( Hurnou Caprial S, no 2 (Summer) 1::,3-206 https:;/doi.01g
,1101086/ 6f>17-1•1
f
19.2.,6 Page Numbers
www.Jstor.org / stable 140648253
"Wůar verzamelde
0„1111,., J. M. 197,1 The Pattl?rn of Cnme ín Enl(l.ancl, •6t,o -1800" Pa5t 01111 Pl~cnt, no 02
(februar~) 4 7-95
R: Carrei\o-Rodrfgue:z, Amonio. 2009 "Moderr,ic!ad en la hltrat ura gauchesca Cam;ival•
1U1c1on y parod,a en el Fausta de Estamslao del Campo • H1span1a 92. no , (March)
Kun. W 1938
257
Sol,d,mty. ' Am,main Arl 30 no 1 (Spnng), 16-, 0 https ✓ 'do, ori,1,0 1086 686545
lf you cite a partirular passa&e m a parenthetical citation, give only the
specúic page(s) cited, preceded by a comma (noL a colon).
P: ( H,tchcock :005, 478)
(Wang ,016, 16•17)
19.2.7
Specia l lssues and Supplements
A journal 1ssue devoted to a single theme is known as a spec,ol 1ssue. lt
cames a norma! volume and issue number. lf a special issue has a tiUe
and an editor of1ts own, indude both m a reference Jist entry, The title is
given in roman type and enclosed in quotation marks, In u parenthetical
citation, give only the author of the part cited.
R: Sundt!r Ra1an RaJt<SWari, 2014 'Zeltge1.st and the l1ter;1ry fPxt: ln<11a. 1Q4 7, 111 Ourratulaln
Hvder'5 My Temple.s, Too and Salman Rushd1e·s M•dnight's Ch1ldren " ln "Arounri 1948
lntr:,d,~clpt,nary App,oaches to Global Tr.insform,1tion •
ť!d1ted bv L,:,.la
G.indh, and
Deborah I. Nelson Spec,al ,ssue Críllcal lnq11tr1 ◄O no .1 (Summcr) 439-65 https://
dni 018)101o86'lí70415
P: ( Sunder RaJan 2014, 440-41)
lf you need to cite the issue as a whole, om1t lhe artide information.
R: Gandh1, lcefa .ind Deborah l Nelson ed!>. 2014
'A,ound 1941:1 1n1e,d1sc1pllnary Ap-
proaches to Global Transformat1on " Spec1al ,s,111•
c,,t,cal /r,quirv 40, no 4 (Summer)
A joumal supp!ement may also have a titlfe and an author or edilor of
íts own. Unlike a special 1Ssue, 1t 1s numbered separately from the regular 1ssues of che Joumal, often with S as pan of 1ts page numbers Use a
comma between the volume number and th~ supplement number
N, w sr1.P(P. I\RllCLES
158
R: Ekt!land 1v11 r Jamei J Hcclo.man and Lars Nc!.ht!tnl 20011 ldcnt1llcat1on ilrtd f!ll•malton of Hedontc Models ln P~per5 in Honor ol Sherwln Ror.crl, JOIJtnOI o/ Pol,rkol
f.conomy 112, s, (February) S60 S109 htlps / /dot ory10108I V37y947
19,2.8
~
Abstracts
You can cite informar ion m the abstract of a joumal article or othe~ work
in a parenthe tical citallon. ln the reference list, include the full otatlon
for che joumal anicle (or other work, such as a dissertati on) ln the parentheůcal citation, insert the word abstract, set off by commas, after the
year of publicaůon and befote any page number
259
Luk1anoff, Greg and Jonathan Hatdt 2015 'The Coddimg of the AmMltan Mind Al•
lonlic, September 2015. http:.1;www.l heatlan11c.corn1maga11ne/archive/ .io151091th e
-coddlíng•o f-the-american-mrnd1399356/.
Williams, M,chael K. '2016, Interview by El1ana Oockterm, m. Tíme July 25
20H,
EBSCOhost
P: (lukianoff and Haidl 2015)
(Williams 2016)
Magazíne articles published online sometim es include reade1s' commems. These are cited like commen G on blog posts (see , 9,5.2).
R: Brown, Carupbell ,011. ' Consequcnl ial12e Thts E1l11cs 121 no. 4 (July)· 749-71.
P: (Brown 2011, abstract. 749)
19,3
19,4
Newspaper Articles
19.4,1
Name of Newspaper
You can usually omit an mitial Ihe from the name of an English-l anguage
newspap er (see also 22.3.2 1) lf the name of a Jocal newspap er does not
include a city, it may be added to the official lttle. lf a name is shared by
many oties or is obscure, you may add che st.:1te or province m parenthe .
ses (for abbreviat ions, see 24.3.1) for national papers, ym1 may need to
1dentify the country For non-Engh sh newspap ers, you may use headline style capitaliza tion, but retain an initial article if it is formally pa1 t of the
name, add city or other mfonnau on after titles for clarity, if necessary.
~
Magazlne Articles
Articles in magazine s are cited much like Joumal articles {see 19.2), but
dates and page numbers are treated differentl y.
Cite magazme s by date only, even if they are numbere d ~ ~olume and
issue. ln reference bst entries, put the year in the usual pos1bon and the
month and day (íf specified) after the magazme otle {but not in parentl~e•
ses). You can repeat ilie year with the month and day in the refe~ence list
entry to avoid any confusion regruding the exact date. lf you cite a spe•
cific passage in a parenthet ical citation, include its page number,- But you
may omit the article's mclusive page numbers in a reference hst entry,
stnce magazíne articles often span many pages iliat include extraneous
matena!. (If you do include page numbers, use a comma rather than 1
colon to separate them from the date of 1ssue.) As with joumals, you can
omit an mitial The from the magazine title (see also 22.3.2.1).
Chicago Tribur!I!
New York Times
Hockensock (NJ) Record
Somr Poul (Alberto or AB) Journr,/
LeMnnde
Lo Crcin,ca de Hoy (Me•1co Cily)
Al·Akhbor (Bcorul)
TimP.s (UK)
The name of a news website can usually be trcated in a similar way, except that a location will rdrely be necessary.
R: l ,pore J,11 2016. 'The Woman Card Ne.v Yorker, June 27, :1016.
Hu/(ington Post
P: (L!!pore 2016, 23)
For blogs, whtch are treated sim1larly, see 19 5.2. For websites, see 19.5.I ,
1f you cite a departme nt or column that appears regularly, capitalize it
headline- style and do not enclose it in quotat:ion marks.
R: Walraff, Barbara . 2005 Word Court. Atlant,c Moothly, June 2005.
P: !Walraff 2005 128)
Magazíne amcles consulted online s houId include in the reference li5c
entry a URL (see aJso 15,4.1.3) or ilie name of a commerc 1al database (see
S.4 1.4) 1ypically there will be no page numbers to cite.
1
19.4.2
Citing Newspap ers in Referenc e Lists and Parenthe ses
In your reference list, cite articles and other p1eces from newspap crs (or
news websites) generally as you would ,Htides in magazine s (see 19,3) As
with magazíne articles, you can repeat the year with the month and day in
the reference list entry to avoid any confusion regarding the exact date. For
an uns1gned article, use the name of Lhe newspape r m place of Lhe author.
Because a newspap er may have several edit1ons with slightly different
contents, you may clarify which ed1tion you consulted by addingjin al edi
260
,iAnrff 19
/\urno~ DAH
\,fdt TfS &l G, A ,
, rHE TVF , S or ~OU ACH
non, Midwest ed1tion, or some such identifier. Articles read online shoutd
include a URL. for articles obtained through a commercial dalabase, you
may give the name of the database instead. See r5.,p for more details.
1c Anderssen Eri n 201c,
June
19.4,3
OCl/ll MEDII!
261
citing Newspapers in Text
1nstead of using a standard parenthet1cal citation, you can mclude some
of che elements of the citation in your text. You should still give a full
ciration to the arucle in your tefertmce list.
Tlirough the Eyes of Ge11triltton Z ." Globe ond Mail ( Tor01llo)
ln his op-ed ln supµorl of a challenge by
studenls over the use of Wood,r,w W,1,on
name at Princ otn~ (New.York Tirt>t!S Novem ber :!4 2015), D,w1s '"1f''S !hc f1!.'R~t,~e
lmp.:ict ol Wrlson s pol1c11:s on h1s patern;il grandfother :; career at the Gov1:rnrnent
PrintlngOffo
'
25, 2016 http //www.theglobeandma1l.com1news1nat1onal/ through•l he•C!'(C!S
ol•generat1on l / Jll1cle3os71914/
Associated Press 2015. Ex UCoon Studem Apphes for P1obation over Mac .ind
Cht e.se
Meltdowu," USA Todoy Co/11:ge, November 23, 2015 http ✓/COlll!gl!. u,atoday.c0111
„
/ 201s/ 111231mac· ar1d-cheese·uconn · probal1on/ .
Gaddafi Sa,f al-lslam 1011 Interview by Simon Denyer Washington Po:st. April 17,2011
Lind, Da,a. 2016. Moving to Can.ida, Expla,ned,'
Vo,. September 15,
2016 http;t/www
vo~ .com(2016/ S/ ()/116088301move-to-canada·how.
Mclntosh, F~r gus. 1016 Lc-lter to the editor,
New Yo,._ Times, June 24, :1016.
Milwaukee J11u111al Sentlllel w,6 "Res1de11cy Ruhng State Supreme Cou,L Guts Lo cal
Control." fd1torli!I. June 24, 2016
David Bowlt! New York TTmes, Januilry 26, 2016. N ew
Pareles John 2016 Ob1tuary for
York edítion.
Rob 2007 "Apple's iPhone ls Sleck, Smart and Simple " Washington Post,
le~1sNex1s Acddem,c.
Svrluga Susan 2017 " Harvard Law School Will No Langer Require LSAT for Admi5·
Pegoraro.
Juty 5. 2007
s1on ' Woshinglo11 Posl, March 9, 2017, hllps:/ www.wash1nglonpost.com/new,
/ grade·po1nl/wp1201710 3; 08/harvard-law-school-w 111-no-longer·r equ1re·the· lsat
•for•adm1ss1on/
Omit page numbers in parentheůcal citations because the item may
appear on different pages or may even be dropped in different editlons
of the newspaper
P. ( Anderssen 2016)
Websitcs, Blogs, and Social Media
19.S,1
Website Content
Cite web pages and related content by identifying the followmg elements
in your reference list entries: author, publication or revision date, title of
che page (in roman type, enclaf:ed in quotation marks), title (or descrip•
tion) of the site (usually m roman type; see 22.3.2.3), and the owner or
sponsor of the site (if not the same as the title). Indu de a URL as the final
element (see r5,4, 1.3).
lf there is no author, the source shouJd be listed under the name of the
owner or sponsor of the site or its útle For a frequently updated source
(such as a wiki), you can record a time starnp if the source includes one.
You can repeat the year with the monlh and day m Lhe reference list
entry to avoid any confusion regarding the exact date lf no date can be
determined from the source, use 11 d (see 19.1.2) and tnclude an access
date (see 15.4. 1.5)
ff: All1.ince lor l1ngu,stic D1vers1ty. n d. " B-,lki!n Romani," Endangered Li!nguap;es Accesscd
( A,.,.uL•dl~J Pres:. w15 )
June 10, 2016. http.I/Www.endangeredlanguages.com;lang;534.:
(Gadda!, 2011)
C.olumbla UmvHs1ty n.d ''Histo, y '' Acces~ed luly
(l1rid 2016)
1
2016. http //www .columb1a.edu
/ cc,nlent1h1!>tory html
(Mclntosh 2016)
Google 2016 Provacy Pohcv," Pr1vacy & Tcrms Last modiíred M;i,c h 25 :,016 http://
www.googre corn.11nll en1pnv.:icypol1cy htrnl.
H1ggms, Sus.1n B 2016 'High xhool Students Explore Kev ls~L,e~ Faring AmerlcJn Indian
(M1lwnutee /ourrio/ Srntir.e/ 201!>1
(Pareles 2016)
( Pegoraro 2007)
Commumlll!s," News itl Princeton, Prmceton Un,~crsity June 23 1016 http,//www
(Svrluga 201 7)
princeton.edu/ mainjnews/ arch111e154616610 2A461
Comments to online articles are cited in the text in reference to the
article, which must be cited in the reference list or elsewhere in the text
See also 19.4.3 and 19 S 2.
accordmg lo a comment by lauren K
19.5
(Svrluga :,017)
Articles from Sunday ~magazmen supplements or other special sections should be treated as you would magazíne articles (see 19.3).
Wi~1padla 201t,
Wikipcd1J: Mt1nual of St yle
W1k1111ed1a Foundat1on la~l mod1f1ed
June 27. :>016, 09:57. h ttp:// en.wik1pc<lia.oryw1kl/Wikiped1J'. Miinual of StylP
P: ( Alliance for Lmgu1st1c D1v~rs1ty
<Columb,;i Univer~1ty n.d)
(Google 2016)
( Higgins 20161
(W,laperl1a ~ú16)
„ d)
262
Wf8S
Articles from news websites can usually be cited like articles in newspa.
pers (see 19.4) for blogs, see 19 5,2.
Blog Posts
Blog posts (also called entries) are similar to articles in magazmes and
newspaper s and can be cited in much the same way (see 19.3 and 19.4),
ln the reference list, put the tiůe of the post in quotation marks and the
title of the blog in 1talics (you can índicatl! "blog" in parenthese s if it [s
not clear from the title). lf the blog is part of a larger publication such as
a newspaper or website, give the name of the publicaoon after the title of
the blog. You can repeat the year w1th the month and day in the reference
list entry to avoid any confusion regardmg the exact date.
19,S.2
R: Germano. Willlar 1 2017 futurist Shock ," I mgua Frcmca {biol() Cl11onic/e of Higher Educotion, Febru.iry 15. 2017, hllp.//www chronicle.com1btogs.rl1nguafranca12017/02115
/fulur1s1-sho cV.
Jayson. Sharon 2016 ls Selfie Culture Mak'"& Our K,ds Selfish?" Wt!!II (blog) New YorSTimes. June :n 2016 ht tp;//well .blogs nyt ,mes comr.016; 06 f23/1s-selí1e-culture
• mak,ng-ou,-k ,ds·ltelf1sh/
West, Li ndy 2013 "Sweden lnlroduces New Gender•Neutral Pronoun, Makl!S Be,ng ;
Man ILLEGAL.'' Jtzebt-1, Ap ril 11, 2013 hltp'I/Je1ebel.com1sweden•1ntr oduces-new
-gender-neu tral·pronoun-makes-be1•,171492079
P: (Germano 2017)
(Jayson 2016)
(Wes1 2013)
Comments are cited in the text, in reference to the onginal post, wlůch
musl be cited in the reference hst or elsewhere m the text. ldenufy the
comm enter and the date of the comment Cite the name exactly as 1t
appears, along with any identifying informatio n. You can include theinformation either parentheti cally or directly m the text.
P · (Muberra [Istanbul) Ju"e 26, 2016. commenl on Jayson 2016)
Accordong to a comment on June 26 2016, by Muberra o f Istanbul (J.-iy~on :1016), . • •
References to an enilie blog should also be made in the text rather tban
in a reference Jist. The URL can be listed m parenthese s.
blog pubhshed by t he Chron,cle o( H,ghtr Educat,on (http.//www
chronicle comlblogs t linguafranca / ),
Lmgva Franco
.i
rrs
1l1or.s .1,NDSOCt/\ 1 M:t:,1",
cal to your argument ar frequently cited. To cite dnect messages and
other persona! .or ~rivate content, foIJow the guidelines for citing persona! commumc attons (see 19.6.2). for publicly posted content, model
your citations on the examples shown here. lnclude the following elements·
1.
2.
3.
4.
s.
6.
The author of the post. List a screen name in addition to the name of
the person or group on the account, if known Otherwise just use the
screen name.
The year of the post List the year afler the author's name to facilitate
parentheti cal citations.
ln place of a útle, the text of the post Quote up to the first r6o charac•
ters (enough to capture the typical text message), capitalized as in che
original.
The type of post. This can include a description (photo, video, etc.).
The exact ?ate of the post,.mclu ding month and day You can repeat
the year Wlth the month and day in the reference list entry to avoid
any confusion regardmg the exact date. You can also mclude a time
stamp to help differenoa te a post from others on the same day.
A URL. A URL can often be found vía the date stamp for the item.
Social media can often be c1ted in the text, as in the first example. (lf
it 1s especially important to hnk back to the original post and there is no
reference list entry to refer to, add the URL in parenthese s. after the date.)
Conan o·srien s lweet was charactensli cally deadpan. ln honor ol Earlt,
cycl,ng my lw eets" ( ConanOBrien April 22, 1015).
R: Ch1Cago M anual of Styl.:. 2015, " ls the world ready for ~ingular thev? We thought so bad
m 1993," Facebook, April 17, 2015 https.//www.facebook.com. ChicagoM anual1 post~
/10152906193679151
Diaz. Junot. 2016. ' Alway~ surprises my .!ludents Wh1>n I tell them thi!t thP 'reať rned,eval
more d1ser~e ! han the lake one~ most of us consurne folcebook, Februarv 2,:
201b https',1/w ww facebook.com(iunotd1Jz.wrt1er/ post:i/97249557281s-154
Conan [ a ConanOBrie n] 2015 "ln honor oí Earth Day, l'm recycl,ng mv
Brien,
O
tweets.• Tw,tter, April 22, 2015, 1nn J ni https•/1tw1ttr.rcorn /ConanOBriervstatus
Wa <;;
/ 590940792967016448
Souza Pel e [ ,,.petesouza]. 2016 Prus1dent Obama btds íarewell to Pres1dl!!nl of Ch,na
at the conclu!.1on of lhe Nuclear Sec11rlly Summ,t. ' histagram photo Apríl 1, 2016 .
htlps'.//1/,ww.instagram.c om/p/BDrmf XTtNCV
x,
P: (Ch,cago M anual of Style 2015)
19.S.3
Social Media
Social media contenl can normally be cited in the text or in parenthetic al
citations. lnclude a specific item in your reference list only if 1t 15 criti-
Day, l'm re-
(Día.r 2016)
(O'Bnen 2015)
(Souza 2016)
HAPTER 19 i A li OR OAlE 5T dl iV Pf.SOF
264
11;l[ll\l EWS
~our.cn
""o PERSOIIAL
COMM\JI, CATIONS
265
mclude the phce and speciftc day of lhe interview (if known) and the
Jocation of any recordings or transcrip ts (if available) . (You can repeat
the year with the month and day in the reference list entry to avo1d any
confus1on regarding the exact date.)
Commen ts are cited in the text, in reference to the original post, which
must be cited in the reference list or elsewher e in the text.
M,t ht!le Truty agreed, ~yIng lhal I'we do need a gender•neu tral pronoun.,
(April 17,
zc,15 comn enl on Chicago Manual ol Style 201",)
R: Sh,elds David . 2016 Interview by ,1ulhor Se;ittlc July :n, :m16
Spock, BenIamIn 1974 Int erview by M ilton J E Senn Novemb'!r 20) 11)],l lnh!rV,t!w
1>7A
transcript, Senn Oral H1story Collect,on, Nat1onal libraryol M!!<hnnl! Bethl'~rlil,
MO
ltems shared on social media tend to disappear; always keep a screen.
shot of whatever you cite in case you need to refer to it later (see also
154-1.1).
ln parenthe tical citations, use the name of the person mterviewed, not
that of the mterviewer.
Online forums and Mailing Lists
Material posted or sent to an online forum or mailing list should normaily be cited only in the text. lnclude the name of the corresp~ndent.
the title of the subject or thread (in quotation marks and cap1taltzed as
in the origínal), the name of the forum or list. and the date and time of
the post or message. Omit email addresses. (Posts on private forums or
lists should be cited as personaI commun icaoons; see 19.6.2.) lnclude a
URL (see 15.4.1.3).
As with newspap er articles (see 19.4.3), you may choose to weave
much of this informat ion into the text. Be sure to preserve enough information to al\ow readers to 1dent1fy the source.
19.5.4
p,
\L arohnc Braun, reply to Ho.,. d1d lh 'cool t 1ds' trom h1gh schoot turn aut' .'
Quora
Augu&l g , 20,6, htlp'>;//Ww w.quora comJ How ·d•d· the•cool ·kído;•lro m•h1gh·sch
od,
· turn•Clul/ l
Sharon Naylor, In her email uf August 2], 20111 to the Educ, & Beho1110r Science
o,scussion List (hltp./ / l1s1serv urict edu/ arch1ves. t!hss•1 hlml) po1nled oul thal
•
P: (Shields 2016)
{Spock 1974)
lf you cannot reveal the name of the person mterviewed, use only a
parenthe ttcal c1tat:1on or weave the informat ion mto the text; you do not
need to include the interview 1i,-"your reference list. Explam lhe absenc~
of a name ("Ali tntennew s were confidential, the names of interv1ewees
are withheld by mutual agreeme nn in a footnote or a preface.
P; (interview with
Cite a published interview according to the rules for that type of publication, with one difference: the interviewee is treated as author
R. Snowden, Edward. 2015 • Edward Snowden Expla1ns How to Recl;ií 1TI Your Priv;11:
y lnl cr
vu:w by M 1cah Lee. The /ntercepl Noven1ber 12. 2015 hllPS://thc1n1ercept com11015
/ 11112/edwa rd•snowde n·explalns· how· lo•recla,m -your-pr1v,1 cy/
AlA
P: (Snowden 2015)
Jf you cite several items from a particula r group or list, you may cho~se
to include a particula r thread or subject as a whole in your reference hst.
For the date, use the year (or span of years) for the posts c1ted in the text.
R: Quo,a ::zo t6. 'How d1d the ·cuul k1ds' of h1gh ~chool 1urn cul?" https
//www.quora.com
/ How· d•d•the•coo H ,ds• lron •h1gh ·!><tioot turn•ouv .
19.6
lnterviews and Persona! Communications
19.6 .l
Interview s
To cite an unpublis hed mterv1ew (including one you have conduc~
yourself) , begin a reference bst entry with the name of the _person m·
terviewed, followed by the dati; and the name of the interv1ewer Also
a home hcatth aIdc, Juty 31, 201 7)
For more examples, see 19.3 (magazíne). 19.4.2 (newspapet), 19.10.3 .6
(video) See also 22.3.2,1.
19.6.2
Personal Commun ications
Cite conversa nons, letters, email or text messages, and direct or private
messages shared through social media only in parenthe tical citaůons .
The key elements , which should be separated with commas, are the
name of the other person, the date, and the type of commun ication. ln
many cases you may be able to include some or all of this mformati on in
the text. Omit email addresse s To cite content shared publicly through
soaal media, see 19 s 3; for online forums and mailing lists, see 19.5.4. To
cite letters in published collect1ons, see 19,1.9.4. For items in manuscri pt
collections, see 19.7 .4-
CHAPTER ;9
266
AU l l'\OR
o~n Sl / LE TV FESOF SOURCcS
pAP[I!~. LEC TU RES MlO MANUSCR1PT (Oll [CTIO NS
P: (Roland J. Zucller man. email message to author, June 1, 2017)
pyclor, Julie Leininge r 2016 "Tra1lblazers and Harbingers: M exicans
ln New York befo, e
1970." Paper presente d al the 130th annual meeting of the America
n Historie al Soc1ety, Atlanta . GA. January 8, 2016.
ln a conversa tion w ith me on March 1, 2017, Carla C. Ramirez
conftrme d thal . ..
A copy of the post card, postmar ked San Diego, M arch
7, 1965 (Emma Fenton to author
lnst agram dlrect message, March 25, 2017 ), ,,,
19,7
Papers, ledure s, and Manuscript Colled ions
19.7.1
Theses and Dissert ations
Theses and dissert ations are cited much like books except for the
title,
which is m roman type and enclose d in quotati on marks. After ~e
author, date, and title, list the kind of paper and the academ ic ins~tut
ion.
Abbreviate dissertatiol1 as diss lf you've consult ed the paper online,
lnclude a URL lf you consult ed the docum ent in an institut ional _reposi•
tory or comme rcial databas e, you can list the name of the repos1to
ry or
databa se instead . See 15,4. 1 for more details.
19,7,3
ln the Prlnt Me•
dia '' Master's thes1s, Syracuse Universi ty.
Levin, Dana 5 2o10 "Leťs Tal~ about Sex
Educat1on'. Explorin g _Youth Perspe~'.ives
Implicit Message s, and Unexam ined lmpl1cations of Sex Educat1
on 1n Schools. PhD
diss Universi ty of M1ch1gan http://hdl.handle.net12o27-42n
5Bo9
Navarro· Garc1a, Guad aIupe. 2016 . " lntegrat ing Soc1al Justice Values 1n Educat1onal Lead•
.
"
.
ership. A Study o! Afncan America n and Blacll Universi ty Pres,den
ts. PhD d1ss. Unt•
versity of Californi a, Los Angeles. ProQuest D1ssertat1ons & Theses
Global
Lecture s and Papers Presented at Meetin gs
After the author, date, and title of the lecture or paper, list the sp~nsor
ship, locatio n of the meetin g, and the specific date(s) of the meetmg
at
which it was given. (You can repeat the year with the month and day
m
the referen ce Jist entry to avoid any confusi on regardi ng the ~xa~t
date I
tf you consult ed a text or transcr ipt of the lecture or paper onh~e,
mcl~dP
a URL (see -4- 1 ). If you watche d or listene d to the presen tauon online,
15
3
adapt the examp les here to the advice at 19 10.3.3.
R: Carvalho Fllho, lrineu de. and Renato P. Colistete. 2010 . "Educat,
on Performa nce: WH
lt Ali Determ,n ed 10 0 Years Ago'> Evidence from Sáo Paulo. Srazil.
Paper presented
at the oth annual meeting of the Econom1c Hlst ory Associat
ion,
Evanston. lt..
7
Septemb er 24-26, 2010 http://m pra ub.uni-m uenchen de/2449
4/ i / MPRA_paper
_24494 pdf.
.
· , D'rt W 1
Hong V iviana. 20
15 'Censorsh1p 1n Children's literatur e dunng Argentin a s I Y
(l<Jl6• i
1
)
9 3 Lectur e Universit y of Ch,cago. Chicago, IL, April 30. 20 5
a
Pamph lets and Report s
Cite a pamph let, corpora te report, broch\1re, or similar q:-eestanding
publication as you would a book. If you lack data for sonw of the usual
elements, such as author and publisher, give enough other inform ation
to
ídentify the docum ent. Source s consult ed online should mclude a
URL
(see 15 .4.1.3).
R: Clark, Hazel V. 1957, M esopotam ,o · Between Two R,ve,s
M esopotam 1a, OH. Trumbull
County Historica l Soc1ety
Donahue, Elisabeth H1rschhorn. ed. 2015 Woodrow W,lson School
o( Pub/,c ond Interno•
tiortol Af(oirs. Annual Report 2014 -15. Princeto n NJ: Princeton
Un1vers• ty http·;rw ws
princeto n.edu/ about- wws/Ww s· annual report
....
19,7,4
Manus cript Collect ions
Oocum ents from physical collecti ons of unpubl ished manusc ripts
involve more compli cated and varied elemen ts than publish ed sources
. ln
your citation s, include as much identify ing inform ation as you can,
format the elemen ts consistently, and adapt the general pattem s outline
d
here as needed .
9.741
EL EMENTS T O I N CLU D E AN O T HE IR ORDER .
R: Culcasi, Karen Leigh. 2oo3. "Cart ographlc Representations of Kurd1
5tan
19.7.2
267
If you cite multipl e docum ents
from a collection, list the collection as a whole in your referen ce list,
un
der the name of the collection, the author(s) of the ítems in the collecti
on,
or the depos1tory. For similar types of unpubl ished ma terial that have
not
been placed in archives, replace inform ation about the collection
with
such wordin g as "m the author' s possess1on" or "private collecnon,"
and
do not mentio n the locatio n Do not include a date, since most collecti
ons
contain items from various dates
R: Egmont Manuscr ipt s. Phtlhpps Collectlo n Un,vers1ly of Georgia
L1brarv Athens Hou~e,
Edward M Papers Vale University L1brary, NPw Haven CT
Pennsylvania Societ y for lhe Abol1tion o f Slavery Papers . Hist
o,ical Society of Pennsyl •
van1a. Philadelp hia
Strol her F,ench. and Edward Lowry. Undated correspondence.
Herber t
Hoover Prt!s1den ·
l1al L1brary, West Branch, IA.
Women' s Organizat1on for National Proh1b1t1on Reform Papers
Alice Belin du Pont f1IP.s
Pierre S. du Pont Papers. Eleuthen an Milis H1ston cal L1brary W
ilmmgton , DE
To cite an individua! docum ent from such a collection in your text,
identity the author and date, the title or type of docum ent, and the name
CHAPTf~ 10
268
OLDER WORKS ANO S•CP.EO WO~ •-,
~UlhOR- D~TE ST'i'lf Trl'E OF OVRCE
collections in 19 7.4. lnclude a URL for the collection in the reference Jist
ent.ry (see also 15.4.1.3).
of the collection or the depository used in the reference list entry. Separate the elements with commas. In many cases you may be able to include some oral! of this inforrnat ion in the text
R;
P: (fome~ Oglett,orpe to the trustees, Janua1y 13, 1733, Egmont Manuscnp t~)
ln h1s letter of J<1nuary 13. 1733, lo the trustees (Egmont Manuscnp ts), Jam..-s Oglethorpe
Washingt on, George, Papers 1750-96 SPries 5: Financ,al Papers L,brary ot rongress
Washington, DC. http,//mem ory loc.gov/ ammem/ gwhtml; gwsenes5 htmf
p: (Daily Expenses, July 1787, 1m11~es 7-8 Washingto n Papers 1750- 96)
I
declared
If you cite only one documen t from a collecuon , hst 1t indiVldually in
your reference list, and follow the usual pattern for parenthe tical citabons.
al Elizall: Oinkel, Joseph. 1869. Descript,011 of Louis Aga~s,z written at lhe request
CamUniversity,
Harvard
brary
1
l
beth Cary Agass,z. Agassiz Papers. Houghlon
bridge, MA.
P: (D,nkel 1869)
g rec197.4 2 HOW TO FORMAT THE ELEM ENT S . Here are some special formattin
ommend anons for documen ts in manuscr ipt collection s.
Specific versus generic titles. Use quotation marks for specific atles of documents but not for generic terms such as report and minutes. Capitalize
genenc names of this kind only if Lhey are part of a forma! heading in the
manuscri pt, not 1f they are merely descriptive.
page num■ Locating information Although some manuscri pts may include
have other
will
many
citations,
tical
parenthe
in
bers that can be included
numbered
usually
are
pts
manuscri
Older
types oflocator s, or none at all.
manuSome
page
by
by signarure s only orby folios (fol..fols.) rather than
can
you
that
script collections have 1dentifying series or file numbers
include in a citation. Items on microfilm may have roll (or sheet) and
■
frame numbers .
terms papers
■ Papers and manuscripts. In titles of manuscri pt collection s the
the abbreare
as
e,
acceptabl
and manuscnpts are synonym ous. Both are
vianons MS and MSS (plural).
of
■ Letters. To cite a letter in a parenthe tical citation, start with the name
the letter writer, followed by to and the name of the recipient. Omit thc
word letter, which is understo od, but for other fonns of communication,
specify the type (telegram , memoran dum) For letters in publ!shed collections, see 19 r 9.4.
269
19,8
19.8.1
Older Works and Sacred Works
Classical, Medieval, and Early English Literary works
Literary ':orks produced in classica! Greece and Rome, medieval I:urope,
and Rena1ssance England are c1ted differently from modem literary works
These sources are often organized into numbere d sections (books, lines,
stanzas, and so forth) that are generally CJted in place of page numbers
Because such works have been published in so many versions and translations over the centu nes, the date and other facts of publication for modem editions are generally less importan t than in other types of citations.
For this reason, c!assical, medieval, and early Enghsh literary works
should usually be cited only in parenthe tical citations . lf the authoťs
~ame and the title are not already mentione d in the surround ing text,
mclude them along with the section number upon first reference . lf subsequent citations clearly refer to the same work, list only the section
number. See below regarding differenc es in punctuat ion, abbreviat ions,
and numbers among different types of works.
The e1ghty days of 1nachv1ty for the Peloponnesian fleet at Rhodes <Thucydrdes
The Htstory 01 the Peloponnes1an War 8 44 4), term111at1ng before the end of wintcr
(8 60.2-3). suggest s
01
at
The eighty days of inactivity reported by Thucyd1des lor the Peloponnes1an flcet
end
the
before
ng
n;it1
term1
4)
8-44
Wa,
,an
Rhodes ( 1he History o( the Peloponntis
of w1nter (8.60 2-3), suggests ..
lf your paper is in literary srudies or another field conceme d with close
analysis of texts, or if differenc es m translat:1ons are relevant include
such works in your reference list, Follow the rules for other tr~nslate d
and edited books in 19.r.1.r.
Ltbra, y 18
R: Propert1us. 1990 fleg1es. Edited and transl<1ted by G. P Goold loeb Class,c;il
19.7.S
Online Collectio ns
Some manuscn pt collections have been scanned and organízed for con·
s ultation online Cite such ítems by adapting the rules for manuscri pt
Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press.
by
1
Arlstotle. 983 Complete Works of Amtotle. Tt1e ReviseJ OAford Trand,1t1on Edrted
Press,
University
Pr1ncl't011
NJ
on.
Prrncet
vols.
2
J. Barnes
H.APTEP I
270
198 11
AtJTHOP 0.41E S,l'rll TY PES 0' ~OLJRCIS
ln a ddillon to the gene1al prmcipl es listed above, the
followmg rules apply to citanon s of classical works.
.
.
use no punctua tion between the title of a work and a hne or section
number. Numenc al divisions are separate d by periods wilho~t spaces
Use arabic numera ls (and lowercase letters, if needed) for sect1on nurn.
bers. Put commas between two or mo e atation s of the same source and
semicol ons between citations of d1fferen t sources.
:Z.71
CLA SSICAL W O RKS •
R; Shakespe are, W ,lli;im
20o6. Hamlet Ed11ed by Ann Thompson and Nťtl Taylor Arden
Shall!SpeMe 3 London Arden StiakcsprarQ
19.8.2 The Bible and Other Sacred Works
Cite the Bible and sacred works of other religious tradit1ons ·n parenthetical c1taoons . You do not need to include them in ybur reference list.
For citatton s from the Bible, include the abbreviated name of the book,
the chapte1 number, and the vetse number -never a page number. Depending on the context, you may use either traditional or shorter abbreviations for the names of books (see 24.6); consult your instruct or if
you are unsure which form 1s appropr iate. Use arab1c numeral s for chap•
ter and verse number s (with a colon bctween chem) and for number ed
books.
Tradíuonal abbreviations:
P. (Anstopl\ancs, Frogs 1019-30)
i.,
(Cicero ln Verrem 21, :z.3 120, Tacitus, Ge,mama 10.2- 3)
tAmtotle Metophysrc5 3 i 996b5-8 Plato, Rtpub/,c 36oe-361b)
You can a bbreVl·ate the names of authors, works, .collections, and so.
forth. The most widely accepted abbreviations appea: 1~ the Oxfor~ Classical Dictionary. use these abbreviations rather than 1b1d, Ul succeed m~ ref.
erences to ů1 e same work. ln the first example, the author (Thucydides)
stands in for the ntle so no comma is needed.
P: ( Tt,uc 2 dO 2 - 3)
( Pmdar lsthm 7 4]-45)
Shorter abbreviations:
P: (2 Srn 11 1-T7. 11:26-27, 1 Chr 10 13-14)
The fonn for classical references works
equally well
.
for medieval works written in languages other than Enghsh.
19 812 M ED IE VAL W ORK S •
Since books and numben ng differ among versions of the scriptur es,
identify the version you are using in brackets m your first citation with
either the spel1ed-out name or an accepted abbreV1ation (see 24.6.4).
P: (Augustin e, Oe ov,tott? Dei 20.2)
(Abelard fp.$1/e 17 lo He/o,se ,., M1gne, Pl 180.375c- 378a)
P: ( 2 Kings 1ť8 [ New Rev1sed Standard Vcrs,on I)
(1 Co, 6 ·1-10 [NAB])
19 613 EAR LY ENGLI SH WOR ICS. ln addiuon
to the general pnnClples listed above,
the following rules apply to citation s of early English hterary wo~ks.
Cite poems and plays by book, canto, and stanza, stanza a~d hne; act,
,cene and hne: or similar divisions. Separate the element s w1th commas
for clanty.
P: (Chautcr, •w1te cl Balh s Prologoe Contrrbllry Tole), hnes 105-14)
(Milton, Pa,ad,se tcnt, book 1, ltnes 83-86)
You may shorten number ed divisions by omitting words such as act
and line. using a system similar to the one for classic:I referenc es (see
19.8 r i). Be sure to explain your syslem in a footnote ( References are
to
book and line number sT
P: (MIiton. Pa,ad,se tost 1 83- 86)
If edioons differ in wording, line numbering, and even scene d1vision commo n in works of Shakesp eare-inc lude the work m your reference
list, with edibon specified
For citation s from the sacred works of other religious traditions. adapt
the general pattem for biblícal citation s as appropr iate (see 24.6.5),
19.9
Reference Works and Seconda ry Citations
19.9.1
Referen ce Works
We11-known refuenc e works, such as major dictionaries and encyclopedias, should usually be cited only in parenth etical citation s You generally
need not include them in your referenc~ list, althoug h you may choose
to include a specific work that is critical to your argume nt or frequently
c1ted. Omit the date, but specify che ed1non (if not the first, or unless
no edinon 1s specified) Articles consulte d onlme w-11 require a URL (see
15.4-r.3) , for undated items, include an access date (see 15.4.1.5) , For
a
work arranged by key terms such as a díctionary or encyclopedia, cite the
item (not the volume or page number) preceded by s.u. (sub uerbo, "under
the word"; pi. s.vv.)
~ouRCl> t , "[ Id
272
P: (Oxford Cng/,~h Oict•onary, 3rd ed„ s v. ·'ROFL.' acce!>~ed March 9 2017, http/ fWww.oed
Reference works on disk should include information about the medium.
Treat reference works that are more spec1ahzed or less well known as
you would a book (see 19.1)
Unovers,ty Pres~. 1981)
The same situation may arise with a quotation you find in a secondary source drawn from a pnmary source (see 3.1) Often you will not be
able to consult the primary source, especially if it 1s m an unpublished
manuscript collection. ln this case, follow the princ1ples outlined above.
lf, however, you consult a primary document or other work exhib1ted
by the holding institut.ion as
of an online collection (as opposed to
a copy posled by someone else), such a source can usually be cons1dered pnmary for the purposes of research See 19,7,5 and 19.10.1 1 for
examples.
P: (MLA Handbt>ok 2016 o.8.i)
{Auli,,t,a 1989, 509)
An individual entry by a named author can be c1ted hke a chapter in a
book (see 19.1.9).
Reviews
Reviews ofbooks, performance s, and so forth may appear in a variety of
period1cals and other sources. ln your reference list, include the name
of the reviewer; the words review of, followed by the name of the work
reV1ewed and its author (or composer, director, or the like); any ether
pertinent mformation (such as film studio or locatton of a performance);
and, fmaJly, the periodical m wh.ich the review appeared. (You can repeat
the year with the month and day in the reference list entry to avoid any
confus1on regarding the exact date.) lf the review was consulted online,
include a URL (see r 5-4-1 3).
p:rt
19,10 Sources in the V1sual and Performing Arts
The v1sual and performing arts generate a variety of sources, including
artworks, Jive perfonnance s, broadcasts and streams, recordmgs m various media, and texts. Citing these sources involves determining which
elements are needed to fu.Hy identtfy them, formatting the elements consistently, and adapting the general pattems outlined here as needed.
Some of the sources covered in this section, where noted, can be cited
in parenthetica l citatlons only orby weaving the key elements into your
text, although you may chaose to include a specific item in your reference list that is crittcal to your argument or frequently c1ted lf your pa per
1s for a course m the arts, media stud1es, or a similar field, consult your
mstructor
R: Brody, Richard 2013. RevIew of Grnv,ty d1rected by Allonso Cuaron . Warntr Bro~. Ptc•
tures New Yorke, . October 4, 2013
Cox, Kathartne. 2016. RevIew of Covered lf1 /nk· Tottoos Women and t/1e Pol1tic5 o( the Body
by Beverly YuPn 1hompson. Journol o/ Genaer Stud,es 25 no. 3 349-50 https :1,JoI o,..,
1,o.,080:09589236.2016.117188 9
W illiam ~. R1ch11rd 2015 Rev1ew ot Bob Dylan in concert al the Royal Albert Hall, London.
Ut Guardion, October 22, 2015 hltp5 11www.theguard1a11.corn.'mu~,c12o151oct/22
/ bob•dylan-rev1ew·royal•albert ·hall-london
19,10.1
Artworks and Graph.ics
191011 rAINTINGS SCULPT U R[S, ANO ~H OTOGRAPHS
19.9.3
One Source Quoted in Another
Responsible researchers avoid repeatmg quotations that they have not
actually seen in the origmal. If one source m cludes a useful quotation
from another source, readers expect you to obtain the original to verify
273
R: Zukofsky Lours ,931 ·s,ncerttv and Ob1ect,f1ca1ton." Pot>tr:r 37 <Fett,ua,y)· 269 Qm,ted
in Bonn,e Costcllo, Mar onne ,\.foore lmag,rimv Posse5s10,~ <Carphrirlgt MA Hilfvilrd
R, Ml A Hor1dbouk , 2016 8th ed. New YC1rlť M odem L:m l(Uil~I' Associ11tion of America
Aulesti;i Gorka 1989. Bosa11e-Engl1sh Dict1011ory Reno: Univernty of Nevada Press.
19.9.2
~
not only that the quotaaon 1s accurate bul also that 1t fa1rly represents
wbat the angina! meant
Jf the ongmal source is unavailable, however, cite it as "quoted in" the
secondary source in your reference list ln a parenthel.Jcal citation, give
only tbe name of the original aut hor.
com tv1ew1Entry1156942#e1d1211161030)
(fncyclapoed,o Bnta,in,co s.v „D;ime Margaret Drabble " accessed June 26, 2016. http://
wwwbrIt anriica com b,ography ' M argaret·Drabble )
P: (0Kford fng/1sh D1ct1anary, 2nd ed„ CO-ROM. version 4 .01s.v. ·onoma1opoe1a )
~LA m P(HORMIIH, f>.P
Cite paintings. sculptures,
photographs , drawings, and the like only in parenthetica l citations. ln·
clude the name of the artisl, the title of che artwork (in italics) and date
of its creation (preceded by "ca." [circa] if approximate ), and the name
of the institution that houses 1t (if any), including location. Separate the
274
souRCES IN TH r VISUAI ANO PC~íORMING ART
CHloPTlP 1~ AUTtiOP.•OATE <"YLE 'rVPf:, OF 501JRCC5
275
(Evan Grown " íhe 1n Comm,1ndrnt!11ts o! Typog1<1phy ,nfograph1c, Df's,gnMantoc,
Apni 11 201,1, http·//www.cles1gnmilnl1c: romiblog/inlop,r.-iph1cs,,tt!n·commandments
-of-typogr,,phy1)
elements with commas. You may also include the medium and relatl!d
inforrn;irion, if relevant.
n,._. Cl,;( Ch,mne)·::., 1938. 011 on car,vas, M,twauke, Art Mu~éum)
(MichelangElo, Dav1J. 1<;01-4 Galleníl dellAcrdd~m,a. Florence)
(Anscl Adam, Notlh Dolllt'. Ba,kel D011,ť Mount Hoffrno11. Yo~em1te Cil 1935, silve, Pt1fl:
16 s , 21.9 cm Srnrth!.on1il11 Ameru: .. n Art Mus„um, W,ishington DC)
(Erid1 Burhhol z, Unt,1/ad. 1920, gouar.hP on paper, Museum of Mode1n Art, New Yllii()
P; (Geml'!l.i O'► cellu,
Jnstead of using a parenthetical citation, you can sometimes cite artworks by weaving the elements into your text.
Any information mcluded in the text neerI not be repeated tn the paren thetical citation
I
Apple's lull-pagf' New York rad { Shot or. 1Phom . 6S hy Anh N ." barl.. rover Joly 4
2016) .
19,10.2
Q'Keet!f' fir:st tl1•1nonstrated ttus technique ,n Tl11:-Cl1(/ C111mneys l 19J8 Milwau~et Arl
MusélJm)
lf you viewed the artwork in a published source or on~n~ and your
Jocal guidelines require you to identify this source, indude 1t m your ref.
erence list For images consulted online, include a URL (see also 15.4-1.3).
Whenever possible, consult the item through the website of the mstitution at which tl is physically located. ln your parentheúcal citation, if thE
source is different from the artist, give the usual author-date citation in
place of the institutional name and locauon.
R: Buchhúlz Erich 1920 Unlll/vd GouMhe on paper Mu~curn ot Mudern Art, New Vor~
Llve Performances
Cite live theatrical, musical, or dance performances only in parentheticaJ dtations. lnclude the tiůe of the work performed, the aurhor, nny key
con tributors or performers and an mdícation of their roles, the venue
and its location, and the date ltalkize the titles of plays and Jong musical
compositions, but set the titles of shorter works in roman type, enclosed
in quotation marks except fo~musical works referred to by genre (see
22.3.2.3). If the citation is focused on an individual's performance, list
that person's name before the titJe of the work Separate the elements
with commas.
P: (Hair11/1,,,, mus,c and ly11cs by l in •Manuel MoraodJ t.J1reclcd by Thomas Ka,1 chorL'O·
graphcJ by Andy 81.iker,buehler Richard Rod11~r!> 1h atre, New York NV, Ft.!bruary 2.,
.::!016)
http / /'WWW mon1a 01g/cQllect,orvwei,ks138187
Lynes. B;irbar.1 fl11hler l"~lc:y PtJlins•V.Prnpes .ind fredPrick W Tl,m.,, 2004 G Ul''
1
(S 111one D,nncr~te,r. p,,..1,!>t Intermezzo in A, op 11B no .! b~ Johi11111cs Brahms
li111d Center for thc Purlnrm1ng Arls, Portl.:ind, OR, Ja1111;uy 15. 2012)
O'/,ce(ře onJ Ne,11 r\1Pi.iro A Sense o/ Plon • Prtnceto n, NJ• Pr1nct!lo11 Un1ver~1ty Press
P: {Buchholz 1920)
(Gcurgi a O Kecffo, T/ie C/,f/ Ch,mners, 1938,
in
Port
lnstead of relying entirely on a pa1enthetical cilation, you can usually
weave some of the elements into your text.
lynes, Poling•Kcinpes and 'Tu ner
::!004, 25)
Cile graphic sources such as print advertisements, ma))5',
cartoons, and so forth only m parenthetical c1tations. adapting the ba·
sic pattems for artworks and giving as much information as possíble
Give any tille or caption m roman type, enclosed in quo_Lation ~arks,
and identify the type of graphic if it is unclear from the ntle. For item.s
consulte<l online, include a URL (see r5-4. r.3); for undated sources, also
include an access date (see L5.4.r.5).
Simo11c Dinner~te,n·s p~1 lormancc ol Brahms !i lntermtJZW ,n A op. 118 no.;, (Ja11•
uary 1,5. 2012.. at Por tlanc1 Cente, íor 1he !'erJo,ming Arts) wlls anvth111g bul ,nter·
1910 1 2 GRAPHtc ARTS
med,ate .
lf you vtewed or listened to a Jive performance in a recorded medium,
cite the recording in your reference list See 19. 10.3 for similar types of
examples.
R: Rub .., '" 1" Artu,, p1.:in1~t 1975
Spin,11r,g Son •, by Felt• Mencft.lssohn. Ambassndor
College P.i~ad•'Ocl, CA. Janua, y 15. 1975 On n,e Lad Rento/ {,}r ls,oel BMG Cl,1ssics,
19Q2 VHS
P! , Apple mc , St ot on 1Phone oS by Anh N . 1,,ll·pJge adv• rllsemenl Nt'w Yorlt.er, Julv .;
2016. back cover)
(Yu 1, tu (Map of the trac~~ c,r Vu] AD 1136 Forest of Stont: St~l"'.s Museum. Xian. China.
.slone rubbing 1Q33''.
8A . R2 cm, L1brary or Conl.'ress. httr :t/wW\1/ loc.gov/llem
g!T1]'1005080 I)
(Chrt~'iV Teí!(en cry1ne al Iho w15 Goldcn Globe Award~. an,maled GIF, GIPHY, accesst>d
Jul~ :,, w 11> h,lp. nilphy com/ s1f!i/1Jlrl·lúl•uy1n;,.-P2~EMJJHo,UUg)
19,10.3
Multimeclia
Citations of movies, television and radio programs, recorded mus1c, and
other works in multimedia formats will vary depending on the type of
source. Ata minimum, identify the tit)e of the work, the date it was cre-
216
CH Ar ER
I A UT HO~ DA1 ' ~ Iv
t TYó'E S 0 1 SOU RC! '>
277
ated or published or otherwise made available, the name of the studio or
other entity respo11s1ble for producing or distríbuting the work, and lnformation about the med1Um in which you consulted it. lf you consulted
the source online, include a URL (see 15-4.1.3)
vant to your discussion) Lhe names of key performers. ltalk1ze the tJtles
of programs, but put the titles of ep1sodes or segments in roman type,
enclosed in quotat1on marks Finish with any relevant mformalion about
the medium. II you watched online, include a URL (see r5.4 r.3)
R.: Amcricon Cnmc5tl\q Jh,. /> ople v O J. Sl1111,10n ::zo1u CpIsocie 6 M;,,c,a MAma M;,r-
D,re_cted "V ~vi!n Mu1phv Wr1tten hy O V 01:Vlncc,1t,s reatur111,
Sterl111,,: K.
I
.
Brown Kenneth Chci ,nd Sarah PauL011 Aired MJ11.h R ,;,1)16, Qn FX. httµ~·//ww,v
.;imazun corn/<lp f11nARVPCOA 1
Brody 811nc/1 The 1971 5coson 3 ~r I ode 10, Her S1ster 5 5hadow • D,rc<:tt'd by Rus~
Mavberry. A lrcd Novcrnber 19 19 71 011 ABC, https. /Www hulu.com the-t.,dd )'
-tot,nch
Fresl, A,r ~u1t, Pen-Pal Pc1~s1u11 I; Rev1ve'1 ln Bro,1'11'1,l'/ s Sh~ Loves Me Hosted t,y
David B1a11culh NPl-l June24 2C'llh hltp:;,'www npr.crp/ ,;,016; r.6, 23148324538:1 pen
-pal•p.iss,on rs•rev1\,!fl•1n•b10.iJwáy~· "" loves•rne
Jone Cht Vir{l/n 2016 Season 2 ch;,ptr1 ~!> Ottected b y Uta Dr <S "Wlt1 A11ed MJrch 7
2016 on the CW T, le~,s,on t~Ptwor
CliJ
ln the reference list, cite a movie under the name of the direc.
tor. After the date (the year the movie was released or created or otherwise made available), give the title of the movie (in italics), followed by
Lhe name of the company that produced or distributed it. (You may also
mclude a publicaoon date for the recording.) lnclude information about
writers, actors, producers, and so forth ifit is relevant to your discussion.
Finish with any relevant informat1on about the medium lfyou watched
online, include a URL (see 15.4-1.3).
19.10.31 MOV tES
R: Cua,on. Aifcn~o dorcctor :1013 Grov,ty Warr,er Bro~ Picturl's io14. Blu·ray Dlsc,
108op HO
Famuy,wa, Rick, director. Do11e. Open Road r ilms 2015 1hr, ,B min https;/lwww.nelíl1r
Mori f,,t,,n ~oc,7
convwatrhí 80037759
Kubnck Sl,11 loy director 1964 Dr, Strongť/ove or How I lcorned co Srop Wcrry,119 o'ld
Love rtoe B„mb. Featu•1n!l PetE!r Seiler~. George C. Scott and Sterltng Haydl!n Colun,•
lrn1 1 hr, 34 m,n hltPS//WWW am;uon ccm 1dp/1loooP407K4
Weed, A C 1903. Al ll1e F"oot c,( cite F/1111,011 American M11tnscopc and Biogrnph 3smm
ftlm From Ubrary ol (ongrP.ss r,,., l,fr. o( o City fnrly f,lms o( Nt!W York. 1808 1Q06
MPEG 111d •o 2 11> at IS fp~ https //v,ww loc go•, 1tem/ 006g4378
r,a5m1 1 "fll~ode 12, Nt• on "~ Kennedy Di1,,cted by Alan Taylor fea-
t11r111g Ion Hanun El,-..:ibdh Mo&s ;int! Vincent KJ1the1 ~~• A••~d Octol.>i.:r 11, 2007
AMC Ltorss Gatc í elev1~1on DVD d,,; 4
on
P: (PtXJple I O J S,mp•vri:20161
Ins1ead of usmg a parenthetical citation. you can often cite such programs by weaving the key elemcmts ínto yom text, especially if some or
all of the addinonal elements are not relevam to the c1tation
By allodmg lo T~ 81111/y Bu11 /1 (speclf1catlv Her S1ster ~ Sh.idcw trom 1911} the \Ille
ln the text you can include intormation about timings, in the fonn
displayed wi th the source
of •111so(IP r-. f Marcla Marc•~ MMci!I, M.Jrch B 2016) not o niv calls altc11tlw 1Iv the
centra! role ol tele\11sio11111 lhc troJI bot ;il, o
P: (Kubnd 19ó4 0·11 43 n c, 1 !>4 l
rnformation about ancillary matena] mcluded Wlth the movie should
be woven into the text, with the parenlhetical reference referring to the
movie as a whole.
ln a spernil teature t1ltct1 Complete Silence" CCuarcn w13), tne dtrPctcr ucknowledgc
a t11ns1on belt,~e•1 r~atism ;,nd aod1enc~ dpectatinns
19103 2 TE L EV ISION ANO !lA D IO PROG RA M S
To cite a television or radio program,
include, at a minimum, the title of the program, the name of the episode
or segment, Lhe date on whlch it was first aued or made available, and
the entity that produced or broadcast the work. (You can repeat the yea1
with the month and day in the reference list entry to avoid any confusion
regarding the exact date.) You may also include an episode number, the
name of the director or author of the episode or segment, and {if rele•
1910.33
Vtoeos AND POOCAH5 To cite vtdeos other than movies (19.10.3 1) or
televis,on progra1m, (19 10 3.2), adapt the examples in those sections accord1ngly To cite a podcast, adapt the example for c1ting a radio program
(r91032)
Sort \ Dlrecu:,d by Kahltl Joseph and Bevonce Know!~ June ::. 2Mb
Mu 1r •rdt!O .1 :!'i t,ttJ:1,./ voutu be Q,smW„xculM
D11nfc,,th Mi~c .-,od l;m Chillíli 2015 f Bumbs, Ch,den ,111d hcla11 ,Jl1on Puints '
April i 1, 2cIi; l n 1-/n" ro Do Cve I lh111" prod11eed by G,11I.ln Dono11an Pcdcílst Mf>3
i!ud10, 18.46 http / v.ww npr org1podc.ists1510303/how-to•tlo•every\h1n
Dunnor Fred ;011 How lslam Bct,lll, Alumni Wee end :2011 Un1ver~1tv ol Ctucago
June 3 Video ol I, cture https yc,u 1u be 5RFK5u5rl,hA
Kessli,r Aa1on M w1~ Thc D11ye,le5s Now f'rodoced hv Poh S, TMg c1111j Jl!š 51c.1
NJu1J11unas l\ew ~o,.- Tnrrei. Mriv 2 .w15 Video ;z 01 hllp / www ny tIm e< c11m
v,d~o/tws,nes.:,/1000000 •30 G .208 I hl! 11, ivtrlcss 11uw htntl
R; Bcvonc~ ..!016
CHAPlER 19
278
A\JTHOl!•CI ~ I (
sn l (
TYP[~
o,
219
~OllRUS
Jf relevant, you may include lhe time at which the dted maten a! ap.
pears in the file in your parenthetical citatíon .
Thoma~ Dylan 1953, Under Mr/k Wood f'i,rtn,mcd bv Dylan Thomas et ,11 RéLorded
Mav 14, 1953 On D>ln11111umos Thr> Caed,nu11 c,,1tectm11, d1;cs 9 -10 C.1ctJmon 2002
li
cos
P: (Beyonce w 16. al 1·09-124)
To cite video games and apps, adapt the examples included throughout this section on multimedi~ as needed. Titles
of video games, like titles of movies, can be italicized. lnclude a version
number and information about the device or operating system required
to run the game or app. ln the firsr example, the pub]1shing information
for Gems and Gemstones is in parentheses because such annotations are
sryled like regular text.
191035 VIDEO GAM ES AN O APl'S
sou No !!ECOROINGS To citerecorded music and the like, mclude as m uch
information as you can to distinguish it from similar recordings, includ.
ing the date of the recording, the name of the recording company, the
identifying number of the recording, the copyright date (if different frolll
the year of the recording), and any relevant information about the medium. List the recording under the name of the composer or the performer, depending on which is more relevant to your discussion. Titles of
albums should be in italics; individua! selections should be in quotation
marks except for musical works referred to by genre (see 22.3.2.3). Abbreviate compact dtsc as CD Recordings consulted online should include a
URL (see 15.4 1.3); in some cases the name of a mustc service can stand in
for a URL ln general, cite by year of recording, but you may repeat dates
to avoid any confusion.
19 10 3 4
R: Holoday. 81llie, vocahsl 1958
l'm ,1 fool to Want You, bv Joi,I Herron frank Sínatra,
a111l Inek Wolf Rerorded řehru~rv 20 1958 wilh Ray Elli5 Trad 1 on l,1ť/y in Sotin
Col11mb1a Cl 1157 33½ 1pm
Ponk floyd 1970 Atom H,..ar1 Mather Reco,ded Apríl 29 1971.>. ;it Fíllmllre West, San
Franc.1sco Concert Vault sln•amrng audio hllp://WWW conc:ertv,1ull com, p10Hlo)'d
1ollmo,e•wesl-apt1I :io-1ci70 htrnl
Rihanna 2007 Umb,cll.1 l'ealurtr g Jay•Z Track, on Good Gul Gone 811d Island De1
lam Spollly slrP;in11ng ,rnd,o 3:zo ~bps
,P,,d ,,iJ„ v. 1 01 Touch
Adapted from lar!ce Grande and Alhson AuKu~l\ln, Genrs ond G~msron5·
Trmele1s Natural Bcauly of l he Mmeral Worid \Ch,caRo Un1~rs1ty of Chlc,1i:,n Press
R: Grande, l ance, .:md Alhson Augustyn :?011. Gems nM Jewcls
r,rl.!&s
2 0•
9)
,.
Rovro Enterl:Jtllmr!nl 2014 Angry 8,,d, Tra1u(orrncr1 V 1.4 :.i; Ro1110 [ntc,ra,nm'!nt
Android ,1.0 or laler Soundtrack bv Vinc, D1Cola and Kefll'ly Me,,er:li:1'1
To cite interviews in multimedia fonnats, treat the person
interviewed as the author, and identify the interviewe1 in the context
of the citation. Also include the program or publication and date of the
interview (or publication or air date). For unpublished interviews and interviews in other types ofpublished sources, see 19 6.1.
19.1036 INTERV I EWS
R: Sond~r,, 8ern1P 2015. lnkrv ew by Rachc, Maddow l he F111c1ret i\laJdow Show Sep1cmber 18. ; 015, MSNBC V,df'o 19 51 https.,,youtu.be 8JV4sv9wa80
Ruo1nste1n Artur p1an1st 111116 .md 1c.•8-67 The Chap,n Ca/lccfron RCA V,ctor/BMG
bóB~~-2-kG 1991
1 CDs
Shost;ikov,ch Om,111 1959 and 19!.>5 Svmphony no s / Symphony no 9, Conducted
by Leonard Bernslem Recorded w1th lhe New Yo,k Prulh;irmonic October 20, 195•)
(no 5) and Octobcr lil 196<; (M 91, Sony SMK 61841. 1999 CD
SlrillliS R,ch.ird 194t• Dun Quo,nte With EmílnUel i:euermaon (v1olonccllo) ;ind Ilit
Ph1l11delph1a Orchestra, conduct("d by Euge,,,. Ormandv Recordl!d FPbruar\l ~ - 1940
81ddulph LAB 0.12 1991 CD
p
( Hohday 1958)
(Shn~tilkov,ch 1959 and 191i;)
Treat recordings of drama, prose or poetry readings, lectures, and the
like as you would musical recordings.
R: Slrdy!!d, Chtryl Wr/cJ From Luit to ío1111d orr 1111 Pao(ic C1e1t T,n,I. R"act by Bernadette
Ounni,. New Vorls F!andom 1-lullsf Audio :zo12 Audible uut.l,o e-d , 13 hr n min
Cite advertisements from televis1on, radio, and the
like only in parenthetical citations orby weaving the elements into your
text, or both.
1910.3 7 ADVEPT ISEMC N TS
P: <Flth1t Duallt,es advert,sernenl a1rl'd February 7 2016 ourrn,R Super Sowl 50, CBS
30 ,ec.., http www.supcrbcm,lcomnrercrals2016.org/ 11b1t1)
As wtth television shows (19.10.3.2), you can often cite advertisements
by weaving the key elements 1nto your text, especíally if some or all of the
additJonal elements are not available or relevant to the citation.
Fllbil ~ Duality .J th1rlv 5"COnd ~pot lhal a1,~d dur 111g thl' th,, d Quarte, ol Sup~r flnwl
50 1CBS r,1bru~ry 7, :?nió )
280
HAPl M1
AIJT'1OM Of\H fYll:
vrrs or S0UkCES
281
19.10.4 Texts in the Visual and Perfonning Arts
Cite an art exhlbiuon catalog as you WOuJd
a book. In your reference list, include information about the exhibition
following the pubhcalion data.
191041 ART E:XH I BI TION CArA LOGS
R: lh1, Jc11111fer Y~ ed 2015 The [i·~ o; I lle Shah. Qa1ar Caurl Phótogropliy ond l hf! Penkin
Past P,1nceton. N J Pnnct!ton Univer.,,ty Press Pubhshed
in
conJunClton
w,tl\ iln
"xh1b,tion o f l he s.imc ua111e at New 'for~ Un1vers11y s Institute !or tl>e Study o! th,
A11c ,;ni World Octnber :.>:!
2015-J,11111
Jry 1/, 2016
ln some cases you can cite well-known English-language plays in
parenthetical citations only. (See also 19.8. 1 .) Separate the elements with
commas. Omit publication data, and cite passages by act and scene (or
other divis1on) instead of by page number.
19104 i PLAYS.
,
Publlc Oocuments
19 11
Public documents include a wide array of sources produced by govem
meots at all levels throughout the world. This section presents bas1c
principles for some common types ofpublic documents available m English; ífyou need to cite other types, adapl the closest model.
Such documents involve more complicated and vari'ed elements than
most types of published sources. ln your citations, include as much 1dentifying information as you can, format the elements consistently, and
adapt che general pattems outlined here as needed.
The bulk of this section is concemed with documen ~ published by US
govemmental bodies and agencies. For documents published by the govemments of Canada and the United Kingdom and by intemational bodies, see rg.1 r.9--r r. For unpublished govemment documents, see rg. r 1.12.
P: (Eugene O'Ne,11 lort<J Dav~ JouinPy irllo N,qht ~ct 2 :.Cene 1)
lf your paper is in litcrary studies or another field concemed with close
analysis of texts, or if you are ciling a translation or an obscure work,
cite every play as you would a book, and include each in your reference
list. Cite passages either by dtvision or by page, according to your local
guidelines.
R. Anouilh, Jean 19g6, Beckťl , c,r T/1e H1111ot o( G(,d Translalt!d by LuciPni11• Hill NPw York:
R,vediead Boo~s
8a,-:nold, Enid. 1956 T/>e Chol~ Gm 11'11 New Yo, k Rand on, House
P: (B.igr,old 1956 8-o>
(Anouilh 1996 oct 1, sccne I)
1910<1
3
MU SIC A t sc oRE S.
Cite a published musical score as youwould a book.
R: Mti:1u I Wolli;ang Amadeu~ 11i60
5Mataso/ld Fantos1es /or tne Piano Prcpared frorn lht-
;111togr;iphs and llarl1'!sl pr111ll!d source~ by Nathan Brode, Rev ed Brvn Mawr, PA-
n,t-odore P,esse1
V,,,d, Giuse ppe. 2008. G,ovon110 ,fA1rn dr.im,oo /,,.co in four acls Lib, ctto by Ton11stocle
')11len [ d!lt'd
nv Allwrto R12w11
;:, vols Wor s ot Giuseppe! Vcr!h
er 1 Opera\.
Ch1c;,go Umvers1tv nf f' hlc;iv.o Pre,~5 M,l:1n G fl1corrl1
Cite an unpublished score as you would unpublished material tn a
manuscriptcollection.
R. St dJ:n!v Ralph 1966 'Pa1l iti! rnr Vlol,n anc1 Thlrt,,e,n l'/,1y„1 ~" ~cnre. ~fll'tt!II Collett,ons;,
Jo5eph Rei;ensteln L,brllry Un,vtrs1tv or Ch,c.iKO
19.11.l
Elements to Include, Their Order, and How to Format Them
ln your reference list, iuclude as many of the following elements as
you can:
• name of the government (country, state, city, county, or other division)
and govemment body Qegislative body, executive department, court bureau, board, commission, or committee) that issued the document
• date of publication
• title, 1f any, of the document or collection
• name of individua} author, editor, or compiler, if given
• report number or other identifying information (such as place of publication and publisher, for cenain freestanding publications or for items m
secondary sources)
• page numbers or other locators, if relevant
• a URL, or the name of the database, for sources consulted online (see
15.4.1 and, for examples, 19 1J .2.21 19.11.3, 19 t 1 .7, and 19. 11 1 r)
ln general, list the relevant elements in the order given above. Exceptions for certain types of documents are explained in the following sections of rg.n.
Represent:ilives, Select Convn,ttce n Hom„l11r,,i Sec-u r,ty ioo2
Horncland Security Ac:t of . to" 2 1071'1 Cung 2d '.,t'"..,!'>. HR Rep 101 6oy 111
R; US Cong,ess Hotose o l
For parenthetical citations, treat the informaoon hsted before the date
in your reference list as the author. lf this information is Jengthy, you
may shorten it, as long as you do so logically and consistently in your
citations. ln many cases you may be able to include some or al! of this
information in the text instead of a parenthetical citation
282
PU BLI~ DOCllMfNT)
CHAPTER 19 I AUTHOR·DAH !.iYl[ r,PE>OF SOUfiCES
i;.
P: (US House 200.2, 81-82)
283
US Congre~s. H o use. 2015, Dlocking Proper ly and Suspend,n~ Entry of Certa111 Pcr~orts
Engilglrlt>- m Srgmf,cant Malic1ous Cyber-Enabled Ac l 1v1t,es 114th Cong., 1;1 sess.
• • as the Select Co,111n1ttee decreed 111 lt, report accompanying lhé Hornula nd S!!cu11t,,
H Doc
114-12,
https.11www.gpo.gov1fdsyS1pkyCDOC·1141lduti:-.
Acl of:;>002 (81-8;,l
P;
Note that, by convention, ordinals in public documents end in d instead
if nd (2d instead of 2d).
19.11.2 Congression al Publications
For congressional publications, reference list entries usually begin with
the designation US Congress, followed by Senate or Hou.se of Representatiues
(or House). (You may also simplify this to US Senate or US House.) Other
common elements include committee and subcommittee, if any; date
of publication; title of document; number of the Congress and session
(abbreviated Cong. and sess. respectively in this position), and number
and description of the document (for example, H. Doc. 487), if available.
1911.2.3
( US House io15.
1-2)
Congressional bills (proposed laws) and resolutions are published in pamphlet form. ln citations, bills;'a nd resolutions
originating in the House of Representatives are abbreviated HR or H. Res.
and those originating in the Senate, S. or S. Res. lnclude publication details in the Congressiona! Record (if available). If a bili has been enacted, cite
it as a statute (see 19.9.2.5).
BILL S AND RE SOL U TIO NS
R: US Congres~. H c,use ,016 Erna1I Prtvacy AC't H RPs (,99 114th Ccmg 2d ses,;. Conwes-
siunal RecorcJ 162, no 65, d aily P.d CApril :n) H2022-28.
P: ( US H ouse 1016. H2022)
~
Records of testimony given before congressional committe-es
are usually published with formal titles, wh ich should be included in reference list entries (in italics). The relevant committee 1s normally listed
as part of the title.
19.11.2 4 HEA RIN GS.
Since 1873, congressional debates have been published by the
govemment in the Congressiona! Record. Whenever possible, cite the permanent volumes, which often reflect changes from the daily editions of
the Record. Begin parenthetical citations with the abbreviation Cong. Rec.,
and identify the volume and part numbers as well as the page numbers.
(For citations of the daily House or Senate edition, retain the H or S in
page numbers.)
19.1121 DEBAH S
R:
US Congress. Congress,ono/ Record 2008. 110th Cong.• 1st ses.s. Vol. 153, pt. 8
P: (Co11g Re( 2008, 153, PI 8: 11629-30)
If you need to identify a speaker and the subject in a debate, do so in
text, and include a parenthetical citation for the publication only.
Senato, Kennedy of M assnchusetts spoke for t he Joint Resolut,on on Nuclear Weap,ons.
Freezc and Reduct,ons (Cong Rec 1982
128,
pi 3: 383.2 34)
Before 1874, congressional debates were published in Anna!s oj the
Congress of the United States (also lmown by ether names and covering
the years 1789-1824), Register ofDebates (1824-37), and Congress10nal G!obt
(1833-73). Cite these works similarly to the Congressional Record.
R: US Congrt!sS, Hou~,i 2002 H1:a1111g beforl.! Ille 5ele,I Co,,1mitlťe on Homelond Seccmty
H R 5005 Horneland Secunly Acl ol 2002
dav 3 1071h Cong.• 2d ~e,s. Julv 17.
P: ( US House 2002, 119-20)
19.11.2 s STATU TES . Statutes, which are bills or resolutions that have been passed
inlo law, are first published separately and then collected in the annual
bound volumes of the United States Starutes at Large, which began publication in r874, Later they are incorporated into the United States Code
Cite US Starutes, the US Code, or both. Section numbers in the Code are
preceded by a section symbol (§; use §§ and et seq. to indicate more than
one section).
In a parentherical citation, indicate the year the act was passed; in
your reference list, also include the publication date of the statutory
compilation, which may d1ffer from the year of passage
R: Atornic Enc:rgy Act ol 1946 rubl,c l;iw 585. 79th Cong., 2d ses~. A 11i;l•~t 1
Fair Cred1t Reporting Act of 1970 US Code 15 (2001)), ~li 1681 et seq.
When you cite reports and documents ofthe
Senate (abbreviated S.) and the House (H. or HR), inc!ude both the Congress and sess1on numbers and, if possible, the series n umber. This ex·
ample was consulted online using an offi.cial govemment resource (the
US Govemment Publishing Office). See also 15-4.1.3.
19.112.2 REPO RT S AND D O CUM EN T S.
Homeland Security
Act of 2002, Publ,,- Law 107-296 US Statul1:~ ilf Lnrge 116 ( 2002)
US Code 6 (2002) , ~~ 101 et seq
;;,135-321 Cod1f1ed .it
P: lAt om,c Energy Acl o f 1946, 12. 19)
(Fair Cred1t Repor ting Act of 1970)
( H o m eland Secu111y
Act of 2002 :.>163-b4)
284
~UBLIC POCIJM{N TS
Before 1874, laws were published in the seventeen-volume Stlltt.ttes Cit
Largc of che Umtcd Srates of Amenca, r789- 1873. Cit~tlons of this collection
includc the volume number and its publicat1on date.
P: (US DepartlT'enl ui the lnt~rrur 2007 23)
(US OepartlT'eot a l the Treasury 1850-51, , 5-16)
19.n.s US Cons titution
'fhe US Constitution should be cited only in parenthetica1 citations; you
need not include it in your reference list lnclude the article or amendment, section, and, if relevant. clause. Use arabic nur,ierals and, 1f you
prefer, abbreviations for terms such as amendment and section.
19.11.3 Presidential Publications
Presidential prodamations. executive orders, vetoes, addresses, and the
tike are pubtished in the Weekly Compilation of Presidentíal Documents and
in Pltbhc Papers of the Presidents of the United States. Proclamations and executive orders are also carried in the daily Federal Register and then published in title 3 of the Code of Federal Regulations. Once they have been
published in the Code, use that as your source. Put individua! titles in
quotation marks. The example of a proclamation was consulted online
from an official government resource (see also 15.4- 1.3).
P: ( US Const,t ution ar1 2 , ,rc 1 <I 3)
( US Const,tut,on. amcnd. 14, sec :;,)
lo many cases you can include lhe identifying informatlon in your
text, but spell out the part designations Capitalize the names of specific
amendments when used in place of numbers.
R: US President. 1997 Executive Order 13067 'Bloc~111g $udJne5<! Government Properly
;md Proh,btt ,ng Transact,ons w1lh Suda11 Code o/ F~,1 ..,01 Regulal1<,1ns. 1111.: 3 (1997
The US Constltut,on ,n art1clt„ 1 Sl!cl1011 g forb,d~ suspens1on of the vmt unll'SS when
in Cascs c,f Rebell1011 or lnvi1s1on the.i-ublic Salety ma~ requ,re ,1
comp.). 230 31.
The Fm,t An1cndmc11l prutl!cts thc rtghl of Irce speech
US President. :2016 Proclamat,uo ~465- ''E.slaul shrnent ol lhl' Stonewdll Nat1011al Mon111nent Federul Rťg•sler 81, no t.."5 (June :?9) ,11215 20 https /fedcrc1l,eg,stergoy 0
/2016-15530
P: (US Pr;;suicnt 1907)
l lJS Pr c~•dcnt 1016)
The public papers of US presidents are c:ollected in two mult.ivolume
works: Compilarion oj the Messaqes and Papers of rhe Prestdents, r789-1897
and, starting with the Hoover administration, Public Papers of the Pres,dents
of the United States. (Papers not covered by etther of these works are published elsewhere.) To cite items in these collections, follow the recommendauons fot multivolume books (see rg 1.5)
19.11.4
Publications of Govemment Departme nts a nd Age ncies
Executive departments, bureaus, and agenctes issue reports, bulletins,
c1rculars, and other matenals ltaJkize the tille. and include che name of
any identifted author(s) after the tltle.
R: U3 Depllrlnlc11I u l lht' lnlt'rtw M im r,;11~ rvlana2em1!11I ':t!!rYICC, E11v1ro11mcnt;il O v1s1011
wo7 O,/ .p,,I R,s~ An<1lys,s. Gul/ (1/ Mt:~ICU 011ter Cont,ne,11111 511!',/f rocs; Leose Salt'!,
Ce•<trol Pl<1•111r,1g A1ea or•d W 111,n P/tr11ni11,7 Ati!l1 •007-101. on,1 Gulf1v1dť OCS Pro9r111•1 wo7 ..>04t1, by Zh1.n•G1111gJ1 Wa t,•r R Joh11~c,r1 _.oJ (hdrle~ f M,,.~hall Ed1terl
by E1le1:n M . Lear MMS 2007 040 June 2007
US OepJ1tm,•nl nf thr- Trt:ilsllry 1850-rr flťrr11I CJ/ th" Sec~tarv of ,~" T•roiurv Tron5rr,1t
1mg a R~port {,um :h„ R,;q1slt>r o/ 1/1 ÍrPcrsu,~ 01 lhc Com,r,e,ce a"d Nov1nut/a11 c•( Ille
Un,t,,d tul,,, for 11,r. ~Por E,, /1119 lhP 301/1 11/ Ju,,., 185a 31st Conr, :!d Sf':U , Hou~e
h"clillve DollJIT1en18 W1,h111gton DC
285
19.11.6
Treaties
The texts of o-eanes signed before 1950 are published in United States
Statutes at Large; the unofficial citation is to the 'Ireaty Senes (TS) or the
Executive Agreement Senes (EAS). Those signed in 1950 or later appear in
Unrted States 'lreaties and Olher Jntemattonal Agreements (UST, I 950-) or n-ea
ties ar1d Other International Acts Series (TIAS. r945-). lreaues mvolving more
than two nations may be found in the United Nations Tl'eaty Senes (UNTS,
1946-) or, from 1920 to 1946, in lhe league of Nat1ons n-eaty Senes (LNTS)
ltalicize titles of the publications mentioned above and their abbreviated forms. Unless they are named in the title of the treaty, list the parties subje<:t to the agreement, separated by hyphens. An exact date indicates the date of signing and may be included in addiaon to the yea.r the
treaty was published (You can repeat the yeru- with the monlh and day ín
the reference list entry to avoid any confusion regarding the exact date.)
R: U111tcd 5t ~tes 1g2:z Naval Arm~mcnt I 111111,111,)11 Trealy w1th lhc Briti~h Crnp11 c, í ,;,n._c
It aly ar•d Japan fcb rua•v 6 1922 US Stor11tcs ot lt1•'1" 43 pt 2
US Dr.partmcnl of State. 1963, Treill y 6annln1J Nuclt!.ir WeJpo11 TcS1s tn lhe .&.t,nospne,e
,n OulC!r Space, and Under Water US·UK·U:iSR AuE,ust 5, 1963, UST 14, pt 2
P: ( United States 1922)
(US Dep.irlrm,nt of StJlc 1963 1313)
19.ll.7 Legal Cases
Citaoons of lega] cases generally take the same form for cou1 ts at all
levels. ln your reference list. ítalicize the fttll case name (including the ab•
286
CHA FF ~ 19 I AIJTtlOR DATl STYLE TVT<fS ( of
breviation v.) lnclude the volume number (arabic), name of the reporter
(abbreviated, see below), ordinal series number (if applicable), openin
page number of lhe decision, abbreviated name of the court and da~
(together in parentheses). and olher relevant information, such as the
name of the state or local court (if not ident:ified by the reporter title).
R: Profit Sho1111g Plcro, v Mbanl< Do/las NA. 683 f. )llflP 592 (ND Tex. 1988).
U11ited Stoles v
Chrřslmus. 2n
pUBLIC ooCUMť, H
OLIPCES
F 3d 141 (,!lh Ci,. 2000)
identifying date and number supplied by the database (see also 15-4 r -4)
page or screen numbers are typically preceded by an asterisk.
R: rom1/y Servirl! Assoc,or,cm o; Steuben„1/e v Wells Tnwnship 2015 US D ,st LEXtS 75017 '7
(50 Oh10 Juoi, 10, 2015) . Le,,~Ne,us Acadcm,c.
19,11,8
The one element Lhat depends on ů,e level of the court is the name of
lhe reponer The most common ones are as follows.
■ US Supreme Court.
For Supreme Cou1 l decisions, ctte Umted States Supre1t1e
Court Reports (abbreviated US) or, if nol yet published there, Supreme Couri
Reporter (abbreviated S. Ct.).
287
State a nd Local Govemment Documents
I
Cite state and local govemment documents as you would federal documents. Use roman type (no quotation marks) for stace laws and munici
pal ordinances; use italics for codes (compilations) and the titles of freestanding pubhcations. State constitutions are cited only m parenthetical
otations or in the text (see also r9 11 .5).
R: lllmo•~ lost,tule tor Enwonment.il Quolitv ( IIEQ). 1977 Rev,r wnrid Sy1101,s1s o/ rubllc Par·
frc,pl1f1c,n reqord,ng Su/fur D,o;c,de ond f'art,cvlolll! [ 1n s"O/IS By S,doey M Marder IIEQ
R: Al&T Corp v. lowo Uti/řt1~s Bd. 525 US 366 (1999)
Document 77/ :21 Chicago
81e1•dlir• 1· Ca/1forr11u 127 S Ct. 2400 (2007)
■
M1!lhampheta111loc Cu11trol and Comu,1u11lly Protc~t 1111 Ac1 no5 11/,,,a,$ Comp1l„,J Stol•
!J l ť chap 7.'O r,o. 646 ( 2005}
Poqe '> Ohio Rr,vrsPd Cndt' Annototed 2011 TIii,: ,5 Ell'ct ons.
Lower federal courts. For lower federal•court decisions, cite Federal Reporter
(F.) or Federal Supplement (F Supp.)
R: foton• IBM Co,p 925 F Supp 487 (S.D. Te:. 19~6}.
Umte<I State.s ", DN1111 1!13 r 201 Ud C11 11150)
• State and local courts. for state and local court decisions, cite official state
reporters whenever possible. lf you use a commercial reporter, cite it as in
the first example below. lf the reporter does not iden ti fy the courťs name,
ioclude it before the dare, within parentheses.
R: B,v„ns v A1obl~y 774 !.o 2d -158 (M,5s Ct Apµ. 1998).
W,1/,oms v. Dam 1.7 Co1I ~d 746 (19~6)
To cite a legal case in your text, give the name of the case and the date
(if citing specific language, provide ůie page number as well). ln many
instances you may be able to include eíůier or both elements in the text.
P: Wn,1ed Srares ~ Clms tmu~2000)
P: OIEQ 1977, 44 •.1~)
(Methamphetammc Control and Co111mun11y Protectlon Ac1 ;005, 9!c 10)
(Poge's Ohw Rtvlstif Cuc/c A1111ufaltd ion, :iec. JS'i9 01)
(New Me,.ico Con,t1t11tion ;irt ,i ;ec 7)
19.11.9
Can adia n Govem ment Documents
Cite Canadian government documents s1m1larly to US public documents.
End citauons with the word Canada (in parentheses) unless it is obv10us
from the context.
canad1an statutes appeared lhrough 1985 in the Reuised Stat1.1tes of
Canada, a consolidation that was published every fifteen to thirty years;
federal statutes enacted since then are cited as session laws in the annual Statutes of Canada. Iden tify the statute by title, reporter, year of compilation, chapter, and sectton.
R: Ass1stcd Human Reproduch0ri Acl 5totutes of Conoda :,004, chap., sec:. 2
Cases consulted online should normally be cited to the appropriate
reporter(s) as described above. A URL that points directly to an ofňcial
resource may be aclded as the fi.nal element (see also 15.4.1.3)
R: Stare v Griff,q .-,, W \lij !,08, 561, S E.:zd 645 (2002) hllp:.,tv,ww cou1t~wv ti ,.,-sttpreme
-rc,11rl dnrs/!iPrll•g2002130433-hllT'
Many researchers use Lexis or Westlaw to research court cases and
olher lega! materials. To cite a case in one of those databases, add any
(anada Wlldl1f" At t Flcv1scd Stututf1 of ( a11adu 1Q85 chap W 9, ser 1
P: (Ca1111da W,ldl1f1: A,\ 1n8e,)
Canactian Supreme Court cases since 1876 are published in Supreme
Court Reports (SCR). Federal Court cases are published in Federal Courts
Reports (FC, 1971- 2003; FCR, 2004-) or Exchequer Court Reports (Ex. CR, 18751971). Cases nol found in any of these sources may be found in Dominion
Lau, Repons (DLR) Include the name of the case (in 1talics), followed by the
f UBLI
288
date (in parentheses), the volume number (if any), the abbreviated narne
of the reporter, and the opening page of the dec1sion.
R: Cimadtl v CBCtf!adlo Cn•wdo (:-c,14) I FCR 1.12
R,,bemon v Tho,rn.vri Corp (2006) '2 SCR 31;,3 (Can~da)
•uC MfNH
2119
at ether identifymg pubhcation mformation. For doa,ment.s consulted
online, include a URL (see 15,4, , ,3).
~ Le!lgt>t! of Arab StJl i.'~ .ind llnltt>d N.it 1t111s 2010 Th,• Th1td Arab Report on thc M11/em11um
Devtl,1pme11t Goals ~,o cmd 1111~ lmpnc r o( 11:f' Glob.1/ Cconom, C11ses 8t>1rut Eco11omtc
,1nd Soc,af Comrn1ss1un íor Western A~lai
19.11.10
British Govemment Documents
Cite British govemment documents similarly to US public documents.
End citations with the phrase United Kingdom (in parentheses or brackets)
unless it is obvious from the context.
Acts of Parliament should usually be cited only in parenthetical citations or in the text. lnclude a specific act in your reference list only if lt IS
critical to your argument or frequently cited. ldentify acts by title, datt,
and chapter number (arabic numera) for nanonal number, lowercase ro.
man for Jocal). Acts from before 1963 are cited by regnal year and monarch's name (abbreviated) and ordinal (arabic numera!).
P: (Act ot 5ettlemenl 1701 12 & 13 W ill 3 c 1)
(Co11~ul1dated Fund Act 1963, chap 1 (Un11 cd Kmgdom])
CManchr..~lcr Corpornt,on Acl 1q67 cha!l ,t)
Most British lega! cases can be found in the applícable report in the
Law Reports, among these Ůle Appeal Cases (AC}, Queen's (King's) Bench
(QB, KB), Chancery (Ch.), Family (Fam ). and Probate (P.) reports. Until recently the courts of highest appeal in the United Kingdom (except for
criminal cases in Scotland) had been the House of l.ords (HL) and the
Jud1cial Committee of the Privy Council (Pq ln 2005 the Supreme Court
of the United Kmgdom (UKSC) was established.
Include the name of the case, in italics (cases involvmg the Crown
refer to Rex or Re91na); che date, in parentheses; the volume number (if
any) and abbreviated name of the reporter; and the opening page of the
decision. tf the court is not apparent from the name of the reporter, or 1f
Ůle Jurisdiction is not clear from context, include either or botl1, as necessary, in parentheses
R. NML C,ip,tol l1m1leJ iAp1'cllu1•I) v Rcput,/,c o/ ,\11/t'Jllrrto (Rt'W!lndenr) (:1011) U ►:SC 31
P„go l (Ho~tings) Led, , G,1/ltvi!r (1407) l AC 13,: (Hli (.ipµc11I la~o:n t,om Eng )
Reg,110 ~ Ou<lft.> and Srcph.-ni; <iSB.;) 14 OBD :J 73 {DCl
19.11.11
Publica tions of Intem a tional Bodies
Documents published by mtematlonal bodies surh as the United Nations can be cited much like books. ldentify the authorizing body (and
any author or editor), the date, the 1itle or topic of the document, and
the pubhsher or place of publicanon (or both), Also include any series
UnitctJ Na11011s Secunty Counol, 2015. Re~olut&on n2J, Pro1ect1011 ol C1vlfrn ,s ,n Armed
1
Conll1cl S1RES/ 22n New York LIN, M;iy 27 http /1www.u11.drg.,en1~r/ documen1~
1,e~olut1on;/ 2015.shtml
P: Lo:ague of Arab Statl'~ ar>d Un,tcd Nallon~ :010 82)
(LIN Gerwral Assembly:.:015)
19.11.12
Unpublished Government Documents
Jf you cite unpublished government documents, follow the pattems
given for unpublished manuscnpts m 19.7.4
Most unpublished documents of the US govemment are housed in
the Natlonal Archives and Reé~rds Administrdtion (NARA) m Washington, DC, or in one of its bra11ches, and cataloged online. Cite them all.
including films, photographs, and sound recordmgs as well as written
materials, by record group (RG) number
The comparable institution for unpubbshed Canadian govemment
documen ts is the Library and Arch1ves Canada (!,AC) in Ottawa, Ontario.
The Umted Krngdom has a m.,mber of depositones of unpubb.shed govemment documents, most notably the National Archives (NA) and the
British Library (BL), both in London. Each of these resources has been
cataloged online.
Part Ill Style
20
20.1
Spelling
Plurals
20 11 General Rule
201 2 Spec,al Ca~es
20,2
Possessives
20 21 G••nerat flule
'20 2 2 Speclal Ciues
20.3
Compounds and Words Formed with Prefuces
20 3 ' Compou"d~ Used as AdJectlves
10 3 2 Compounds Used as Both Noun~ and Adjectíves
20 3 3 Words For med wllh Prefíies
20,4
Ltne Breaks
2{) ,11 Breaks within Words
20 4 .2 Breaks over Spaces and Punctuat,on
Model your spelling on American usage and be consistent, except in quotations, where you should usually follow the original spelling exactly (see
chapter 25). When in doubt, consult a dictionary. Be aware, however, that
dictionanes may differ on how to spell the same word and that some are
more acc:urate and up-to-date than olhers.
The most reliable authority for spelling is Merriam-Webster. Both
Memam-Webster's Collegiate D1ct1onary and a larger, unabridged dictionary are available from Memam-Websler.com (the unabridged version is
available only online). f or the names of people and places, consult the
biographical and geographical listings in either of those resources or in
Encyclopaedia Ilntannica.
Where Merriam-Webster offers a choice belween spellings, use the
following principles to select one· Where vAriants are separnted by or,
choose either one and use 1t consistently; where variants are separated
by a lso, use the first. lf the preferred spelling in Merriam-Webster differs
293
294
295
pQ \SESSIVES
from the conventional one in your cliscipline, follow the spelling of the
discipline For style gu1des in various disciplines, see the bibliography.
The spell-checking feature in most word processors can catch cenain
spelling errors but not others. lt will normally fail to recognize, for example, that you typed lead when you meant led, or quite instead of quieL
It won't always help with proper nouns or terms from other languag~,
and it may lead you to make global spelling changes that in some cases
are inaccurate. A spell-checker is not a substitute for a good dictionaiy
and careful proofreading.
This chapter offers general guidelines for spellings not found in most
dictionaries. lf you are writing a thesis or dissertation, your department
or university may have spec1fic requirements for spellmg (including use
of particular dictionaries) Those requirements are usually available from
the office of theses and dissertations. If you are writing a class paper,
your instructor may also ask you to follow certain prindples of spelling.
Review these requirements before you prepare your paper They take precedence over the guidelines s uggested here.
701
.2 2 LETTERS AND NUM ER Al s ln most cases, form the plurals of cap1tal letters
and numerals by adding s alone (not 's).
ttiroe As, one B. anrl twn C-=
With lowercase letters, however, an s without an apostrophe can seem
to create a different word (is) or an abbreviaoon (ms), so add an apostro
phe.The apostrophe and s are 1oman even ifthe letter iJítalic (see 22.2.2).
~
s and v·~
2012.3 AB8REVIATI ONS Form plurals of abbreviations without interna! periods
by adding s alone. lf the síngular fonn of the abbreviation ends in a period, put the s before the period. (See 24.1 3 on the punctuation of abbreviations. For academic degrees, see 242.3.)
URLs
vols.
DVDs
PhDs
!!<h
A few abbreviations have irregular plurals (see also 24.7).
pp. (plural of p.. page}
20.1
Plurals
20 .1.1
General Rule
For most common nouns, form the plural by adding s (or es for words
ending in ch, j, s, sh, x, or z) Most d1ctionaries give plural forms only for
words that do not follow the general rule.
The general rule applies to the names of persons and to other proper
nouns. If a proper noun ends in y, however, do not change the y to ie, as
required for many common nouns (Do not confuse plural forms with
possessives, which are described in 20. 2.)
20.1.2
l he Costellos
the Rodr1gue1es
the Frys ( not the Fr ie!>)
the two Germanys
For compound words consistingof two nouns, ma.ke
the last noun plural (usually by adding s or es).
20.1 21 CO MPOUNO WORDS
d1stnct ;ittC1rnevs
actor-s,rigers
When the compound consists of a noun followed by a prepositional
phrase or adjective, make the majn noun plural.
,15ters·1n·lilw
(plural of n not~)
If you are writing in the sciences and using abbreviations for units of
measure (see 24.5), use the same abbreviation for both the singular and
the plural.
6 kg
37 m 1
Form the plural oí a term in
italics by ad ding s alone (not 's) in roman type. Fonn the plural of a term
in quotation m arks by adding s-ar, better, rephrase the sentence.
201.24 TE RM S IN ITALICS AN O QUO TAílON MARKS
two Chicago Tr1t>11nes
1ricludi>d m;,oy "To bc coriti11ucds"
o,; better,
Special Cases
bool.keepe1s
•in
att or ney~ general
men-of·war
1ncluded manv 1nS1i1r11:e5 o l "lobe continunď
20,2 Possessives
20.2.1 Ceneral Rule
Forro the possess1ve of most singular common and proper nou ns. including these that end in s, x, or z, by adding an apostrophe and s. This
296
ro5SESSIVES
CHAPT[? ,O I 5PELLING
rule also applies to letters and numerals used as singular nouns, and to
abbreviations. lt also applies to proper names ending in s (whether or
not the sis pronounced), as in the last three examples. (Do not confuse
possessives with plural forrns , which are described in 20.1.) For special
cases, see 20. 2.2 .
an argumenťs eflects
the phalanx's advance
Russ's suggeshon
the horse's mout h
the waltz's tempo
Descartes's Discourse on MethOCJ
2018's economic outlook
JFK's speech
Aristophanes s plays
the role of the Uniled States
for the sake ol appearance
but not
h1r. s1s\er-in-law s busmess
not
polit icians s votes
not
the Rodr1guezes's house
d1strict atto,neys· decis1ons
but
decisions of the attorneys general
not
attomeys' general dec,sions
For irregular plurals that do not end in s, add s after the apostrophe.
the n,1ce's nesl
attorney~ general's dec1sions
20 2.2.3
Form the possessive of the fo1lowing
types of nouns with only an apostrophe:
20.2.2.l SINGULAR NOUN S END I NG I N " S "
nouns that name a group or collective entity but are treated as grammancally singular
politics' t rue meaning
ond not
children's hterature
20 .2.2 Specia1 Cases
■
the attorney general's decis1on
Form the possessives of plural compounds in the usual way (by adding an apostrophe alone), unless the plural part comes first (see 2 0 . 1.2).
In that case, rephrase.
Forro the possessive of most plural common and proper nouns by
adding only an apostrophe. For special cases, see 20. 2.2.
the Rodr iguezes' house
the Un,ted Stdles' role
for appearance's sake
the possessives of singular compound words
by adding an apostrophe and s to the last word, even if the main noun is
first.
the house's door
polit1cians' votes
instead of
instead of
201.2 2 cO MPOUND W OR D S. Form
Jnanimate nouns-except for references to time-rarely take the possessive form,
a day s length
297
the Unlted St ates' role
If a possessive indicates that two or more entities
each possess something separately, make all the nouns possessive.
MU LTI PLE NOU NS.
New York's and Ch1Cago's teams
h1storia1"1s' and economists' methods
lf a possessive indicates that two or more entities possess something
jointly, make only the last noun possessive.
Minneapolis and St Paul 's teams
h1stonans and cconon11sts data
■ nouns in a few traditional for , . sake expressions that end in an s or an
for goodness sake
lf a term in italics is possessive, both the apostrophe and the s should be in roman type. Do not add
a possessive to a term in quotation marks; rephrase lhe sentence,
202.2.4 TER MS IN ITA LI CS A N D QUOTATION MARKS.
s sound
for righteousness' sake
but
the Atlant1c Monthly's editor
for appearance's sake
If the term ends in a plural form, add only an apostrophe {in roman
type). lf it already ends in a possessive form, leave 1t alone or rephrase.
admirers of " Ode on a Grecian Urn"
To avoid an awkward result, rephrasing is sometimes the better option.
(For use of the abbreviation US in a case like the first one below, see
lhe New Yo,k Times· online revenue
24,3. 1.)
Horper s ed1tors (or the ed1t ors of Harper's )
298
299
20,3
1
Compounds and Words Formed with Prefixes
compounds come in three forms: hyphenated. open (with a space, not
a hyphen, between elements), or closed (spelled as one word). Choosing
the right one can be difficult. The best authority is your dictionary. lf
you cannot find a compound there, follow the principles in the foUowmg
paragraphs to decide whether or not to hyphenate. lf you cannot find tli!
form in either place, leave the compound open.
The pattems ontlined below are not hard-and-fast rules. You will ha~
to decide many individua! cases on the basis of context, persona) tas~.
01 common usage in your disopline. AJthough much of the suggested
hyphenation is logical and aids readability, some is only traditional.
Compounds Used as Adjectives
Some compounds are used only as adjectives. In most cases, hyphenate
such a compound when 1t precedes the noun it mod1fies; otherwise leave
it open.
20.3.1
Closed (per Merr,am-Webste,)
1ood•borne
bell-like
airbo,ne
Ch1cago·w1de
worldwide
----
ch1tdlike
■
Madlfyin9 ad1ect,ve
Mod1/-1inq n.,11n
cotleges produce more•sk,1/ed workers
we h,red more sk,11.:d workers for the ltoltdays
Constructions thal consist of an adverb ending in -ly followed by an adjective are not compounds and should not be hyphenated in any context
Before noun
A~ernoun
opc11-e11dcd Ques\1on
most of thc quest 1011s werc vpen tmded
high/y de~cloped species
the spec1es was h1gh/y r.leve/opeJ
(111/·/Mgth tre.itment
lreatment 15 (ti// lenr,th
wide/y drssemmated l1teraturt!
literature has bcen wldely d1t;t•mmoted
well-1e,1d student s
student• who are we// té'Od
comme11ta1y wu tl1ilught prolltlkmg
thoUgtll•/)IOVOkmg c-omment,1ry
OH'f f/ip
countér drug
the 1h1,d-lo•gest !own
!>~lleá-out
numb<l,s
drug sald over
tt,c coonter
the to.,.,n .,.,as the Ihud largesr
numbe,,. lh.Jl J1e spt.'lled oul
There are a few exceptions:
Jf 8 compound that would oormally be hyphenated is preceded and modified by an adverb (such as very), omit the hyphen.
Bc(c,re noun ,v,thout a,lverb
il
we//-b1own aulhor
an 111-odv,sed step
■
14yphenated
• eomparative constructions begmning with such terms as more/most, less/
least, and better/best should be hyphenated only when there may be confus1on about whether the comparalive term is modifying the adjective
that follows within the compound or the noun after the compound.
8efore ric u::.:"_ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ __A....:.f_le_r_no_u_n_ _ _ _ _ _ __ __
■
Hyphenate cornpounds that end w1th the terms bome, like, and wide (both
before and after the noun) unless the term is listed as closed in MerriamWebster.
Bcfore nou,, w1t/; udve,b
a very well known aut ho,
a sumewhot Ill odv,~t!tl ;tep
Hyphenate compounds that begm with alf or end with free.
Befo,e noun
Aftťr noun
,1/1 ~11compa,;11,g treatmem
treatment Ý,Js oll ,;11mmpilssing
to/1·/re+- mil
the call Wd~ lal/·/rť~
20,3.2
Compounds Used as Both Nouns and Adjectives
Some compounds are primarily nouns but can also function as adjectives when they precede and modify another noun. (Unlike some of the
examples in 20. 3 . 1, these compounds are rarely used as adjectives after
a noun, and then only with a linking verb such as was or are, as in the
third example below.) ln most cases, hyphenate such a compound when
it precedes a noun that it modifies; otherwise leave it open.
Ad1cctive be(ore noun
Naun or ndJerti~e afte, noun
a mounlam-climbmg enthus,;ist
mountain c/1mb1"9 became her spec,o.1fly
a contiriumg•educalion course
a program of contmuirrg educat,on
a m,ddlt>-class nc,ghborhood
tr ne1ghllorhood wa~ m,dJ/e rlos1
There are a few exceptions:
• Same compounds are common enough to appear as nouns in standard
dictionaries either as one word or hyphenated.
btrthratu
smartphone
rtec1s1on·making
he<1d-hunt1ng
301
tHAPHR 20 5 H, 11 •
300
■
for a compound that begins w1th e (short for e!ectroruc), ex, or selJ, u.se a
hyphen in aU contexts lwo e,ccept1ons: email is spelled without the hy.
phen, and if self is preceded by 1.m, the compound should be closed (as U\
unse!fconsc10us).
sell·destn,c1,ve
ex•hu!>band
If, however, the first term is shortened, use a hyphen
or,g1ns that werc lndo-fluiJpt1nn
Jndu•Europea11 languages
lf coordinated terms cou1d be joined by and, hyphenate them.
Spanish-fngh~h d1ctionarv
/sra,!i-E,:JWt peace treatv
but
70323 COMP OU NO S INCLUD I NG NUMBEA S. If a compound includes a number,
• For a compound that ends with e!ect, use a hyphen in all contexts when
the name of the office is only one word, but leave it open when the narne
is two or more words.
díslncl altor11ey clecl
pres1denl-elecl
• For a compound formed by lWO coordinated nouns that could be jořued
by and, use a hyphen m all contexts.
■
Ad111ct1~e bc{orl! noun
Noun, ar od1cct,ve afte, noun
(lfty•yeor proiect
t he proJecl too~ (,/ty yeors
--------
lwenty-ane·year•old student
lwent1eth-centurv literatu,c
lhe student was t.~enlt on" y1•ars old
li'
sludied th,; hl eratlirc of thc h',cnt,clh centu')
or.(or•w19e,
moth~, doughter relation~h1f1
third•f/oo, 11part01ent
she l1ved on the third floor
c,ty•state
porenHeacher cnnte,ence
114-da1· st andofl
standoff that
For a compound composed of d1rectional words, use a closed compound
when the term describes a single direcóon. Use a hyphen if lhe compound consists of coordinated nouns that could be Jomed Wtth and orby.
„ slreet running no, lh S-Outh
r1ort/1Post
soullme~t
east-southeast w,nds
grandfalher
stepdau1,1h1cr
step-g,andmother
great-grandmolh!.!r
son-1n•IJW
st1d •1n•the•mud
• Always hyphenate an age term used as a noun.
twenty·one-year-o/d
three six•ycar aids
• Always leave open a compound including the word percent, and give the
number in arabic numerals (see 23.1.3).
a 15 pe,cent ,ncrease
Increased by 15 percent
• A1ways use a hyphen to spell a fraction with words. (See 23.1.3 for use of
numerals versus spelled-out numbers in fractions.)
a lwa•thirds majority
• Some familiar phrases are always hyphenated.
lasted 214 dovs
There are a few e,cceptions:
.:i
• Compounds that idenlify family relationships vary in whether they are
closed up or hyphenated.When in doubt, consult your dictionary. (For the
plural and possessive fonns of in-law compounds, see 20. 1.2 and 20.2.2,
respectively.)
20.3 21
byphenate it if it precedes a noun that it mod.ifies, otherwise leave 1t
open (For the use of numerals versus spelled-out numbers, see chap•
ter 23.)
a majorit y of lwu·lhirds
• For a fraction beginning with half or quarter, use a hyphen when it precedes a noun that it modifies; otherwise leave it open
Iack-of- all-trades
Leave open mosl compounds
chat include proper nouns, including names of ethnic groups
COMPOUNOS INClUDING PROPER NOUNS
o, odjecti~e after 111>u11
Adwct1w before nourt
Noun
Afnca11 Am,mcan culture
Fre-nch Canadian explorer
an Afrrcon Amo,11con h,a Written
- - - - -- -
thc e,plorPr was Fr,•och Conod,an
M„ldle Eo~lern geography
llie geography of the M1ddle East
Sto/c Department emr,loyees
employed by lh!! Slatri Ot!partment
Kcnenn Wur ve1erans
Vl'lerJn!i of th<; K,1rea,1 Wm
Adjtct,~<1 bcfore noun
il
holf•h,>U, sess,on
a quartN·m,le run
Noun, or odject1ve afie, 11ou"
after a hal{ horir had passed
ran a quarter mile
• When th e second part of a hyphenated expression is omitted, the suspended hyphen is retained, followed by a space (or, in a series, by a
comma). But if the compounds are joined by to (as in a span of numbers),
hyphenate the whole expression
CtHPTl~ 10
302
>PHU~lu
303
frftCL li llllll I··~•11) ·.Y('Gr nrortgagr-s
f11e·, te11-. ;i11d tw.:nty•dallo, b,lli
Where two prefi.xes apply to the same word, use a hyphen followed by
a space for the first prefix.
but
0 „e,- and underused
a llrt~-c·lo-f•~·P•)'eor gap (a single range)
Words Formed with Prefixes
Words formed with prefixes are normally closed, whether they are nouns
(postmodemism). verbs (mrsrepresent), adjectives (antebellum), or advetbs
(prematurely). Use a hyphen, however, in these cases:
20,3.3
■
when the prefix is combined with a capitalized word
but
suli-~.-iharan
pro•A~1a11
■
bul
subdi111s1011
pro11uclcar
when the prefix is combined with a numera!
but
bul
pre-1950
1111d-8os
pred,spo~,:,d
1111dl1fe
■ to separate two i's, two a's, or other combinaoons of letlers or syllables
that migbt cause misreading
antt-,ntellectual
lnlr.'.hll te, ial
■
but
but
antidepre1;sanl
1ntramural
when the prefix precedes a compound word that is hyphenated or open
non-cofl•!C.·dnnl-1ng
posH1igh school
but
bul
nonaelrd
20.4.2
• when a prefix stands alone
mac,o- and mIcroecono1nIcs
These pattems apply to words formed with the following prefixes,
among others.
111tc
e•tra
met;i
over
l'rl11
d1ll 1
hyper
mI1.:ro
post
m,d
P•~
b,o
mlra
inter
.oclo
sub
mini
pro
b,
zo,4 .1 Breaks within Word.s
For most papers, the only words that should be hyphenated at the ends
oflines are those you have deliberately hyphenated, such as compounds
(see 20.3). Set your word processor to align text flush left (w1th a "ragged"
right margin), and do not use its automated hyphenation feature
If, however, you are required to use full justification (where both the
Jeft and right margins are aligned), you may have to hyphenate lines to
avoíd large gaps between words. lf you use your word processor's automatic hyphenation feature, set 1t to limit to three the number of consecutive lines ending with hyphens. As your paper nears completion, review
word breaks in case you need to make any exceptions. You may need to
tum off hyphenation for individua! paragraphs or words To manuaUy
add an end-of-line hyphen, insert an optional hyphen from your word
processor's menu for special formatting characters. When in doubt, consult a your dictionary, which should mdicate acceptable breaks with centered dots or similar devices in the main word entry.
postgame
• to separate repeated terms in a double prefix
p,,.,. s1nd postwar
20.4 Line Breaks
co
1ntia
multr
proto
~uper
supr,1
counter
rnacro
neo
p5cudo
lriJn!i.
cyber
mega
non
re
ultrn
un
under
Breaks over Spaces and Punctuation
Your word processor may allow certain types of undesirable or even unacceptable line breaks to occur over spaces or punctuaúon Especially if
you will be submitting a PDF file or a printout, it 1s a good idea to review
the final draft of your pa per for such breaks.
• I11itials. lf initials are used in place of both a person's first and middle
names, include a space between them but do not allow them to break
over a line (you can, however, allow a break before the last name). Because lines will reflow as you write your paper, it 1s best to replace such
spaces with nonbreaking spaces, available in most word processors See
also 24-2. r.
M F K Fishe~
but not
M I F. ~.. Frshe,
M. F. K. / Frsher
(.HAPHR lll I SPfdll-Jc,
304
■
Ntimbers and dates. Never allow a line break within numbers expressed
as numerals (25,000) or any tenns consisting of numerals plus symbols
abbreviations, or units of measure (10%, f:6 4-5. 6d.; 6:40 p.m. ; AD 18gs:
245 ml). Use nonbreaking spaces as needed. See chapter 23 for more on
numbers and date systems.
■ Punctuaríon. Never allow a line to begin with a closing quotation mark,
parenthesis, or bracket (and if this happens, 1t may be a sign of an extra, unneeded space before the mark). Never allow a line to end with an
opening quotation mark, parenthesis, or bracket (also a sign of a possible
errant space, after the mark) It is also best to avoid ending a line with
(a) or (1), as at ů1e beginning of a list. Use nonbreaking spaces as needed.
See chapter 21 for more on punctuation and 23-4.2 for lists. Never allow
an ellipsis ( . . ) to break over the line; use your word processor's ellipsis
character to prevent this problem. For more on ellipses, see 25.3.2.
■ URLs and email addresses. Avoid breaking URLs and email addresses over
lines. Tf you have to break one, insert the break after a colon or a double
slash; before or after an equals sign or ampersand; or before a single slasb,
a period, or any other punctuation or symbol. (Avoid inserting a hard
return; instead use the optional break character in your word processor.)
Hyphens are frequently included as part of a URL or email address, and
iťs okay if a URL or email breaks at such a hyphen. To avoid confusion,
however, never add a hyphen to indicate the break.
http.//
21
21.l
Periods
21.2
Comm as
21 2 1 lndependent Clauses
21 2 2 Serles
,.
21. 2.3 Nonrestnct,ve Clauses and Phrases
21. 2 4 Other Uses
21.3
Sem icolons
21.4
Colons
21.5
Question Marks
21.6
Exc1am atJon Points
21.7
Hyphen s a nd Dashes
www.press.uch1cagoedu
217 I Hyphens
2172 Dashes
h ttp ://WWW
217 3 Multople Dashes
.press uch,cago.1:du
http:// www.pre!>S uch1cago.edu
Punctuation
21.8
Parentheses and Brackets
218.1 Parentheses
1bookv sub1ectht ml
21 8 2 Brackets
21 .9
Slash es
21.10 Quotation Matks
21.11 Apostrophes
21.12 Multiple Punctuation Matks
2112 1 Omission of Punctuat,on Marks
21 12 2 Order of Punctuation Marks
This chapter offers general guidelines for punctuation in the text of your
paper. Some rules are dear-cut but others are not, so you often have to
depend on sound judgment and a good ear.
COMMA~
306
CHAPTER 21 I PUN(TUATION
Special elements such as abbreviations, quotations, and source citations have their own guidelines for punctuation. wh1ch are treated in
relevant chapters in this book,
If you are writing a thesis or dissertation, your department or university may have specific requirements for punctuation, which are usually
available from the office of theses and dissertations. lf you are writing
a class paper, your instructor may also ask you to follow certain principles for punctuation. Review these reqmrements before you prepare
your paper. They take precedence over the guidelines suggested here. Fot
style guides in various disciplines, see the bibliography.
21.2
Commas
Commas separate items within a sentence, including clauses, phrases,
and individua! words. They are especially important when a reader might
mistake where a clause or phrase ends and another begins:
Before leav,ng the members of the comm1tlee mel in the assembl~ room.
Before leav111g. the members of the committec met tn the assembly room.
For use of commas ín numbers, see 23.2.2. For use of commas in citations,
see 16. r.2 and 18. r.2.
21.2.1
21.1
307
Independent Clauses
In a sentence contaíning two or more independent dauses joined by a
coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor.for, so, yet), put a comma before
the conjunction. This is not a hard-and-fast rule; no comma is needed
between two short independeťt clauses with no interna! punctuation.
Perlods
A period ends a sentence that is a declarative statement, an imperative
statement, or an indirect question. A period can also end a sentence fragment, if the conlext makes its rhetorical function clear, but lhis usage is
rare in academic writing. In all these cases, the period is a terminal period
and, between sentences, s hould be followed by a single space.
to tPilCh th"m
Consider lhe advantages of this method
The sencilor arrived al noon and lhe president left al one
The quest 1on was whether these differences could be reconciled.
ln a sen tence containing three or more short and simple independent
clauses with no interna! punctuation, separate the clauses with commas
and add a coordinating conjunction before the last one. (Always include
a cornma before the coordinating conjunction.) If the clauses are longer
and more complex, separate them with semicolons (see 21.3)-or, better,
rewrite the sentence.
Put a period at the end of items in a vertical list only if the items are
complete sentences (see 23-4.2). Otherwise, omit tenninal periods. even
for the last item. and do not capitalize the first words.
The report covei s thri:e areas.
1.
lhe secmit•cs markets
Thr i:omm11tee designed lh;, que·tionna11e the f,eld workers collected responses, and
2. the securil tes industry
3 the secunltes industry
Students around the wor Id wanl to learn Engl1sh, and many young Amencans are eager
the s1at1slíc1an analyzed the results
in
the economy
The comm1ttee designed the questionnaire, wh1ct, wa~ short; the f1eld workers. who did
Individua! periods can also be used in other contexts, including abbreviations (see especíally 24. 1.3) and citations (16. r.2 and 18.1.2), and also in
URLs (20.4.2), where they are often called dots. Strings cf periods, or dots.
can be used in quotations (see 25.3.2), where they are called ellipses, and
in tables (26.2.6) and front matter pages (A.2.1), where they are called
leaders.
Do not use periods after chapter and part titles and most subheadings
(see A.2.2) or after tahle titles (26.2.2). For periods in figure captions, see
26.3.2.
not part,cipate, collecled re~ponses, cind the stallstic1an analyzed the result s. though
not unttl several days later
Ordinarily, do not insert a comma before a conjunction joining two
subjects or two predicates.
Tt,e agenc,es that design lhe surveys and the analvsts who evaluate tlie result:; should
work together.
They do not condone such pract1ces but attempl to refute tht!m theoreticc1lly
When a semence with two independent coordinate clauses opens
with a phrase or dependent clause that modifies both, put a comma af-
308
CHAPlH
n
I PLINC.lU~l10N
30 9
ter the mtroductory element but not between the two independent
clauses
1 t,Pse llve booh wh,ch ;ire on reserve 1n the l,brary are requ1red reading.
Here the noun phrase These fiue books uniquely identifies the books that
the wrtter has in mind, the nonrestrictiv e clause is not necessary to identify the books further. On the ether band, in the following sentence, the
dependent clause (that are required reading) is restrictive, because tt identifies a specific subset of books tha t are on reserve a t tht library. Commas
are therefore not used around the clause.
w,thtn ten years. inlcrest r3t,,s surged and the housmg rna1 kel ded,ned
21.2.2
Series
In a series consisting of three or more words, phrases, or clauses with
no intemal punctuation of their own, separate the elements with corn.
mas Always use a comma before the coniunction that introduces the
The book~ that arl• requirPd,
last item.
Although wh1ch 1s often used with restrictive clauses, American writers generally preserve the distinction between restrictive that (no comma)
and nonrestnctlv e wh1ch (comma)
The principles delmeated above apply also to restrictive and nonrestrictive phrases.
The go,ernor wrole tns seniltor!., Lne p1t<1dent and lhc 11ic1.; presiden t
Attend1ng the cor.lerence were FerMndez Sull,van anr:I Kendrid
The public approved, the cornmlttee .~greed, but the mE!asure fi11led
Do not use commas when all the elements in a series are joined by
conjunctions .
The president, we,mng a ,~d dress ar'iended tht? confl'rence
The worna11 wearing a red dre~s 1s the pre~•dent
The p.;lette cons1sted of blue and green and o<anye
lf a series of three or more words, phrases, or clauses ends with an
expression indicating continuation (and so forth, and so on, and the_like, ~r
etc.), punctuate that fmal express1on as though it were the ~nal ~tem m
the series. You may, however, add a comma after the contmuauon expression to prevent confus1on after a long series.
21,2.4
■
Thev d1scussed mov1es, books plays, and the hkt? until late 11, the n,ght
Using such techn1ques mřlnagement can 1mprov„ not only product1v1ty bul also hours.
working rond,toons tra1n1n1-7 benellt; .ind so on, w1thout rF-during wage<-
Pasadena. C.ililorn,a.
but not
Hartlord Connecticut. t<alamazoo, M,ch,gan, a,1d Pa,,1dP.ni!, Cal,tornia, are the three
crlles that WP. compare.
Other Uses
Commas are used in a vanety of other situations. (For commas in dates,
see 23 3.1.)
lntroductory words and phrases. When you begin a sentence with an introductory element of more than a few words, follow it with a comma
A comma 1s not necessary after a shon prepositiona l phrase unless the
sentence could be m1sread without one.
lf lhe 1nsurrectron 1s to ~ucceer1 1h,• army and pnl1ce rnust stanci 51de by s1de
Use semicolons to separate the items in a series if one or more in•
cludes commas, or if the items are long and complex (see 21.3). If such a
series comes before the main verb of a sentence, however, rephrase the
sentence.
The three c,ties that wc compare are Hartfotd, Connect,rnt; Kal<1mazoo M1ch1gan · and
dmi; arl' on rr•,erve ,,, the l1brarv
H;iving ;iccomplíshed hPr m,~s,on, shr- returned to heílClquarters
To Anthony, Bldkt! rt'!maincd .in cnigma
Alter th,~ weel the cnn,m,ss,or, wrll be Jble to wrrte ,ts í"PO•t
■
Tulo or more adJectives preceding a noun. Separate two or more adjectives
preceding a noun with commas when they could, without affecting
meaning, be Joined by and. Do not use a comma if one or more of the
adJectives is essential to (i.e., forms a umt with) the noun. (Test if it feels
awkward to change the order of the adjectives, do not use commas.)
lt was a large, well- placEcd bt>aut,ful house
21.2.3
Nonres trictive C1auses and Phrases
Use paired commas to set off a nonrestrictiv e clause. A clause is ~onrestricuve ifit 1s not necessary to uniquely identify the noun 1t mod1fies.
Tl·ey slrolled aut 111!0 the warm lumrnous night
She rt:fu,cd to be 1dent1f1ed w1ll1 a tr au1t1011al JJOl111cal label
310
CH~PT[R 21
,EM ICOLON~
P UN CTIJAl ION
311
The idea, nol lts express1c,n 1s s1gnif1cant
• Clarifying comments, Words and phrases such as namely, that is, andJorex.
ample, which usually introduce a clarifying comment, should be followed
by a comma but preceded by something stronger (such as a semicolon or
a period). When you use or in the sense of "m other words,'' put a cornnia
before it. (These and similar expressions may be set off by dashes or parentheses instead; see 21.7 .2 and 21.8. r.)
She
W<lS
delighted w1th but also d1sturbed by her new l reedom
He was not onlv the team's president bul also a charter member
The more it stays the same, the less 11 changes.
The more the merr1e1.
Many people resent acc1dents of fat e; that 1s, t hey (ook on 1llness or bereavemenl as
• Parenthet1cal elements. Use paired commas to set off a parenthetical element between a subject and a verb or a verb and its object. lf you find
yourself setting off more than one such interrupting element in a sentence, consider rewriting the sentence.
undeserved.
The comp ass sta11d, or b1nnacle, must be visible to t he helmsman.
• Appositwes. A word or phrase is said to be in appositJon to a noun when
it follows the noun and provides an explanatory equivalent for it. Nonrestrictive appositives are set off by commas; restrictive apposítives are
not (see 21.2.3) .
Tl-oe Quinn Reourt wa~. to say the least, a bombshell
Wolinsk,, atter rece1ving 1nstruc tions lelt for Alg1er.s
• Repeated words. Use a comma t~ separate identical words. An exception is
normally made for the word that.
Chua, a H arvard College g radual e, taught at Duke for several years
Kierkegaard, the Darnsh philosopher, asked, "What 1s anxiety?"'
They mMched 1n 1n twos.
but
The Dan1sh ph il osopher Kle, kegaard asked, "What 1s anxiety 7 '
but
• Place-names. Use commas to set off multiple individua! elements in
names of places. (For commas in addresses, see 23.1 .7 .)
She 1mplied thilt that cJ,cJ not matter
Cincinnati. Ohio, is on the O h10 River
21.3
The 11ext leg of the t rip was to Florence Italy.
• Interjections and conjunctiue adverbs. Set off interjections, conjunctive ad
verbs, and the like to suggest a break in the flow of thought or the rhythm
of the sentence. But omit commas when such elements do not break the
continuity of the sentence.
Semicolons
A semicolon is stronger than a comma and marks a greater break in the
continuity of a sentence. Use a semicolon in a compound sentence to
separate independent clauses that are not connected by a coordinating
conjunction (and, but, or, nor, yet,for, so).
One hundred communities are 1n various stagcs of c ompletion, more are on the drawing board
Neverlheless, 1t 1s .i matter of great 1mpo1lance
tl 1,,, per haps. lhe best that could be expected
Perhaps 1t 1s thetelore clear that no deposils were made.
■ Contrasted elements. Put commas around an ínterjected phrase beginning
with not, not only, or simílar expressions. But when such a phrase consists
of two components (not . . . but, not only .. but a!so, and the like) , commas
are usually unnecessary. Use a comma between clauses of the more . .. the
more type unless they are very short.
You can also use a semicolon with a coordmating conjunct:Jon if the
clauses are Jong and have commas or other punctuation within them.
Bul if the result seems unwieldy, consider replacing the semicolon with
a period.
Although product,v1ty per capita in lhe Un1ted Stales 1s much h1gher t han 1t is 1n China
China has an 1ncreas1ngly well educ;ited young labor force; but the c ruc1al point 15 tha t
knowtedge-wh1ch 1s transferable between peoples-ha~ become the most importanl
world eco11uintc resource
312
QUESTION M AR > S
CHAPTER 21) PUNClUATIOrl
Use a semkolon before the words then, howeuer, thus, hence, indeed, ac
cordingly, bes1des, and therefore when those words are used transitionally
between two independent clauses.
z,.S
313
Question Marks
Put a question mark at the end of a complete sentence phrased as a
question.
Some think freedom 11lways comes w1th dernocracy, however, many voters in many
count r ies have voted for gove1 nm ents thal they know w,11 reslnct their rights.
Who would lead the nalion ln 1l~ hour ol need?
When items in a series have interna! punctuation, separate them with
sem1colons (see also 21.2.2),
Put a question mark after a clause phrased as a quesdon and included
as part of a sentence. Do not use quotation marks unless the question is
a quotation and lhe rest of the sentence is not.
The onginal ver„Ion of lhe chart 1ncluded thrt!e colors: green, for vegetation that re-
21.4
mained stable, red for vegetat1on lhal disappeared, and yellow, for new vegetat1on.
Would the union agree? was the entic al que~tron
Semicolons are also sometimes used in titles (see 17. 1. 2 and 19.1.3) and
to separate citations to more than one source (see 16.3.5. r and 18.3.2.5).
lf the included question 1s at the end of the sentence, do not add a
period after the question mark. You are not requíred to capitalize the
first word of the included question, but an inítial capital helps readers
identify the question, especially if it includes interna! punctuation. Jf the
sentence becomes awkward, yqai. may instead rephrase the question as
a declarative statement.
Colons
A colon introduces a clause, phrase, or series of elements that expands,
clarifies, or exemplifies the meaning of what precedes it. Between independent clauses, it functions much like a semicolon, though more
strongly emphasizing balance or consequence,
Severa! legislators rarsed t he quest1011, Can t he fund be used In an emerge-ncy, or musl
1t remam ded rc.ated lo ,ts origlnal purpose?
Several leg1slalor s ra,sed the questínn ol us,ng the fund ,,, ;in emergency, whrch was
People expect three t h1ngsof government: peace, prosperity, and respect for civil
not ,ts or1g1nal purpose
rights.
A question mark may also indicate doubt or uncertainty, as in a date
Ch1nese cult ure Is unrivaled in 1t s depth and ant1quIty· 1t 1s unmatched In its rich artistlc
The parnter Niccoló dell'Abbale (1512?-71) assisted in the decorat,ons .11 ~ontainebleau
and philosophic.il records.
Use a colon to introduce illustrative material or a list. A colon should
follow only a complete independent clause; often an introductory ele•
ment such as the following or as follows should precede the colon. (See
also 23-4.2.)
21.6
Exclamation Points
Exclamation points are rarely appropriate for academic writing, except
when they are part of quoted material or part of the title of a work (the
musical Oklahoma!). See also 21 .12.2. r.
The quahf1cat1ons are as follows: a doctorate in economrcs and an ati1l1ty to comn1un1•
cat e statrstrral dali! to a l;iy a11d1ence
bul not
21.7
Hyphens and Dashes
The qualificat,ons are a Cloctorate 111 economic.s
21,7.1
Note that the first word following a colon within a sentence is generally
not capitalized un1ess it is a proper noun or un1ess the colon introduces
more than one sentence. For capitalization in quotations introduced by
a colon, see chapter 25.
Colons are also used in titles (see 17. r.2 and 19.1.3), in notations of
time (23.1.5), in URLs (20-4.2), and in various ways in citations.
Hyphens
Hyphens are used in a vanety of contexts, including compound words
(see 20.3) and inclusive numbers (23.2,4).
21.7.2
Dashes
A dash is an elongated hyphen used to set off text in a way similar to
but more prominent than commas (see 2.1.2) or parentheses (21.8.r). Also
314
t-1\FTtR i'
315
••u ••CTl 1AT10t,
called an em dash (because m most fonts 1t is approximately the width of
the capital letter M), this character is available in all word processors.1lt
can be represented with two consecutive hyphens, but most word processors can be set to convert double hyphens to em dashes automatically.
Do not leave space on either side of the dash.
When you use dashes to set off a parenthetical element, pair thern as
you would commas or parentheses. Bul avoid using more than one pait
in any one sentence; instead, use parentheses for the second layer of
parenthetical infonnation.
1he influence of three 1mprt!ss1on1sts-Monet (1840-1cp6), S1sley (1839-99) . .ind
The same technique can be used when you want to obscure a parncular word.
li was a d - shame..
A 3 em dash (fonned with three consecutive em dashes, or six hyphens) is used in bibhograph1es and reference lists to represenl the repeated name of an author or editor (see 16.2.2 and is ..y. 1).
21,8
Parentheses and Brackets
21,s.1
Parentheses
Parentheses usually set off explanatory or interrupting elements of a sentence, much li.ke paired commas (see 21.2) and dashes (21 .7.2). ln general,
use commas for material dosely related to the main dause, dashes and
parentheses for material less dosely connected The abbreviations e.g
and 1.e., which may introduce ~• clarifying comrnent (see 24 7), are used
only in parentheses or in notes.
Dcgas (1834-1917)-1s obv1ous in her wor~
You can also use a single dash to set off an amplifying or explanatory
element.
li was a r ev1val of a most potenl 1m,1ge- th111evolulionary 1d<'a
Use a dash or a pair of dashes endosing a phrase to indicate a strong
break in thought that also disrupts the sentence slructure.
The conference has <w,th some mal1ce) dlv1ded mto four groups.
Rulherlnrd-how could he hř!ve m sinterpreted the evidence
Eólch p;imhng dep1cts a publ,c occo1s1on, in each-a banau„t, a parade, a coronatton
Some characters 1n Tom Jonr's 1111, fiat - ,f you do not nbiect 10 th1~ borrowing uf E. M.
( tho1.1gh the person crown!'d 1s obsrnred)-crowds of pťople ilre p1r,lured ~., swarm-
íorst l!ť5
ing anls
somt>what discred11tid term-becr11.1s<' they ·,re c~1 ,c~tureo; Ilf tlw,r rMme,
A dash may also introduce a summarizing subject after a list of several
There are tiu tncent,vcs 101 "clcan cars." Ce g., gasollne-electric hyb11d, an.J v1:h1cles
powered by compressed natural gas and llquelied pro pant).
elements.
Parentheses can also be used with citatlons (see chapters 16 and 18)
and to set off the numbers or lellers in a list or an outline (see 23.4.2).
The statue al the discus thrower, th11 chanoteer 111 Oelph1 the pllelry ot Pmdar-all
repre~ent the greal 1deal
21.7.3
Multiple Dashes
When you quote from a mut1lated or illegible text, mdicate a missing
word or missing letters with a 2-em dash (formed with two consecutive
em dashes, or four hyphens). For a missing word, leave a space on either
s1de of the dash; for missing letters, leave no space between the dash and
the existing part of the word.
The vessel lelt the -
21.8.2 Braclcets
Brackets are most often used in quotations, to indicate changes made to
a quoted passage (see 25.3 for examples); similarly, brackets are used in
source citations to enclose an authoťs name or a date or other substantive infonnation not present in the source itself (see t7 1. 1 .5 or 19.1. r.5
for an example). They can also be used to enclose a second layer of parenthetical material within parentheses.
ol Juty
He as:rees with the idea lhal ch>ldhood has a h,story Cf,rst advancl'd by Philipp!' A11es
H-
h7 (Hlfsch?]
1 There 1s a second type of d"sh. caUed an en dash {because ít ,s approxlm,tdy tlt~ w1dth of the
np1tal letwr N), ů1at is used m pubhsh~d works lo mean "through,"usually m connecuon 1111th numb=
or dotcs (!! g, 1998-2008) Jt can also be used in other conte,cts, as discussed m 6.18-8.1 of Tht Chicngo
Mar1uul ofStyle, 17th edttion (2017), lf vour lo,al guidelínes ,eqwre ll, ůus cliar.1ttei 1s ,,vailable ln most
word processors. otherwise use a hyphen in these contexts Note that ůtl! book u•e• en dashes wher,
th"'.I' are nppropnate as ln the precedmg ref•rena! to CMOS
[ 1914- 84] 1n h1s book Cenlurtes o/ Chi/dhood [ 1962])
21.9
Slashes
The forward slash (/) 1s used in a few contexts, such as fractions (see
23.1.3) and quotations of poetry (see 25.2.1.2). Single and double slashes
316
ttA•rtR 2 1 ru,,cru41 ,ot,
appear in URLs and other electronic 1dentifiers (see 20.4.2). The backWard
slash (or backslash, \ ) has various meanings in d1fferenl computer Jan.
guages and operating sysLems.
317
Jf a situation calis for both a comma and a stronger punctuation mark,
such as a question mark or a dash , omit the comma.
What were t hev lh1n~1n11-," hl' wond,;rt d l o h,m self
21.10 Quotation Marks
For the use of quotation marks in quoted material. see 25.2.1 2. For use
in titles and ether special situations, see 22.3 . 2 for use in citations. se-e
16 1,4and 18.1.4.
Some fields-linguistics, philosophy, and theology, for example-use
single quotation marks to set off words and concepts. The closing qu0 .
tation mark should precede a comma or period in this case (compare
21.f :l. 2),
i ,,r,1 ha11, beard
The vatiables or quant1hr.at1011 ~omr•thooR nothoog .
ln most other fields, follow the guidelines in 22.2 for using quotation
marks and italics wiůl definitions of tenns.
21.11 Apostrophes
For ů1e use of apostrophes m plural and possessive forms, see 20.1 and
20.2. Apostrophes are also used m forming contractions (do,ťt). lf your
word processor 1s enabled to use directional or "smart" quotauon marks,
make sure not to confuse an apostrophe for a left single quotation mark
('twas, not 'twas).
21.12 Multiple Punctuation Marks
The gu1delines given throughout this chapter sometimes call for the use
of two punctuation marks together-for example, a period and a closing
parenthesis. The guidelines below show when to ornit one of the matks
and the order of the marks when both are used
21.12.1
Omission of Punctuation Marks
Except for ellipses, never use two periods together, even when a penod
in an abbreviation ends a sentence. Keep the abbreviation penod when a
sentence ends with a quesbon mark or an exclamation point.
The e•change occurri;cl al S 30 µ m
Could anyone matd1 the producllv1ty ol Rogers Inc •
Wh1lc the sen.:Hor c.ouldn I endorse the propos;il- and he ce,t ainlv had duub1s aboul
,1-he !lidn t condemn ,t
J
An excepoon can be made for titles of works that end m a question
mark or an exdamation pomt Because such punctuat1on 1s not strictly
related to the rest of the sentence, retain commas where needed.
··p,.,c You .i Docto,', tne hllh ste>r'/ in Will Yo11 PIM~~ 81• Q w-t Plea.e~
1, ..a1s moclc,rn
love
Ftlms such as A11pl11nl!1, Th1s ls Sp,1101 Tap. ~nJ Aiistm Powt'•S ofl <!r pa,od1c:s of wcll·
eslolblished genres
11.12.2 Order of Punctuation Marks
Adjacent marks of punctuation most often occur w1th quotation marks,
parentheses, or brackets. American usage follows a few retiable guidelines for ordering multiple marks.
A final comma or penod nearly always precedes a closing quotation mark, whether it is part of the quoted matter
or not.
21.12.2.1 WITH QUOTATION MARK S
ln supportoí lheeflort tu b11ngJu~t,ce to our P"ople sheJ01ned t he str,ke
She madl! t he argurnenr ,n an a1ticlt! t1lli;ú "011 Mana)ltng Publ1c Debl '
There are two exceptions. When single quotat:Jon marks are used to
set off special terms in certain fields, such as linguistics. philosophy, and
theology (see 21.10), put a period or comma after the closing quotation
mark.
Sorne conternpocary tht!olog,an;, who t;ivored rehg,onless Ch11st1jn1ty ' we,c p,o.
c.l11ir111ng lht! death of Goď
And if a computer file name or command must be pul in quotatlon
marks, a period or comma that is not part of the name or the command
should come after the closing mark.
C:hc~ on Save As name your hle "append1x A. v 10
Question marks and exclamation points precede a closing quotation
mark if they are part of the quoted matter. They follow the quotation
mark ifthey apply lo the entire sentence in which the quotation appears.
318
CH!\PlER li PUNCTUAílOll
Her
poem
1~
t1tled 'What D1d lh e C,o...., Know?
Do we accept Jefferson s concept al ' a raturat arlstucr,Ky
-,
22
Names, Special Terms, and
Tit1es of Works
Semkolons and colons always follow quotation marks. lf the quota.
tion ends with a semicolon or a colon, change it to a period or a cornrna
(or delete it) to fit the structure of the main sentence (see 25.3 , 1).
H e cla1med that "every cho,ce reflects an .itt1tvde toward Everyman''• h,s speech lhen
enlarged on lhe point ,na \Plhng way
The Eme, genrv Cent er is "olrnost li!> own clty" li ha!i ,t~ own ~erv,ces and govecrnanct,
22.1
When you enclose a complete sentence in parenlheses, put the terminal period {or other terrmnal punctuation mark) for that sentence before the last parenthesis. However, put
the period oucs1de when material in parentheses, even a grammatically
complete sentence, is included within another sentence. The same principles apply to matenal in brackets.
21i;, 22 W ITH PARENTHE SES AND BRACKET S
We have noted &1m1l;1r
NamPs
22 11 Peopfc, Places. and Oigamzallon~
22 l 2 H,storrcal E11e<1ts Cvltural Terms and Des.gnations of Tlmc
.22 1 3 Other Types of Names
22.2
Special Terrns
22 2 I Terms from Other Languales
22 2 2 Words Defined as Terms
22.3
mot1fs rn Japan (They c;;in a lso be found ln l\or,.an fol~tilles.)
TiUes ofWorks
n 3.1
Use periods in all the~e s,tuat ,ons (your tcade,s w1II c,pťct them)
Capitalizalion
113.2 ltalics ar Quotation Marks
22 3.3 Punctuation
M ythr. have been iJccepted as allegoric.i lly Ir u!' (by the Slo1cs) and as priestlv lies (by
Enhght eoment thinkter5).
This chapter offers general guidelines for presenting names, spec1al
terms, and tiUes of works, inclucling adv1ce on when co use capilal letters
and when to use quotation marks or nahc rype (as opposed to regular
roman rype) to set off words, phrases, or titles.
If you are writing a thesis or dissertation, your department or university may have specific requ.irements for presenting names, special terrns,
and titles. Those requirements are usually available from the office of
theses and dissertations. lf you are wntmg a class paper, your instructor
may also ask you to follow certain principles for presenting such items
Review these requirements before you prepare your paper.They take precedence over Lhe guidelines suggested here. For style guides in various
disciplines, see the bibliography.
(The d11!!clo, prom1sed complet1on on llme and '""/rr buúgeť f1t11hcs m,n~ I )
For terminal punctuation with citations given parenthetically, see 25.2
22.1
Names
Proper nouns, or names, are always capitalized, but it is sometimes difficult to distinguish a name from a generic term. This section covers the
most common cases. for more detailed mformation, see chapter 8 ofThe
Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition (2017).
,IU TIP i [ I
320
ln text, names act? normally presented in roman type. but there are 11
few exceptions noted in 2:i,1.3.
22., .,
People, Places, and Organizations
Jn general, capitalize the ftrst letter in each elem ent of the names of
specific people, places, and organizations. However, personal names that
contain particles (such as de and van) or com powtd last names may vary
in cap1talization. When m doubt, consult the biographical Iistings from
Merriarn-Webster or another rehable authority Prepositions (of) and
conjunctions (and) that are parts of names are usually lowercase, as ís
the when it precedes a name. For possessive forms of nam es, see 20.2.
for abbreV1ations with names, see 24.2 For names with numbers. see
22-1.2
W. E 8. Du Bois
the Umted Sl.ltc.-s Congr<!!is
tlw Stal!• Department
Ludwig van Beethoven
th~ European Un,on
V,ctona Sacl..v1lle-West
Chiang Ka1•shek
Sierra Leone
Central America
New York City
the Un1vers1ty of North Carohna
the At lant ,c Oce:111
thP Republ,c of Lithu;inia
MA~ ►
Mbchluvelhan ~cho;me
hench lr 1es
Roman and A r11b1t art
ro111a11 aml ilíi!IIIC num,-,al,
Historical Events, Cultu.ral Terrns, a nd Design ations ofTime
The names of many hlstoucal periods and evems are tradillonally capitalized; more generic terms usually are not, unless they include names.
Follow the conventions of your discipline.
t he Bro,111.• Agc
23.1.6
Eleanor Roosevelt
uri~ Tl! /\11 0 11
anci,ml Romt!
the Depre•,s,on
thc mnt!lt?enth ccntury
t he lndu~l r1;il l<'t:volut,un
thf• Sh,1ng dynasty
Proh1 bll1un
tt,e colo11li1I µ, rlod
1he Seven Vears' Wa,
the uaby boom
Nouns and adJectives designating cultural styles, movements, and
scbools are generally capitalized onlywhen denved from uames or when
they need to be distingutshed fro.,m generic terms (as in StU1crsrn). Again,
follow the conventions of your discipline.
the Honda Motor Cornpany
class,,.,,
A , 1stotd1a11 n•~son,ng
Sk drnore Owings S Me1t,II
the U111v~r;1ty of Ch1caiiu Press
ti í! Nat,on.:il Conf„rcnce for Con11•1ur11ty and Justic~
lhc Roina n Cathollc Churc:h
ímp,ess,on,sm
D.iJ<1,~rn
Hudson R1ver schoul
Ro11"t•!!~qut:! .archttedur
modermsni
decor~tructlon
Names of days of the week, months, and holidays are capilalized, but
names of seasons are not. For more on date systems, see 23 3
he All1 ed hped1t10"dty' Forte
A professiona l title that tmmediately precedes a persona! uame is
created as part of the name and should be capitalized. lf you use lhe ntle
alone or after the persona! name, 1t becomes a generic term and should
be lowercased. The same principie applies to other generic terms that are
part of place or organization names.
Tu"5d.iy
22,l.3
Septembcr
Other 'fypes of Names
Other types of names also follow specific palletns for capitalization, and
sorne require italics
the pres,dPnt ~nnounced
PresrdPnt H,1rr)' Truman ,,nnounct:d
Professo,s L1u and P,al..ash wrote
ne~1to the l11d1an Ocean
lt>e prolt!ssors wrute
student ~ at A lb,un Colll,ge
studcnts at the college
nt>, t to the occan
Names of ethmc and national groups are also capitalized. Terms denoting socioeconormc level, however, are not. (Fot hyphenation of compounds ofboth types, see 20.3.2.)
Arab Ame<iCdnS
the m1ddle cl.tss
Lat1nus
wh1te-colldr vvor ke,,
Capltalize adjectives derived from names, unless they have Josl their
litera} assooations with part1cular persons or places and have become
part of everyday language.
• Academie courses and subJects. Capitalize Lhe names of specific courses
but not of general subjects or fields of study, except for the names of
languages.
Archaeo ogy 101
Topics in V,c torian Lrteraturi:
ml h,~lorv
Engh;h l1t(!fillurc
• Acts. creaues, and govemment programs. Cap1talíze the forma! or accepted
tiUes of acts, treaties, government progiams, and similar documents or
entlties, but lowercase informal or generic titlcs.
th" Un11ed Slilles (or U~) C.on;hrut,.,n
the dul' p1oce~s • l;;use
ttie Treaty of Veri.alll~
the trcaty
Head
Start
Ct-l AP TEP 22 I NAM E5 SP(C:IAL HPMS AND TITLE5 Of WOli~>
322
■ Brand names.
Capitalize the brand names of producls, but do not use the
symbol ® or ™ after such a name. Un1ess you are discussing a specme
product, however, use a generic term instead of a brand name.
species name (or specrfic epithet) lowercase. The names of phyla, orders,
and such should be m roman type. For papers in the sciences, follow the
conventions of your discipline.
Coca-Cola
cola
rhesus mon~ey
Xero~
photocopy
1Phone
smartphone
• Electronic technology Capitalize branded names of computer hardware and
software, networks, browsers, systems, and languages. Most terms that
are not trademarked (such as mtemet), however, can be lowercased, as
can generic terms (such as web) when used alone or in combination With
other generic terms.
22.2
the Camera app in iOS 11; a camera app
the Kindle app for Android, K,ndle
Google Chrome
t he ,nternet
t he World W ide Web Con sort ium ( W3C) , World W 1de Wrcb t he web; website; web
page
• Legal cases. Capitalize and italicize the names oflegal cases; italicize the
v. (versus). You may shorten the case name after a full reference to it
(usually to the name of the plaintiff or the nongovemmental party). For
citations of legal cases, see r7.11.7 and 19. r 1.7.
First referenre
Subsequent references
v Arizonu
Untted Stares v. Car/1s/e
Miranda
Rosa cnrolmiano
Chordala
Special Terms
some special terms require use of italics, quotation marks, and capitalization.
ttalicize isolated words and phrases in languages likely to be unfamiliar
to readers of English, and capitalize them as in the original language. (lf
you are unfamíliar with the capitalizaaon principles of a language, consult a reliable authority such as chapter 11 of The Chtcago Manua! of Style,
17th edition [2or7].) For titles of works in languages other than English,
see 22.3.1,
Th1s leads to t he tdea of Ůbermensch and to lhe theory of the acte gratuil and surrea lism
Do not italicize terms from another language that are famíliar enough
to appear in a standard dictionary.
de facto
M1randa
Rocky Mountain !iheep
22.2.1 Term s from Other Languages
Apple 10S 11, 1Phor1e
Cu1/1sle
• Ships, a1rcraft, and ether vessels and veh1cles. Capitalize and it alicize the
names of ships, individua] aircraft, and the like. lf the names are preceded by an abbreviation such as USS (United States ship) or HMS (Her [or
His] Majesty's ship), do not italicize these abbreviations or use the word
ship m addition to the name. Capitalize makes, models, and classes of
other vehlcles but do not italicize them.
■
323
SPECIAL TERM>
USS Cons!1l11lion
t he space shutlle Aflant,s
HMS Saranac
Boeing 787 Dreamltner
Spirit of St. Lo111s
Subaru Forester
Plants and ammals. ln papers in the h umanities and social sciences, do
not capitalize the names of plants and animals unless they include
other proper nouns, such as geographical names. Binomial Latin spedes
names should be italicized, with the gen us name capitalized and the
vis-a-vis
pasha
eros
Do not italicize proper names from other languages or persona! titles
that accompany them.
Padre Pio
the Academ ie Franca1se
the Puerto del Sol
If you define a non-English term, put the definition in parentheses or
quotation marks, either following the term in the text or in a note.
The us11al phrase was ena tuainu-lai, 'I wanted to eat.
According t o Sartrean ontology, man 1s alwaysde trop ( 1n eitcess)
For longer quotations from another language, use roman type. (Italicize the quotation as a whole or any words withm it only if they are italicized in the original.) Enclose the quotauon in quotation marks w1thin
the text or use a block. quotation following the principles in 25.2.
The confusion of le 1>ragmot1sme 1s traced to the ~upposed fa1lure to rl1,11ngu1slt "les
propnéles de la valeur cn général" from the incidental
•
325
Both citation styles described m this manual prescribt' headline-style
capitalization for English-language t1tles. See 16.1.3 and 18.1.3.
Also use headline-style cap1talization for the title of your paper and
the titles of any p,1rts or chapters Wlthin it unless your d1sciplíne prefers
sentence style (see A.1 .5).
22.2.2 Words Defined as Terms
To emphasize key tenns that you define, italicize chem on their lirst use;
thereafter use roman type. You can use quotation marks (called scare
quotes) to alert readers thar you are using a term in a nonstandard or
ironie way, When overused, both techniques become less effective.
The t wo ch,ef tacttcs of th1s g,oup
obstruction,sm a11d mismformat,on, require careful
223.11 HEADLI NE STYLE CAP ITALIZATIO N Headline-style cap1flé3hzaoon IS
analys1s.
Government "efflciency" resulted ,na huge deficit
ltalicize a term when you refer to il as a term.
The l erm cr,t1col mas-s 1s more ofte11 used metaphoncally than literally,
How díd she dehne the word e;(lstent,o/?
but
A cntteal rnas5 of students took e~•stentíal ph1losophy
Itallcize letters referred to as letters, and present them to Iowercase.
Letters used to denote grades and to identlfy exemplars should be roman
and capitalized. for plural forms of letters u sed in these ways, see 20. 1 .2
M,1ny of the place-names there begin w,th the lelters h and k
tn her senior year. she recei..,ed an A and s,x Bs
• Do not capitalize articles (a, an, the), coordmating conJunctions (and, but,
or, nor.for), or the word to or as except as the first or last word in the title
or subtitle.
■ Do not cap1tabze prepos1tions (of, in. at, above, tmder, and so forth) unless
they are used as adverbs (up in Loo~ Up) or adjectives (on m The On Button).
• Capitalize the sec:ond part (or 9ftbsequent parts) of a hyphenated cornpound unless 1t is an article, preposition, or coordinatmg conjunction
(and, but, or, nor.for), or a modifier such as sharp or fiat following a mus1cal
key; or unless the first part is a prefix (antí, pre, and so forth). (Remember
to follow the original hyphenation of a title even íf it differs from the
principles discussed in 20.3.)
■ Lowercase the second part of a species name, such as Juluescen.s m
Actpenser Julvescens, even if it is the last word m a title or subtiUe (see also
22. 1.3).
hn,1g,11e a group al interconnected person5: A l<nuws 8, 8 know s C, and C knows O.
■
22.3
Titles of Works
When you cite a work, presentits title exactly as it appears in the original
work or, if the original is unavailable, in a reliable authority.
Always preserve the original spelling (including hyphenation) in such
titles, even if it does not conform to currenc American usage as described
in chapter 20. See 17 1.2 for some permissible changes to the punctuation
of titles, such as lhe use of a colon between a title and a subti tle, and the
addition of a comma before dates.
Academie convenuon prescribes that titles follow specific pattem s of
capitalization and the use of italics or quotation marks (or neither), regardless of how they appear in the original.
tn-
tended to d1stinguish titles clearly from surrounding tC>xt. ln this style,
capitalize the first letter of the first and last words of the útle and subtitle
and all other words, except as follows·
Do not capitalize parts of proper nouns that are normallv in lowercase,
as described in :n. 1.1 (uan in Ludwig va11 Beethoven).
The Econom,c Etfotcts nf thP. Civil War on 1hr. M1d•Atlanhc StJles
To Have and to Hold; A Tw„nty-Firsl·Centmy View ol MMrlagt'
Ali Th;it IS True. lhe life of Vin.:ent van G,1gh, 1853-so
Four R„;id,n~.s ol th,.. Gospel ""cord1ne lo Mnttl,,.w
Si>lt•Governme11t and the Re•establ,shment ot .i Ne.v World Ordcr
Global Warm,nv,: What We Are. Do,"g ;ihout ll Tooav
Stlll Llfe w,th Oranges
Frorn Homo t!ri!ct11s to Homo sapiens A Black-and Whilt' H1storv
22.3.1
Capitalization
Titles have two patterns of capitalization. headline style and sentence
style. Present most t1tles in headline style. For titles in languages other
than English use sentence style.
E•flal Conce.rlo
Although many short words are lowercase in this style, length does not
determine capitahzation. You must capitahze shon verbs (1s, are), adjec-
326
327
tíves (new), persona! pronouns (it, we), and relative pronouns (that), be..
cause they are not among the exceptions listed above. Use lowercase for
long preposttions (arcording), since prepositJons are among the exceptions
1wo kmds of titles should not be presented in headline style even
you use it for al! ether titles:
The examples below are presented with headline-style capitalization,
but the gutdelines also apply to tiUes with sentence-style capilalization
(see 22.3. r .2).
i
22
■
■
For titles in languages other than English, use sentence-style capitali7.ation (see 22.3.1.2).
For titles of works published in the eighteenth century (1700s) or earlier
retain the original capitalization (and spelling), except that words speUed
oul in all capital letters should be given with an initial capital only.
A Treati~e of mo,all ph,losophy Contaynýgc lhe s.iy,ngs of the wvse
7.2.3 12 SENTENCE - ST YL E CA PI TALIZAT ION Sentence-style capitalization is
a
simpler, though Jess distinct, way of presenting titles than headline style.
ln this style, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of the title and
subtitle and any proper nouns and proper adjectives thereafter.
~eeing and selhng lale•nineteenth•centurv Japan
Natural cris1s Symbol and 1magination 1n lhe m1d -Amrncan iarm cri<;is
Relig1011s fem•nism A challenge lrom the N;itional Organization for Women
ltalicize the tiůes of most longer works, mcluding the types
listed here For parts of these works and shorter w01 ks or the same type,
see 22.3.2.2.
/
3i1 iTA LI CS
• books (Cu!ture and Anarchy, The Chicago Marwal oJ Style)
• plays (A Winter's Tale) and very long poems, especrnlly those of book
length (Danle's Inferno)
• joumals (Signs), magazines (Timc), newspapers (the New York Times), and
blogs (Dot Earth), an initial The in periodical titles is nonnally treated as
part of the surroundmg text (and omitted in source citations) but may be
capitalized and italicized along with the title if It forms an integral part
of a name that otherwise consists of a single word (The lntercept)
• long mus1cal compositions (Th{Marriage of Figaro) or titles of albums (Mi·
chael Jackson's Tltníler)
■ paintings (the Mana Lisa), sculptures (Michelangelo's David), and ether
works of art, including photographs (Ansel Adam 's North Dome)
• movies (Cít1ze11 Kane) and television (Srsarne Street) and radio programs
(Ail Thmgs Cons1dered)
Starry night
Unless your discipline says otherwise, reserve sentence style for titles
of works in languages other than English.
Note that other languages have difíerent conventions for capitalization. For exarnple, Cerman nouns are generally capitalized, whereas German adjectives, even those derived from proper nouns, are not. lf you
are uncertain about the conventions of a particular language, consult a
reliable authority.
Enclose in quotation marks, bul do not italicize, the
title of a shorter work, whether or not il is part of a longe1 work (such as
those listed in 22.3.2.1).
22.3.2.2 QUOTATION MARK S.
■
■
■
Speculum Rom.:inae m:ign1ti,enhae
H,storia de. ta O,Jen de San Geron1mo
R1:alle•1~o n lllt df'UIS(h!'n Kun<tgesch,cht!'
■
■
Phénomenolog,e et relig1 on: Structure~ d, l'inst,tutloo chrt,t1cnne
Also use quotation marks and roman type for tit1es of whole works
that have not been formally published, mcluding the following:
2 2.3.2 ltalics or Quotation Marks
Most titles of works are set off from the surrounding text by italics or
quotation marks, depending on tbe type of work The guidelines listed
here apply not only to titles used in text but also to most titles in source
citations (see chapters 15-19).
chapters rThe Later Years') or other titled parts ofbooks
short stories ("The Dead"), short poems rThe Housekeeper"). and essays
(''Of Books")
articles or ether features in journals ("The function c>f Fashion m
Eighteenth-Cenlury America"), magazines ("Who Should Lead the Su·
preme Court?"), newspapers ("Election Comes Down to thc Wire"), and
websites or blogs ("An lce Expert Muses on Greenhouse Heat")
individua! episodes of celevision programs ("The Opposite·')
sbort musical compositions ("The Star-Spangled Banner") and recordmgs
("Ail You Need ls Love")
■
■
theses and d1ssertations ("A Study of Kanťs Early Works")
lectures and papers presented at meetings ("Voice and lnequality: The
T'ransformation of Amerícan Civic Democracy")
•
CHAPT Eli ~, t ll AMr~ S ri. C.IAl TI HM ~ AMf) Tl'l E tl f wo n ·
] 28
■
titled documents in manuscript collecuons (NA Map of the Southern
Indian Distnct of North Ameríca'·)
23
Numbers
22 3 2 3 N EtTHER Capitalize but do not use 1talics or quotation marks with these
speoal types of titles:
■ book series (Studies in Lega! History)
• manuscripl collections (Egmont Manuscripts)
• scnptures (the Bible) and oLher revered works (the Upanishads), as weu
as versions of the Bible (the King James Version) and its books (Cenes11
see 24 6 for a complete list)
■ musical works referred to by their genre (Symphony no. 41, Cantata BWV
80), though the popular titles for such works should be italidzed (the
Jupiter Syrnphony) or placed m quotation marks ("Ein feste Burg ist unser
Gott") depending on their length, as noted above
• websites {Google Maps, Facebook, Apple.ccm, the Internet Movie Data.
base, IMDb, Wikipedia), though exceptions may be made for sites that are
dosely analogous to a type of work listed in 22.3.2.1 (the Hu.f]ington Post)
Treat generic terms for parts of books or other works as you would
any other word. Do not capitalize them or use italics or quotation marb
unless you would do the same for an ordinary word (such as at the beginning of a sentence). ff a part includes a number, give it in arabic numerals,
regardless of its appearance in the original work (see 23. 1.8)
on l 1onel Tril11ng s preface
as drscussed ln chapters 4 and
a comprehtensrvc bibliography
~illed ofl ,n act 3, scene 2
23.1
Words or Numerals?
2311 General Rule
23 1 2 Special Cases
23 13 Percentages and Dec,mal Fract1ons
231 ·1 Money
231.!> nme
23 16 Names with Numbers
23.1 7 Addresses and Thoroughfares
73.1 8 Parts of Pubhshed Works
23.19 Equations and Formulas
23.2
Plura ls and Punctuation
23 21 Plurals
23 2 2 Commas withm Numbers
23 2. 3 Other Punctuat,on w,thin Numbers
23 2 4 lnclusive Numbers
s
23.3
Date Systems
23 3 1 Month Day, arid Year
22.3.3 Punctuation
23 3 2 Decades, Centurles. ~nd Eras
Preserve any punctuation that is part of a title when using the title in
a sentence (see 17. r.2). lf the title ís used as a restrictive clause or in
another position in the sentence that would normally be followed by a
comrna (see 2 1.2), add the comma
23.4
Nu mbers Used outside the Text
23.4 I N11mbers in Tables. F1gu1es. and Citatlons
23.4 2 Enumeralíons
Love, Loss, cmd What I Wore was late, adapted to, an off-B,oadway pl.iy
but
He, lavonte boo!\. Love, Lo,s, anJ Whot I Warr:, ,s an autob1ography recountcd lafie!Y
through dr.iw1ngs.
Punctuation within a title should not affect any punctuation called for by
the surrounding sentence. One exception. omit a terminal period after a
title ending in a question mark or an exclamation point. See also 21.12.:i
Are You a Doct or , ·· 1s the ftfth s tory
III Will
You PleLJse Be Qu,el P/eose7
This chapter offers general gu1delines for presenting numbers These
guidelines are appropriate for most humanities and social science rusc1plines. but d1sciplines that rely heavily on numencal data may have more
specific gu1delines. lf you are writing a paper m the natural or physical
sciences, mathematics, or any other very techmcal field, follow the conventíons of the tliscipline. For style guides in various disciplin es, see the
bibliography. For advice on numbering Lhe pages and parts ofyour paper,
see the appendix.
lf you are writing a thesis or a dissertalion, your department or uni329
3 30
WOR DS OR MUM[RALS 7
..
Tabfe 231 Roman numerafs
ArablC
Rom/ln
Arab,c
Roman
Arab,c
Roman
30
40
50
óO
70
80
90
100
500
1.000
)(XX
XL
1
I
11
,1
2
li
12
XII
3
lil
IV
13
14
XIII
4
5
v
6
7
15
16
XIV
XV
XVI
~
VI
VII
VIII
9
IX
19
XVIII
XIX
10
)(
20
XX
17
XVII
18
331
on (but see 23. r.2,3) , For all other numbers, use arabic numerals. Follow
this pattem for numbers that are part of physical quantiaes (distances,
Iengths, temperatures, and so on), and do not use abbreviations for the
units in su ch quantities (see 24.5).
l
LX
Alter s1?ven vea,s of war came s,xty-four vea,s oi peace
I.XX
l.Xxl\
The populalion of the three states wa, appro,omatelv twelve millio/1
XC
C
He cataloged more than 527 works of art
D
M
W 1thin fifleen m1nutes lhe temperature dropped twenty deg,ees.
-
Note Roman 11um~1als aft! šhown cap-1all.:ed to, lov,,efcase use lhe s.ame forrm. .n in lettet", f l fo, I. V for V. e1t.) ,-..
lf your topic relies heavily on numencal data, follow a different rule:
spell out only single-digit numbers and use numerals for all others.
numbc1s not hslttl toUow the panerns shown
versity may have specific requirements for presenting numbers, Whi<:h
are usually available from the office of theses and dissertations. lfyou are
wnting a class paper, your instructor may also ask you to follow certain
prínciples for presenting numbers. Review these requirem ents before
you prepare your paper They take precedence over the guidelines suggested here.
Tots study of 14 electoral distrids ove, seven years 1ncluded 142 par!1cipant,
He h it the wall at 65 m1les per hour, le,,.v,ng sk1d marks for nine íeet
In the sciences, your general rule may beto use numerals for al! numbers, except when they begin a sentence (see 23.1 .2.1). You may a]so use
abbreviations for quantities (see 24-5).
The mean we,ghl proved to be 7 g. wh1ch was far les~ than pred1rtPd
23.1
23.1.1
Words or Numerals?
The most common question in presenting numbers is whether to spell
them out in words (twenty-two) or give them in numerals (22). When the
number is followed by a unit of measure, you must a lso decide whether
to give that unit in words (percent) or as a symbol(%) or an abbreviation
The guidelines presented in 2 3.1- 23.3 pertain to numbers used in the
text of your paper. For numbers used in tables, figures, and citations,
see 23.4.
Unless otherwise specified, numerals here means arabic numerals (t, l ,
3, etc.). For roman numerals (i, ii, iii, etc.}, see table 23. r.
General Rule
Before you draft your paper, you should decide on a general rule for
presenting numbers and follow it consistently. Which rule you choose
depends on how often you use numerical data and the convention, of
your discipline. For situations in wh1ch you might modify this rule, see
23.1.2-23.1.8.
ln the humanities and social sciences, ifyou use numerical data only
occasionally, spell out numbers from one through on e hu ndred. If the
number has two words. use a hyphen (fifty-five) Also speU out round
numbers followed by hundred, thousand, l1undred thousand, million, and so
With any of these rules, use the same principles for ordinal numbers
(jirst, second, etc.) that you use for s tandard ones. Add st. nd, rd, or th as
appropriate.
On thc 122nd and 123rd days of h1s trip, he rece,ved '11s. e1ghteenth and nineteenth let•
t ers Iron, home
23.1.;?
Special Cases
ln a few common situations. the general rule discussed in 23.1 .1 requires
modification.
23.1.2.l
Never begin a sentence with a numera!. Either spell out the number or recast the sentence, especially
when there are oth er numerals of a similar type in the sentence_
NUMBER S BE GINN IN G A SENTEN CE
Two hundred fifty soldie,s in t hi: ur11t escaped 1111ury, 175 su, talned minor 1njuries.
or. better,
Of the soldiers 111 the ur11t, 250 e,caped tnJury and 175 sustained m inor 1n11111es
When spellin g out numbers over one hundred, omit the word and
within the term (not two hundred an.d .Jifty).
231 2
333
woRDS OCI ' MERAl.
332
z
Ttic average number of chlid1en born to college gradua tes drop ped from 2 4 10 2
lgnore the general rule when you have a Series <lf
rclated numbers in the same sentence that a1e above and below th
threshold, especially when lhose numbers are being compared. Jn the~
examples, all are expressed in numerals.
RELATED NUM BERS
Put a zero in front of a dec1rnal fraction of less than t oo if the quantlty
e,cpressed is capable of exceeding 1.00. When deomal quantittes must be
1 .oo or less. as in probabilities, correlation coefficients, and lhe like, omit
the zero before the decima! point.
01 thc grCJL•P survey;,d 78 studenls had sludIcd French and 142 had !olud,ed Span,~hfar
thrC!c yedrs or more
a mean of 0.73
We ~n~lued 62 ca~cs, of thesi: 59 had occurred In adulh dnd J 1n chlldrcn
a loss ol o.os
P < .05
a .406 b,1~ng average
For fractions standing alone, follow the general rule (see 23.1.r) for
spelling out the parts Ifyou spell the parts, include a hyphen between
them. Express in numerals a unit composed of a whole number and a
(raction. If you use a symbol for the fraction, therc is no inLervening space
becween the number and the fraction.
lf you are d1scussing two sets of items in close proxim1ty, ignore the
general rule and, for clarity. spell aut a11 numbers m one set and use nu.
merals for al1 numbers in the other.
W1thIn l hť µrogram, 9 ch tldren ~howed ~ome Improveme11t 1!te r !.l~ monlhs and 37
~howed 611lnlf1canl 1mp1ovement ;1ít.-1 e1ghteen monlhs.
Trade and commodity sc1v1t~ accounted for nine -tenths ol all mternat1onal rL'Ce1pts
ar,d payments.
Spell out a round number (a whole number folJowed
by hundred, thousand, hundred thousand, milhon, and so on) m isolation (see
23., 1 ), but give several round numbers close together in numerals. You
may also express large round numbers in a combination of numerals and
words. (See also 23. 1.4 .)
Dne yr:ar dur'"g the Dust 8owl e,a. thf town rec.e1ved ontv 15 16 of an lnch o! rain.
23 1 2 3 ROUN O N u M BER S
The m iltn ca,111ng 1mplemenl used in this soc,ety mea~ured 2¼ fec t
23,1.4
2314 l
Approx,mately f1fleen hundred ~chol,1r< Jllended l11e con1c,enrP.
bul
Thi,v sold 1,500 t.OJ.i•M ,n thP hrst V"-ar ;ind A ooo m lhe seconri
Money
us CURRENCY lf you refer only occasionally to US cunency, follow the
general rule (see 23. 1.1), and spell out the words dollars and cents Otherwise use numerals a!ong with the symbol $ (or, 1f needed, !t), Omit the
decima1 point and following zeros for whole-dollar amounts, unless you
refer to fractional amounts as well.
Rarely do ihev sp-:nd more l han hve dollars a wee~ on recreat,on
23.1 3
Percentages an d Decima! Fractions
Use numerals to express percentages and decima I fracoons, except at the
beginning of a sentence (see 23 1.2. r) Spell out the word percent, except
when you use many percentage fig11res and in the sciences, where the
symbol% is usually preferred (with no intervening space after the num
ber). Notice that the noun percenlage should not be used with a number
Srore:. for a.tudents who ~ 1ppcd surnrner s„hool rnprovcd only o percenl The µerct I
agc ol students wt>o fa1f Pd was aboul 2-4 ltmes the u~ual rale
W 1lh1n th1s syslem lh~ sub1cct ~corťd 3.8 or 95%
bul not
The report showed 1,135 collcctcd 1n fines,
Prices ranged from so 05 up to ~,o oo
Eiq>ress large round numbers in a combination of numerals and words.
The uef11.1t that year wa~ 14 20 b1ll1on.
For currencies other than that of the United States,
follow the pattern for the US dollar. Most currenc1es put unit symbols
before numerals. Even though European nations represent decima!
points with commas instead of periods, you may use periods, except in
direct quotations from sources. ln contexts where the symbol$ may refer
to non-US currencies, these currencies should be clearly 1dentified
23.ld 2 OTH ER C URRENC1rs .
TnP avcr,1gc ruse, 9 pi:rt1:lll,,gc po,nts
When she relurned, she t;ad hilrely l1fty euros to he:r n.ime
When you use fractlonal and whole numbers for the same type of
ilem in the same sentence or paragraph, give both as numerals.
The tiou!ehuld records show that l t co~! only l)6.50.
334
335
its cuir„nl t!Sl1maled wnrth IS \/]77 m1ll1on
li vou subtract Cans15.69 from USp5 oo •
Most European nations now use the unified currency called the euro
(f) buc if you are writing aboul topics from the period before 2002 , you
may encounter such currencies as the French franc (F), German deutsche
mark (DM), and ltalian lira (Lit), British currency is still expressed in
pounds (f:) and pence (.P.), though before decimabza tion in 1971, it was
expressed in pounds, shillings, and pence (for example, f:12 17s. 6d.). Note
that btlhon in traditional British usage as well as in certain languages
other than English means a million m1llion, not a thousand rnillion: to
avoid confusion, be sure to accurately represent such distmcoon s.
ln more technical contexlS, it may be best to use the three-lette r codes
for current and historical currencies defined by the lntematlon al Orga.
nization for Standardiz ation in standard ISO 4217, which is available
on the organizati on's website. Use a space between the code and the
amount.
lf vou subtract EUR 15 69 lrorn USD 25 oo
23,1.S
Tirne
For references to times of day in even mcrement s of an hour, half hour,or
quarter hour, spell out the times, w1th a hyphen between parts. lf necessary, spec1fy 111 the moming or in the evenmg. You may use o'clocll, although
it is now rare m research wnting.
The p.1rt1t1pants planned to meet every Thu,sd;:iy ilrl)Und 11.'n•thirty 1n thr. moming
When emphasizi ng exact times, use numerals and, if necessary, a.Pil.
or p.m (lowercase and roman: see also 24-4-1). Always include zeros after
the colon for even hours.
Although scheduled to end al 11:00 a m the councll mel!ling ran unt,11:37 p.m.
ln either situalion, use the words noon and midnight (rather than nu
merals) to express these specific times of day
for use of words or numerals in dates. see 23.3.
23.l.6
Names with Numbers
Some types of persona!, governmen tal, and organizati onal names include numbers given in either words or numerals. (See also 22.1.)
• Leaders Emperors, sovereigns , or popes with che same first name nre dif•
ferent1ated by capitalized roman numerals (see tahle 23.1)
Charles V
Napoleon Ill
[lm1belh li
8ened1ct XVI
■ Family members. Male family members with ident.Jcal full names are often
differentlated with roman or arabic numerals (see also 24 2. r). Note that
there are no commas between the name and the numera!, unless the
name is invened, as in a list.
Adla1 E Stevenson 111
Michael F Johnson :md
bul
Stevenson, Adla, E., Ill
• Gov~mmen~ and ~o-litical divis1ons. Certain dynasbes, governmen ts, govemmg bodies, political andjudicia l divisions, and military units are commonly designated by an ordinal number before the noun Spell out and
capitalize numbers through one hundred (w1th a hyphen between the
pans of the number, if relevant):; ise nurnerals for those over one hundred
Nmctecnth Oynastv
fitth Rerubl1c
foum;i,nth Congrt'Ss1onal D1str1cr
For1y-Seve11th W;ird
E1ghty·First Congress
Tenth Circu1t
109th Congress
ICll~I
Airho,n~ 0,~,s,on
• Churches and rehgious orgamzations. Spell out and capitalíze numbers
before the names of churches or religious organizaLions in ordmal form
(with a hyphen between the parts of the number, if relevanl).
Twenti"· First Church of Chrtst, Se enlist
• Secular orgamzatíons. Express local branches of fraternal lodges and
uruons in numerals followmg the name.
Amencan Leg1on Department of lll1no1s, Crispus Attllcks Posl No 1;68
Un1ted Auto Wor ~ers local 890
23.1.7 Addresses and Thorough fares
Follow the general rule (see 23.u) fot the names of local numbered
s~eets. State, federal, and interstate híghways are always designated
Wlth numerals, as are street or building addresses and telephone and fax
numbers. Note that in text the elements of a full address are separated
by commas, except before a zip code. See 24.3.2 for abbreviations in addresses.
Thl! Nat1on.1l Park Serv,rr> ma1otm11~ as il mu~l!um 1t,e hn11s„ whl!tt! Lincoln <ii(;d (Slf.i
10th StrctJt NW, Wash111gtun, DC
iooo4
202-4. 6•692a)
336
337
Ludw•~ M1P5 wm J.,, Roh • dt!.1gned tlw .il)Jrlm,mts .il l:!60-lll!o North Lah• Sho,e
Drlvc
lntr:r,tah, r.,~ Sl'1Ve!. ,na c1 1t1cal tttin5potlc1t1on hne f,orn Boston to M1,m11
Do not use a comma in page numbers, street addresses, telephone or
fax numbers, zip codes, decimal fractions of less than one, or numbers
included tn organization names.
o ,911 centrmclcr~
23.1.8
Parts of Published Works
Wíth the exception of roman-numeral page numbers (as Ul the front
matter of a book, see 16.1.5, 18.1 s), numbers in part.s of published works
are given in arabic numerals, regardless of the general rule (see 23.1. r)or
their appearance in the work itself See also 22.3.2 3, 23.2.2.
1500n Eim Street
Con1mitte1: of 1000
23,2.3 other Punctuation within Numbers
Numbers sometimes include intemal punctuation orher than commas.
For períods (decimals), see 23 1.3 and 23. 1.4: for colons, see 23 t.5; for
hyphens, see 23.1.r and 23.1 .3; for dashes, see 23.2.4.
act , scene 3
23_1,4 Ioclusive Numbers
23.19
Equations and Formulas
Numbers in equations and formulas are always given as numerals, re
gardless of the general rule (see 23.1 1). For detailed gu1dance on presenting mathematical expressions, see chapter 12 of The Chicago Manua! of
Style, 17th edition (2017).
23.2
Plurals and Punctuation
lro0145lo !;in
45-50
23.2.1 Plurals
rorm the plurals of spelled-out numbers like the plurals of other nouns
(see 20, r)
Hall the mcn swveved we11• 111 lhelt thtrtll!5o or lurt,~~
form the plurals of numbers expressed m numerals by adding s alc,ne
(not 's).
The pall!!rn c.:h.inged 1r1 lht• late1990~ a~ more t,upayNs submtltL'ťi 1040~ online
To ily 7&7s, the. pl!ots rcQotred spectal tr a,111ng
23.2.2
Corn.mas within Numbers
ln most numbers ot four or more digits, set off thousands, hundreds oi
thousands, millions, and so on with commas. (ln the sciences, commas
are often omitted from four-digit numbers )
I 500
12 275,500
t
47S.5• S ouo
Do not use a comma within a four-digit year. do use one fot a year
with five or more digits (see also 23.3).
.007
To express a range of numbers, such as pages or years, give the first and
last (or inclusiue) numbers of the sequence. lf the numbers are spelled out,
express the range with the words from and to; if they are expressed in
numerals, use eit.her these woids or a connecting hyphen with no space
on e11.her side. ln sorne settings, such as citations, always use hyphens
(see chapters 16-rg). Do not combine words and hyphens in expressing
incluswe numbers.
10,0D0 BC
but not
but 11ot
from 45- 50
for l y-live-ftfty
For inclusive numbers of one hundred or greater, you may either use
fu.li numbers on either side of a hyphen (245-280 or r92g-1994) or abbreVJate the second number. Table 23.2 shows one syslem of abbreviation.
This system works well for page numbers, which never include commas (see 23 2.2). For numbers that mclude commas, use the system shown
in tahle 23.2, but repeat all digits if the change extends to the thousands
place or beyond. Never abbreviate roman numerals (see tahle 23.1).
6000-h 018
For years, give all digits for a span that includes more than one century. Also give fu]! dates in a syslem in which dates are counted backward
Table 23.2. Ab1>rev/ar1on ;y!lcrn for lnclu~•ve riumbers
F,rsr number
Se, ond numbe,
1·99
100 o, m•,ll,p.•e1 o/ 100
10~ t/ltou9h 109 201 lhrouyh 209, etc.
110 th,ougl, 199 210 lhrouah 299 etc
U1~ ol/ d•g•t;
3·10, 71-'12 96·ll7
Uioaffd,gts
100-104 1100-1113
101·6, 808-33, 1103-A
Usr r.Jranged P<J•t oni~
LJs, two d1y11, ur1le~1 n,o,e
a,e needed lo m,ludc, ,,N
ChtWJeJ r,c,,t,
f,,m,ples
J2J·28, 498-5'.12, 1087-89
:496-500 11,t,.J-615.
,U9'Jl-JD01
ne
CHAPTER 73
IJU/,18ERS l•HCl OúT\ lDf lHl: lE:t.T
I NU~8!RS
from a specific point (most notably BC, ~before Christ," and BCE, "before
the common era"). Otherwise use the system shown in tahle 23.2.. see
23.3 for more on date systems
t~.ooo 14,r;,oo BC l
lht! \'<:'Ill s.1933 JI.i
th w1nt r ol 1999-2000
'1!"> BC AD10
339
lJ 3,2 oecad es, Centuries, and Eras
Jn general, refer to decades using numerals, including the century (see
2.3.2.1 for plurals). If the cencury is clear, you may spell out the name of
the decade, do not abbreviate numerals ("the '90s") The first two decades
of any century do not lend themselves to e1ther style a.nd, for clarity,
should not be referred to in a shortened form
DutlOE tl•e lifll„s, the Cold W ar ti -,nmatc!.I tt e t„ adlt 1l!'i
23.3
Oate System s
l3.3.1
Month, Day, and Year
Spell out the names of months when they occur í.n text, whether alone
or in dates. Express days and years m numerals, and avoid using them
at the beginning of a sentence, where they would have to be spelled out
(see 23.1.2.1). Do not abbreviate references to the year ("the great flood
of 'os"). For abbreviations acceptable in tables, figures, and citations,
see 24.4-2.
M"'"" of l hc1c dlscu,e111•.s v.are , ,no Jn t!d lurl 1g thc, fo t dccJde of ttic 1w1:1 h'"l"st
crnt urv
Refer to centunes using e1ther numerals or lowercase spelled-out names
(see 23.2. 1 for plurals). lf the century is spelled out and used as an adjective preceding a noun that it modifies, as in the second example, indude
a hyphen, otherwise do not (s~ 20.3.2).
Ev,.,,.., September wr reca ll the ew,nti; of 2001
She cache~ n,nPtl'PrJth- re11tury novel:; bul would ra:her tca h poetry Iro, U1e
bul not
T
"
•v o
IV,t!"ll re lh r •11 l'V
l
J
'lt!Yí/1
a fflPtr1nr ~hl
v•"'
The most common des1gnations for eras use the abbreviations BC
("before Christ") and AD (anno Dommi, "in the year of the Lord"). Seme
disciplines use different designations, such as BCE and CE (see 24-4-3).AD
precedes the year number; the other des1gnations fo\low it. For inclusive
numbers with eras, see 23.2.4.
For full references to dates, give the month, the day (followed by a
comma), and the year, in accordance with US practices. lf you omit the
day, omit the comma. Also omit the comma for dates given with seasons
instead of m onths; do not cap1talize the names of seasons (see 22.1 .2).
lf you are quoting material that uses British-style dates (15 March 20071,
do not alter thern.
Bv Ma!Ch ;86~ lh!.'. Will
WH
n••arly wer
"r
Ill 5011118 1006
Note that within complete dates, days are generally not given as
ordjnals-that is, the numerals are not followed by st, nd, rd, or th. Use
these endings only with spelled-out numbers when you specify the d;iy
without the month or year.
I he ~\"ni\ uccu,r~d on lunc, 1 th 1<168.
Rornms rn Aí:i 70
23.4
\Al
but not
Sulu, 1un ~ icn•plc was dl!'~.. •:,t.d r , lhe 8dUvlan,an!. ,n !;Sfi BC and a ,., n hv ttie
Numbers Used outs1de the Text
The preceding sections provide guideJmes for presentíng numbers in the
text of your paper. Numbers used in tables, figures, source citations, and
lists are subject to some of their own rules. For additional advice, see the
appendix.
Z3.4 .1 Nu mbers in Tables, Figures, and Cita tions
ln general, use arabic numerals to present numerical data in tables and
figures. For a discussion of numbers in tables, includmg tahle titles, see
26.2; for numbers in fígures, includmg fígure captions, see 26.3.
With few exceptions, arabic numerals are also used to cite volume
NUMot.~S u Ho OUT510r (fff T[ 'T
340
numbers, edition numbers, and page numbers and other locatots. For 8
discussion of numbers in notes-style citations, see 16.1.5 and chapter 17;
for numbers in author-date citations, see 18.1.5 and chapter 19.
23,4.2
Enu m erations
You may use numerals (and letters) to enumerate poínts discussed in tb,
text, m appendixes, or in materials related to drafting your paper.
23 4 2 1
usrs. Your te}(t may contain lists ofitems thatyou choose to enumerace
for emphasis. When such a list is relatively short, incorporale it into a
smgle sentence Be sure that all the items are grammatically parallel (all
noun phrases, all adjectives, or the like). Each item should be preceded by
an arabíc numeral in parentheses. lf there are more than two items, each
s hould be followed by a com m a (or, if the item is complex in structure, a
sernicolon; see 21 3). If the list is an appositive, use a colon to introduce
it; otherwise do not use punctuation in this position (see 21.4).
ln _some situations you may mclude an outhne or a similar
en umeratJon 1D an appendix lo your paper, or m a dra ft stage of che paper
(see 6.2.1). Use ~e following system of notatlon, consisang ofletters and
roman and arab1c numerals, and inden t each level by o ne further tab
(usua~ly a half inch). You should have at least two items to list at each
Jevel; 1f you do not, reconsider the struc:ture of the oulline. lf the items are
phrases, capitalize them sentence-style (see 2 2 .3 .,) and do not use termi.
nal punctuation. II they are complete sentences, capitalize and punctuate them as you would any other sentence (see 6.2 . r for an example).
ll4.12 OUTL IN ES .
I War~ of lhe 11,neteenth centi.ry
A Unitied S1.ite,
i C1v1I Wa,, 1861-65
ai (duse
(1) 51'1very
(a) Cornprom,~e
I) Mi5SOl1rl (ol'Ml"J,~•llllSC
li) Comprc11h1~P ol 1851>
l,J Rc~ult
vv1l!>un s sccreta,y gave tnr te re,1sons fo, h,s res1gnJl1011. (1) Jdv,111c-ng agc (:?) gradu•
allv la1l,,1~ eyes,ght and (3) oppQ~1t1on to thr. war
Thl! comm,t tee jlrongly endorsecl the poh 11!5 of ( 1) c0Inpl1!t<: e,ecut1111! powe,, vctpt
as consl1tut1011ally l1m1ted, (.2) strong leg,~lative prerogat,.,l!i. and (3) l1m1ted jud1cial
.iuthc,hly 1;spec ally v,I• n lt ,.,terfercd w,th the omrm tt.-r ~ owr •ole
lf you are alteady using arabic n umerals in paren theses for othe.r purposes, substitute lowercase letters for the numbers.
Haskm s latf!st lheory
ha~ more lhan o ric drawback. (al 1 Is r,(lt ba5•ad on current
evldenc" and (b) 1t has a weak lt1,-o,Pt1c„1 grou11d111i;
If the items in the list are longer or you wish to give them greater
emphas1s, arrange them in a vemcal list. lntroduce the list with a complete sentence followed by a colon. Again, be sure that al! the items are
grammatically parallel, and begin each one with a bullet or with an arablc
numera} followed by a period. lf the items are complete sentences, capi•
talize the first letter m each item and use terminal periods; otherwtse
use lowercase letters and no penods (see 2u). Align the numerals on the
periods and any lines that run over with the first word in the first line.
My researd1 lh.,,efore suggest!> the followlng cc,r,clus1011s,
, The pa1nt11,g could Ml have been ;i genume Picasso regardle~s of the clahns ol
c.a•her schc,l.1r~
2 ft 15 1mpos~1ble 10 ldPnt,ty the tru~ ílrllsl wlthout l u, ther ter.hn1,:.;il l!naly~1s,
341
li. Wars of thc twerit,cth cent«, y
A lJn,tE-d Slate•
1 First Wc,rl,j WiJr •
GWLRAI PRINCWtr\
sented here are appropriate for most humanitJes and sooal science dis
ciplines. If you are wriúng a paper in the natural or phys1cal sciences,
mathematics, or any ether technical field, follow the conventions of the
discipline.
The dictionaries from Memam-Webster mclude entries for many abbreviations from many fields. Another resource is chapter ro of The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition (2017). For style guide~ in various disciplines, see the bibliography.
lf you are writing a thesis or dissertation, your department or university may have specific requirements for using abbreviations, wh1ch are
usually available from the office of theses and dissertations. If you are
writing a class pa per, your instructor may also ask you to follow certain
principles for using abbreviations. Review these requirements before you
prepare your paper. They take precedence over the guidelínes suggested
here.
Abbreviations
2·1. 1
Gener al Prin1.1ple5
24.1.1 Types of Abbrevlations
24 1 2 When to Use Abbreviations
241.3 How to Format Abbrevlahons
24.2
Nam e!> :.lnd Títles
24 21 Persona! Names
24 2 2 Professlonal Titles
24 2 3 Academie Degrees
24 2 4 Agencies, Co,npanies. and Other Organ,tallons
243
Gi.ograph ícal Tt. 1 m s
24 3 1 Place-Names
243.2 Addresses
24.4
Tlm.; and Dates
24 41 n me
244 2 Days and Months
24 4.3 Eras
:24.5
Unit.s of M,:;as111c
24 6
The Bible a nd Other Sacred Works
24.6 1 Jew,sh Bible/ Old Testament
24.6 2 Apocrypha
24 6.3 New Tes1ament
24.6 .4 Venions of the Bible
24 6.5 Other Sacred Works
24. 7
Abbreviations m CitatioM and Other Scholarly Contexts
This chapter offers general guidelines for usi.ng abbreviations. Abbreviations in forma! writing were once limited to a few special circumstances,
but they are now widely used in writing of al] kinds. Even so, their use
must reflect the conventions of specific d.isciplines. The gmdelines pre-
343
24.1
General Prlnciples
241.l
"fypes of Abbreviatio ns
Terms can be shortened, or abbreviated, in several ways. When a term
is shortened to only the first letters of each word and pronounced as a
single word (NATO, AIDS), it is called an acronym; 1f the letters are pronounced as a series of letters (EU, PBS), it 1s caUed an inittahsm. Otber
terms are shortened through contraction: just the first and last letters of
the term are retained (Mr., Dr., atty.), or the last letters are dropped (ed.,
Tues.). This chapter treats all of these forms under the general term abbreuiations, with distinctions between types noted as relevanl
24.l.2 When to Use Abbreviations
In most papers, use abbreviaúons on]y sparingly in text because they
can make your writing seem either too mforrnal ar loo technical. This
chapter covers types of abbreviations that are preferred over spelled-out
terms and others that are considered acceptable in academic writing if
used consistently.
tf your local guidelines allow 1t. you may use abbreviations for names,
titles, and other terms used frequently in your paper. Give the full term
on first reference, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses For subsequent references, use the abbreviation consistenUy. lfyou use more than
a few such abbreviations, consider adding a list of abbreviations to the
front matter of the paper to aid readers who might miss your first reference to an abbreviatton (see A.2. 1) .
p
NAMES AND TITl ES
C HAP H R 2> I A08~ EVl~ilONS
344
Abbreviations are more common, and are often required, outside the
text of the pa per. This chapter discusses some abbreviations that may be
used in tables, figures, and citations. For additional discussion of abbre.
viations in tables and figures, see chapter 26; for abbreviations in notes.
style citations, see 16. r.6 and chapter 17; for abbreviations in author-date
citations, see 18.1.6 and chapter 19.
How to Format Abbreviations
Although abbreviations follow the general principles discussed here,
there are many exceptions.
24.1.3
■
Capitalization Abbreviations are given in all capital letters, all lowercase
letters, or a combination.
BC
p.
Gov,
CEO
am
D1st. Alty
US
k.g
PhD
24.2 Names and Titles
24,2..1
Persona! Names
In general, do not abbreviate a person's first (Benj. Franklin) or last name.
Once you have used a full name in text, use just the person's last name
in subsequent references. However, if you are referring 1to more than one
person with that last name, use first names as necessary to avoid confusion (Alice James, William James). If you refer to these names very frequently in your paper, you may instead use abbreviations that you devise
(AJ, WJ), but be sure to use these abbreviations as specified in 24.r.2.
Some individuals are known primarily by initials in place of a first
and/or middle name. Such initials should be followed by a period and
a space. lf you abbreviate an entire name, however, omit periods and
spaces.
G K Chesterton
• Punctuation. ln general, abbreviations given in all capital letters do not
include periods, while those given in lowercase or a combination of capital and lowercase letters have a period after each abbreviated element.
However, as you can see from the examples above, there are exceptions:
metrie units of measure (see 24.5) are in lowercase without periods; and
no periods are used for academic degrees, whether or not they include
lowercase letters (see 2,p.3). Other exceptions are noted throughout this
chapter.
• Spacing. In general, do not leave a space between letters in acronyms
(NATO) and initialisms (PBS), but do leave a space between elements in
abbreviations formed through shortening (Dist. Atty.), unless the first element is a single letter (S.Sgt.). If an abbreviation contains an ampersand
(&), do not leave spaces around it (Texas A&M). For spaces in persona!
names, see 24.2.1.
■ Italics. Abbreviations are not normally italicized unless they stand for an
italicized term (OED, for Oxford English Dictionary).
■ lndejinite articles. When an abbreviation follows an indefinite artide,
chaose between a and an depending on how the abbreviation is read
aloud. Acronyms (NATO, AIDS) are pronounced as words; initialisms (EU,
FDA) are read as a series of letters.
member nat,on ol NATO
a NATO member
pe1son w1th AIDS
an A IDS patient
member nat,on ol the EU
ari EU mernber
the FDA
an rOA m,indate
345
M . F K Fisher
but
but
JF„
FOR
Social tiUes such as Ms. and Mr. should always be abbreviated and
capitalized, followed by a period. In most papers, however, you need not
use such titles unless there is a possibility of confusion, such as referring
to either a husband or a wife.
Write abbreviations such as Sr., Jr., Ill (or 3rd), and IV (or 4th) without
commas before them. Nonnally these abbreviations are used only after
a full name, although royal and religious figures may be known only by
a first name. ln frequent references to a father and a son, shortened versions may be used (Holmes Sr.), but only after the full name has been
presented. Do not spell out the term when it is part of a name (for example, notJohn Smith Junior).
Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.
William J Kaufmc1r1r1 Ill
Mary li
24.2 2 Professional Titles
Some individuals have civil, military. or religious titles such as the following along with their persona! names. Many of these titles are conventionally abbreviated rather than spelled out in text when they precede and
are capitalized as part of a persona! name.
Adť!l
,.,,u
Admiral
Dr.
D oLlor
Alderman A lderwoman
Fr
Father
Aliy Gen.
A tlorney General
Gen
Gcr,~ral
C1pt
Capta1n
Guv.
Govcrnor
Col
Colonel
11011,
Honor11hle
D t~I Attv
D1 •tricl Atl orlll!Y
Lt
Lreutenanl
346
ll
C.ol
Ll,JUll'l'lill\t
oloncl
Scr1
~•• ,
ator
Mai
M,11or
!.gt
ScrK.:llnl
I c~.
Re:p
P,es1di:nl
S Sgt,
~•afl Si,rgě,Jn l
Reµ,escnt<1livc
s,
S15tc,
Pcv
Reverend
St
~111111
i 4.Z.3 Academie Degrees
You may use abbreviations in text and elsewhere for the common academic degrees. Some of the more common degrees are noted in the following list. Most are initialisms (see 24. r. r), which are written in capital
letters withoul periods or spaces. Others contain both initials and short•
ened tenns and therefore both capital and lowercase letters, also without
periods or spaces. Traditionally all these forms appeared with pertods
(M.A., Ph.O., LL.B.), a style still preferred by some institutions.
On first reference to an individual with such a title, use the abbrevia
tion with the person's full name. (tf you prefer, you may spell out the
titles, but do so consistently.) For subsequent references you may usually
give just the person's last name, but tf you need to repeat the title (to
disbnguish two people with similar names, or as a disciplinary sign of
respect), give the spelled-out title with the last name. Never use Honorable or Hon. except with a full name. If you spell out Honorable or Reverend
before a full name, the title should be preceded by the,
c11 focnard i uuro n
Adm Cecil O Ha"ev
Rev Ja11e Schaefer
Hon PalrJCl<l Rirkholz
AR
art,um ba<Lala, re11s (b.,~I elo, .:,i artsJ
AM
art,um 111ag,s1er lm ,l,..r ot drts)
BA
BD
BFA
BM
bacholor, i dr
BS
DB
OD
d vln11atl5 b,JLC:tll..ttir,:, ,~ (b~cl clor ni :l1v1111tv)
Rél/nccr>d Schaeli·r
a...
OM1n
doctor o ! 11110,strv
os;c•oi,all11 phv 1C1íln (doctr.r nr osteopathv)
hot-
EdD
JO
LH D
LlllD
LLB
LLD
If you use one of these titles alone or after a persona! namc, it becomes a generic term and should be lowercased and spelled out.
H~ 1e11 served .is an adm ral
MA
MílA
MD
MFA
An e.xception to the general pattem is Dr. Use either the abbreviation
Dr before lbe name or the officiaJ abbreviation for the degree (see 24,2.3),
set off with commas, after the nan,e. Do not use both together
Li,Urt!n
MS
Shaµiro d1scove,ccl tht! cause ot the out oreaf„
Luu1en Sht101,o. MO d,scoverccJ
ln addition to academic degrees (24.2.3), here are a few professional
titles that may be abbrevtated following a persona! name. Like MD in the
example above. such titles shouJd be set off with commas
if
t,achclo, of r1r1I! , rls
b11ch1lor ni niu~H1.Jach-'lor nf c,,;nce
Adm ra1 Haney
DO
lhč !>C11 Hor I urn 111,n..,"
lm lwlu, ot d1v111,ty
:,c11;it.1r Dur
or
Dr
347
•1AM fS AND TITLH
C'!APH" ~~ AaBREVIATION~
1ucf1c~ at the pe.icc
LPN
tln•nsed i•rl!dlL
MP
r,1emtrt1 nf Parltdtnenl
"iJ
::iocluty 01 lei\.1~
I nu, e
24,2,4
t.l,vh, t;:it,~ doc10 (do (o, 01 d1v•nitv)
docto1 of Mlir.;tlon
11111 <toctor (rfodur of 1.-.w)
l,ltcr.:irum hum,m 1or11m ductor tdn, tor ni Iwn1anI1ics>
1,11„r.irum doclor (c1• cto,
of !c iter:.)
I •&urn bdCCilldUrl!Ua (bathclor of 1aw1)
lcEum doclo, Cdn<tor of law,l
mast er pf ,nt
rm1• t e1 of
bu~, ie,~ ddrn1rns\n,:1on
1r1cd1 1nJ1.: docnr (doctor o'"
,,d,ct,
ma~•I?, of • nr rt
master of ,c l!!nte
PhB
p'1Ilosophla.- b;ircJlaureus (t>achclo, of ph,lo~ophy,
PhD
philn,oph,aé LIOClor (Joc l ar o, ph1los.ophy)
SB
, ,1ent"'c, b.ic, ,1la,,,,,u\ (b.1ct,1;lo, 01 5c1ence)
SM
šťlenh,H•
STS
s-ai:rae theolog,ac baccat;i, reus (bach lnr o f sacred theology)
ma&1~ter
tn11,stcr of i.t encc)
Agencies, Comparues, a nd Other Organizations
You may use abbrevianons in text and elsewhere for the names of govemment agencies, broadcasting companies, associations, fratemal and
service organizations, unions, and other groups that are commonly
known by acronyms or initialisms (see 241 . r). Spell out the full name on
first reference, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses (see 24.1.2).
Such abbreviations are in full capitals with no periods. Here is a represen-
348
CHAPT[~
GEOGRAPHIC AL TERM5
i• I A~ • REVIATIONS
tative list of such abbreviations; other names within these categories (for
example, ABA, CBS, and NEH} should be treated similarly
AAAS
CNN
AFL·C.10
EU
AMA
FTC
HMO
NAACP
AT&T
C.DC
NAFTA
NFL
NIMH
N5F
OPEC
TVA
UN
UN ESCO
WHO
YMC.A
/\K
AL
AR
AZ
CA
co
CT
DC
OE
Jf a company is not commonly known by an abbreviation, spell out and
capitalize its name in the text. The names of some companies contain
abbreviations and ampersands. lf in doubt about the correct forrn, look
up the company name at its corporate website or, for historical fo rms, in
an authoritative reference. You may omit such terms as Inc. or Ltd. from
the name, and do not capitalize the word the at the beginning of the
name. Subsequent references can drop terms such as & Co. or Corporation.
Merck & Co
RAND Co•porat,on
the University ot Chicago Press
rn tables, figures, and citations , you may use any of the following abbreviations in company names.
Assoc
Bros
LP (l1m1ted partnersh1pl
Mfg
Co.
PLC (pubt\r hm,ted company)
Corp.
Inc.
RR (railroad)
Ry (railway)
FI
GA
Hl
IA
1D
li
IN
KS
KY
LA
MA
MD
ME
Ml
MN
MO
MS
Al;iskil
Alilbama
Arkan5as
Arizon.i
Cahfo,ni„
Colo,ado
Connec\in,t
D1s!rict ot Colurnbr,1
Delaware
Florida
Georg,a
Hawdll
low~
ldaho
llhno1s
Indiana
Kansas
K,mtucky
LOlllSla11a
Massachusetts,
Maryl;ind
Maine
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
Miss1ssipp1
~9
MT
Mont;ina
NC
ND
NE
NH
North C..r11lma
Notth O.. ~ula
Nebr.isla
New 11..i,np~lrn~
New Jerse•,
New Mexico
NeJi!da
Nev.· ~o,~
Oh,o
Oklah "na
Oregon
f>ennsylvama
Rh,,d, Island
South Carolina
South Dakolil
Tennessee
N.1
NM
NV
NY
OH
OK
OR
PA
RI
se
SD
TN
TX
UT
VA
VT
WA
WI
wv
WY
TetJS
Utah
V1rg111,a
Vermont
Wash111gton
W1sco11s11,
West V1rgin1;i
Wvomíng
You may a!so abbreviate the names ofCanadian provinces and territories
where state names would be abbreviated.
24,3 Geographic.il Tcrms
AB
BC
24.3.1
Place-Names
In text, always spell out and capitalíze the names of countries, s tates,
counties, provinces, territories, bodies of water, mountains, and the like
MB
(see 22.1. r).
Always spell out United States when using it as a nou n . When using
it as an adjective, you may either abbreviate it Lo US or spell it out (for a
NS
more fonnal tone),
She was mehg,ble for the pres,dency bec11use she W~ 5 110! born 1n the United States.
His US c1tizensh1p wa; revoked laler that ycor
In tables, figures, citations, and ma1lin g addresses, abbreviate the
nam es of US states using the two-letter postaJ codes created by the US
Posta! Service.
NB
NL
NT
Alt>Nta
8rot1sh C.olumb1a
Mamtc,bil
New 81u11,w1c:k
Ncwfuundland and Labrado,
Novi! Scot,a
Northwest Temtories
N il
ON
PE
N111r wut
Oritano
Prince Edward Island
QC
Qu1:be1.:
SK
SdSkdtd,.,wan
YT
Yukon
24 .3.2 Addresses
In text, spelJ out and capitalize tenns that are part of addresses, including those listed below and similar ones (other synonyms for street, for
example). In ta bles, figu res, citations, and mailing addresses, use the abbreviations. Note that all the abbreviations use periods except for the
two -letter initialisms (such as NE). See 23.r.7 for an example of an address in text.
JSO
Avc
l,lvd
A,Ml,t
St
Sueet
O 1uh:vatd
ri
North
Cl
Cnun
s
5011th
E,<n l
Dr
()rlve
t
E,py
Ev1m:sswny
w
F'kv.y
Ril
Sq
Pa1~way
NE
We~t
Nor\hPa t
Rnod
NW
Norlhwest
Sqlldrc
5E
S011theasl
PI
f'l,1ce
sw
Southwcst
24-s
Umts of Measure
In the humanities and social sciences, spell out the names of units of
measure such as dimens1ons, distances, volumes, weights, and degrees.
Spell out the numbers or use numerals according to the general rule you
are following (see 23. u).
t,ve- ,rnles
24,4 Time and Oates
24.41
351
UNI f5 OF M EA SUl!E
CHMHf; ~d I ABB~EVIATlmL
Time
You may use the abbreviations a m. (ante meridiem, or before noon) and
p.m. (post meridiem, or after noon) in text and elsewhere to des1gnate specific times. The abbreviations should be Jowercase and in roman type. Do
not combine them with in the mommg, in the euenmg, or o'clock; see also
In the sciences, use standard abbreviations for units of measure when
the amount is given in numerc1ls. (You may use abbreviations in other
disoplines, depending on your local guidelines.) Leave a space between
the numera! and the unit, except where convention dictates otherwise
(36~; 10%; see also 23.1.3). Note that abbreviations are the same in singular and plural. Spell out units of measure when they are not preceded
by a number or when the number 1s spelled out (as at the beginning of a
sentence; see 23. 1.2. 1).
'°
We 1niected 10 µL ,:.,1 ~ rJs nc;n thc ln plants-
23.1.5.
24.4 .2 Days and Months
In text, spell out and capitalize the names of days of the week and
months of the year, see also 23.3. 1. ln tables, figures. and citations, you
may abbreviate them if you do so consistently. (Note that some months
in this system are not abbreviated.)
Sun
Mon
Werl
Ap,
JUl,-
Oct
Thur
Au
Nov
TUL:!.
~rl
May
Juna
S PI
o
For a list of abbreviations including common units of measure, see 10-49
of The Chicago Manual of Style, x7th edition (2017).
24.6 The Bible a nd Other Sacred Works
When you refer m text to whole chapters or books of the Bible or the
Apocrypha, spell out the names of the books but do not itahoze them_
24.4.3 Eras
There are various systems for designating eras, all of which use abbre-viations with nurnerical dates. BC and AD are the most common designations, though BCE and CE may be 11sed instead. To refer to the very
distanc past, a deslgnation such as BP or MYA may become necessary.
AD precedes the year number; the other designations follow it (see also
23.2.4 and 23.3.2).
B(
b„foreCl ri!'.t
AD
o,mo Domin/ ( in
BCE
b,,fbre lhe common !'r
CE
comrnlltl "'''
sr
M(A ln, mvM
hPlore
111,- year ol tl,t Lord)
When you cite biblical passages by verse (see 17 .5.2 and 19.5.2), abbreviate the names of the books, using arabic numerals ifthey are numbered
(2 Kings). Also use arabic numerals for chapter and verse numbers, with
a colon between them. Since versions of the scriptUTes do not all use
the same names and nurnbers for books, identify the version you are
citíng Depending on the context, you may either spell out the name of
the version, at Jeast on first occurrence, or use abbreviations (see 24,6.4),
as shown here.
the p,esi,nl
rn1llio11 Y""'' < ·o
l<ULh 3'1A NAll
352
Ct<.Af•fp )A
THt 81 • IE Al,[) OT " í" ~,. -~H• WOR• S
I AefRfV ATICJN5
24,6.2
24.6 ,1
Jewish Bible / Old Testa men t
Note that the abbreviation for Old Testament is OT.
Trad1tio1,u/
Shnrter
----
Fullname
Amos
1 ( hron
~ Chron
Am
1 Chr
Dan
Dn
Oťut
Dl
Et d
Est
E•
Amu~
1Chm11,d"-~
2 Chron,cl~s
Dan11!I
Deutero11omv
Eccle~l,,, te~
Eccles
fsthe,
Exoti
2 Ch1
E!>thi,r
Gert
Ezr
Gn
E•o<IU5
E11.rniel
E;ra
Gcncs1s
Haba ~l.ul
Ezek.
Eu a
Cz
H,1b.
Hb
HJg
Hg
Hagga,
Hosca
Hos
ls
Hos~a
,~,
lsa
Job
lor.l
Jun
Josh
Jucl)J
leremlilh
Il l
Job
Jon
Jo
Jgs
_ S.sm..i•I
"
šorťQ I Sol
21'p h
l<p
'""'
Jonah
Joshu íl
Judgc5
Apocrypha
The books of the Apocrypha are íncluded in Roman Catholic but notJew
ish or Protestant versions of the Bible. Note that the traditional abbreviation for Apocrypha is Apoc. (no shorter abbreviation).
Traomon,1/
B;,1
ll~I 111d O r,11;:011
Ecclu~
~,
Bi!rUCh
s,,
1!,•l .1111 lhe Ordgón
EC'Cles1.is11c1•~ ť, r.irh I
, btfr , ~
Mt
Jih
1 {\ll íl
r
, Mc
1M 1 c
~Mc
Pr ol Man
Soni, of Tt,rne Chi I Iren
'>u,
'TQh
W1~d oJSol
w
Tb
íraa,t1unal
I Kings
ACIS.
'! Y.lng,;
Apoc
Col
1 Cor
J COI
Mt
M ic~h
Eph
Nil
Nahum
~h ir/rr
Col
,co,
:1Co1
F.ph
G~I
N»h
N1•hem1oJh
GJ I
lie:b
t~um
Nm
Nvmber5
1„me"
Obatl
Obad ii!h
Prov~rbs
John
Jn
Ruth
15.iin.
Ru
Ruth
1 <im
\S~mul!I
lohn
;z Johr,
3 Jol1n
Jude
dn
r? (plurat Pss l
Ob
Pr\/
f'5 (pl11rnl Pss)
f'wv
Pulms
a F dr;is
lu ! th
, M11c.c ,Jht!e!.
;: Marc Jbt'f.!S
f'r c1ver ol Mi111a~5"S (Mann •eh,
Song ol lhi:! Three ~lol',' Childrun
Str.anna
Toblt
W1sdom ol <;ol r'nCJ n
Add, l0 11 i to f"h1:1 I k"5l ol [ lhcf)
Note that the abbreviation for NewTestament is NT,
: Kgs
Li1ťl1entill1u1, i,
,l'
24.6 .3 New Testament
1 Kgs
Lev1ticu:.
Mal.uht
r, _
Ba,
;! b d
2 Klngs
bm.
lev
Mal
M1c.
Nllh
Neh
LY
Mal
hlll 1,
lt'r
, r-.,1
1 Ktngs.
lam
non ( '>ong 01 Snng~)
Zecha11~h
lepl D 131
Zet.
f~;i ,ah
Je,
li
..i$m
50•1g of Sol
Z, ( h
:i Sani
The following sections list both traditional and shorter abbreviations for
the books of the Bible, arranged in alphabetical order. lf you are unsure
which form of abbreVJation is appropriate, consult your instructor. Where
no abbreviaaon is given, use the full fonn.
1
Hcb
J,,s
2 Jn
3 Jrt
fl,// l llll)lt,
Art ot 1he Aposl es
l\poculvns•! {R~vela11cui ,
ol • ,9t\C
1 Corl11tl11ans
2 Co11nth1ans
Ephe~••m'>
G,,la11an~
Hcb cws
Jílm,•
Joh11 (Go~pel)
1 John 1 [ p1stl~)
Jc,t,n lfp,stlr)
:_;i Joh!' (Ep•~tl )
Jud<
155
354
CtlAPTER l4 I !<bijlEYIA flONi
L~
Mk
lu~e
Mt
Marlhew
, Pt
1 P(•t~r
2 PI
:? Peti,
PI 11
Ph1lem
Pt11I
Rev
Rom
Rv
Rorn
Ph ppl rns
Ph emon
Rc~clat ,on (Apoi:alvp~e)
, lhess
, Thes
1 T)lessalom Jn
2Th~
1 The!.
;z lllenalJn •ans
1T1m
21,m.
Tí:us
1
lu e
Mar,
Mali
1Pet
z P"l
Ptilm
Trn
:z lrn
T1
visions, you may substitu te periods or commas ínr colons or mal:e other
ndaptat ions to clarify the location of the cited passage.
M.irL
Qur cin :i·:,57 0 1 IJ11r on:? (uf 8Qqcm,11) z.57
Mahabha ata 1.2. 3
lf your paper is in religious stud1es, consult your mstruct or
/
cific guídanc e.
10,
more spe•
P.omans
11,mothy
1T111101hy
litu~
24.7
Abbrcv iations in Citation s and Othcr Scholnr ly Contcxts
Many abbrevia tions are common ly used and even preferrc:d ln citation s,
espcc1ally for ident:1fying the roles of indiVJduals other than authors (ed.,
trans.), the parts of works (vol., bk., sec.), and locating informa tion (p., n.).
For guidelín es on usmg abbrevia uons in citation s, see 16.1.6 and chapter
17 or 18.1.6 and chapter 19
24.6 .4 Version s of the Bible
Thei;e abbrevta tions cover many s tandard versions ofthe B1ble. lf the version you are citing is not listed here, consult your instruct or.
ARV
ASV
AT
AV
CEV
DV
ERV
EV
JB
NAB
NEB
NRSV
RSV
RV
Vulg
Amencan kev sed Ve ~,on
Am r c11n Standll!(I Ve~, n
Translat 011
Authow„ d ( ► 111g James) Ve1s1011
An•••r
c.i11
Contcrnporary fngl sl\ Ver,;. on
Douny Verston
Engl sh Rev sed Vers on
Eng'ish ~er51on< s)
Jerusalem 8,bl •
New Amer,can Bible
Ne , En ltsli 81b "
Ne Rev"ell StarnJ.11 d V.:rs,on
RevLScd Stand11rd v~1s1011
Rev ~ed Vi:r s1~11
Vulgal
ln teitt it is usually better t~ spell things out Commo n abbrcv1ations
like e.g., i.e., and etc., if used, should be confined to parenth eses (see 21 .8. 1)
Followin g is a list of some of the most commo n :tbbreviations encountered JO citation s and other scholarl y context s. Unless otherwi se shown,
most form the plural by adding s or es. None of them are no1 maily italicized
abh, v alcd itbbrl'V t 011
nl:irid cti il •d , nt
a o, rrnous
i!ppcndlx
PP
čl\
n
l,
b
b1hlto;.;
t,,
book
li~
1..llP
co
24.65 Other Sacred Works
Many sacred works of other religiou s tradinon s are dívided into parts
similar to those of the Bible. Cap1tah ze and set m rom an type the names
of the works themsel ves (Qur'an (or KoranJ Ved<is), but italioze the
names of their parts (al-Baqa ra'1 , Rig-Veda). Althoug h there is no widely
accepte d method for abbreV1at1ng the names of ~ese works or thell'
parts, you may punctua te citation s from them s umlarly to those fro~
the Bible (see also 17.5.2 and 19.5.2) lf a work h as multiple number ed di
ch
p
o
cornp
(011
orr
cl ar>t ,
t lor (b~I p I i.l ul
comp,IN
<.omp !!'(I bv
oni l'IU"d
orrr tcd
d
d ed
dcpl
departrn~nt
olum
~FB•( \/IATIONS IN CITATIONS AND OTH ER Sr HOi ARlV (•)NT[x I\
356
d,ct
ti ct,on rv
pi
pldtc (!J., ,I~"' lled ut) l)IL11al
d,ss
dtv
d s•ert ·Iron
PS
(I 5IV1111 (UIIJ, 'toS\SCIIUl
d,-.s,on
pae~,J
1.)01
n,g,1al uhjé'cl ,dr-nttl•"r
pi
DVD
cd
puo
4v
o]IH)tÍ
eg
d1g11al vr,sat,:c (or v,den, d,5r
l!d1tor, ed•t1c,11 „J,J cd bv
,,x rnplt 010/10, 1r.r e,.imple
p,••udonv •
part
publlcat,on Pllbh~h~r pub' ~hed by
l!~p
f!I al
enlnr~ed
1'$p„dallv
e! a/11 t•r et olfo and othcr
ROM
rc;,t.J-only ncmory
et cetera • nd so forth
sel
sound
e~ample
S C
secllon
,.,,,
etc
e.
,epr,nt
,,,v, !!d lt!\lt)ed by, rL·v1:;10, 1evIew, rt'v •ewcd y
Ct
t!(I(!.,
s,ns
~,ni;ul,i,
soc
Sot'•ety
su111u. above
hgure
lrg
v,dt Wh1ch • L'e
,ec1u 1,1•ht
tna
nnd follnwmg
tolro
f1 ,111ff.'..s pe, second
trag
lr,11lment
Sllpp.
Hp
hll' lr,1nsfer f"oto(•JI
hypertext transter p•Nocol
sv(plswl
~lib V•·rbo tJ, voce, under the wurd
:.yn
:.vroonym, s1nc.11vrnous
tp
trilfJS
un•~
URI
usu
t,tll;'JJ,lRI.'
ff
fol
5UP
httn
tlllJ
td.
1b1dem in t he
I,
1d est, that I'
111
lllustn11ed, ,llus!rahon 1llu trator
rd
od llW
pl,1ce
m lhesam~
mfra, bclow
1nternational
ml
11111
y
rntro
ritrc;duct, ,n
,. (pi 11 )
l,1, crl
hne ( b!!!>t .Sµ~llcd out to c1vold coníus,un •11th nurn"rBls 1;mel 11)
l,m.i cl'ata ,n the: plac e tlled <bcst avo,d!!d)
m,sc
rr11
M, (pl MSSI
manu5c11pt
cellaneous
u \pi nn)
llOlé (USi!d w,thout period~ :, C t<1i•on5)
llBll
nat,011,1I
n h or l·W
nora IJ„n, illke CIH<!h I note
nd
no date
ne•
numll1•r
np
no place; 110 p11tol1st1er no PilP.C
NS
New
n S,
new ~1:11es
op c,t
opern c,taw
u,g
orgJrtoZi'lmn
Style Cdalesl
os
Old
05
old se11es
p (pi pp.)
p,m,
o,~,
pers c:ornm
St,
!!
111 the
wo,k c led (best MOtdl!d)
( dates)
pJgl!
p~1.1graph
1uis n~I com111u11IcatI011
\pi vv)
1,ppl1:mc11t
tr.. ,1slatct.J by t rnn letor
un,vorsllv
un,form r!]sourrn locato,
usuall)'
ver<.e ve,rsn, 11ght
VIZ
v•de/,cet n m ely
\lul
volurne
\I
or v
,.
Vt!rsus 1,n l,•r„11 conJ.:;;ts trs,: v
357
QUOTING o\(CURA'ELY AND AVO IDING FLAGIARISl\,l
25
Quotations
25.1
359
Quoting Accurately and Avoiding Plagiatls m
Accurate quotation is crncial lo the scholarly enterprise, so you must
• use on!y reliable, relevant soUices (see 3.3)
■ transcribe words exactly as they are in the original, or modify them only
as described in 25.3
• accurately report the sources in your bibliography or reference hst (see
chapters r6 and r8) so that readers can consu1t them for themselves
25.1
25.2
The ethics of scholarship also require that whenever you quote words
or rely on tables, graphics, or data from another source, you clearly indicate what you borrowed and from where, usmg the appropriate citation
style (see chapter 15). lf you do not, you risk a charge of plagiarism. But
even if you do cite a source accurately, you still risk a charge of plagiarism if you use the exact words of the source but fail to identify them
as a quotation in one of the way~ven in 25. 2. For a fuller discussion of
plagiarism, see 7.9
Quoting Accura tely :ind Avoiding Plagiarism
Tncorporating Quotations into Your Text
25 21 Run-in Quotations
25 2 2 Block Quotations
25.3
Modifymg Quotations
25.3 1 Permissible Changes
25.3 2 Omissions
This chapter offers general guidelines for presenting quotations. Although all of the examples are in English, the guidelines also apply to
quotations from other languages (see aiso 22.2.1).
Quoting directly from a source is just one of several options for rep•
resenting the work of others in your paper; for a discussion of the alternatives and when to use them, see 7.4. Whichever option you choose,
you must cite the source of the words or ideas. Chapter 15 provides an
íntroduction to citation practices, and the following chapters describe
two common citation styles (chapters 16 and 17, notes style; chapters 18
and 19, author-date style).
lf you are writing a thesís or a dissertation, your department or university may have specific requirements for presenting quotations, which
are usually available from the office of theses and dissertations. Ifyou are
writing a class paper, yoUI instructor may also ask you to follow certain
princtples for presenting quotations. Review those requirements before
you prepare your paper. They take precedence over the guidelines suggested here. For style guides ín various disciplines, see the bibliography.
lf your dissertation will be submitted to an extemal dissertation re•
pository, you may need to obtain formal permission from copyright holders for certain types of quotations. See chapter 4 of The Chicago Manual of
Style, 17th edition (20r7).
25.Z
lncorporating Quotabons into Yout Text
You can incorporate a quotation into your text in one of two ways, dependíng on its length. lf the quotation is four lines or less, run it into yoUI
text and enclose it in quotation marks. If it is five lines or longer, set it
off as a block q uotation, without quotation marks. Follow the same principles for quotations within footnotes or endnotes.
You may use a block quotation for a quotation shorter than ti.ve lines
if you want to emphasize it or compare it to a longer quotation.
2s.2.1
Run-in Quotations
When quoting a passage of less than five lines. enclose the exact words
quoted in double quotation marks. There are several ways to integrate a
quotation into the flow ofyour text; see 7.5.You may introduce it with the
name of the author accompamed by a term such as notes, cl<nms, argues,
or according to. (Note that these terms are usually in the present tense,
rather than noted, claimed, and so forth, but some disciplines follow different practices.) ln this case, put a comma before the quotation.
~•coeur wr,tes "The boundary betw-=er1 pt,,t arid ,llgumenl ,~ no <'•J'to,r to tra c•
t. Ricoeur nol i"s 'The bou ndar y between plot and '3rgum„1 1t ,, no easí,., to !race,"
If you weave a quotatron more tightly into the syntax of your sentence,
such as with the word that, do not pul a comma before it.
360
CHAPTEP 25
INCOPPO~ATtrJG QUOTHION5 INIO >OU, TE(T
I QUOTATIOm
Ricoeur war,,
1, lh ,t t he bmmd,11v br-tween plot anrl .irgu,.,ent ,sr ,,.,,,1;•r tn \nice."
Ifyou put the attributing phrase in the middle orat the end of a quotatíon, set it off with a pair of commas when it occurs in the middle or with
a single comma when it occurs at the end.
The bo1indary oel w1:en p lo, and ;irg 1mc 1t ~il)'" R11;oeur, 1, 110 e,1,Ie1 to trJce
361
"Score~ ni o,•wlv lreed ,l aves Vti,wed movemcnt as" vItal e•press,on of tt1e11 emc.1nc1
pattort, ,Kcording lo L1twack (1990 482)
For a quotation within a quotation, use single
1
quotation marks for the inner set of quoted words,
zs.212 SPECl/\l PUNCTUATIO N
The Loun dar v betwt!en plot and .;,g•1111ent ls nu aster to lrace,'' says Ricoeur
For the use of commas, periods, and ether punctuation marks relative
to quotations, see 2 r. 12.2 and 25,3.1; for permissible changes to capita).
ization and other elements, see 25.3.1.
PLACEMCNT or CITATtON S. If you cite the source of a quotation in a
footnote or endnote, where you place the superscript note number (see
16.3.2) depends on where the quotation falls within a sentence. lf the
quotation is at the end of the sentence, put the nurnber after the closing
quotation mark.
252.11
Au:ordIng to L11wa1..k, Sce>res of newlv 1,eed slave•, vIewed movement as i1 v,tal ex-
pre ~101• oí t he1r enianc1pat,on "
If the quotation ends in the middle of a sentence, put the number at
the end of the clause that includes the quotation, which often is the end
of the sentence.
Stores ol nt'WIY f reed slaves 111.-wed rnovement as a vllal e•press,on nf thetr em ancl•
patIon
acco1ding to Lrtwact.. •
Litwack argues t hd l scores u f n e...,ly l reed slaves v1ewed movem'"nt ils il vItal e, prcs-
• :w of t he" ernílnr•pat,on" ;ind he r •oceeds to pruve th,s assert1on
The same placernent options apply to citations given parenthetically
with either notes-style (16.4.3) or author-date citations (see 18.3.1), with
two notable differences:
■ Jf
a period or comma would nonnally precede the closing quotation
mark, place it outside the quotation, following the closing parenthesis.
Thf- a11t hors ser,k \o underslanJ 'how people ...ale6 or
Rothko, ilr gu~s Bali
wanted to mal·e work:i lhal wrought a transcendenl effect that
dealt with sptrttual concerns Pa1ntrngs m11st be llke mtr.ic les,' he on ce said
lf you run two or more lines of poetry into your text, separate thern
with a slash (/), with a space before and after it In most cases, however,
use block quotations for poetry (see 25.2.2.2).
Thcy reduce 11le to ,1 s rnpltc propom cin 1111 thI11~ hJve rt,t d nd rtpP.n tnwilrd thegrave / ln s.tlence, , 1pe11, fdil .'tnd r?as, '
.,,.
2s.2.2 Block Quotations
Present a prose quotation of five or more Unes as a block quotation. Introduce the quotation in your own words in the text; see 7 5- If
you introduce the quotation with a cornplete sentence, end the sentence
with a colon. lf you use only an attnbution phrase such as notes, claims,
argues, or according to along with the author's name, end the phrase with
a comma. If you weave the quotation into the syntax of your sentence,
do not use any punctuation before the quotation if no punctuation would
ordinarily appear there (see the second example below).
Single-space a block quotation, and leave a blank line before and after
it. Do not add quotation marks at the beginning or end, but preserve any
quotation marks in the original. Indent the entire quotation as far as you
indent the first line of a paragraph. {In literary studies and other fields
concemed with close analysis of texts, you should indent the first line
of a block quotation farther than the rest of the quotation if the text is
indented in the original; see also 25.3.) For other punctuation and capitalization within the quotation, see 25.3,L
25.2.2.1 Pl!OSE .
ze ti e ul>jects t hey ericounter in
.. veryday slt11ation5 ' (Bnwl<er anrl Star 1q9Q, c;9)
Hous,ng 1s ,111 outw;irn .,,pre~~•L•n ul the tnner huinan rtdlurc, no socr~ly ca11 be
To derernirne ' how p,:ople catego,,:e lhe obJccts t hey 1:t1COl>nle1 in everyday s 1tuat1uns'
■
(Bowke, ancJ Sta, 1999 s9). t h e a uthors devised a " t udy
When the authoťs name is mentioned in text along with the quotation,
place the date next to the author's name, regardless of where it appears
relative to the quotation.
full y understc>od 1parl frorn lhe resrcknces. of 11!. members. A 111néteenl h-centu1v
melody dtclJre,, There s no plaLe like home. and ev;,n l hotigh ~he had Emerald
City .it lo~, 1.:!:t Don-1lry cuuld lh,n~. or n,'> plate she would ,athcr be th„n '11 ho111e
111 K~ns;is Our I on1~s are our li.1ven3 llíltn lili! w,,r1ú .
lr1 the reo1 of ht~ tr !roduc11an he d lsc11
st
362
1..t-i',PTER _,
OUOTATION~
MODIF YING OUOTAT!ON~
lf you quote more than one paragraph, do not add extra line space
between them, but indent the fi_rst line of the second and subsequent
paragraphs farthe1 Lhan the rest of the quotatíon.
363
ls lhc yeare on<?lv losl 10 nrc7
H'lve I no bayes to crown li
No tloweis
110 gíld 11,d~ gay?
all bla,tPd7
Aflw,m~,P
11e oo:r.encd lit 1l
1;0~1:rnn,..nts ord111~11lv pi,r1~h Ly o,1-'i1:rless111:s~ 01 by l tl ilnny tn t he 11rs1 c~sc.
powl!r e,CJflE> them. n th,.. •Jther ll ,~ 10,11 lrorn thern
Many peop
on N!, g de1t1ocr.i1tc st~•cs lall ,nlO a, irchy hav thought 1'1111
•overnrnenr '" these state, was untu,ally we;il , ncl pc...,•erl,:Ss. The truth 15 th.Jl
when war arnon>; theor part,es. has cmce l>c~n ~ct a flatT•e
t, n 011 or I I TC1 ,u..~,ue 24 \
BOVť•11111en1 lo~e~ 11!1 ~
ff you cite the source in a foo tnote or endnote, place the note number as
a superscnpt at the end of the block quotation, as in the first example
above (see also 16.3.2) tf you cite the source parenthetically, put the citallon after the termmal punctuation of a block quotation, as in the second
example above. (Note that this differs from its placemenl with a run-in
quotation, as e>..-plained in 25.2.r.1.)
25 2 2 2 POEiRV A ND DRA MA Present a quotation of two or more lines ftom
poetry as a block quotation Begin each line of the poem on a new line,
with punctuation at the ends oflines as in the original. For most papers,
indent a block of poetry as you would a prose quotation, if a line is too
long to fit on a single line, mdent the runover farther tban the rest of the
quotation. (ln a dissertation or ether longer paper that includes many
poetry quotations, center each left-aligned quotation on the page relative
to the longest line.)
Wt11tman poem lnrtud",. som, IT'?morable p.,ssagt?s
M~ tongue ~vcry
so1I t111~ ~,,
Born h ere
•*"" ol my i looJ forni d from this
ol p1ir1:n1, horn hcrl! lrorn µ.:11ent~ the sanie
e11tl lh"•f pdrl!nts the s.ime,
I. now l h1rlv-seij1•n Y"d'~ old in perle<:\ heilllh begu,,
Hnn1ng to cca~i.- r r,{ lili deJlh
tf you are quoting a poem with an unusual alignment, reproduce thc
allgnment of the original to the best of your ability.
Th1s 1s whal Ht!rbcrl Cílplured !>O b<:au1ifully
Surc li t:rt w.i, YI n,;
s„rorE" mv s,ghs '11d c.Jr1e 1t :herc wils co•n
Bt.!lore mv te;m, d1d cJ rown ,t.
lf you quote two or more lines of dialogue from a dramatic work, set
the quotation apart in a b1ock quotation formatted as yoy would prose.
Present each speakeťs name so that it is distinct from the dialogue, such
as in all capital letters or in a different font. Begin each speech on a new
line, and indent runovers farther than the rest of the quotation.
Tt cn ,ht 1>lur .ikc
<"11
ll RnlSH ~ DOISTflt
M ME11wc;11nu
ufllJ ua, lurn
hc~pt I havc her to lflV w,fc I shall H Iil mad
Nav 'unw1~r•
p,.rhaps. but I warrnnt
vou lor
rnad.
252.2.3 EP t GRAPH S An epigraph is a quotation that establishes a theme oí your
paper. For epigraphs used in the front matter oí a thesis or dissenation,
see A2.1. 'Ireat an epigraph at the beginning of a chapter or sec Lion as a
bloc.k quotation. On the line below it, give the author and the title, flush
right and p receded by an em dash (or two hyphens; see 21.7.2). You do
not need a more forma} citation for an epigraph. Leave two blank lines
between the source line and lhe beginning of text. See also figure A.9.
ne city however, doe5 r.ot teh ,ts pJ~l hul „on, a,ns 1t liM! the line_ u ah I d
- Italu Calvinu /11vts1hle C/111'5
25.3 Modifying Quotations
When you do your research, you must record the exact wording, spelling,
capitalization, and punctuation of any text you pian to quote, even if they
do not follow the guidelines in this manual. When you incorporate the
quotation into your paper, however, you may make mtnor adjustments
to fit the syntax of the surrounding text or to emphasize certain parts of
the quotation.
Note that disciplines have different standards for issues discussed in
this section, such as modifying initial capital and lowercase letters and
using ellipses for omiss1ons. For papers m most disciplines, follow the
general guidelines. For papers in literary studies and other fields concemed with close analysis of texts, follow the stricter guidelines given
under some topics. If you are not sure wluch set to follow, consult your
local gu.idelin es or your instructor.
364
MODW• l ~ G Q UO rATIOrlS
Cl'.APHP 15 1 'JU01A11011S
2 5.3.1 Permissíbl e Change-s
.
25 311 s
I Nu lf the onginal 1,ource conrains an obvious typographi c errcn,
correct it withoul comm~nl.
o, tl'nal
Thc,;e conclu~Ions are not delmate bul lhey dl~ ce,tainly suggest,ve
Ctay\011 tlrnrt rh 11
t,.., conclus1ons čl<l!
r1ol (irl,n,!r.
lf, however. such an error reveals something significant ab~ut the
source or is relevant to your argument, preserve it in your quotation. lrnmediately following the error, insert the Latin word sic ("so"), _itallcii_ed
and endosed in brackets, to identify it as the author's error ll 1s constdered bad manners to call out errors JUSl to embarrass a source.
The Me„1ca11 r opi!' •vt•rn bountl lo bencttt from 1hc chaf'I&<' ,uguos Fr!1r1a11dez
Likewise, if the original passage ends with a colon or semicolon, you
may delete it or change ít to .:1 period or a comma, depending on the
1
structure of your sentence (see 21 12.2 1).
ln literary studies and ether fields concemed with close analysis of
texts, indicate any change in capitalizat ion by puttmg the altered letter
in brackets. (For the use of ellipsis dots in literary studies, see 25.3.2.3.)
íTih„ Me• 1cíl•1 pcople wcre bound to bent!fit hom the change" nrgués F"c,nandez
Orlqlnal The ,we,ag,· Am.-rlcan (Joe„ not t..110.v how tc, c.p,·11 ana can!l!II u~ a rnma
Fl!r,1a,ldez potnts out th„1 (a]s" ,,:511lt uf the?.e f.ic.tor thí:! Ml!. 1c-3n pcople wcre
properly
bounrl .,_ kAn 1,1 ''""' O• chiln e
Ru ~!!li e,emplille~ hc:r ovm
01"-P;, comll Í
,gument by clalrn nt tn,,t
thM ,wC!rage Amencan • Cilnnot
c J nrcl"'•lv
When quotmg ftom an older source or one lhal represents dialect with
nonstanda rd spelling, preserve idiosyncrasies of spellmg. a~d do not ~se
sic. lf you modemize or alter all of the spelling and punctuatlo n for clanty,
inform your readers in a note or preface.
25 3.12
Furn,1ncfez ,,nt s thal lhe Me•1cons w," br,1,nd lo b1•n lrt lrtH•l th! chanpe • as ., ru:.ull
ol thc iacto,s ht: dtKuS.5f;!~
~o !'UHCTU &.T!Ofll ln most d1sciplines you may change
the initial lelter of a quoted passage from capital to lowercase or from
lowercase to capital without noúng the change lf you weave the quotation into the syntax of your sentence, begin 1t with a lowercase letter
Otherwise begin tt with a capital leller if it begms w1th a complete s~ntence, with a lowercase letter if 1t does not. You may also make s1milar
changes when you use ellipses; see 25.3.2.
CAP 1TAL I ZAT I OI A,
o,1911101 A~ 11 '"""'' of tl-;c~c láctors Ille Me,rcan people wére b011nll to ucnPftl from
lhc cliangc
ln any discipline, if you put double quotation marks around a passage
that already includes double quotation marks, change the interna! marks
to single quotation marks for darily (see 25.2.1.2),
25313 f1 ALICS You may italicize for emphasis words that are not italicized in
the original, but you musl indicate the change with the notation ítalics
mine or emphasis added, placed e1ther in the quotation or in its c1tation.
Within the quotation, add the notatlon in square brackets immediately
after the italicized words. ln a citation, add the notation after the page
number, preceded by a semicolon (see also 16 3.5). In general, avoid adding italics to passages that include italics in the original; if it becomes
necessary. you may distinguish these with the notation italics m origmal
or, for example, Flauberťs 1talics
Atcordtng to ~rhultz, By lhe cnó of :zoro cwery rlemocrory (empha isi:idded] w,11 laée
the challcnr,e ol 11uclear t PflO!IS"1,
Elrov.o
1ule~ ~
rnp y lhal Ille dc\hUCh!>n of ltle tribes had al! hi!Pl)eO"d 111 le\s tha re,,
ycors (2;1 1\nlrt s 11•1<1~ \
Fernandez cin ms íhP Me,uc 111 peoplč were bound to benefit lrorn lhc chant"c"
F~rr,a 111Jei d m,~ th.-it 111 Mex1c1m peoolr were bou11J to O"n ltt trorn tt1e change
Íl!rnandcz f)Otn\!i oul 1ha1 .is .i ,er;ult of li·• c facto,:-.. the Me11Cllll people werc bound
IO bcnehl tro111 tis• tll,!11&e
íhc- M e••C:M p or,le ' note' Ferr'""rlí••
~~ bound 10 b<:n~t•• f•o"' thr ,-han;;c
Depending on how you work the quotation in the text, you may also
omit a final period 01 change ít to a comma.
25.314 I c;oPr '> N lf you need to insen a word or more of explanation, clarification, or correction into a quotation, enclose the msertion in brackets.
If you find yourself making many such insertions, consider paraphrasi ng
or weaving smaller quotations into your text mslead
A!>:i.nc obscfves ihe~o: masters [P,cas!>O meQue, ~att~se] 1ebelled aga1nst acadern1c
t1a1111ng
Sh obser ves that P,cas,o 01aquP ,111.J MJlm,e rehEI ed .l!F,·11nst •t Jd1•1111c trn,n,ng
366
CtiAPTL 2~ I
llCH Aí O 'lS
quote a passage that includes a superscri pt note number
but do not quote the note ítself, you may omit the note number. On the
other hand, parenthe tical text reference s in the original should usuaUy
be retained
25 31 i; N\J H
25.3.2
lf you
Omission s
lf you om1t words, phrases, sentence s, or even paragrap hs from a quota.
tion because they seem irrelevan t, be careful not to change or m1srepresent the meaning of the original source. Not only must you preserve
words whose absence might change the entire meaning of the quotatíon (such as not, never, or alwoys), but you must also preserve important
quahfications. The quotauon shown 10 the following example would be a
misrepre sentation of the author's meaning. (See also 4.2.4.)
Ut1q1 ,111I The chani:e w.is ~u,e to Ill! l.>l'n, t 1ill onu, l11c: 1n11N.'(lia1ě 11oubles ~ubs111cd
Yang cta.ms. í he th!nge was sure 10 b bcnc!lcaal
To indicate the omission of a word, phrase, or sentence, use ellipsis dots-thr ee periods with spaces between them. To
avoid breaking an ellipsis over the line, use your word processo r's ellips1s
character or, alternatively, use a nonbreak ing space before and after the
middle dot. You will also need to use a nonbreak ing space between the
e!lipsis and any punctuat ion mark that follows. (Any mark that precedes
the ellipsis, including a period, may appear at the end of the line above.)
Since the dots stand for words omitted, they always go inside the quota-
25 3 2 1 INSER TI N G ELL1rscs
tion marks or block quotation .
How you use ellipses in certain situation s depends on your discipline.
For most disciplínes, follow the general method; for literary stud1es and
other fields concerne d with close analys1s of texts, follow the textua\
stucties method (see 25.3.2.3) lf you are not sure which method to follow,
consult your Jocal guideline s or your instructo r See 25.3.1 for adjustments to capitaliza tion and punctuat ion with omission s.
You may shonen a quotation such 86 the
following in several different ways.
25 3 2 2 GENERAL ~ L -H OD fC,11 H l IPSES,
Ortg11H71 Wnen a r,a Ion 1s w,ung. ,t slioul<.I a.1v so and apalog,re to the wrongeil pJrty
11 should conduc:t ,tscll ;1t.cor lmg to lhc 51'1ftd.irds al 1nternat1011al t.l,plom.ity li should
al5ll ta!ie Slep•·~ rl-.lf'<'!' lhc ~•lualt0JI
lf you omit words within a sentence , use three ellipsis dots as described above (25 3 2.1).
M ODlf Yl"fli O UOTlo.TION5
" Whcn il n111aon 1s w ronp 1t should
367
,1polor1?r! lo 1h„ wmn.11.ed oartv "
,_r Y?U o_mit material between senlence s and the material preceding the
om1ss1on 1s a grammat ically complete sentence , use a terminal punctuation mark immedia tely following that sentence Leave a space between
that punctuat ion mark and the first ellips1s dot Fo\low thts practice even
if the. omission includes the end of the precedin g sen tenče as Jong as
what IS left 1s grammab calty complete (as in the second example here)
When d nallon rs wrong. 11 should Sily so and apolog,zr lo the wronged party
5hould also IJ~e steps to chan•r. the i;,Iual on
' Whcn d nal,on 1s wrong, 11 should sc1y so .
lt
lt should also take stcps. to changc 1he
~11\•ril!C.11 '
If you ornit material berween sentence s so that the material preceding and following the om1ss1on combínes to forma grammat.ically complete s_ente~ce , do not_ include terrll'inal punctuat ion before che ellipsis.
To avotd rrusrepre sentmg the author's meaning, however, it is generally
better to use one of the shortenin g optíons above or to use rwo separace
quotation s in this situation .
''When il nat,on ,s 'wron 1l •I 'JU!!l .sav so ,111d
take stcos to ch,u,2, thc 5,1u-1t,on
The same princ1ples apply with other types of punctuat ion marks
which precede or follow an ellipsis dependin g on where the words ar~
o~itted. In some situation s, such as the second example below, consider
using a more selective quotation.
How not wus
•t'
No onc coulCI luncllon tn that d amate
' Thc mcrch,inr s stock 1nclu1fod dr y good„ a,1d sundr\l othcr ,w,ns
by the Womcfi uf the lown
all lor purch
Sl!
or
The merchc111: <;(otked d•', ~ood~ 11nd -sund,y other Item~ ' lo, lhc 1, wn, women
Since in many contexts 1t is obvious when a quotation has been short•
ened, you need not use elltpslS points in the following situatíon s:
• before or a~~r a quo~d phrase, mcomple te sentence , or other fragment
fr~m th~ o~ginaJ that IS clearly not a complete sentence , 1ť you ornic anything withm the fragment, however, use ellipsis points at the appropria te
place:
th;ii
~<llllh wrote lhal the pre~tdPnl had been "verv much 1mprencd " hv the p per
pov,e,s
ma1ar
th,
I!
ol
e:.
rcsou,
tronom,
1hr
,1g
~1,e~~ d us
368
M001í ,,
(H APi ER 25 j QUOII\TIONS
• al the beginning of a quotation, even if the beginning of the sentenc
from the original has been omitted (but see 25.3.2,3 for the textualst\Jd~
ies method for ellipses)
• at the end of a quotation, even if the end of the sentence from the ongi
nal has been omitted
The textual studies method
uses etlipses more stricůy than the general method to represent om1s.
sions of material at the beginning and end of quoted sentences. lf you
use this method, follow the principles of the general method except as
noted below.
25.3 2.3 TEXTU Al STUDIE S ME.THOD FOll ELL IPSC S
01,1111111/ ./v11c 1 a natlur, s wrrJnr,. I ,hnuld ~"V ~o ,;1rd ,,polor,•:"' la t hc wrongedparty
li ~houlil condud ,tseli ,1ccord111g lti 1t1•· •·tanda•d~ o l 1nl ernal1on 11 d111lomacy ll1-hould
i!l~u laki, sl"P~ lu .-11,111/" th ~1l u a l 1011
• lfyou omit material between sentences but quote the sentence preceding lhe omission in full, include the termmal punctuation mark from
the original. l.eave a space between that punctuation mark and the first
ellipsis dat, as in the general method, shown in the first example below. However, if the omission indudes the end of the preceding sentence
(even if what is left is a grammatically complete sentence), put a space
mstead of a punctuation mark immediately following that sentence. Af•
ter the space, use three ellipsis dot:s to represent the omission, followed
by a space and the temůnal punctuation mark from the original (as m
the second example here)
"When a nahon ts wro11 '. I shuulJ Sil)' so dnd apoloi,;,:c lu lhe wron~l.''1 11ar1v
lt
shtJulo al~,, 1.1~e :teps to ch1111ge the 51tualto11
r;
369
nal punctuauon from rhe original. as you wo11ld for ru1 ommed ending
between sentences.
When il nat,on •~ wrrnlg, 1 5,hould !Mly so
.?5 3 ,_,
The following practice apph1,>s to both
the general and textual srudies methods of handlmg om1ssi,bn„
lfyou om1t a full paragraph or more within a block quotation Uldicate
that ornisston w1th a period and three ellips1s dots at the end of the par a•
graph before the mniss1on. lf the quotation includes another paragrnph
after che om1ssion, inclent t.he first line of the new paragraph lf it stans
ul ů1e middle of a parngrnph, begm w1th three elhpsis poims after the
mdentauon.
OMITTING A PAIIAGRAPH OR MORE
A brand new c,111,c .-ne~ WJ, J115l com,ri, ,ntn e.i~terce
S1llC~ nó man ''Vf'• c;in o• coultl ltvr: t,y h,mself 1md fo r h1msr-lf alonl.' the
dl'~tln•es ni thoupM~ ol orhe, p•!Ople werP bound to be affeLled
For both the general and textual
studies methods, show the omission of one or more complete lines of a
poem quoted in a block quotation by a line of ellipsis pomts about as long
as the line above il.
i!i3l.S OM ITTING A LI NC OR MORE Of POfTR~
Thc l;ev r.iss„1;:e re ,d• , ~ 10110.-, s
Wť1
r na more, wo, •ul sti.-.phNds
v.cep nu more-
for Lyc da~ your ~o, fO\I, I . Mt dc<1d
To dll l hal wdndc:, tn lha\ oertfou~ fluod
When 1 ni111on 1:; vm 11g 1\ ~hould s.;'/ 5c,
111
ll ~houl,I lsu w~e steps t,i change the
~•lnri
• lf you begin a quotation with a sentence that is grammaůcally complete
despite an omission at the beginning of the sentence, indicate the omission with an ellipsis. lf the first word is capitalized in the quotation but
not in the original, indicate the changed letter in brackets (see 25.3. 1).
111\ • t,n cl ílv 5 ,md ar,01111:,ze 10 the wro11 •t:r1 par t v
• lf you end a quotation w1th a sentence that 1s grammatically complete
despite an omission at the end of the sentence, indicate the omission
with a space and a three-dot ellipsis, followed by a space and the tenn1-
a, a,, ac.tu.al opcratmg
l1111c1,on ol a ~oul Mv chnlleS we11• 1u~t atiuut lo becomc rcsponslblc
GEN[RA
26
26.1
~SIJE
371
generate such items in the correct style, nor will software ensure Jogical o: forma! consistency. Expect to change some default settings before
creatmg tables, charts, and graphs and to fme-tune these items once they
are produced.
Your department or university may have specific requ1rements for formatting tables and figures, usually available from Ůle office oftheses and
d1ssertations lf you are writing a class paper, check wifu your instructor for any specrnl requirements. Review these requirements before you
prepare your paper. They take precedence over the guidelines suggested
here. For style guides in various disciplines, see the bibhography
For more mfom1ation on creatmg and formatting tables and figures
and inserting them into your paper, see A. 3. 1 .
Tables and Figures
General Tssu es
26 1.1 Posil•on in the Text
26.12 S,ze
26.I 3 Sou,ce Unes
26.2
Tables
26,1
26.21 Table Structure
26.2.2 Table Nurnbets and T,tles
Ther~ are several issues common to the presentation of tables and figures m papers.
26.2.3 Rules
26.2 4 Column H~Jds
26 2 5 The Stub
2b 2 6 The Body ol a Table
26.2 .7 Footnote,
26.3
Figures
26.3 I Charts and Graphs
26 3.2 Figure Numbers and Capt,ons
Many research papers use tables and figures to present data. Tables are
grids consisting of columns and rows lhat present numerical or verbal
fatts by categories. F1gures include charts, graphs, diagrams. photographs,
maps, musical examples, drawings, and oŮler unages All these types of
tabular and nontextual materials are collectlvely referred to as illustra•
tions (a term sometimes used interchangeably with ftgures) or graphtcs.
When you have dala tllat could be conveyed m a table or figure, you
first task is to choose the most effective of these formats; some kinds of
data are better represented in a table, some in a chart, others in a graph.
Your cho1ce will affect how your readers respond to your data. These are
rhetorical issues, discussed in chapter 8. rhis chapter focuses on how to
construct the particular form you choose, looking specifically at tables
and two types of figures-charts and graphs.
Most tables, charts, and graphs are created W1Ůl software. You can·
not rely on software, however, to select the most effective format or to
General tssues
26.1.1
Position in the Text
Normany you should place a table or figure 1mmediately after che paragraph in which you firs t mention 1t. Somenmes. however, such placement will cause a short table to break unnecessanly across che page or a
figure to jump to the top of the next page, Ieaving more than a few lmes
of white space at the bottom of the previous page. To prevent either of
~ese from happening, you may (a) place the table or figure farther along
10 the text, as long as it remams wtthin a page of řts first mention, or (b)
place the table or figure just before the first mention, as long as it appears
on the same page as the mention (Such adjustments are best made after
the text of your paper is final.)
You may group smaller tables or figures on a page, as long as they are
clearly dislinct from one another. Grouped tables generally ,etain theu
own titles (see 26.2.2). lf grouped figures are dosely related, give them a
smgle number and a general caption, orherwise use separate numbers
~nd captions (see 26.3.2). (Depending on your local guidelmes, you may
mstead group tables a nd figures together in a section labeled Jllustrat,ons
in the back matter of your paper; see A.2.3 J .)
lf a table or figure is only marginally relevant to your topic, or if it is
too large to put ín lhe text, put it in an appendix m the back matter of
your paper (see A.2 3).
for more mformation on inserting tables and figures into your paper,
see A.3.r.
374
Ch AP fEO. 21>
TABLES
TASL[S AND f GURE S
Ch,car.o's popul1111011 g,r,w Pxpr111r.11t1ally 1n ,,~ f,rst century
Table 26.1. Selected churches in Four Corners, Boston
Rel1g1ous trad,t11 n
Atten,lance
Ethntotv/011g,n
Class
1840
4,4 70
Church al Gud
Pentecostal
100
C.;rrbbean, mixed
M1ddlt
1870
J98,977
Church of the Hol)' Ghost
Pent ecostal
10
Soul hern Black
Work rng
1900
Baptist
70
Southern Black
M ,ddle
1.6<)3,575
Fa,th Bapt,s:
Pentecostal
50
Ha,tran
Work,ng
1930
3,37b,138
M a,son cfE.sp11I
Ml Nebo Ap~IOIIC
Apost ohc
30
Southern Bla . k
Work,ng/mlddle
Chur( h
S"" '~ Odla dd.:1ptr d !rom C,,na, M Mc.Roberts St~t'tS cf Glorv (flu,c·~ or:d Coo1m1Jfl•fr' tn ,J 8 ao I.Pbctt
<Ctncago Un1ven,iiv ol Chicago Press. 2003) 53
fvE-1Qh00thOOd
I
Number tahles separately from figures, in the order in
which you mention them in the texL lfyou have only a few tables, number them consecutiv ely throughou t lhe paper, even across chapters. If
you have many tables and many chapters, use double numeratio n: that
is, the chapter nurnher followed by a period followed by the tahle numher,
as in "Tuble 1 2-4 "
When you refer to a tahle in the text, specify the table number {"m
table 3") rather than its location ("below") because you may end up movmg the table while ecliting or formattmg the paper. Do not capitalize the
word table in text references to"'"tables.
11
262 21 TABlf NUMBE S
noted. To save space, you can use abbrevíations and symbols more freely
than you can in text, but use them sparingly and consistent ly. lf standard
abbreviations do not exist, create your own and explain them either in a
footnote to the table (see 26.2-7) or, if there are many, m a list of abbreviations m your paper's front matter (see A.2 1).
26.2.1
375
Tuble Structure
A table has elements analogous to horizontal and vertical axes on a
graph. On the honzontal axis along the top are column heads. On the vertical axis along the left are headings that constitute what is called the
stub column.
This grid of colurnns (vertical) and rows (horizontal) in a table usually
correlates two sets of variables called independent and dependent. The
independe nt variables are traditionally defined on the left, in the slub
column. The dependent variables are traditionally defined in the column
heads. If you include the same set of variables in two or more tables in
your paper, be consistent : put them in lhe same place in each tahle, as
column heads or in the stub.
The data, which rnay be words, numbers, or both (see tahle 26. r), are
entered in the cells below the column heads and to the right of the stub
column .
26.2.2 Tahle Numbers and Titles
ln general, every tahle should have a number and a title Place these items
flush left on the líne above the tahle, with the word Table (capitalized, in
roman type), followed by the tahle number (in arabic numerals), followed
by a penod After a space, give the title without a terminal period. Capitalize the title sentence-s tyle (see 22.3. 1). If a title runs onto more than
one line, the runovers should be flush left, single-spa ced.
Table
13- Yen-dollar rat1os IJI Japanesc l!xports, 1995-2005
A simple tabulation that can be introduced clearly in the text, such as
a simple two-co!um n list, need not be numbered or titled.
26.2 22
Keep table titles short but descriptive enough to indicate
the specific nalure of the data and to d1fferentiate tables from one another. For d1scussion of good titling practices, see 8.3.1. Tahle titles may
be presented in a smaller font than the rest of your text.
TABLE TITlES
26.2.3 Rules
Rules ~ines) separate different types of data and text. Too many rules
create a confusing image, so use them sparingly and consistent ly (see
also 8.3.2).
• lnsert full-width horizontal rules to separate the table's title from the
column heads (see 26.2.4), the column heads from the body of the table,
and the body of the tahle from footnotes. A rule above a row of totals is
tradiaonal but not essent:Ial (see table 26.2). Unnumber ed tables run into
the text can usually be set Wlth no rules, as Jong as any column heads are
set off typographically.
• Use partial-wid th honzontal rules to indicate which column heads and
columns are govemed by speoal types of heads, if you use them (see
26.2-4, table 26.2).
enough space between data cells to avoid the need for additional
Leave
•
rules. Do not use vertical rules to enclose the tahle in a box But if you
need to double up a Jong and narrow tahle (see 26.1.2), use a vertical rule
to separate the two halves.
• Use caution in employmg shading or color to convey meaning (see 8.3.2)
Even if you print the paper on a color printer or submit it as a PDF, 1t may
... 11~~t
3711
/,B í
r:.a rs
D FC. RC!,
You may use abbreviations and symbols (mpg, km, lb., %, $M, and so on),
but be consistent within and among your tables.
Table 26.2, Election results in Gotefrith Pro~ince, 1950• 60
45,.,,
J<.SO
Pat11'
or vote
Sea~,
[li YOl("
1%1)
Seats.
o• sole
-'1t111
J77
Responses. (~ )
5ea1.1.,..,
Pesos (m1lhons)
P,11, noa• Assemblv
Const:r\oA ,.,,e
Soc,al si
Chri5t,an Oerno<rat
Other
Toral
i1
37
o
.60
?7 l
,11.
57
JO[IQ
150
1011 O
32b
13 5
57 l
IB
JI
3S S
I?.\
l'l 2
18
85
}IJ
30 9
248
J9
06
l'
39 2
S9
SI
a
150
lOOO
l~
4J
52
M~llcnal .;ssemblv
Ctui~c,vatťve
JOC-•altsl
(t,.,,1,a~ D~•• ooa,
O♦ her
fot.i I
3
Zc.3
J.J 1
ťi
4',, '1
ál
o
l :'
100 1.1
12
100 O
238
27 3
42 8
3
l
7
o
12
Sn, ,~l:": !: al.-. ,,('ln, t ,cl1v.
Tn 1: 3eJ' trat wo, O, H:~11, :-.,1 ~ u•1st. v.tio tl'.:!ume-., n,t-moer f 11 Con;.er.,lth" Crla
01t,1,..G e!ntr..,, , •:J.L •1,tl,é.Jú nt t, cna A ~e.rno1
'11••PWtl '"" nt
2
!
0
13'
l1 1
be pnoted or copied later in black and white. lf you use shading, make
sure it does not obscure the Lext of the table, and do not use multiple
shades, which might not reproduce dislinctly.
26,2A
■
■
■
Column Heads
A tahle must have al least two colurnns, each with a head or headi119 at the
top that names lhe dam in the column below.
When possible. use noun phrases for column heads. Keep them short to
avoid an excessively wide table or heads that take up Loo many bnes.
Cap1talize colum11 heads sentence-style (see 22..3.1).
Align the stub heacl flush left (see 26.2.s), column heads can be set flush
left or centered over the widesl entry in the column below. Align the bot•
tom of all heac!s honzontally.
You may need to include special types of heads in addition to the
column hearu;. Such a head may apply to two or more columns of data
Center the head over the relevant columns with a parlial-width horizontal rule benealh (and, if necessary, above) it. Table 26.2 shows heads
bolhabove the main column heads ("1950. 'd1956," and "1960") and below
lhem ("Provincial Assembly" and "Naoonal Assembly'l
Heads may have explanatory tags to clarify or to indicate the unit oi
measure for data tn t.he colwrm below Enclose such tags m parentheses
26,2.s
Tbe Stub
The leftmost column of a table, called the stub, lists tha categories of data
I
in each row.
■
lnclude a column head for the smb whenever possible, even 1f it is generic (w'fypical Characteristic' or "Variable"). Omit the head only 1f lt
would merely repeat the table tltle or 11 the categories 1n the stub are too
diverse for a s mgle head
■ Make stub entnes nouns or noun phrases whenever possible, and keep
them consislent 111 form: "Books," "Joumal articles," "Manuscnpts," rather
than "Books," "Articles published iu journals," "Manuscripts." Use the
same word for the same item~ alJ of yout tables (for example, if you use
"Fonner USSR" in one table, do not use ''Fonner Soviet Union" in another).
■ Capitalize all srub entries sentence-style (see 22.3,1), with no rermmal
periods
■ Set the stub head and entries flush left; indent any runover lines, unless
you've left enough space between rows to distingu1sh entrics from each
ether
• To show the sum of the numbers in a column, include an indented srub
entry btled Total (see lable 26.2).
lf the stub column includes subentnes as well as mam entnes (see
tahle 26 3), dis1ingu1sh them through mdentation, italics, or both. Follow
the same principles hsted above for main entries for cap1Lalizarion and
so forth.
26.2.6 Th e Body of a Table
The body of a table consists of cells contairung your data, which may be
words, numbers. or both (see table 26,1).
lf the data are numencal and all values in a column or in the entíre
table are in thousands or millions, omit the rightmost zeros and note the
unit in an explanatory tag in the relevant column head (see 26.2-4), in the
table title (26.2.2), or in a footnote (26.2.7) lndicate ari t:!mpty cell with
three spaced periods (ellips1s dots), centered as in cable 26.3.
16261 HORIZONTAL AllúNMENT. Align
for that row
the data m each row with the srub entry
378
CHAPTEP 2&
TIIBLES
Tf.B LES "-1<0 FIGURE>
that apply to speclfic parts of the tahle, and (4) notes on levels of statlstical significance. lfyou have more than one kind ofnote, put them in that
order.
Table 26.3. Unemployment rates for work1ng-age New Yorkers, 2000
Asq
Unemplovmenl rate
Ali workers
By educat,on ( ages 25 6-l)
Less than h,gh school
H1gh school degree
,1
labor forl.e
Female
Male
6.1
54
119
58
50
45
23
Both s~xe:,,
262 71
54
Same college
42
BA or more
.>c
By ~ge
16-19
20- 34
19 3
65
35-54
55-M
29
47
Notes to explain specific items in a tahle can be attached
to any part of the table except„the tahle numher or title. Designate such
notes with lowercase superŠcript letters rather than numhers, both
within the tahle and in the note 1tself. Do not hegin the note with the
word note but with the same superscrip t letter, with no period or colon
followmg.
SPEC IFIC NOTES
• lf the stub entry runs over onto two or more lmes hut the related data
does not, align the row with the bottom line of the stub entry.
or
■ Ifhoth the stub entry and the data m the same row run over onto two
entry.
stuh
the
of
line
top
the
wnh
row
the
more ilnes, ahgn
■ lf necessary, insert leaders 0ines of periods, or dots) to 1ead the reader's
eye from the stub to the data m the first column. (For an example of leaders in a similar context, see fig. A.5.)
26.2.7 Footnotes
If a tahle has footnotes, position them flush left, single-spac ed. Leave a
hlank line hetween the hottom rule of the tahle and the ftrst note, and
also between notes. Footnotes may he presented in a smaller font than
the rest of the text; consult your local guidehnes .
Footnotes for tahles can he offour kmds: (1) source lmes (discussed in
26.1.3), (2) general footnotes that apply to the whole tab1e, (3) footnotes
General notes apply to the entire table They define abhreviation s, expand on the tahle title, specify how data were collected or
derived, indicate rounding of values, and so on. Gathef all such remarks
into a single note. Do not put a note numher (or other symbol) anywhere
m the tahle or the tahle title, or with th e note itself. Simply begin lhe note
with the word Note (capitalized , m 1talics, followed by a colon). See also
table 26.3.
GENERAL NOTES .
Note· Smce not all dat,, were ava1lable lhere ,s disparity 10 the totals
rn Ne.,_ Ycut
Sourrt"' Dala Dddrted lrf)m Mark Lev,tan. ll Dici Ha~Ot!P rlere rr,t Rise 1n Wo,~mg PovC/f'( 1n t J~w (D/11 C,cy,~
Pre~.s.
and to! A~elP.5 Pol1t1c~ SN",tJV and Cunu,e- >. Compo,nt1.,,1 V1ew „d o~vid Halle (Chii:a,to Un,\lers tv ot Chicago
2003i <oble~ 2
1
2S 1nc~nsus rutta
f',.~t~ Wo,.,1ng :;ige• 1s. deJ,r,..d as BgPS. 16 to64 Educa ,ona1 Je,..d ,i nv1 tradeJ t,elc,w the q:~ ot
26.2.6 2 vERTt CAL AllGNMEN T. Align a column of numhers vertically on their real
or implied deomal points, so that readers can compare the values in the
column. lf all numerical values in a column have a zero hefore a decima!
point, you may omit the zeros (see fig. A.13).
Align dollar signs, percent signs, degrees, and so on But if they occur
in every cell in the column, delete them from the cells and give the unit
as a tag in the column head (see 26.2 4, tahle 26.2, and fig. A 13)
rf the data consist of words, either center each column under the
column head or, especially if the data cons1st of longer items or nems
that include runovers, ahgn each column flush left.
379
' Tota• e.cludes trade and labor employees
If you indude more than one such note m a table (as in tahle 26.2), use
letters in sequential order, heginning at the upper left of the tahle, running left to right and then downward , row by row. If a note applies to two
or more items in the tahle, use the same letter for each item; if it applies
to all items m a column or row, put the letter m the relevant column head
or stuh entry.
26.2.7.3
lfyou include notes on the statistical significance of your data (also called probabihty notes), and if the significance levels are standard, designate notes with astens ks, both within
the table and in the note itself. Use a single asterisk for the 1owest tevel
of prohability, two for the next higher, and three for the Jeve I after that. If,
however, you are notmg significance levels o ther than standard ones, use
s uperscript letters instead. Because lhese footnotes are short and they
share a smgle purpose, you may comhine them on the same line, spaced,
without intervenin g punctuatio n. The letter p (for probabihty, no period
after it) should be lowercase and italic. Omit zeros hefore decima! points
(see 23,1 3).
NOTES ON STAT ISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE.
'p <
os
" p<
.o,
" •p C
.0<)1
3110
381
26.3
Figures
rhe term ftqurc refers to a variety nf nnages, inciuding charts, graphs, dia.
grams, photographs. maps, m\1sícal examples, and drawings. Most such
materials can be prepared and inserted into a paper electronically. The
techmcal details are software-specific and too complex to be covered in
Lhis book, but some general guidelines are presented in A.3. 1,
This section describes some pnnciples for presentmg two types of
figures created from data: charts and graphs. lt also discusses captions
for hgures of all kinds.
Treat a video, an animauon, 01 any other mulůmedia file th;it cannot
be presented in print fonn as an appendix (see A.2.3).
Charts and Graphs
In many s1tuations you may choose to present data in a chart or graph
Chapter 8 lays out critena for using these graphic forrns as well as
general design pnnc1ples for them. lt also provides examples of several
d1fferent types of graphics. For detailed guidance on constructing chans
and graphs, consult a reliable authority.
Each chart and graph in your paper should take the forrn that best
commumcates 1ts data and supporls its claim, bul cons1stency both
within and across these itl:!rns is essential to ensure that readers will
understand your data Keep in rnind the following prine1ples when presentmg charts and graphs of any type:
26.3.1
■
Represent elements of the same kínd-axes, lines, data pomts, ba,i;,
wedges-in the same way Use distmct visual effects only to make d1stinctions, never just fot variety.
■ Use arabic numerals for all numerical data.
• Label aU axes usmg sentence-style capttalization. Keep the labels short.
followmg the principles outllned in 8 3 1 Use the figure captton (see
16.3.2) to explain any aspects ofthe data that cannot be caplurecl in the
labels To save space. you can use abbreviabons and symbols more freely
than you can m text, but use them spanngly and consistently. lf standard
abbreviations do not exist, create your own and explain chem either in
the capoon or, if tliere are many, in a list of abbreviations in your paper's
front matter {see A 2. 1).
■ Labe! lines, data pomts, and other 1tems within the chart or graph t:hal
require explanation using either all lowercase letters (for single words)
ar sentence-style cap1talizatJon (forphrases). Ifphrases and single words
both appear, they should all be slyled the same (as in fig. 8.3). The other
principles described above fo, Etxls labels also apply to labels of this type.
• Use cautJon m employing shading or color to convey rneanmg (see 8.3.2).
Even 1f you print the paper on a color printer or submit it as a PDF, it may
be printed 01 cop1ed Jater m black and wh1te. lf you use shading, make
sure it does not obscure any text in the figure, and do not use multiple
sh ades, which might not reproduce distinctly
2u .2 Figure Numbers and Captions
ln general, every figure in your paper should have a nurnber and a caption But 1f you include only a few figures in your paper and do not specifically refer to chem in the text, omit the numbers. Figure capuons may be
presented in a smaUer font than the rest of your text; consult your local
guidehnes.
On the líne below the figure, write the word Figure (flush Ieft, cap1talized, in roman type), followed by the figure nurnber (in arabic numerals),
followed by a penod. After a space, give the captlon, US\1ally followed by
a terminal period {but see 26.3.3~)- lf a caption runs onto more than one
líne, che runovers should be flush left, single-spaced.
Figure 6 The Greal Moi.Qu!! ol Córdoba. e1ghth lo tenth cenlur'I',
An exception: in examples from musical scores, place the figure number
and caption above the figure n1the1 than below.
.26331 FIGU RE NUMBERS Number figures separately from tables, in the order
in whích you mention them in the text. tf you have only a few figures,
number them consecutively throughout the paper. even across chapters.
lf you have many figures and many chapters, use double numeratlon.
that is, the chapter number followed by a period followed by the figure
nurnber, as in "Figure 12.4."
When you refer to a figurc in the text, specify the figure number ("in
figure 3") rather than 1ts location ("below"), because you may end up moving the figure while editing or formatting the paper. Do not capitalize the
word jigure in text references to figures, and do not abbreviate it as jig
except in parenthetical references-for example, "(see ftg. 10)."
26 3.3.2
FIGU RE CAPTION S Figure capt1ons are more varied th,m table utles ln
sorne cases, captions ca11 tons1st solely of a noun phrase, capitalized
sentence-style (see 22.3. r), w11hout a tenninal period
Figure 9 Mary Mclcod Bi,l hune, h,ader of the Black Cabrnet
More complex captions begin with a noun phrase followed by one ar
more complete sentences Such captions are also capitalized sentencestyle but have termmal pcriods, even after the initíal mcomplete sen-
382
LHAPT[k 2ó I TABLE~ AND F!GUPES
tence, If your captions include a mix of both types, you may include a
terminal period in these of the first type for consistency
Appendix: Paper Format and Submission
f 1gure 1ó. 8en1\ o Juiirez Mi:,~ico ~ great pres,dent, a contemporary and íru~nd of Abraham Lincoln, repre'>en\s the hard-fouglit t riumph of Me~•can liberal1sn1at m1dcentury
Caurl esy of Bancroft L1bra1 y, Univers ty ol Cal1fornia al Berkeley.
When a figure has a source line, put it at the end of the caption, following the guidelines in 26.1.3.
Figure 2 7. The lao Valley, ~,te of the lina! batlle Pholoe,aph by Ana~tJ,18 Nowag.
1
F1g11re 11-3. US populat1on growth, 1900-1999 Data lrom US Census Bun,au, ' H1sto11cal
A.1
Nat,onal Popul/lt,on Est1mates.' rev1sed June 2lS, 2000. httpl fwww.ci:,nsu'>.&Ov
/ popesv
Sometimes a caption is attached to a figure consisting of several parts.
ldentify the parts in the caption with terms such as top, bottom, aboue,
left to righr, and clockwisefrom left (italicized to distinguish them from the
caption itself) or with lowercase italic letters.
GeneraJ Format Require ments
A 1.1 Margms
A 1.2 Font
A.1.3 Spacing and lndentation
A 1 4 Paginat1on
A.1.5
A2
Titles
Forma t Req uiremen ts for Specific Elements
A.21
Front Matter
Figure 6 Al1C1ve lr ft, William Llvingston· right, Henry Brorkholst Liv•niston: below /~ft,
A.2.2 Text
John Jay: r,g/11, Sarah L1v1ngslon Jay
A.2 3 Back Matter
Figure 15 Four types of Hawaiian fishhooks a , barbed hook of torto,se shell; b, trolllng
A.3
File Preparation and Submission Requírements
hook w ,th pearl shell l11re ,ind point of h1Jrnan bone, c, octopus tun~ w1th cow11e shcll,
A 31
stone s,nker, .:ind farge bone hook : d barbed hook of human th1gh bone
A.3 2 Subm1tting Electronic Files
Preparing Your Files
A.3.3 Submitting Hard Copy
If the caption for a figure will not fit on the same page as the figure
ítself, put it on the nearest preceding text page (see A.3. 1 -4), with place•
ment identifi.cation in italics before the figure number and caption.
Ne\t page: Figure 19 A toddler u~•ng <> fourlh•gencrat,on ,Phone, Refinemenb ln touc.hscrecn t echnology hclped Aople and other corporat,on~ broaden the target mijrket for
their producl s
When you are writing a thesis, a dissertation, or a class paper, you must
observe certain format and style requirements.1 For a thesis or dissertation, these requirements are set by your department or your university's
office of theses and clissertations; for a class paper, they are set by your
instructor. You may also have to follow specific procedures for submitting
the paper, whether in hard copy or electronically If your paper will be
submitted to an electronic repository maintained by a service like ProQuest orby your university, additional guidelines may apply.
Be particu1arly aware of these requirements if you are writing a thesis
or dissertation. You wili be judged on how well you follow the academic
conventions of your field. Also, many of the rules for format and submiss ion are intended to make the preserved copy, bound or electronic, as
accessible as possible for future readers.
r A rliesis is • paper submitted a,; pan of lhe requuements for a masteťs-level or undergraduate
degree A d1ssertonon, wl11d1 is rypically longer than a tllesis, 1s a pa per subrrutted toward fulfillment
of a doctoral degree
383
►
384
385
The guidelines presented here are widely accepted for the fonnat and
submission of theses and dissertalions, but most universities have their
own requirements, which are usually available from the office of theses
and dissertations_ Review che currem guidehnes of your department or university before you submit your thes1s or dissertarion These local guidelines ta~e
precedence over the recommendations províded here
In general, the requirements for a class paper are less extensive and
strict than those for a thesis or dissertation. Such papers usually have
fewer elements, and srnce they are not likely to be bound or preserved
electronically, there are fewer submiss1on requirements Even so, you
may be expected to follow certain guidelines set by your instructor or
department, and those guidelines take precedence over the guídelines
suggested here.
This appendix assumes that you w11l prepare your paper on a computer and subm1t n as an electronic file, ha1d copy, or both A full-featured
word processor li.ke Microsoft Word can be used to set margin size, number pages, place and number footnotes, and insert tables and figures according to the gu1delines in this appendix lf you are using a d1fferent
application, make sure it includes al! the formatting options that you will
need And if you are following specific gu1delines set by your instructor
or insritution, make sure to check your paper's forrnat carefully against
those guidelines before submitting 1t; if you are submitting an electronic
file and a pnntout, reV"Jew the formatting of both.
A.1.2
Font
Chaose a single, 1eadable, and widely available font (also called typeface),
such as Times New Roman or Arial To ensure your text displays correctly,
you may need to embed the font m the electromc file (see also A 3.2)
Avoid ornamental fonts, which can dtstract readers and make your work
seem less senous (For l.he characteristics of specific fonts, see Robert
Bringhurst, The Elements of 1ypographic Style, 4th ed_ [Seattle; Hartley and
Marks, 2013).) In general, use the eq11ivalent of at least ten-pomt Artal
or twelve-point Times New Roman for the body of the text. (Some fonts,
Jike Arial, take up more space on a line and appear larger Lhan other
fonts at the same point size.) Footnoles or endnotes, headings, tables,
and ether elements might require other type sizes or fonts; check your
Iocal guidelines.
A,1.3
Spacin g a nd lndentation
Double-space all text m paper~xcept the followmg items, which should
be single-spaced:
■
■
■
The foilowing 1tems should be single-spaced mtemally but with a
blank line between items:
■
A.1
A.1.1
■
General Format Requlrements
This section addresses general format issues that apply to your paper as
a whole_ For discussion of specific elements and their individua! format
requirements, see A.2. Your instructor, department, or university may
have guidelmes (or templates) that differ from the advice offered here. lf
so, those guidelines take precedence.
M argins
Nearly all papers in the United States are produced on standard pages of
8½ x r 1 inches, regardless of whether they are submitted electronically or
as hard copy. Leave a margin of at Ieast one inch on all four edges of the
page For a thesis or dissertatlon intended to be bound, you may need to
leave a bigger margin on the Ieft side-usually 1 ½ inches.
Be sure thar any material placed in headers or footers, including page
numbers and other identifiers (see A.1-4), falls within the margins specified in your local guidelines.
block quotatlons (see 25.2.2)
table titles and figure captions
lists in appendixes
■
certain e]ements in the front matter (see A.2.1), including the table of
contents and any list of figures, tables, or abbreviations
footnotes or endnotes
b1bliographies or reference lists
For single spa□ng, a setting of up to r.rs lines may be allowed. And
sorne departments or universibes allow or require single spacing or one
and a half spaces between línes in the body of the text. Check your local
guídelines.
Put only one space, not two, between senlences. Use tabs or indents
rather than spaces for paragraph indentat10n and to adjust other content
requiri.ng consistent alignment Black quotat:Ions have their own rules for
mdentanon, depending on whether they are prose or poetry (see 25.:u).
A.1.4
Pagination
A.1.4.l
NUMDER ING
lf your only front matter is a title page, do not number that
page. Number pages in the body of lhe pa per ancl che back matter with
arabic numerals, starting on the first page of text (page 2 if you count the
btle page)
386
fOHMA.T REQUl~fME
If you are wnting a rhesis or dissertation, number front matter separately from the rest of the text. (You may need to insert a section break in
your document in order to accomplish thís task.)
■
■
A.2.2.4-
In the footer: all front matter pages; pages in the text and back matter that
bear titles, such as the fi.rst page of a chapter or an appendix
■ In the header: all other pages in the text and back matter
Many departments and universities have eliminated these distinctions
and now require consistent placement of page numbers throughout a
thesis or dissertation. Some specify a location, while others allow you to
choose. ln any position, the number should be at least half an inch from
the edge of the page. Check your local guidelines.
ln some settings you may be allowed or even en couraged to include identifymg information besides the page number in the
header or footer. For a class paper, your instructor may ask you to include
your last name, the date of the paper, or a designat:ion such as "First
Draft." For longer papers, chapter or section titles help readers keep track
of their locatlon in the text. The requirements for headers and footers in
theses and dissertations vary, so consult your local guídelines
A.1.5
Titles
Depending on its compleXIty, your paper may consist of many elements,
as listed in A.2, and most of them should have a title.
~
If your local guidelines are flexible, you may use different typography
and format from those described here for various types of titles, as long
as you are consistent, Titles of larger divisions (parts, chapters) should
be more visually prominent than subheadings. ln general, titles are more
prominent when larger or centered (or both), in bold or itahc type, or
capitalized headline-style than when flush left, in regular type, or cap1talized sentence-style
The most efficient way to ensure consistency m titles is to use your
word processor to define and apply a unique style (specifying font, size,
bold or italic, position, line spacing, and so forth) for each type of t1tle.
See a1so A.3 r ,.
■
OTHER I DENTI FIER S.
387
Use the same font, type size, and forrnatting style (bold, itahc, etc.) for
titles of like elements. ln general, and unless your local guidelines say
otherwise, titles should appear in bold. A more traditional method calls
for full capítalization (UKE THIS), but this has the undesirable effect of
obscuring the cap1talization of individua! words in a title.
On the title page, center each element and use headline-style capitalization for all, including the title of your paper, (Your iocal guidelines
may require sentence-style capitalization for the title df your paper; see
22.3.1 for the two styles.)
Titles for the front and back matter are also typically centered, as are
chapter number designations and chapter titles. For chapter tit1es, use
headline-style capitalization unless your local guidelines spec1fy sentence style.
Ail such elements may be in a larger type size than the text of your
paper. Check your local guidelines. For subheadings within chapters, see
Front matter includes the title page and various other elements (see
A.2.1). Number these pages consecutively with Jowercase roman numerals (i, ii, iii, etc., see table 23.1). Every page of front matter except the subrnission page is usually counted in numbering, but not all of these pages
have numbers displayed on them. Departments and universities often
provide specific d1rections for numbering front matter pages; if yours
does not, follow the guidelines in this appendix.
The rest of the text, including back matter (see A.2.3), is numbered consecutively with arabic numerals (usually starting with page 1).
A.14.3
F1r ElHFNTS
Ů)e
PLACEM EN T. Page numbers are usually placed in one of four locations:
centered or flush right in the Jooter (at the bottom of the page) or centered or flush right in the header (at the top of the page). For class papers,
chaose one of these locations and follow it consistently.
Traditionally, page numbers for theses and dissertations have been
placed in different locations depending on the part of the paper (as
shown in the samples in this appendix)
A 14 2
ns f(lft SH(
A.2
Format Requlrements for Specific Elements
ln addition to the general requirements outlined in A. 1, specific elements
of a paper have specific fonnat requirements. This section describes elements most commonly found -in class papers, theses, and dissenat:ions,
and it provides samples of many of them. Al! of the sarnples except figures A.I and A.8 are pages drawn from dissertations written at the University of Chicago. As needed, the pages have been edited to match the
style and format recommendations in this manual. Jf your instructor,
department, or university has specific guidelines that diffe1 from these
samples, they take precedence.
Most long papers and all theses and dissertations have three main
divisions (r) front matter, (2) the text of the paper 1tself, and (3) back
fOHM o'I
~IISSIO'I
388
Copyright
matter. The front and bad: matter are abo divided into elements that Will
vary depending on your paper.
In a class paper, rhe front matter will probably be a smgle title Page
and the back matter just a b1bliography or reference list.
A.2.1
A z..11
A21 3 COPYRIGHT PAGE In a thesis or dissertal.lon, insert a copyright page after
the title pRge. Count this page as page u, but do not put that number on
it unless directed by your local gu1delines. lnclude che copyright notice
near the top of this page, usually flush left. in this form:
389
wXX by You, Name
You need not apply fo1 a iormal copyright However, 1t1 cases cf infringement forma! registratíon provides additional protccnons. For more
infonnation, see chapte1 4 in The Chicago Manu al of Style (17th ed., 2017).
Most departments and umversities requit~ that a thesis or
dissertauon include an abstract summaňzing 1ts contents (mcluding
any supplementary materials; see A.2.';J.2). Abstracts of papers submit•
ted to ProQnest will be featured as part of its D1ssertations and Theses
database. Count the first l'age cf the abstract as page 111, and number alf
pages. Labe! the fust pag<? Abs1ract at che top of the page. Leave two blank
fines between the title and the first line cf text Double-space the text of
the abstract, and format it to match the main text. Most departments or
univers1ties have specific models for abstracts that you should follow
exactly for content, word counf, format, placement, and paginat1on. The
abstract may also need to be subrnitted as a separate document. usually
as pat t of an online submission fonn (see also A.3 2). At the same ltme, a
list of keywords mey be ,equned. Consull your local gu:idelines.
ABSTRA CT
SUBMISS IO N PAGE .
A212 TITLE PAGE. Class papers should begin Wlth a Litle page (but some put
the title on the first page of the text; consult your instructor). Place the
title of the paper a third of the way down the page, usually centered (see
A. r.5). If the pa per has both a main title and a subtitle, pul lhe main title
on a single hne, followed by a colon, and begin the subtitle on a new line
with an intervening line space. Severa] Lines below it, place your name
along with any information requested by your inscructor, such as the
cowse utle (mcludmg its department and number) and the date. Figure
A.1 shows a sample title page for a class paper. For most such papers, th;s
is the only front matter needed
For a thesis or dissertation, most departments and univers1ties prov1de model tllle pages that should be followed exactly for wording and
form Otherwise use figure A-2. as a model. Count the title page as page t.
but do not pul that munber on it.
.J
Ali righls reserved
Front M atter
The f1ont mRtter of your thesis or dissenation may include some or aU
of the following elements, Deparonents and uruvers1ties usually provide
specific directions for the order of elements; if yours does not, follow the
order given here.
Most lheses and dissertations mdude a s ubmission
page, usually as the fírst page of the documem lf iL appears in this pos1•
aon, it does not bear a page number and is not counted in paginating the
front matter.
The submissio n page states that the paper has been submitted in Pattia! fulfillrnenl of the requ1rements for an MA (or MS) or PhD degree (the
wording varies). and it mcludes space for the signatures of the examining
committee members. Most departments and universities provide model
submission pages that should be followed exacUy for wording and form.
ln electronic submissions the signarures may 11eed to be o mitted and
subrnitted sepatately on paper. Consult yom local guidelines.
f
A21.S OEDIC AT ION If your department or university allows dedicanons, you
may mclude a brief one to acknowledge someone who has been espe•
ctally important to you Number tlle dedicatjon page w1ů1 a roman nu·
meral. Place the dedic,mon a tlurd ol lhe wav down che page, centered,
and set 1t in regular type with no termmal punctuatton. You need not
include the word ded1catio11 or ded1cated; simply say to:
ToJamillah
You may ídentify the person to whom you dedicate the work ("To my
fatl1er, Sebastian Wells") and give othe1 mformation such ilS birth and
death dates.
A116
If your department or unive1sity allows epigraphs, you may
include a bnef one in addition to or 10stet1d of a dechcation An epigraph
is a quotaaon that establishes a theme of the paper. It 1s most appropnate when 1ts words :ire especially stnkíng and umquely capture the
spint ot yorn work. N11mbe1 U1e epigraph page wíth a rornan numera!.
You should not inchide the word ep1gruph on the page.
Place the epigraph a third of the way down the page. either centered
or treated as a block quotation (see 25.2.2) Do not enclose 1t in quotation
marks Give the source on a new line, set llush right and preceded by an
EP I GRAPH .
390
A FEh
, PAPlP.
MAT AND
UM15, O'i
O~MAT aEQUI El,4
r,t
ff í
l
Ml T
391
em dash (see 21 7 i) . Often the author's name alone is sufficient , but you
may also mclude the tHle of the work (see 22.3 2) and, i fit seems relevant,
the date of rhe quotation.
Thus out of small beginnings greater things have been produced by H,s hand . . .
<1nd, as one small candle may light a thousand. so the light here kindled hath shone
unto many, yea i n some sort lo our whole nation.
./
-WIiiiam Bradford
Same people th1nk lhe women are the cause of modern1sm. whatever that is.
- New York Sun. Febrl.lary 13, 1917
Epigraphs may also appear at the beginning of a chapter or section;
see 25.2.2.3 and figure A 9.
A 217 TAB LE OF CONTENT5. All papers divided into chapters require a table of
contents. Number all pages of this element with roman nwnerals. Labe! the first page Contents at the top of the page. Leave two blank lines
between the title and the first item Jisted. Single-space individua} items
listed, but add a blank lin e after each item. Between the lisLs for the front
and back matter and the chapters, or between parts, leave two blank
lines. Tulo blank lines can also intervene between an introduction and
the first chapter or between the Iast chapter and a conclus1on.
A tahle of contents does not list pages that precede it (submission
page, útle page, copyright page, abstract, dedication, ep1graph) or the
table of contents itself but should begin with the front matter pages that
follow it. Following these ilems, hst m order the parts, ch apters, or ether
units of the text, and rhen the elements of the back matter. If you have
subheads in the text (see A.2.2.4), you need not include them in your
table of contents lf you do include them, list only the first ievel unless
further levels are specific enough to give readers an accurate overview of
your paper. Be sure that the wording, cap1talizat1on, number style (arabac,
roman, or spelled out). and punctuation of all tJtles (see A.1 .5) and subheads match exactly those in Ůle paper
Give page numbers on1y for the first page of each listed item (not the
full span of pages), and use lowercase roman or arabic numerals as on
the pages themselves. List page numbers flush right, and, if you choose
use a line of periods or dots (called leaders, a feature available from the
tab setting of most word processors) to lead a reader's eye from each title
to Ůle page number.
To ensure consistency between the table of contents and che items
that it lists, you can use your word processor to generate ů1e table of con•
tentS automatlcally. ThlS w1l1 also ensure that the page-number listings
Onc Hund rl'tl \crt;. uud • r\1ul1!:
Tbe l>ulprn fumU)' n Allt'll••~ for lh• 0 111 So1t1h lo lb1ulom, lh,almttl
MolonJu L.ip,cr
Úir,a41, 1',lll \\ 111111m í1111ll.,,cr ,,JJJ d1< ' "ulhmt li•
flgure A 1. Tille page for a class pape,
.393
392
remain accurate. Just be sure to double-ch1ick for proper formalling and
to make sure that no items have been inadvertencly omirted.
Figure A 3 shows a sample tahle of conten ts for a paper with a s1mple
structure Chapter titles appear flush left, with page numbers flush right.
For a more complex paper, follow the legie of your paper's organization
unless you1 local guidelines reqtůre a speetfic format. Figure A.4 shows
I
the first page of a Jong table of contents. To distmguish d\apter útles from
subheadings, you may mdent the subheadings, with ~ach level consistently indented half an inch to the nghl of the preceding Jeve!.
lmmli,-aut <,mJl'I'\ nnd f rnn1ler Cirt,en,:
<;l'rman I uu• ln tbc \ tnl'ru:·nn f"mpire. IRJ~l~ll
,\ Dll ~-n....u
If your thesis or dissertation
(or Jong class paper) mcludes figures, tables, or both, you may choose to
list them in the front matter. Number all pages of such a list with roman
numerals. lf yow paper includes only figures (see chapter 26 for definitions), tabel the first page Figures at the top of the page, ú 1t mcludes
only tables, 1abel 1t Tables instea4'. Leave two blan.k lmes between lhe title
and the first item listed. Single space mdividual items listed, but leave a
b!ank line between items Figure A.5 shows a sample list of tables.
If your pa per mcludes both figures and tables, you may provide a sepa •
rate list for each, or your loca! gu1delines may allow you to combine them
into a single list. ln the latter case label the list ll!ustrations (followmg the
pattem described above), but divide it mto two sections labe1ed ftgures
and Tab!e1,, ;is in figure A.ó
Give each tab!e or figure number in ambic numerals, and verlically
align the list on the lasr digir. lf you are usmg double numeration (as in
fig. A.s), align the numbers on the decimals instead. (Your word processor
should allow you to set a right- or decimal-aligned tab stop as needed.)
Figure capuons and table titles should match the wording and capitalizaaon of these in the paper 1tself, bUl if they are very long, shorten
them in a Jogical way for the entnes in the list (See 26.2.2 and 26.3 2 for
more 011 tahle titles and ftgure captions.) List page numbers flush right
and, if you chaose, use leader dots (see A.2.1.7) to conrnict U1e capt.Ions
and titles to page numbers.
A 219
ln a thes1s or dissertation you may include a pretace to explain
what motivated your study. the bac.kground of the project, the scope of
the research, and the purpose of the paper. The preface may also mclude
acknowledgments, unless they are so numcrous and deta1led that they
merit ů1eir own section (see A.2 uo). Number aU pages of lb1s element
with roman numerals. Labe! che first page Prejacr at che lup of the page,
Leave two blank lines between the title and the f1rst hne of t~xt Doublespace the lexl of che preface, and format it to match the main text.
m~obm1t1cd 11
ÁUfll
t20U
Figure A.2. Tille page for a d,s;ertat,on Repnnted wolh perm,ss,on from Julia Akinyi S.ookins. lmm,grant
Settltrs dnd front,er Cihzen~. German Teus ln the Amencan Emoire 1S35-1890 (PhD d1ss, Un,verslty
ol Chicago. 2013)
A.21,8
LIST Of FIGURES, TA BLES, O R ILLUSTRAT I ONS.
PREFACE .
p
394
fl)RMAT ~tQUIPtMWI' • OR 5PEC1íiC HéMHIT
Coatcnis
Conleats
1\dmO\\ leJgmenb ....
AdJ!U\\ ledj!JOCllh
f1111Y.Juclmn
l:J'1't>do <1( Centrttl Europc
l 1"1plcr I
Lentr.11
[ ,UJ'Ofl< , ,
Ltst of lllustrounns .. ,
Jntcllcccunl Srnce
15
)11)
Chnpter 3
ťhap,er
4
i
fov-Brd,, on Ac,1heuc Solf Rilke s C1e.,11on uí\1ahc
tli~ L h!ah..,r
Gumbrov.1,ť, GomhrOI' ICL, Thc
103
Sel! .\mung
('Juodlc, m • ím· Hrabal '; ,...,,hcncs úÍ H1S1ory
.... I)(
lntrodurlion, Germ•ns >nd "laliun-BuildinK ln
l ltc R"" 11n<l Fall o[ 1b.: Seli A Genealogy of
Gcnnanvphone Phil1>SOrhy
ťhaptcr
]95
lhP
t:S So111h" rn
Gcrmat1 Te,u~ ...
li
TI1c Anumcan Ccn1nfuge
15
H&tonl!!'> ot Ral~ and Nn11on 10 1hc Soulh~c~l
Part I
Cb.»ptor On.: Cerman Emlgrarlnn attd clle Gulí Coa,1 , .,_ •
J!
GermJJ\) u, Trnmunon. From Ea....., tn \\ c.f'..
Lonclu.otmn
TI,e New Orlean, Coonec1,un
.... I~
Embr.u..,ng 1he TcxiJn kcv1)lul11m
Suť\11vmg
the Rt:\oluucm
ni
Clu•ph.•r r\\'u: Gt!rmlln Pr1nces uod Amtricao !,laltJ\ood
Thc Em1gran1>
Thc Soc,c<y forth< Prot,c1i1ln ofGemlilll lmrr11grJJ11s ,n kx&> ,, ________,_,,_,,, .. ,,....~4
Pian~ tór thC" NelN Gcrman)' m Amc-11C3 __,
Pre.;;crving Sta.tu~.. ~ .. ... .
IY
Figure A,3 Table of conlents Repnnted w1th permlssion from Daniel W. Pratt, "Aesthet,c Selves: Non-narrat,ve Construclions o! Identity In Centra! Europe" (PhD diss., Universily of Chicago 2014),
I\
F',gure A.4. First page of a table of contenls w1th part number and subheadings. Reprinted wlth
permisslon from Julia Akinyi Brookins, "lmmigrant Settlers and Frontrer Citrzens Germar1 Texas on the
Amerlcan Empíre. 1835-1890" (PhD d,ss., Urnvers,ty nf Chicago, 2013),
F
397
396
t
Ll
Rdralo wog-\ ln f1,:-...:-idi: .\I 01
l!i
..\dd1t1C'lnnl musirnl ,..,1,i,;.') 111 fout t;~1
I.()
Rťfrmn -.t.111~, 1n S,
1.7
Mu„tc.tl h:'Oli,; \\ 1th n::tr~uu, .rn tlu: Sen, ÍC"',u,t ~•I" lhc l 1tcurt1~bh111 (1,.;,t. l :::..! 1.
S',"Jf\ J(, '
I~
Rh\.'loncal Ji,.:m,,,. in\ m:,.Jul , /'11...t,ta, m Jnd lltxtm,, 11u1,n ,I, moJo, I
,1rtt~ J1ť1,mJJ et rl r•l/1ruuJ,
1, ru•r \fi,J..df,,1J w11h 1·r~n~h relro11t1
t;.i~
.,
Hou!:ilUn , Eun,peilD: l.o1.0J pnms
5
Concentmlmn 11íGcmtan Utltl\'l"li .1n11Jng,i1)( m1grnnb in Tc-..,L,. l)i~O.
D1strihut1lln oí thc (1cmmn-ho1u rl,pulatH>n in Tc,as. IXl\11
l~I
1
Iq
Bunm u ,,Jr Load oj ( 1,rn ...
G.1rland1::a.. Dl',,,, ,Huťuhill nttht, .. , Lu/111"' fm,n i.:l1aptef' m r-.rn lat.
Jfihn3 fohu,- 6h1 1(,,
:.1
Ill
I I1
JI
C'crur.11 _pa.lNt.n l ruouctc tknna:11 sc!Uler-.· mr,munenL Li.nJa P.:itl
•.
12
La11n wut ('.unbn ~ng,., ln thc / tih,~·
~-~
J I
tnmpJn"1n ul tlurtcenlh-(:Cntul)
1ťnndl ,md 1hcu rubm:~
řratch and
IRII
Tahle,
~b:::.enreof rcaf rmJ'ť-n~ among hnm,ehohl head, h~ n.:1LJon~ihty ..,,1111111:uy
Lwn romlhlUI
~Jam~gc;ihk wom~n ngcd I b-51>h"
úrammalu:~1-..uuctuoug o1 lmJ/1 nmm w guu.111• ...
tl..1.11\.tl) JM
gi.:-nd~t
1)1
l
3
(
flm ,1m1t1udh t1ťrt.·•11,
rcl~111 \'-"tUl ix--,~,o .Jnd numht-t·, t~m,t". ,m...C',
íln\!mllu<l ,.
t5
,41,
f1í'I 1hrec ,m,ph~ 01 .-l1• muru ,1. /111, t. folia '7lr. anJ 1he h>rru\
fl,
,nt1n\ ,tťfJ41.•. ,. •
\I
Figure A.S. L,st of tables. Reprinted with permIss,on lrom Mary Channen Caldwell, "S1ng1ng, Dancmg,
and Reio,cing in the Round: Lattn Sacted Songs wi th Refrains, circa 1000-1582'" (PhD d,ss University of
Chicago, 2013).
"
Figure A.6. List of lllustrations, Reprinted w1th perm1ssion from Julia Akinyi Brook1n~, "lmm,grant Settlers
and Front,er C1t1zens: German Texas In the Amencan Emplre, 1835-1890" (PhD d,ss., University al
Chicago, 2013).
FORMA• RlQI.J REMH.ITS •O~
398
ln a thesis or clissertat ion you may have a separate
section of acknowle dgments m wh1ch you thank mentors and colleagues
or name the individua ls or institutio ns that supporte d your research or
provided special assistanc e (such as consulta tlon on technical matters or
aid in securing s pecial eqmpme nt and source materials ). You may also be
requ1red to acknowle dge the owners of copyrigh ted material who have
given you permissi on to reproduc e their work lf your only acknow)edgments are for routme help by an advisor or a committe e, include them
in the preface (see A . 2.1 .9) or omit them entirely Number a11 pages of the
acknow!e dgments with roman numerals . Labe) the first page Acknowledgments at the top of the page. Leave two blank lines between the title and
the first hne of text. Double-space the text of the acknowle dgments, and
format it to match the main text
srtc
Fit ELEMWT
A.7110 ACKNOWL EDGMENT S .
A 7111
or ABBREVIATI ONS . lf your thesis or clissertat ion (or long class paper)
includes an unusual number of abbrevia tions other than the common
types discussed in chapter 24, list them in the front matter. Examples of
items to mclude would be abbreviat ions for sources cited frequentl y (see
16.4.3) or for organizat ions that are not widely known (24.r.2).
Number all pages of such a list with roman numerals . Labe! the first
page Abbreuiations at the top of the page. Leave two blank lines between
the title and the first item listed Single-sp ace individua ! 1tems listed, but
leave a blank line between items. Figure A.7 shows a sample list of abbreviations. (The abbreV1ations in this sample are italic only because lhey
C4G
{ ,"A~ n S J l>..itobllit- /CJr ÍAlln F.,dn1u.Yllťa{ Clw,.t. J 3(.'.Ull)' 11í~fus1c
l ntvi:r-i.11y of \\ ť~tem nnt.irw t,ur. """llbcb.1.,bJ.,t- ,,,r
Cmp,o un11rhonal111mndw,I l:Jucd by Rťni!-Jeun He<bcn.. ,-. 'tOb. J<ťrurn
tccles1:ishcarum l)('lcumťnl3. Scm.·~ma,nr,fonfcc; 7 12 Rt\Ulc. jQ6l 7'J
cca,
LIST
correspon d to tltles of publishe d works.)
Note ů1at the items are arranged alphabet ically by the abbreviation,
not by the spelled-o ut term. The abbrevia tions themselv es are flush leít;
spelled-o ut terms (including runovers) are set on a consisten t indent that
allows about half an ínch of space between the longest abbreviation in
the first column and the first word in the second column
You may need a glossary if your thesis or dissertati on (or
Jong class paper) includes many words from other language s or tech
nical terms and phrases that may be unfamili ar to your readers Sorr,e
depanme ncs and universit ies allow or require the glossary to be plac1~d
in the back matter, after any appendix es and before the endnotes and
bibliography or reference hst. lf you are fTee to choose, put 1t in the front
matter only if readers must know tl1e definitio ns before they begin reading. Otherwis e put 1t in the back matter (see A.2.3.3).
lf it appears in the front matter, number all pages of a glossary with
roman numerals . Label the fir~c page Glossary at the top of the page. Leave
A.2112 GLOSSARY
~,mt -l1,guH1 11t. Urc-•ra Omm,, (",,tp,o '4ugumn,af'N."' GLuťmr tlťct•on,i;
rd,1100. b11p "'\.\'~ nlA. i.:om t<'IJt-..tton" 11
('n,,,,u Cltntr,~,,orom (.i/,,ummtw UN,ut 'r11h1 Brq,,,1-. Puhli1:-hi:~ l umhout
'
·
19M. hup:hwww bn,pol".nct.
l ,1r·pu, Chn•twnnn,,u St•nr.~
~111.t
BreJ>',l1o Puhlrkfter-, 1 umh,tt1L 1q51
llllp· '"'" hrcpolt,J1ot
CG.11
COGD
CPI
CPI lu11d!itlu., CatJlo~m: uf Cl,niJJk,u., h:- CuntUfN'J,111, r#,,t,,,,m mf't":.
~1rtc..,·1Hh•t. 1.11tury Mu;1.11,: and Poe1n ~.1rch group ,ll tJ1c Lmve,~tt) ul
Stlu1fmmP1on. h1tp:/,cutaldgue., ondu1. t~ ,u; uk
Cu,p,h •Lrlf'(,m,rn fi."'ťl,·,1d;/l(or11m '·"''"''""" V1enna Arud ( Gemht1 rl11um
-.nd Ho-,1,l<r-Pothk,-. T,nop,ky, I Kbtt- Frnm ťETEDOC' I 1hn1ry ooťChmtoon
l.it,n Texb. hnp·I 111m hrcpoh, n,i
Dl◄M\f
\\li
correspond to t,tles
F'igure A.7. List of abbrevi~t,on s. (The abbrev,ation s are ltahcized because they
Dancing, and
of pub_hshed works.) Repnnled w,th permiss,on from Mary Channen Caldwell, S,ng,ng,
d,ss Umversny of
ReJotctng •n the Round· Lat,n Sacred Songs with Reframs, circa 1000-1582" (PhD
•
Chicago, 2013).
J99
I,• l I,, I
400
two blank lines between the rnle and the first item lis ted, Single-space
individual items listed, bm leave a blank line between items. Figure A.8
shows a sample glossary.
Notc that Lhe terms are arranged alphabetically. flush left and foJ.
Jowed by a penod (a colon or dash 1s somenmes used) You may put th1:
terms in bold type to make them stand out. The translatíon or definitton
follows, with its first word captlalized and a termmal period. lf, however,
the defimtions consist of only single words or brief phrases, do not use
terminal periods. If a deflmtion is more than one line, tndent lhe runovers by half an inch
lfyour thesis or dissertation requues
an extens1ve prelimmary d.iscussíon of your ed1torial mechod (such as
your cho1ces among va,iant texts) or research method, include it as a
separate element You can also briefiy discuss method in the preface tf
all you need to clanfy ,s that you have modernized capitalization and
punctuation in quoted sources, put that in the preface or in a note attached to the first such quotation.
Number all pages of a díscussion on method wnh roman nu merals Label the fi rst page Editorial Method or Remirch Method al the top of
the page. Leave two blank hn~s between the title and the first line of
text Double-space the text of this sectlon, and fo rmat it to match the
mam t~xt.
nl.lA
401
unahk numrrML ( l11.e I\I th.,,; ( ut 111 ,r di~ b u ,cd ' " ,nihil k'tfal p 1mfYUl,ilJ
11 1 1
ltfut k. •1u11CJ1tJttt, 1J11t•h.J rno1· u• I tet ,u r ""'--.pi
, ..,,M• 1•"li
. .. ) I mu .u,h!''fl"\I h'J 11"'kr
h1>ldí11<~ hp, T\1->I
I i11u •L1r~
•
l. l "'" t
.J
Jt1t,r
Ml•1J, l:.l \ f~rurror,IO\.'C l itti ri;~\.ll.itl)J'(' !liWU,f, )
ilulir r~pť SJ;1,11.,...J lhle ll~ ť\llH' 111 eur , ,. ,, 11Hur ch
lh,t,..:rcaw ~1h r .An 1,th.:dlllUlt1cJ ltttcr tWA r,,,
11,111 tl4J u,r1,,ttcJ 1 1 1 fl)fflJn hpc-
,a,.tr,. ...,i;1c1
A 2 113 E0I TORIAL DR RESEARC H M ET HOD .
A.2.2
A
2 2I
Text
The lext of a paper includes everyrhing between Lhe front matter and Ůle
back matter lt begins wllh your introduction and ends with your condusion, both of which rnay be as short as a single paragraph or as long as
several pages In a thesis or dissertation, the text is usually separated
mto chapters and sometimes inco parts, secůons, and subsect10ns. Many
longer class papers are also dtvided m this way.
Since most of the text cons1sts of pa1agrnphs laying out your findmgs,
there are few format requirements for ů1e body of rhe text. The only ad·
ditional 1ssue:, are how to begtn divistons of the text, how lo format notes
or parenthetícal citatJ011s, and how to positton tables and ftgures withm
t.he text
Begin the arabic numbering of your papPr with the first page of the
text (normally page 1 or 2; see A 1 \. {) .
Many theses and dissertat1ons (and some long dass
papers) begin with a sect:Jon that previews tl,e contents and argument
I NT ROOUCT ION
r,,manl\~ lbq>n11t 1l}IYP,•ljlt(li.cllu>1 " " 1'1"' ><J IO i.,i
run-ln qun1■1i„u. '•'lM'••~1 1lJlh:·rl:ll \.t'I tunUh UOO: ..I) ~
r
Figure A.8. Glo5,5ary
,tt, ,~t
.íl,
h f"
DPI 1-.cd 10 4 bli04. l ~\l•Ki.ljJJR
ttE
402
of the encire paper and is so distmct that che writer separates it from the
rest of lhe paper. ( rhe background of the proJect and any issues thal informed the research should be covered in the preface; see A.2 . 1 9) lf you
begin wjth such an introduction, label the ftrst page Introduct1on at the top
of the page. Leave two blank hnes between the title and the firsl line of
text. lf the substance of your introductory material is not clearly distinct
from the chapters that follow it, consider incorporating il mto your first
chapter.
t lt•ptcr !i
Eh:J)ťlnC h.U !t41n:IC ltkms. fur1ho~ ,11n1Je;,l~-lil)lOOfttíl llrtJt' -.oai:,., v.to,"'1 i.:11r.le tlJl(I
tmel pl'\lO'llO=,c-!" for 8 <i.''llSlJn et 1h.: a,J flf tJ~ \C:d:r
'" Lb.: 1nulutud.11ll)t ~,:h,1t1,,.C or
,-:,roh li 1, u,.._.,.._'fflll,~ lu ho.•rť ho" Jhe,...,... f.!l'o:l•l'l""C' <1tll' ur yc:ir •11.; ~r. IO thc
odu....h11, of uůu:r and bctt.<".r 1hin1, \\~ .-c 11.-., Q~tl) ru1 úll"' 1th 1hi!-.::,r,cJu;rU: ln wt.
ourchilJn:n J11 r,ot rrnrcrh r,c,,an· ůu:tr 11111!: J'10J,'T1Uflmc: \)Uf d101t111J,itax :dl \l7'1
1111tlmtJh rc.,ch J1J\"u Lhc olli.11mt:•Ytnm sh'"''"'"' thnt h,l\r ~fone dmy ~ h>ng.
A 2.2.2 PART S. If you divide Lhe text of your thesis or dissertation into two or
more pans, each includmg two or more chapters, begin each part with
a part-title page The first part title page íollows the 1ntroduction (even
if the introduction is labeled chapter 1). Count a part title page in paginating, but do not put a page number on il except in the case described
below or unless directed by your local guidelines. Labe! this page Parr foltowed by the part number at the top of the page Depending on your local
guidehnes, give the part number either in capitalized roman numerals (II)
or spelled out (lwo): be sure to number the chapters in a djfferent style
(see A.2.2.3). II the part has a descripove title in addition to its number,
place trus title two lmes down, following a blank line
lf you include text mtroducing the contents of the part on the parttitle page, number the page with an arabic numera!. Leave two blank
lines between the title and the first line of text
follow a consistent format for all of your part-title pages· if one part
has a descriptive title in addition to a number, then give all parts descrip•
tive titles: if onc part has introtluctory text, then include introductory
text m al! parts.
A 2 2.3
Most theses and dissertattons, and many long class papers,
cons1st of two or more chapters. Each chapter begins on a new page. LabeI
this page Chapter followed by the chapter number at Lhe top of the page.
You may give the chapter number either m arabic numerals (4) or spelled
out (Four). If your paper has parts, choose a different style of numbenng
for the chapter numbers (for example, Part II but Chapter Four) tf the
chapter has a descriptive title m addition to its number, place this title
two lines down, followmg a blank line Leave two blank lines between
the t1tle and the flrst line of text. Figure A.9 shows a sample ftrst page of
a chapter with an epigraph (see 25 2.2 3 and A.2.1.6)
An altematrve formal is to orrut the word Chapter and use only the
chapler number and title, wh1ch can Lhen appear on the same line, separaLed by a colon Do not use this format. however, if your paper has parts
E '1
\OU l..ttcr -.-es,-·• Sbén-mi ma.lk .;kri1 1otí1co 411J
fhB!l).j!l'' I
raJ~ '\t11lh..111.:, r~J. uc1mns'.Y trom
h> Cl1ruuJ1•••1ll, lh< ,1J;1,no c,J · ~•'ly 1n • M•roe<r" lll'.J •:,1Jm1 ~,j!ht, • ,btlc 111
Chn.<tn"I •nol lhc hri,1 Nvwdl ntt •trll re.::tll<J Jnd <oma fn1"1 ycm I• ,csr \\•lllout f:ul,
CH/\PTERS .
} ll+11!h )l..c.,.,.i
J\1
IYI::'~ ltlil
11111
'\n,ln·\\ 1',1n,,1L ~Jio llié \u„ O,
"ti, ~.t'wl !.o ht
t ~ B,,.,11
,,, .imh. íJ1.ll1'll
n1r„nJ I 111nrr u~
Fígu,e A 9 rI,st page of a chapler. Repnnted wíth permIsslon from Mary Ch~nn~n Caldwell •·s,nr,rng
Dancing. and Rejoicing ln lhe Round La:in Sacred SonRS wllh Refraios, crrca 1000-1582' (PhD d1ss ,
University of Chicago, 2013)
40 4
4! fEN I
PA l R f
f HA llt [) 5 SM
I
r,
FOl>MA
as well as chapters, 1f it does not have chapter ntles, or 1f there is any possibility of confusing a new chapter W1th any other division of the paper.
Long chapters in theses, d1ssertations, and
long class papers may be further d1vided into sections, wluch in tum may
be divided into subsections, and so on. lf your paper, or a chapter witlun
lt, has only a few sections, you may sígnal the division between sections
ínformally by centering three spaced asterisks ť • ) on theu own line.
If you create forma! sections in a paper or in its chapters, you may give
each one its own title, also called a subheading or subhead You may have
multiple levels of subheads, which are designated ftrst-level, second-level,
and so on. Unless you are writing a very Jong and complex paper, think
carefully before using more than two or three levels of subheads Rather
than berng helpful, they can become distracnng. You should have at least
two subheads at any level within a chaprer, if you do not, your divisions
may not be Jogically structured.1\wo consecutlve subhead Jevels may appear together without intervening text.
Unless your local guidelines have rules for subheads, you may devise your own typography and format for them. Each Jeve} of subhead
should be cons1stenc and different from all other Ievels, and higher-Ievel
subheads should be more visually prominent than lower-level ones. In
general, subheads are more promment when centered, in bold or ítalic
type, ot capitalized headline-sty le than when flush Jeh, in regular type,
or capitahzed sentence-sty le Except for run -in subheads (see fifth level,
below), put more space before a subhead than after (up to two blank lines
before and one hne, or double line spacing, after) and do not end a sub
head with a period. To maintain consistency, use your word processor to
define a style for each level.
Here 1s one pian for five levels of subheads.
405
Pollock as the leader. The role of leading Abstract Express,onist pa,nter was lilled by
Jackson Pollock , ..
Neve'. end a page with a subhead Set your word proce~sor to keep all
headmgs attached to the ensuing paragraph (The builtlin heading sty les
may already be set to stay with the next paragraph bý default.)
A225 ~OTES ~R PARENTHETICAl CITATIO NS. Jf you are using notes-style Cltatlons w1th footnotes, see 16.3 for a discussion of how to format footnotes.
Figure A. ro shows a sample page of text with lootnotes.
lf you are usmg author•date c1tations, see 18.3 for a discussion of how
to_ fo1 mat paren_thetical citations rigure A.r r shows a sample page of text
W1th parenthetica l c1tations.
lf your pa per includes tables or figures, see chapter
26 for a discuss1on of how LO format tables, some types of figures, and
figure capaons, and see A.3. r for information about inserting these elements mto your paper. Figure A 12 shows a sample page of text with a
figure positioned on it, and figure A.13 shows a sample of a cable m Jandscape orientation on its own pRge
A226 TA BLES AND rtGURES.
_In a thes1s or dissertation (or, in some cases, a Jong class
paper), you w1ll probably end with a conclus1on that is Iong enough to
treat as a separate element. lf you include such a conclusion, Jabel the
first page Conclus,on at the top ofthe page. Leave two blank lines between
the title aad the fust line of text.
You may also make the conclusion the last numbered chapter of your
paper tf you wane to emphasize tts connection to the rest of your text. Jf
so, treat the word Conclusion as a chapter title (see A 2 . 2 . 3).
A227 CO NClUSION .
• First level- centered, boldface or italíc type, headline-sty le capitalizatio n
A.2.3
Back Matter
The back matter of your paper may consist of al! or sorne or none of
the follo';ing_ele ments. Depanments and umvers1ties usually provide
spec1fic d1recoons for the order of elements; if yours does not, follow the
order given here. Numbe1 the back matter continuously with the text
using arabJC numerals.
• Second Jeve!: centered, regula1 type, headlme-sty le capitalizatio n
What Are the Maior Styles?
■
MENT
• Fif~h !~vel· nm in at begmnmg of parag1aph (no l.Jlank line arter), boldface
or 1tahc type, sentence-sty le capitalization, tem1inal period
A 2 2 4 SECTIONS ANO SUB SECT IONS.
Contemporary Art
e
Th1rd level: flush leh, boldface or italic type, headline-sty le capitalization
Abstract Express1anism
• Fourth level: flush left, regular type, sentence-sty le capitalizatio n
Maior pa1nters and practitioners
A2 3
ILLUSTRATIO NS.
lf you group al! of your illustrations together at the end
of your thes1s or dissertation (or Jong class paper) mstead of including
them in the text (see 26 r r), make them the first element in the back
406
APPHIOIX PAPLR FQ?~AT
•r,o
407
,UElvl!S5 Qlj
u fiancc:e to :ino1her bn.11her tthc~ l\\O \\umrn wcn: ~U.lc.."1') and ft-..kbc~•... nwn bmther LL1 lll~
followcd ,n Iho foll ul JHJ4
„
U1~ fir,t ruunJ> ot mu11,party elel·t1nn, 1n T;)J" .Ill. Th1,~ OPP c.ondiJnLO wh,, campat@t'l!d in
fnvorof1hc: ci,umn :. tndc_petuJcm:e Jnd ~twerc1gn1) ,,c-r-e th..! mu::,\ \UCC4!!-,,ful o-ne.-....ln 1IJXQ
Man} wai~ lntcr Robert KlebC"fg r~fled(J \\Uhoul f\'~'1'(:t vn hJ~ '1c,.•a,um l\• w1gr::itc
c,glu membt-r, dť thc Ntw Tid~ f;1~11vn iorned tog<lh<T ln form Ůlc rro-mdef'<'ndcnce N<>v
I wi~hed 10 h"< llnder a rcpubltc:m torm ot Go'f\!'mmcm. wnh unb<mndt'd r~rson:tl.
rd1c,,~ou"' ao.d p<'li11ul hbert). frec trum lhť peu, l).rdD.lllť'II and Lhc m.ffl)' tlis:ulvanmgi:"
~nd c, 11'.). of tbc olJ '-'(hJntncs Pn1,sm inlnl'ti!d ru th:a.l ume unrter díl ..,1rerus,.. e m,lttar}
,ICSJ'Ol,1~ 1
(.snd ha\C~\tl r~m.:11ncd1 rut cnthu.,,,a.._Ul lo„cr t1f rcpubl1can
Ni1l1i>naf All1an« 10 contest '(!3.U. ln thc: D.xťmbt<r kga.-.lafl\lC. elcct1on. '\li e1~hl \\/Cft! elL."Cted. 11
m,ulut1un~. ~.Dli I L,per.;kd lťt lind ln Tc,:r,,, Jho\-i: ctil ulhcr ~ount.nt'), th~ bl~!t~ land
lhe tldm1t111J11 KMT·
,,a,
111
I 'l9 I Úle DPP ub1a111oJ ~3 • f1ércen1
nfmy músi fC'\·ent horcs."
ln Pc<ecmher ,,f tis,4, R= .md Robert Klct,.,rg", ,b,r, v.r.:ck<d 01 Gahcsmn. then a
13r,gely 1winhab11ed ,sl,md ,n,le:ld of lanJm~ ul tb~ pvn of lJmoona ,, plililll«I. u>ulS ,on
,,r 1he , otc for 1he Nauno:\l
.\!»scmbly clcrt1on~. a.nJ by 19()6 tlU!i f)ť'rceutag_e. lwd mcn:.:!SN ta ~9.4 tdn.t11 ,n Tah\Btl
Coo1mmuqu~ 19%1. Fú1Jow111g 1he log,c ,,t 1he theon vf I"<>SJ11111IT1Dt1c ,ál"'Cl!Ji. I cnd •h"
,ecuon nohng 1h~1 ,n thc IQ9o, thé IC\1T ,doptJI many nf thc pnhcies advuc,ned hy Iho DPP
RneJd and Ru~ ~c~rg, wbu wa, 1hc rinl} one uf the pany
y..Jt11
alreaJy '!af'(tke Engh~.h. kft
R~ anJ lhc orhcí'i Le.• 1\-atch 1hetr ťons1J~bte bJ.ru;a~ und .;ct off un foot 10 find thctr rd.tti\. ~
13v thC' nlld-1990,. all of thc OOOCNI< 11am on the orr·, rel.inn U,!enďa had l,c,<J1
ar.h1C"\lr.d nnd 1hc pan) ,.a> fot-c~d 10 fmd nev. '"'ucc; 10 a1unn rncm~rs ~nJ \.11ko.
wbu bod cmigrJICd eoillcr An lnd1J11 m•n hdP<,>J lhe p.my ,~ find Lhem oťar th< IIJ<'Jt1011 ofC,u
Tl1t KAIT ha., 1c-11,ft,d lo Cr)-f)ff DPft tut1t> posilum, l~ut prm ,, popu/ar \'i'llh 1·m,•r:,;,
111eludmg Jomesli< pnh.; rro1»-rub ,uch"-' naliunal bealth c;u,, ;i.nd foreijl11 J'<ll•cy
1t1111aiives sucJ, d, lhc l I1111cdj "1[nhun,1h1d (RJ&!Cf 20U I. I 'I, <tllpiu,,is adtloJI
Srnn_p R().-.ú rec.:ullt'd, -He hc.-lon~.J 10 a tfflnp 01·1nůtnn" \\tn1 Nrrc tnmpmg.101hr
11e1ghburhuud anJ fn.11m Vi nl,m 01.11 relahL"ITb hó\J bct.:n rn lhe hubit ot obtau1m_g v~ms;on in
itkdut.ntt' for ammuni11on Th~}" found 1ur pcupk m a ll.ít'"h„bt:d ~onJ.1lu.\n. \1) )1.i,:h:r \Uld ono
"1tL,t.1fn Kárutl loundcd lhe Repubhcan Pc11ple'< Párty (Rl'P) m 1923. Jn ,1rga1111a1111n
hmthcr had J1cd. whtlc- the awo ,cm;muog br,11hcr.. wcn:, ťf: 111 \\ilh 1h~ fovl.'r ·· 1'1chcrg ,md 1h,;
tt1n1 would Jon11nHtť Tur~t~lt pubh~ lor a tJu.ma uf II t..ettlUr) Thc RPP v..as~ lihť the PRJ m
von Roeů.t:Th nm11:.J act:cimmuJauoni; m the c11y llt Harri~b~ through the ,,,..nter and until ll1c\
Mexicu, a canglmn1,.nh! vf diffi:.rcnr pohhCjJ group.,. 111cludmg lbe urb:m miJdle do~!,, 1he <toh.'
burcauu'Sc~, ldl1Jov.ncrs. and Jmly ullicer,, I Ahmutl 1'177, l-2) llowcvcr. uuU~c tbc M•••cao
c!htť. culk'l.:ll\e Jctwn
!!. R1r..,;a K.lchcrg -S.,11-i:61 \1 E..vi~ l:.,péni.:nc,, t'1 Tt,.:i, • (l11o1t/('r/1·11ttfl, Trt-'> ~/11 l/111,,nc J/
J,H"""ttmn I o Jf,\rnl Hl,q.i, .,!O„ lil! flw4.~.,~vtl(l.ttlffll1••· 11 .. -., ..klctM-ť ffu1,4lu.::,oll~"'--Ja.•,m,J
··1<Ji:bcrt:,.k.Lit>er1J1b10-.lrJ1•~·~•'~rr1 1,.2tt1n lru1 \l,"'""'b.tw..o.nlureorJ, l1l111g.:-t-~
2J. (Jro<rt n1'tL~ ,"',.<• LC'Xt"Oťt\·J III T1h11!_t. :.i llnrio:al!t m tit::: RUtJolph J..lcN!fg. bm1h Papc:r,. l)i..!'I
'"'"''· Oolrh [hi,;.O( l ttlltf for An\l:'O~n HIIIIII)" 11u:n:otte. rAtli
m mcorporattng lhc JNrulahon-----, u ct,rpornt1.5,1 arrangcmt"ltl\- into thi:.
pllny u~1z.at1on. TI1c re3!ion for th1, wn, 1hnL oonlrnry 10 whru L'altc~ Jid tn Me~i~o m l 1J1q
k:cmal
"fcl1
linle ni:ed to Jc,dup th< part~
<'í!,'31117~11m,
rh< IRPP] 1,aJo-s tl,J n"1 dnmc
..:.ons1derable ~ergy hl f'pcn.ing up brJ111.:hC!- acro"!- lht=" c<uJntry
Figure A 10, Page of text with footnotes Reprinted w1th perm1ss1on lrom Julia Akiny, Brookins. "lmmigrant
Settlers and Frontier Cit1zens: German Texas in the American Ernprre, 1835·1890" (PhD d1ss., University
of Chicago, 2013),
Timmghnu1 thc I Y21J,. th<
Figure A.11. Page of text with parenthetical citations. Reprmted w1th perrn1ss1on from Jose Antonro
Hernández Company "The legacies of Authorltananrsrn: Party Origins and the Development of
Programmatic Capacity in Mexico" (PhD drss., University of Chicago, 2015).
409
408
Ut,
hgurc 1 I 1/d/•tr~ m" <Jt'm,-:. i r, 1011 l/11/ Phrnograrh b)' Lcy,u V, Hme, JanuJ.1) 1'1i l'11'9
n~ N1u1onal (lulU l..1.bor luutUlllt« Cc,11.:-t:tion. Ltbm') úÍ C,m"TJ·1:.s<- Pnnis and l'hotog;.3phs
Oh1>1U11. Wo,J11ng,.,n DL Ll-lllG-ndc-015~1
rerťent t,I thc to1al I l11 ho1h ttgHm~. ntdf dolt!n.."11 w. ,..,,1111g 0'-1 >U, ur ,1.~ei, Y1cn: e.tt_g:J.fcd 11.1
·,Julli11~.• ~u1t1u1g, and otht!r fomL-. ni 1.:u.,11uJ liibur „ 1 u cumpt"11>atť fo, tbctt 1lwntr hc,rlu
~
11- Y..
~1
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n
~ \mt
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►111m\/1lllí111IJ1,,.;\\ )114
nuo. 1'WW- "'
Figure A.12. Page w,th text and a figure Repnnted w1th perm,ss!On trom Marione Elizabeth Wood,
'Emancipating the Child Laborer Ch1ldren, Freedom. and the Moral Boundaries al the Market In the
UnIted States.1853-1938" (PhD d1ss„ University al Chicago. 20!1).
Figure A.13 Page w 1th a landscape table. Reprinted w1th perm,ssion from Nathaniel Baum Snow, "Essays
on the Spat,al Dlstribulion of Populat1on and Employment" (PhD d1ss University of Chicago, 2005)
410
íl E PREPl\~~ TICIN A!\iD S BMI
APPEi-JDi < PhPE R FQi! MAT A"J[I "UBMi5 SIO N
matter. Labe! the first page of such a section lllustranons at the top of the
page. For information about inserting figures into your paper, see A.3.1.
If some illustrat:Ions are placed in the text, however, any that are
grouped in the back matter must be placed in an appendíx; see A.2.3. 2.
lf your thesis or dissertation (or Jong class paper) includes
essential supporting material that cannot be easily worked into the body
of your paper, put the material in one or more appendixes in the back
matter. (Do not put appendíxes at the ends of chapters.) Examples of
such material wouJd be rables and figures that are marginally relevant
to your topic or too 1arge to purin the text; schedules and forms used in
collecting materials; copies of documents not available to the reader, and
case studies too Jong to put into the text.
Label the first page Appendix at the top of the page. Leave two b!ank
lines between the title and the fust line of text or other material.
If the appendix material is of different types-for example, a tahle and
a case study-divide it among two or more appendixes. In this case, give
each appendix a number or letter and a descriptive title. The numbe.rs
can be e1ther arabic numerals (1, 2) or spelled out (One, 1wo), or you may
use single letters of the alphabet in sequentlal order (A, B) Put the nurnber or letter following the word Appendix, and place the descriptive title
on the next line. (lf your paper has only one appendix, you may also give
it a descriptive title, but do not give it a number or letter,)
lf the appendix consists of your own explanatory text, double•space
it and format it to match the main text. lf it is in list form or consists of
a primary document or a case study, you tnay choose to single-space the
text, especially if it is Jong.
Treat supporting material that cannot be presented in pnnt form, such
as a large data set or a multimedia file, as an appendix. Include a brief
description of the material and its location, including a hyperlink (if relevant). Such supplementary materials may also need to be described in
your abstract (see A.2.1.4). Consult your local guidelines for specific requirements for file format, presentation, and submission; see also A.3.1.
If your thes1s or dissenation (or longclass paper) needs a glos•
sary (see A.2.1.12), you may include it in e1ther the front or back matter,
where it follows any appendixes and precedes endnotes and the bibliography or reference list. Ali of the special format requirements described
in A.2.r.12 apply, except that the back-matter glossary pages should be
numbered with arabic mstead of roman numerals Figure A.8 shows a
sample glossary (paginated for the front matter).
411
A2 3 4
ENDNOTES. lf you are usmg notes-style citations. and unless your local
guidelines require footnotes or end-of-chapter notes, you may include
notes in the back matter as endnotes. Labe! the first page of this element
Notes at the top of the page. Leave two blank lines between the tiUe and
the first note, and one blank line between notes. The notes themselves
should be single-spaced, with a standard paragraph indent at the start
of each one. If you restart numbering for each chapter,fadd a subheading
before the first note to each chapter. Figure A.14 shows a sample page of
endnotes for a paper divided into chapters See also 16.3.3 and A.2.2.4.
If you are using author-date citations, you will not have endnotes.
A.2.3.S
Jf you are using notes-style citations,
you will probably include a bibliography in the baclc matter. Labe! the first
page of this element Bibhography at the top of the page. Leave two blank
lines between the title and the first entry, and one blank line between
entries. The entries themselve:.:;
should be single-spaced, with runovers
o;
indented half an inch. Figure A. 1s shows a sample page of a bibliography.
For some types of bib1iographies you should use a clifferent title, such
as Sources Consulted. If you do not arrange the bibliography alphabetically
by author, include a headnote, subheadings (formatted consistently), or
both to clarify the arrangement. See 16.2 for these variations.
If you are using author-date c1tations, you must include a reference
list in the back matter. Labe] the fust page of the list References at the top
of the page. Leave two blank lines between the title and the first entry,
and one blank line between single-spaced entries. Indent runovers half
an inch (use a hanging indent). Figure A.16 shows a sample page of a
reference lisL
ln rhe rare case that you do not arrange the reference list alphabetically by author (see 18.2 1), include a headnore, subheadings (formatted
consistently), or both to darify the arrangement.
A.3
File Preparation and Submission Requirements
A.3.1
Preparing Your Files
By following some basic practices for good electronic file management
and preparation, you can avoid problems and produce a !egible, properly
formatted paper These practices apply whether you w11l be submitting
your paper electronically, as hard copy, or both.
A 2 3 2 APPENDIXES
A.2 3.3 G tOSSARY
IC'l·l REOulREMfN f S
BIBLIOGRAPHY OR REFERENCE LIS T.
A31 1 FILE MANAGEMENT. 1Ty to mimmize the nsk that yow data will be lost or
corrupted at some point
413
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Figure A14. Endnoles Repttnted wilh permIss1on from Mary Channen Caldwell "Smglng, Dancing, and
Re101cing ln the Round: Latin Sacred Songs With Refra1ns, circa 1000--1582" (PhD dis~. University of
Figure A.15. Bibliography Reprmted w,th perm,ssion from Julia Akinyi Brookms. "lmm,grant Settlers and
Frontier Citizens· German Texas in the American Emp1re. 1835-1890" (PhD diss University of Chicago,
Chicago. 2013)
2013).
415
■
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Prepare your paper as a smgle electronic file, regardless of ils length
Workmg with a single ftle makes 1t easier to use yom word processor
to number pages, footnotes, and the like and to defme and apply styles
cons1stently (see A.3. 1 2}. Working in a single file will also make it easier
to search and make global changes. Papers submiued electronically must
almosc always consist of a single file (though certam supplementary
matenals may necd to be prepared and submitted as1separate files, see
A.2.3.2). You may need to use your word processor to div1de your document into sections to meet certatn formatting iequirements, such as presenting notes at the end of a chapter (as chapter endnotes) or changing
the way page numbers display in headers or footers in d1fferent parts of
the document.
■ Name the file simply and logically, Jf you save different versions of the
file over time. name them cons1stenůy (always endmg in the date, for ex
ample) to avo1d any confusion Before final submiss1on. check your local
guidelines for nanung conven!;ions
that apply to the file for the paper and
~
to any supplemental materials
■ Jf possible, stick with the same apphcaoon to dra ft and edit you1 paper.
Conversions always involve some risk of formatting errors and lost data,
even when moving between word processors that are supposed to be
compatible.
■ Save your work often during each writing sessíon.
■ Back up your work in more than one location after each writing session.
In addition to a local drive, save it to a network or cloud storage service.
■ Frint out the file for your paper or convert it lo the required electroruc
format before you1 subm1ss1on date Look it over carefolly for any lormatting glitches, such as special chaiacters that are not displaying properly,
whíle there is time to correct them. Labe) the printout or name the new
file 'DraftM and keep it at least until you submit the ftnal version. ln an
emergency (such as a computer problem or a serious illness), you can use
it to sh ow that you d1d indeed produce a draft.
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For considerations related to citatlon management tools, see 15.6.
A
Figure A.16 Reference list. Reprinted with pe<mi~s:on from Josl! Antonio Hernández Company "The
L~acies of Authootanan,sm. Party Origtns and the Oevelopmenl ol Programmahc Cap:,city m Mexico•
(PhD diss„ Uni~er, ,ty of Chicago, 2015).
312
TEXT cOMPD NE NTS .
Present all components ofyour text clearly and con-
s1stently.
• format each text component consistently, including regular text, block
quotations. footnotes, and each type of tiUe and subhead The most efficienr way to ensure consistency is to use your word processor to define
and apply a unique style (specifying font, s1ze, position, line spacmg, and
so forth) for each component
417
416
• Set your word processor to align text ílush left w1th a 1agged right margin
unless your local guidehnes recommend otherwise, and do not use its
automated hyphenation feature (see 20-4.1).
• To avmd stranding headings at the bottom of the page, use your word
processor to defme them to keep with the next element. And to avoid
strandmg smgle lmes of text at the top or bottom of the page, use your
word processor's option for widow and orphan control.
• Use your word processor's menu for special characters (also called symbols) to insert letters with accents and other diacritics, characters from
Greek and other non-Latin alphabets, mathematical operators (but see
below), paragraph or section symbols, and the like. lf a particular character is not available, you may need Lo select a d1fferent font for that
character.
• Insert any linked cross-references (for the table of contents, figure references, or other elements) and extemal hyperlinks (for cited sources and
the like) that your Iocal guidelines recommend.
• Avoid font colors ether than black. Even if you submit your paper as a PDF
or print it on a color printer, it may be printed or copied Jater in black and
white, and the color might not reproduce welL
• Create equanons and formulas with the equation editor in your word
processor, if possible If not, create these items m another application
and insert them into your file as images (see A.3. 1 3). Leave at least one
blank hne between the equation and the text both above and below.
A 313
Use you1 software to present tables that are clear, well forrnatted, and easily readable. For more infonnation, see 8.3.
TAB LES.
• Create tables with the table editor in your word processor, if possible. lf
not, creaLe them in a spreadsheet program and 1nsert them into your file
as unlinked (embedded) tables. Format them to match che surrounding
text. See chapter 26 for discussion of tahle structure, fonnat, and placement m text.
■ Place a table number and ntle on the line above each numbered table (see
26.2.2). Run the ntle the full width of the table.
• Put any source notes, general notes, or footnotes under the bottom rule
of a table, with a blan k line between the rule and the first note, and also
between notes. Notes to tables may be presented in a smaller font Lhan
the text of you1 paper; consult your local guideltnes.
• Leave at least one blank line (and preferably two) between the table title
and any text above it on the page, and also between the bottom rule (or
last note) and any text below it.
• Use cauuon m employing shading or color to convey meaning. E.ven if
you print the paper on a color printer or submit it as a PDF, 1t may be
printed or copied Jater in black and white. lf you use shading, make sure
it does not obscure the text of t!1P table, and do not use mulbple shades,
which might not reproduce distinctly.
• Repeat the stub column and all column heads (see 26.2,4 and 26.2.5) on
every page of a multipage table, Omit the bottom rule dn all pages except
che last.
■ Remain withm your paper's standard margins for a table that takes up
an entire page or is in landscape orientation (see 26. 1 2). Do not put any
regular text on a page contaimng a landscape table Set the table title
in either landscape or portrait onentation, and include a page number
(preferably in portrait orientat1on, so that it lines up with the rest of ů1e
page numbers in your paper).
• Keep a table that cannot be presented in print fom1, such as one containing a large data set, as a separJ te file, and treat it as an appendIX to your
paper (see A.2 3.2).
A 3.l.4
Take care that your graphics are easy to read, accurate, and to
the pomt For more inforrnation, see 8.3
FIGURES.
• Some charts, graphs, and cliagrams can be created with the tools built
m to your word processor. lf you create them in a different application,
insert them mto yourfile as images. Format them to match the surroundmg text See chapter 26 for discussion of figure types, format, and placement in text.
• lnsert photogrnphs, maps, and other types of figures into your file as images. lf an item is available to you only in hard copy, scan and insen it if
possible.
• Put a figure number and caption on the line below the figure (see 26.3.2).
(An exception. with examples from musical scores, pul the number and
caption on the line above the figure rather than below.) Run the caption
the full width of the figure. lf there is not enough room for both figure
and caption wiůlin the margins of a page, put che caption at the bottom
(or, 1f necessary, the top) of the nearest preceding text page.
■ Leave at least one blank line (and preferably two) belween the figure and
any text above it on the page, and also between the capuon and any text
below it.
• Use cauuon in employing shading or color to convey meaning. Even if
you pnnt the paper on a color printer or submit it as a PDF, it may be
printed or copied Jater in black and white If you use shading, make sure
418
APPEl:01 '
FAPER FORMA.TA.ND SUSMIS~ION
419
it does nol obscure any text in the figure, and do not use multiple shades,
which might not reproduce distinctly.
• Consult your local gu1delines for any requirements related to resolution,
scaling, cropping, and other parameters.
• Remam within your paper's standard margins for a figure that takes up
an entire page or is in landscape orientation (see 26.1.2). Do not put any
regular text on a page containing a landscape figure. Set the figure caption in either landscape or portrait orientation. and include a page number (preferably in portrait orientation, so that it lines up with the rest of
the page numbers in your paper).
■ Keep a figure that cannot be presented m print form, such as a multimedia file, as a separate file, and treat it as an appendix to your paper (see
specifies how others may use or distJibute your work. lf you choose a
traditiona1 publishing option, your paper may slill be visible to search
engines, and readers may have free access to your abstract and in some
cases a portion of your text; full access 1s typically prov1ded through a
subscription database or a library. lf you are concerned about lim1ting
access to your paper for a specific period, you may be able to apply for an
embargo; check your local guidelines.
I
Whichever publishing option you select, copyught restrictions apply.
If you include copyrighted material beyond the conventions of fair use,
you must obtain written permission from lhe copynght holder. and you
may be required to submit that documentaóon with your paper. Failure
to provide such material may delay acceptance or publication of your dissertation. Consult your local guidelines and those offered by tl1e reposit01y. For more information, see chapter 4 in The Chicago Mamwl of Style,
17th ed , (2017), or Copyright and Your D1ssertat1011 or Thesis: Ownership, Fair
Use, and Your Rtghts and Resp~sibilines, by Kenneth D. Crews. available
online from ProQuest.
A.2.3,2).
A.3.2
Submitting Electronic Files
Most departments and universities now require electronic submission of
a thesis or dissertation instead of or in addition to bard copy (see A.3.3).
Instructors may also request electronic copies of class papers. For class
papers, consult your mstructor regarding acceptable file types.
The requirements for theses and dissertations are more stringent.
Well in advance of the deadline, review the specific guidelines of your
department oruniversity regarding any forms or procedures that mustbe
completed before you can submít your paper. If possible, get an official to
review your paper for proper format and other requirements before you
submit the final copy.
Most dissertations and some theses will be submitted to an electronic
repository. Many universities work with ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, a commercial repository; others maintain their own. In either case,
follow your universíty's guidelines for formatting your paper and creating the electronic file. Most papers wilJ need to be submitted as a single
PDF document. To ensure that all text clisplays correctly for other readers,
make sure that all fonts u sed in your pa per have been embedded according to the guidelines provided by ProQuest or your university. lf a copy
of your abstract wilJ be submitted separately, double-check formatting
and special characters to make sure they have been maintained in the
copy If your paper includes supplemental files that cannot be included
in the PDF (see A.2.3.2), follow all applicable guidelines for preparing and
submitting them.
Once the full text of your paper is published in an electronic repository, others will have access to your work. You may be given the option
to publish utraditionally" or to provide free, open access to your work
online. sometimes in conjunction with a Creative Commons license that
A.3.3
Submitting Hard Copy
Even if you submit your paper electronically (A.3.2), you may also be
asked to subm1t one or more hard cop1es of the full paper or of specific
pages. ln some cases you may be asked to subm1t only the hard copy. ff
you are writing a class paper, submittmg it may be as simple as prinung
out a single copy and handing it in to your instructor. Or you may tnstead
be asked to submit multiple copíes to multiple individuals (your class
mates, or other faculty mernbers). Follow instructions exactly. and always
keep both a hard copy and the electroruc file for your records. Ail copies
should exactly match the original.
The reqwrements for theses and dissertations are more stringent, in
part because such papers may be preserved in bound fonn by the university or by a comrnercial repository Weil m advance of the deadline,
review the specific guidelines of your department or university regardmg
such matters as the number of copies required and any paperwork or
procedures that must be completed before you can submit your paper
(If your thesis or dissertation is very Jong, your department or university
may bind it in multiple volumes. Check your local gu1delines.) lf possible,
get an official to review your paper for proper format before you produce
the final copies.
Fo!Jow your uruversity's recommendations for paper stock Most will
specify a paper that is 8½ x 11 inches (in US universities) and suitable for
long-tenn preseivation of the work Tf the guidelines do not specify the
paper stock, follow the American Library Association's recommendation
420
, PVE ljOJ• PArEM FOR MAT ANO 5U8Ml5SION
for twenty pound we1ght, neutral-pH (acid-free) paper that is labeled e 1•
ther ubuffered" or as having a minimum 2 percent alkaline reserve. Some
bul uol all stock referred to as "dissertation bond" meets these requirements, so be sure to examine the paper specificaůons before mak:ing
any copies. Unless your guidelines speafy otherwtse, pnnt your paper 011
only one side of each page.
Bibliography
There lS a largc hterarure on findmg and presenl..i.ng U1fonnat1on, only
some of wh1ch cau be hsted here For a larger ,md more cunent selection,
consult the Library of Congress catalog or an online bookseller URLs are
provided hete for sources th,n are available online (in addition to or in
plac:e of traditional prim fonnats). Other sources may also be available
online or in an e book format;.<onsult your library This list is divided as
foJlows.
Internet Databases (Bibliographies and lndexes)
~
422
nt"f"~1
Hw,1an t e
>OC al Se ,..nces
423
423
42 3
t Jaitu1~I 'irn·•n< ..~
Prin t and Electron ic Re-sources
Gen<, ral
V sual Re prt?S1!t•t.ll1on ot Data ('T ,ti• s
~
gure Pú~kr E:
47,i
'1]6
Human,1 ,cs
Gen,1rJ I
426
Ail
427
l i •!tlf'/
428
429
l tcmy Studie:;
Mus,c
Pti1lo~opt1y
430
430
)Oc1al Sc,~ni,
GE1,c:ral
-431
A11U ,r ro0lvj(\
432
,133
,:34
43S
43S
I ITII ' li ' t ,c,~ Jo11roMl1'•11 , n,1 M„11,s St.;d es
EC/JII 11111(5
EchicAt 011
Ge, ~,ilphy
l..1W
436
436
í'OJ1lu 01Se t'!lCc
437
P y(:h OIIJ~Y
438
li~log1on
439
421
422
816 IOGRA "
Soc10l011y
Wort>c11~ Stud,es
439
440
l'eriodicols l111Jcx Online. ProQuest Inform<1non ,md Leijrning, 1990 http.I/www prnquest
.com.
441
442
443
ProQuest D1$SCTIQl1on;; and n1eses. An11 Arbor, Ml ProQuest lníorm11t1on nnd Learrung,
2004- hnp://www proquesr.com
ProQuest Researrh L brary Ann Arl,or, Ml ProO_u~st tnf.Jnr..,tJou and I.enmme 199shttp://www.proqut>Sl com/
·' -
t ,a1ural ~r:fcur.t
GunerJI
fl,1ůlugy
c,,~rn,st,y
423
443
Cmnputer S<: er•ce,
G„u1<1gy and ~ar th Sdences
Mi1themat1~
444
Pllys,cs
445
445
For most of those areas, six kinds of resources are listed:
1. speaalized dictionanes that offer shon essays d!'ftmng concepts in a field
2, general and spectalized encydopedias that offer mow cxtensive overvtl!WS of;; top1c
3. gutdes to findmg re~ources in dlfferent lields and usmg the1r methodologies
4. b1bliographies, abstracts. and 1ndexes that list past and current publicauons m d1fferen1
ftelds
wnting manuals for different fields
6 . styl" manuals thar d~cnl>e required features or c:i1a1ions in different fields
s.
Internet Databases (Bibliographies and lndexes)
General
Academie Onefile rarrnmgtou H1lls, Ml: Gale Cengage Learning, 2006- !mp //www.gale
com/
Academie Seorch Prem•~r Ipswich, MA. Ebsco ln!onnnnon Services 1975-. https://www
ebscohostcom/acad~m1C/academ1c•search•prem1e1
Art1der1rsr Dublm, OH. OCLC, 1990- httpJ/www.ock.org/
Boo~list Onbre Chicago Amencan Library /lssocia1100, :1006- httpJ/www bookllstonline
.com/.
Clase and Pmódica Mexico City: UNAM, 2001-. httpJ/www.oclc.org/.
CQ Rcseurcher. Washington, DC: CQPress, 1991 . httpJ/ltbrary.cqpress com/cq1t.Sl!arc:hei:/.
ERIC (Educatíonal Resources lt1Jorma11on Center) Washington, DC: US Department of Educa•
rion, Institute of Education Sciences 2004-. hltp-//www.enc.ed gov/.
Eslay and Ceneral LltHalilrr Inde.'< (H W Wilson) Ipswich, MA EBSCO Pubhshmg, 2oooshttpJ/www ebscohost.com/wllson/.
Gcmeral Onefilc rarmmgton Hills, ML Gale C"nf:a&e Learning. 2000- httpl/www gale.cen
gage.com/
JSI Web oJSCienc€ (formerly Wrb ofKnowledgt) NewYork:Thomson Reute1!., 1q90s--. http://
woJ..,nío.com/
Lex1sNeY.1s Academie D:iyton OH. LeXJsNexis, 1984- hllp://wwwJex1snexis.com/
1.Jbrary L1terorure and lnfo1rnation Sclena.> Full To.'xr (H W Wilson) lpSWJch, MA EBSCO Publishmg. x999- hltp//WWW ~bscohost.com/w1lson/
Lilm1ry of Congrt!:SS Onlinr Catalog. Washington, DC. l1brary or Congye~s. https:J/c;iralog
Joc.gov/
Ommftle fuíl Te1<1 Se!.-.:t (H W Wilson) Ipswich, MA tRSCO Publishmg. 1q90- http://WWW
ebscohost.collV\l.11son/
Refere1ice ReulťWS Brad!ord, UK MCB Uruvt-rs1ty Pre55, c997- htrp:/IWWW ~rneraldinsight
com/journals.hUTI!1ssn=o950-4125
J
WorldCot Dublin, OH· Online Computer L.íb1 11y Cemei. htcp://lw)w.oclc.org1worldcat/
Humanities
,.,rts cmd Hum~llllÍl!.S C1touan lnd~x I llilad!!lphla lnsurute 101 Scient1fi tc formauan
1990s- lmp://lp•sc1ence thomsonréutezs corn/mJV
'
Humam11es full Tl'l<t (H W Wilson) lpsvtlch M.'\ EBSCO Publishmi; :01 r- http;//www
.ebscohos1 com/wilson/
Humanme~ 1111,·rnotforial Index (fom1erly Arnrn.:an H1.mwn1t1es lt•dr:<) lp.wich, MA tBSCO
Publishrng, 2005- http//www ebscohost com/acndemic/
U.S. History m C.cnrext F:ummgton Hilf!;, Ml Gale Group, 2007- http://www golP com/
Social Sciences
Anthropoloq1eal L1ltran,re Cambndge, MA. IoZ2er Library, Harvard llnivt-Nty l!1&!-. http://
hclharvard edulhbrarit-S/tozzer/an1hroht/amhroh1 cfm
·
An!hroSourc-e. Arhngton, VA. American Anthropological AssocBuon http//www.aaanet
org/publicarlons/anthrosource/
A111hropology Plus Rutgers, NJ· Rutgers Umversny Library hup·flwww hbranes.rutgo:rs
.edu/tndexe!'Janthropology_plus.
APi\ PsycNET Waslungton, DC Ame11C1111 l'sychological Associanon 1990s • http//www
apa.org/pubs/databases/p~cneú
ASS!A Appbed Sooal SCllnces Index and A!!Strarts Rutgers. NI Rulgers 1Jmv~11o1ty Library
http//u.n;.w librarn:s.rutgers.edu.l1ndexes/assia
PAJS lt1ternc1110nal wnh Arrl1111e Publlc AJfam; lnlormation Serv,ce. CSA lllurn 1na Bethesda
MD: CSA, 1915- http.//www.proquest.com/
Polit1caf Scirn,e Rcso:arc:h Guide Ann Arbor: Untversity or Michigan hllp//gwdes.llb
.umic:h.eduJpollscí/
Soaal Soences Absm1cts (H W. Wilson) Ipswich, MA EBSCO Publlshmg, 1 q90s- htt~ Jfwv.-w
.ebscohosl cont/will>On/
Socral Sc1en,cs C1tat1011 lr.dex Philadelphia lnslltme for Saentlilc htfomiation, r99oshttp//wokinlo.corn1
Soc10l09ical Abstracts. Soc1olog1cal Abstrncts; C.:u11b11dge Sctenuóc- Absrrnrts Bethesd.i,
MD; ProQursc CSA, 1990s-. http//www proquesr.com'
Natural Sciences
Apphed Se rnci' and Tťrhnology Index (H W WíJso,~ lp~u.ich, MA CBSCO P11bh~hing, t¼~h1tp./twww.ebs<:0hos1 convwilson/
NAL Cotol.-,g (ACiRICOI../\} Washington, DC N:iuonal Agn~ultuml I 1br~,y, ''-J,O- http,'/
agncola.nal usd.;.gov/
424
Sl6uOG0APH
bil' IOGRAPH,
PubMed gov. US NatJonal Library of Medicine National lnsbtutes of Healů1 http,//WWv,
nebi. nlm.mh .gov/pubmed
Weil of Saence. Ph1ladelph1a Institute for ScJentilic lnformation, 1990s-. http://wolunro
.coml.
425
4.
Book Review D1gest Retrospec1111e 1903-1982 (H W Wiíson) Bronx H. W Wilson Co. Ipswich,
4.
Book Rev1ew Index Detroit. Gale Research, 1965-. Also at httpJ/www.gale.com.
MA: EBSCO Pubhshmg, 201 r-. http.//www.ebscohost.com/wilson/.
4. Books m ?rmt. New Providence, NJ: R. R Bowker, 2011 Also at hrrpJ/www booksmpnnt
com/
4. Bngham, Clarence S. H1story and B1bhography of Amencan Newspapers, 1690-1820. 2 vols
Westpon CT: Greenwood Press, 1976.
1
4. Conference Papers Index. Bethesda, MD: Cambndge Scíenufic Abstr.utts 1978-
Print and Electronic Resources
General
4 . FarbeT, Evan Ira, ed Comb111ed Recrospect1vc Index to Book Rev1ews 111 Scholarly Journals, 1886-
1. Amencan National B1ography. New York Oxford Umvers1ty Press, 2000-. http://www,anb
.orgj.
1. Bowman. John S., ed. The Cambridge D1ctio11ary of American 81ography. Cambridge: Cam.
bridge University Press, 1995
1. World B1ographical lnformatron Svstem [Mun1ch:J Thomson Gale, n.d. http;//db.saur.de
/WBIS/.
Matthew, H C. G,, and Brian Howard Hamson, eds. Oxford D1ct1onary oJ Nananal Bi.ogrQphy,
m Assoc1at1on w1th the Bntish Academy· Front Lhe Earhest Tm1es ro the Ycar 2000 New Yorke
Oxford University Press, 2004. Also at http://www oxforddnb.corn/
2. Jackson, Kenneth T, Karen Markoe, and Amie Markoe, eds '111e Scrihner Encyclopedia of
Amencan L111es 8 vols covenng 1981-2008 New York: Charles Scribneťs Sons, 19982010.
1974, 15 vols. Arlington, VA Carrollton Press, 1979-82.
4 . Gregory, Winifred. ed Anierican Newspapers, 1821-1936 A Umon Lisi of Files Available m che
4.
4, Naaonal Newspaper Index Men lo Park, CA. lnformation Access. 1982-201 I.
4. Newspapers in M1croform Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1948-83 Also at httpsJ/
1.
2. Lagassé, Paul, ed Tne Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed. New York: Columbia University Press,
2oo8.
2. New Encyclopacd1a
www.loc.gov/.
New York T1mes Index. New York; New York Tlmes, 1913
4 . Penod1cals Index Onlme. Ann Arbor, M~oQuesc lnfonnauon and Learning, 1990-. http://
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4. Popular Penodical Index Camden, NJ Rutgers University, 197:3-93
Bman111ca. 16th ed. 32 vols Chicago Encyclopaed1a Britannica, 2010.
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and
Internet Matenals. Chicago: Umvers1ty of Chicago Press. 2014-
3.
3.
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1996
Hacker, Duma, and Barbara Fister Research and Documenranon in rhe Digital Age, with 2016
MLA Update. 6t h ed. Boston: Bedford / St. Mart:In's, 2016.
Kane, Eileen, and Mary O'Re1Jly-de Brun Do1rtg Your Own Research. London: Manon Boyars,
2001
Kieft, Robert, ed. Guide to Reference. Chicago; American Llbrary Association, 2008-16.
Lipson, Charles. Doing Honesi Worll m College How to Prepare Citations, A1101d Plag1ansm, and
Ach1e11e Real AcademlC Success. 2nd ed Clucago: University of Chicago Press, 20o8.
Mann, Thomas. Oxford Guide 10 Library Research 4th ed. New York Oxford University Press,
(H W Wilson) . Ipswich, MA EBSCO Publishing, 2003-
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4. Reference Books Bulletin. Chicago: Amencan Library Association, 1989. Also at hLtp.// www
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4. Senals Remew. New York Taylor and Francis, 1975-2or3. Also at httpJ/www.sciencedJrect
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Poole, William Frederick. and William Isaac Fletcher. Poole's Index to Penod1rnl Litera.ture
Rev. ed Gloucesrer, MA: Peter Smith, r971
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United Stotes and Canada. New York· H W, Wilson 1937
K1rkus Rev1ews New York: Kirkus Media. 1933-. Also at http://www.lmkusreviews.com/
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5, Bol ker, Joan Writing Your Disserranon 111 Fifteeri Mmutes a Day A Guide to Startmg, Re11ism9,
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arid Fin1shrng Your Doctoral Thesis. New York: H. Holt, 1998
Crews, Kenneth D Copynght Law and Graduate Research· New Media, New R19hts, and Your
D1ssertau011 Ann Arbor, Ml: UM!, 2002
s. Eco, Umberto. How co Wrire a Thes1s. Translated by Catenna Mongia1 farma and Geoff
Fanna Cambridge, MA. Massachusetts Institute cf Technology, 2015
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CA.Analytics Press, 2012.
3. Reference UnnJerse. Sterling, VA. Paratext. 2002-. http://refuruv.odyssi.com/.
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to lnJon11(1tion 4th ed. Aldershot, Hampshire, UK Ashgate Pubhshmg, 2008.
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Pnnt. 3rd ed. Phoerux: Oryx Press. 2001
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1969-. httpsJ/wwwebscohost.com/academ1c/altemat1ve•press-index
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4. An Index to Book Rev1ews in the Humamties. Wílliamston, Ml P. Thomson. 1960-90
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formation, 1979-. Also at hnp://wokinfo.com/
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4. Harzfeld, Lo1s A. Penodical lndexes
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by Anthony Chakraft, Ray Prytheral'! , and Stephen Willis 8th ed London Library As·
soCJaOon, 2000.
s. Northey, Margot, and Maurice Legris Mokmg Sense in tne Humamt1es· A Srudenťs Gu1de ro
Writing and Style Toronto. Oxford Umversity Press, 1990.
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Kate L. Turabían (1893-1987) was the graduate school d1ssertation secretary at the University of Chicago for nearly three decades. She is the original author of this work and the Studenťs Guide to Writing College Papers,
also published by the University of Chicago Press and currently in its
fourth edition (2010).
tas
Wayne C. Booth (1921-2005)
the George M. Pullman Distinguished
Service Professor Emeritus at the University of Chicago, where he taught
in the English Department, the Comrnittee on ldeas and Methods, and
the College. His many books include The Rhetoric of Fiction, A Rhetoric of
Irony, Critical Understanding, The Vocation of a Teacher, and For the Loue of lt:
Amateuring and Its Riuals, all published by the University of Chicago Press.
Gregory G, Colomb (r951-20u) was professor of English at the University of Virginia and the author of Designs on T'ruth: The Poetics of the
Augustan Mock-Epic.
Joseph M. Williams (1933-2008) was professor emeritus of English and
linguistics at the University of Chicago. Heis the author of Style: Lessons in
Clarity and Grace. Colomb and Williams jointly wrote The Craft ofArgument.
Joseph Bizup ís associate professor of English and associate dean for
undergraduate academic programs and policies in the College of Arts &
Sciences at Boston University. He is the author of Manufacturing Culture,
coeditor of recent editions of the Norton Reader, and editor of recent editions ofWilhams's Style.
William T. FitzGerald is associate professor of English and director of
the Writing Program and the Teaching Matters and Assessment Center at
Rutgers University-Camden. He is the author of Spiritual Modalities,
Together Booth, Golomb, and Wilhams authored The Craft of Research,
which Bizup and FitzGerald reV1sed for its fourth edition (University of
Chicago Press, 2016). And first Golomb and Williams, and now Bizup and
FitzGerald, have revised Turabian's Studenťs Gwde
The University of Chicago Press Editorial Staff produces The Chicago Manual of Style, curreotly in its seventeenth edition (2017).
447
Index
References are to secuon numbers except where speCÚled as page (p ), figure (lig.), table, or note
(n) number
abbreviaaons, pp. 342-43
for academic degrees. 24.2 3
m addresses, 24.3. 2
for agencies, companies, and otller or§.amza·
tions 24 24
"'
m auůior-date style citations, 18.1 6
the Bible, applicable to. 24-6, books of the
Apocrypha, 24.6.2, books of the Jewish
Bible/Old Testament. 24.6. t books of ůie
New Testament, 24 6 3, vemons of the
Bible 24 64
for Canad1an provmces and termones. 24 3 1
c:ap1talization ol. 24 1.3
m charts and graphs, 26 3 I
lil citations and olher scholarly conte><ts
24 7
convenóons for use of. 24 1 2
1n date and tnne refere11ces. 23 1.5. 23 3, 24 4
formattmg of. 24 1 3
mdelinite arucles and, 24 , 3
1tahcs ln, 24 1.3
list of. A.2 l I I, fig A.7
lil notes-bibhography style citanons 16 1 6
number ranges. system for, table 23 2
lil parenthetical citanons, 16.4-3 2
1n persona! names, 24-2. 1
forplac-e-names. 24.3.1
plurnl forms oí, 20.1.2 3
possessive forms of, 20.2
1
ofprofessmnal titles, 242.2
punctuanon of 24 1 3
spacing io, 24 1 3
in tables and flgu,es. 24 ~-4, 24-3 1, 24 4.2.
26.2
types of, 2-4 1 ;
for unats of measure, 23. 1.1, 24 s
for US states. 24 3 r
abstracts
cilation of lil autho1-date style, 19.2.8; in
notes-bibliography style 17 2 7
for a d1ssertat1on or thes1s, A.2 1 4
A.cadenuc Search P1ermer, 2.1. 1, 3 2 3
academ1c terms
abbrevianons for deg,ees '4.2.3
names of cou,ses and subjects, 22.1 3
scholarly abbreviations, 24-7
acknowledgments, A 2 uo
acronyms. J.4.1 J
addresses
email, 20.42
street, 23.1.7, 23 ,.2, 24-3.2
adjectlves
compound forms of, 20.3 1, 20.3 2
muluple precedmg a noun, use ot comnta.s
to .:,eparate, 21.2 4
advertisements
.;uthor-date style c1tation, of 19 10 3.7
notes-bibhography style c,tab.ons of,
17 10.3 7
aircraft. names of. 22.1 3
alphabeb.ZJng. 16.2 2 1- 16.2.2 2. r8.2 1 118.2 I 2
analys1s
models for, 3 1. 2
oí sources. creab.ve agreement, looking for
4 1.r, creauve disagteement looklng far
4
l.2
.-.nnals of rhe C.Ongress oj the Umted SUic.s.
11 11 2.r 1q 11 2 t
anonymous autllors, 17. 1.1 s. 19 1.1.5
anthologies
author-date style ciuitions of. 19.1 9 3
notes b1blíography style citahons of 17.1.8.3
Apocrypha. abbrev,anons apphcable to, 24.6.2
Set' atso Bible
apostrophes. 20.1, 20.2. 21. II
appendi.xes
hgures and tables m, 26. 1.2
format reqwrements for. A.2.3.2
apposmves. punctual:ion of, 21 2 4
apps (computer)
author-date sryle c1tatíons of, 19.10.3 s
notes-bibhography style atanons of.
17 10.3 5
449
4
450
lflDE,
Arab)c names1 t6.7.4-.I . 18.2.1.2
argument, building an
"argument." commonsense understandmg
of, 2-4-2
based on evidence vs. warrants, 5.5
blind spots, checic.ing for. 9 1
challenges to, 5 4 3, ó.2.8,3
claim, ruming your warking hypothes,s mto
a, 5 3
elements of, assembling, 5.4, s 6
readers 1 quesnons as gmde to, 5.2
research argument, meanmg of, s 1
warrants, 5,4-4, 6 2.8 4
5ee also storyboard, working hypothes1s
art exl11b1t1on catalogs
author-date style citatioos of, 19.I0.4 1
notes-bibliography style mations of,
17.I0-4-l
artworks
author-date style citaooos of, 19 10. 1.1
notes-bibliography s.tyle citations of,
17 IO.I T
author-date style citations, 3 5.r, 15.3 2,
pp. 223-24, pp 237-38
access dates, 15-4-1 s
parenthetical cuations (see parenthetical
citations)
pattems of· abbreviations, 18.1.6, capitaliza
tion, 18.1.3, indentanon, 18. 1.7: ital1cs and
quotation marks, 181.4; numbers, 181 5,
order of elements, 18. 1 1· punctuation,
18.12
placement of, 25.2.1.1
reference lists (see reference hsts)
in specific types of soUices; advertisements,
19,10.3.7, art exhibition catalogs, 1910.4.1;
the Bible and ether sacred works. 19.8.2,
blogs. 19 s 2; books (see bool<s autho,-date
style mations in); classical. medieval.
and early English literary works, 19.8.1,
graph.tc ans, 19. 10.1.21 mterviews,
451
INDE<
19.6. I,
19.10.3 6,joumal articles (see ioumals and
ioumal articles. author-date style orations
in), lectures, 19. 7.2; legal cases, 19 11.7,
l1ve perforrnances, 19 10.2; magazíne
arocles. 19.3; manuscript caUections,
19.74; movies, 19. 10.3.1; mus1cal scores,
19.10.4.3, newspaper articles, 19.4; one
source quoted m anothei, 19.9.3, online
collections, 19 7.5, online forums and
malling llsts, 19,5 4; paintings, sculptures,
and photographs, 19.10 1 1: pamphlets
and reports, 19.7.3; papers presented at
meeungs, 19.7.2, personal communications, 19.6.2, plays, 19.10.4-2; podcasts,
19.I0,3.3; pubhc documents (see Congress,
US: autbor-date style c1tations oí; pubUc
documents: author-date style otatlons of),
refeience works, 19 9 1; reviews, 19.9.2;
social media, 19 5.3; sound recordings,
19 10.3.4, televwon and radio program 8 ,
19.10.3.2; theses and d1ssertations, 19 7. 1,
video games and apps, 19.10.3 s: videos,
19.10.3 3; websites, 19 s 1
author's name
in author-date style citanons, 19.1.1, 19.2.1
m notes-bibliography style citations, 17.u,
17.2.1
bar charts. See charts
beliefs, 14
Bible
abbreviaúons applicable to, 24-6, books of
the Apocrypba, 24-6 2, books of the Jewish
Bible/Old Testament, 24-6. 1, books of the
New Testament, 24-6 3; versions of the
Bible. 24-6-4
author-date style cnations ar, 19.8.2
notes-bibliography style citations of, 17.8.2
titles in, 22.3 2.3
bibliograph1es
abbrev1ations in, 16.1.6
arrangemem of enmes: alphabetical by
author, 16.2..2.1; by categories. 16 2.2.,i;
ether than alphabetical, 16.2.2.3; speáal
types of names, accommodating, 16.2.2 2
citing for every summary, paraphrase, or
quotation, 7-4
in a dtssertal.lon or thesis, A.2.3.5
example of, lig. A.15
indemation in, 16.1-7
with notes-bíbliography style citations,
15.3 I, 162, p 150
order of elements in, 16. 1 1
puoctuation m. 16.1.2
recording inforrnanon for, 3.5 2
searching for sources in, 3.2.2, 3.2.7
sources that may be omitted, 16.2.3
templates for enoies in, fig. 16 1
types of, 16.2. 1
See also notes-bibliography style citations
blogs
author-date style citations of, 19.5.2
notes-b,b!Jography style ciranoos of, 17.5.2
books
author-date style otanons m: anonymous
author, 19.1 1.5, authoťs narne, 19.1 1,
chapters and ether parts of a book, 19.1.9;
dare of publication, 19.1.2, editor or trans•
lator m addition to author, 19,1 , 1, editor
or translatonn place of an author, 19 I.I 2;
electionic books, 19 1.ro; Jetters and ether
commumcations, 19.1.9-4, multivolum e
works as a whole, 19. 1 5.2; non-Eng!Jsh
titles, 19.1.3-3; older titles, 19.1.3.2; organizauon as author, 19 1.1 3; page numbers
and other Jocators, 19 1 8, parts of edited
collections, 19,1.9 2, parts of smgle-author
books, 19.1.9.1 place of pubhcauon,
19 1.7 1; pseudonyms, 19 1 I 4,; publisheťs
name, 19 r.7 2, reprim ed1nons, 19 1+2,
rev,sed echnons. 19.1 4 1· a senes, 19 1.6,
speoal elements m title, 19., 3.1, specific
volume ofmultivolume works. 19 1 5.1,
atles. r9.1.3: works in anthologies, 19 1 9 3
electromc,
17.1 10,
J9.1 10
generic 1enns for parts of, 22 3.2.3
notes-bibliography style citations m·
anonymous authors, 17.1 1.5; authoťs
name, 17 1 1; chapters and orher pans of
books, 17 1 8, date of pubhcaoon, 17 1.6 J,
editor or translator in additico to autho1
17 i. 1.1 editor or translator m place of
author, 17 1 1 2; electrooic books, 17 1.10,
letters and other commumcations, 17 1 9;
multivolurne works as a wbole, 17. 1 4.2,
non•English ntles, 17 1.2.3; olde1 utles
17.1.2 2: orgaruzaoon as author, 17.1.1.3;
page numbers and ether locators, 17 1 7,
parts of edited collections, 17. 1 8.2, p-'ts
of smgle-author books, 17 1.8 1: place of
publication, 17.1.6.1, pseudoayms. 17 1 1.4.
publisher's name, 17 , 6.2; repnnt ed1nons,
17 r.3 2; revised editions, 17.1.3 1, a series
17.1.5, speaal elements m ntles, 17. 1.2 ,,
specific volume of multivolume works
17 , 4 1, útles, 17 1 2, works in anthologies,
17 1.8.3
nurnbers/numerals for parts of. 23. 1.8
templates for notes and b1bliogrnphy entries,
fig. 16.1
templates for reference hsts and parentheu
cal otations, fig. 18.1
titles of, 22.3 2.1
book senes
author-date style ciranons of, 19 , 6
notes-bibliography style ciration, of, q., s
titles of, 22.3 2.3
brackets, 21 8.2
around msemon toto quotation. 25.3. 1-4
around nollltion of modifícation of quotation, 7 .5, 25.3 1 3, 25.3.2 3
end-of-line breaks and, 20.,p
multiple punctuaoon marks and, 21. ,2.2.2
note-taking, use in, ,p.2
brand names, 22 1.3
Bnnsh govemment documents
author-date style citanons of, 19 l I 10
notes-bibhography style atations of 17 11 10
Canadian government documents
author-date style citations ar, 19.11.9
notes-b1bliography style c1tations of. 17 II 9
Canadian proVU1ces and termories, abbrev,anons fo, 24.3. 1
capitalization
in abbreviauons, 24. 1 3
m .authot-date style c1tations, 18. J :,
of churches and rehgious organ12auon;,
23 I 6
colon, íollowmg a, >t 4
cf fore1gn language terms, 22.2 1
headline-style, 22..3. 1 1
of names,
22 1
m note.s-biblmgraphy style ca.auons, 16. 1 3
m quotations, modtfying, 25.3 I 2
of ,acred works 2◄ 6.5
sentence-style, 22.3° 1 >
m tables and figures, 26.2
of JJtles and works, 22 3 1, 22 3 2.3
CD-ROMs, citanon of, 17 g 1,19 9.1
chapters and otl1er parts of books
in autl1or-date style citations, 19.1.9
of a dissertation ar thes1s, A 2 2 2-A 2 2-4
first p~ge of, lig A.9
rn notes-t»bliography style oranons, 17 1.8
titles of, 22-3.2 2
charts
abbrevianons m, 26.3 1
ba1 examples of. fig. 8.4 fig. 8 s, fig. 8.6,
fig. 8.7, fig. B.ro; gmdelines fm, 8.3.3 2,
m1s1epresentat1on 01 data m, 8.4
asbest chmce for graph1c rep1esenta1ion,
8.2
defininon of, p 86n
design of, 26 3.1
examples of ňg. 8. 1
keep lt sitnple, 8 3.•
kinds and uses of, table 8 7
shading and color m, 26.3. 1
"stacked area" examples ol. fig. 8.12 rru&•
representation of data m 8.4
Sce olso figures
Chicago Manuol ofStyle
abbrevmtions, as a resource on, 24.5, p 343
on alphabeuzation systems, 16.2.:2 r. 18.2 t
on author-dare style citations. p 238
atations as source fo, examples of, p. 171
on copyngh1 registration, 26. 1.3, A.2 I 3,
A.3 2 , p 238
em dash. use of, p. 3 qn
on ro,e,gn languages. 22 2 1
on mathematical express1ons, 23.1 9
on names 22 t
Ch,nese names 16.2 2 2 18 2 1 2
otaoons
abbreviation.s used in, ~-2-4, 24- 7
author-date style {see author-date srvle
citauons)
citanon management tools 15 6
determmmg style of. 3.5.1, 15 3
mforrnation required for, 3 s 2, 15 2 2
notes-b1l,hography style (see notPsbibliography ,;tyle amtions)
numbe1s in, 23.4 I
of online sources, 154
1
453
452
maaons (contmued)
placemPnt of note number. ,5.2.1 1 (see also
oote numbers)
preparatioo of, 15 5
reasons for. 1s 1
s1tuations requinng, 15 2.,1
See aJso notes
drums
based on eV1dence vs warrants, 5.5
cherkmg vour. 9 2
evaluanon of. 5-4.1
introduction/conclusion, sraung m you,,
622
main (thes1s) s 3
relevan ce of a reason to, 5.4-4 3, ng. 5.1
(see also warrants)
restatement of m your conclusion, 10 2.1
sta ternem of, 5 4.1. 10.14
suppomng, 5.4.2
tuming yow workmg hypothes1s lnto, s 3
classical, medieval. and early Engbsh literary
works
author-date scvle citauons of 19 8 1
notes bibliography style c1tations of, 17.8 1
dass papers
requirements fo1, pp. 383--84
lJtle page for. óg /\ 1
clauses
colons u sed tn punctuation of 21.~
commas used in punctuaoon of, zr.2 121 2 3, 21.8.1
semlcolons used m puncruaaon of, 21.3
colons. 2r 4
1n lists. 234 2.1
mu1tiple puncruaúon marks and, 21.12..2 1
commas, 21 .2
m addre.sses, 23. 1.7
m bibltogrnphles, 16 2.2.1
m daces. 23.3- 1
loreign currenc,es as dernnal pomt in,
23.1.4.2
mdependent clauses separaang, 2t.2.1
in lists, 23.4 2 1
m1scellaneous uses of 21.2-4
multJple puncruatíon marks aad 21 12 1.
21 12 2
nonresrncuve clauses, semag off.; t 2.J.
21.8 I
numbe1s, used ln. 23.2.,, 23.2 4
in a series, 21 2 2
in tttles of works, 22 3.3
Compilalion of the Messages onJ Pup= of the
Pres1dencs, 118<r-1d97, 17.11.3, 19111
compound words
adJeCOves, used as, 20.3. 1
both nouns and adJecttves. used as 20 3 2
forms oí, 20.3
numbers. mduding. 20.3.2.2
pllual forms of 20 1 2. r
possessive fonns ol 20.2.2.2
prope, nouns indudmg. 20 J 2 1
conclusions
a,ms of, p 107
checkíng your. q.2
of a d1ssertat10n or thes1s,A.2.2 7
drnfnng your lina!, 10 2
for oral presentations, 13 2 3
workíng. 6.2 9
conierence proposals, 13 4
Congress, US
author-date style c1tations of bills and
resolutions. 19.11 2 3; debates, 19 11 2.t;
heanngs, 19.1 1 2.4. publications, 19. 1J .2.
reports and documents, 19. 11.2.2; statutes,
19.11 2-5
notes-bibl1ography style cttat10ns of bills
and resolutions, 17 11 2 3; debates,
17.11 2.1, heanngs, 17.11 24, pub!Jcations.
17 11 2; repom and documents, 1711.2.2,
statutes,
17 1 1 2.5
Conqressíonul Globe, 17.11 2.1. 1911.2.1
Co11gress1onul Reoord, 1711.2.1, 17.11.2 3 ,
19.11.2.1 1911.2.3
copynght
page. A 2.1.3
permission to reproduce marerial protected
by, 26 I 3. A.3.2
culnrral terrns, names of, 22.1 2
dance. ~e live performances
dashes. 21.7
em 21 7 i.
en, p. 314n
mulople punctuation marks and, 21 12.1
2:•E-m and 3-em. 16.2.2 1, 21..., '3
data
eth,cal commumcation of, 8-4
verba! or vtsual representauons of, choosing
between, 8. I
See nlso saurces
databases
commercial, 15 a.1.4
online, 3.2 3
date af publication
m author-date style citaaons. m boaks,
17 1 2, tn Joumal articles, 19 2.2
m notes-b1bLiography style citallons: tn
baoks. 17 1.6,:3, mJournal arucJes, 17.2 4-2
dare.s and ume. references to
abbreviation,; used for 24.A
a m and p m„ 24-4.r
BC and AD or BCT and CE, >3.3.2 24-4 3
commas used m years with five or more
d1gits, 23 2.2
decades, centunes, and eras, 23.3 2. 24 43
month, day, and vear, 23 3 1, :1442
names of. 22.1 2
1anges of ye.ars 23 2-4
dectmaJ pomts1 23.1 4
decimals and lractions. 23 1 3. 23-2 2
ded,cation, A 2 1-5
dissertations and theses
abstract, A.2.1.4
acknowledgmems. A 2 1 10
appendU<es, /\.2 3.2
author-date style □tatJons of. 1q 7 r
back matter, A.2 3
bibliography or reference list. /\.2 3 5, lig.
A.15 fig.A.r6
copyright page, A 2 1 3
dedication, A.2.1.5
defined. p 383J1
departmental and umvers,ty requuemems,
pp. 383-84
ectitonal ar research me1hod. discuss1on
of,A 2.1 13
endnoles A.2 J 4. fig A 14
ep1graphs. A.2 1.6
file preparauon· ligures, A 3 1-4; file management, A 3 1.1 tables, A-3.1 3, text cor#l)onents, A 3. 1 2
forma! requirements for spectfic elements,
A2
front matte1, A 1+ 1. A.2.,
general forma1 requiremems: font, A , 2.
margins, A.u pagination, A.14; spacing
and indentauon, A 1.3. otles.A 1.5
glossary.A.2 I 12,A.2.3 3,bg.A.8
irtus1ratioos. A.2 3 1
hst of abbr<>Viations. A 2 r t ! , fig. A 7
list of figures, tables. or 11lustrations. A.2 1 8,
lig.A.s
notes-bibtiography style cnanon,; of 17 7.1
preface, A 2 1 9
submtssion page, A 2 1.1
submitting electromc files, A.3 ,
subm1tting hanl copy, A.3.3
tahle ot contents. A.2 1.7, 6g. A.3. fig. A.4
text, A.2.2, chapters A.2.2 3. 6g A.9; conclus1on, A.2.2 .7 introducůon A 2.:,, 1, notes
or parenthetlcal citations,A.2.2.5, fig A.10.
ftg. A 11; parts. A.2.2.2; sections and subsections, A 2.2.4, tables and figures
A.2 2.6, fig. A.12. fig. A.13
tttle page, A.2.1 2 figA.2
mles of. 22.3 2..2. A.1 s
Oominion Law Reports (Canada) 17 1 !.9,
19.11.9
drafting
as an acc al discovery pp. 15-76
different ways to approach, 7.1
effecnve wnttng habits and 7.•
evidence. introducing. 7 7
a first senrence. 10 1 5
mappropriate assistance. guarding agamst,
7.10
integrate quotations. 7 s
keep,ng on 1-rack w,th headin 6s and kev
tt:nns. 7 3
plagiansm. guarding agamst, 7 9
procrastmaúon and wrire1 's block, 7 11
quote, paraphrase, and summanze appropnately, 7.4
sentences (sce sentenres)
surprises, be open to, 1 .8
use oí footnotes an(;\'endnoces. 1.ó
your lina! conclus,on. 10 2
your final mtrodudion, 10 t
your atle 10.3
S.-e also feedback; hrst dra ft. rl"Vising
early Engtisb literary works
author-date style □lallons of, 19 8 J 3
notes•bibliography style cnations of, n 8 1.3
e-books. cnahon of
m author-date style, 19 1 t0
in notes-b1bltography style, n I to
ed1uons of books tn citations
111 aulhor-date style atauons, 19. t 9 •
m notes-bibLiog,apby style, 17 I 3, 17.1.8.2
editoťs name in cuadons, 17 1.1 1-1:, 1 , 2.
19 I.I I- r9.1.1 2. fig. 16 I fig. 18.I
electromc technology names of 22 1 3 Se< also
onhne sources
Elements of7\'po9mph1C Style, The (Bringhurst).
A12
elevator stones, 2 s. 13.4
elllpses
empr:y cells in tables. to indicate. 26 2.6
general method for usmg, 25 3 2 2
1nserted in quotations, 7 5.: 1 1, 25.3 2 1
om1ssion of a full paragraph or more lrom
a block quotation. 25.3.2 4
om1ss1on ar a bne or more or poetry,
25 3 2.5
tex1ual stud1es method for usmg. 25 3.2.3
emrul addresses, 20 4.2
Encyclopaedra 8ri1ann11:u p 293
endnotes
m a d1ssertation or thesi s, A 2. 3-4
examp(e of, fig A.14
footaotes vs . r6 3 r
fonnatting. 16.3 4.2
m notes-bibliography style citanons. 1'> 3.1.
p. 150
pa1entheucal notes vs„ 16-4.3. 1
use of while drafting, / 6
See also notes
end-of-lme breaks, 20 4
ep1graphs. 25.2.2.3, /\.2.t.6
equauons. 23. 1 9
European currency 23.1 • 2
evidence
arguments based au, S S
beliefs and, 14
challenges to, S 4.3
4 54
ND[(
evidence (ca,mnued)
mtroducing m drafts 7.7
note·takmg and, 4-3.3
sketch out for each secnon of your paper
6.2.8. 1--6.2.8.2
supporting claims w1tl1, 5.4.2
Exchequer Court Repor..s (Canada), 17 t 1.9,
19.I I 9
exclamaáon pomts 21.6
in author-date style cítations, 19 1.3.1
multiple punctUation marks and, 21. 12.1,
2[ J2 2.1
in notes-bibliography style cit.aóons,
17 l 2.1
Federal Courts Repotts (Canada), 17 IJ .9, 19 11.9
FederalReg1srer, 17.11.3 1911 3
Federal Reporter, 17.11.7, 19.11.7
federnl Supplement, 1711.7, 19.11.7
feedback
fmd general pnnc1ples in specific: comments,
12.2
talk w1th your reader, 12.3
meat comments as advice or data, 121
figures,263
abbrevia óons u sed in, 24. 2 -4
capnons tor, 8 3.1 26.3 2
chart.s (see cl1arts)
defin.ition of, 26 3, p 86n. p 370
designing, 8.3
explanatory iotroductions in, 7 7
graphs (see graphs)
hst of, A.2.1.8, fig. A 6
nurnbering for, 26 3.2
numbers in, 23.4.1
permíss1on to reproduce, 26.1 .3
position m the text, 26.1.1
presemation of m a dissenation ar tbesis,
A.3,1.4
size and orientaci.on of1 26.1.2
source lines for, 26. 1.3
first draft, p. 51
avoíding unhelpful plans, 6. 1
leltovers, lile away, 6,3
pian for: íf conventional, lind a model, 6 2,
mtroducnon to each sectJon and subsecúon, sketch a bnef, 6.2-7, key concepts,
identifying, 6.2.3; organizanon, opnons for,
6.2.5; outllne, converttng your storyboard
mto an, 6 2.1, parts of your argument for
each secnon, sketch the, 6.2.8; subheads
created from key terms, 6,2,4, rrans,tional
words that make the order dear, 6.2.6;
working conclusíon, sketch a, 6.2.9, workmg introduction, sketch a, 6.2.2
revising, p, 102; blind spots in your argument checlung for, 9.1, coherence ofthe
body, checking for, 9 3; introduction, conclusion, and claun, checklng your, 9.2; let
455
INDf ·
it cool, then paraphrase, 9.5, paragraphs,
checkmg your, 9 4
See also drafong; feedback
fust-person prooouns, 11. 1.7
font, general guidelmes for, A.1.2
footnoces
e11dnotes vs., 16.3. 1
example of, lig. A 10
formatting, 16.3.4-1
labeling when eodnotes are numbered,
16.3,3
m notes-bibliography style citations, 15.3.1
p. 150
parenthetical citations vs„ 16-4.3.1, 18.3.3
for tables, 26.z.7
use of while drafting, 7.6
See also notes
fore1gn languages
names m, 22.2 i
terms in, 22.2.1
ntles of works in, 22 3 2
formulas, 23. 1.9
front matter, A 1 4 t
abstracr, A.2.1.4
copyright page, A 2 1.3
dedícation, A.2. 1,5
ep1graph, A.2.1 .6
penods used as leaders in, 21.1
submissíon page, A.2.1 1
table of contents, A.2. 1.7
ntle page, A.2.1 2
glossary,A :u.12, A.2.3.3, fig. A.8
Google, 3.2, 3.2.8, 22.3.2.3
Google Scholar. p.8
govemmental and pohácal orgallÍ2ations
abbreviations for, 24,2.4
atanon of publicabons of: author-date
style citations, 19.11-4 (see also Congress, US· author-date style □tations ol);
notes-bibliography style, 17.11.4 (see oJso
Congress, US notes-bibliography style
citanons ol)
narnes of, 22 1.3, 23 1.6
graphtc: arts
author-date style citaáons of, 19,10.1.2
notes-bibliography style citanons of,
1710.1.2
graphks
choosing between forms of, p. 86
choosmg the most effecnve, 8.2
common fonns and their uses, table 8 7
data best represented by, 8.1
definition of, p . 370
designmg, 8.3; follow guidelines, 8.3.3,
framing 10 help readers understand, 8.3.1;
keep it s1mple, 8.3. 2
ethical commun.ication of data, 8.4
mearung of, p. 86n
sl,ading and colo1 in. 8.3.2
source lines for, 26. L 3
See also charts; figures; graphs; tables
graphs
abbreviaaons in, 26.3 1
addmg text to, 8_3- I
asbest choice for graphtc representation, 8.2
defininon o f, p. 86n
design of, 26.3.1
examples of, 6g. 8.2, lig. 8.3
examples ofline, fig 8.8, fig. &9, itg. 8.11
gu1delines fo, lme, 8 3.3 3
keep lt s1mple, 8.3.2
hne, uses of, table 8.7
misrepresentaáon of data in line.8-4
shadmg and color m. 26.3 1
See also ligures
handouts for oral presentations, 13 2 .5
lustogram, table 8.7
h1storical evenrs and periods See dates and
nme, refereoces to
~
hyperl.mks, A.3.1 2
hypheos, 21 7 1
m compounds and words wtth prelixes, 10 3
end-of-line breaks, usedat, 20 4
in hyperhnks, 20.4 2
in number spans, 20.3 2.2
1n spelled-out centuries, 23 3 2
hypothesis, workmg See working hypothesis
1b1d., 1642
illustrations. See graphics
,ndentation
in author-date style atat10ns, 18.1 7
general gutdellnes fot, A 1.3
in notes-bibliography style citations, r6. 1 7
mmalisms, 24. r ,
intemanonal bodies, publicaóons of
author-date style citanons of, 19 11.11
notes-bibliography style citations of, 17 11,1?
tntemeL See online sources
interv1ews
author-date style cttations of. 19 6 t,
19 IO 3.6
notes-bibliography style atations of, 11 6.1
17.10.3.6
1ntroduction
aims of, pp. 106-7
checking your, 9. 2
of a dissenation or tbeslS, A.2.2. 1
lirst sentence, drafting a, 10,1 ,5
for oral presentations. 13.2 1
parts of, 10 1 context of pnor resea1ch.
establishing, 10. 1 1, sigmficance of you,
question, state the 10 1 3, youI claím,
10 1.4, your question, restate, ro.1 2
road maps at the end of. 6.2 2
working, sketchmg a, 6.2.2
,tahcs
,n abbrev,ations, 24 1 3
1n author-date styl,:, c,tatior,s, 18.1 -i, ,9. r.3.1
foreign l~nguage terms and quotatíoDs,
2'2.2.I
key terms, used tor, n 2 2
letters referred to as letters, use for, » 2.2
1n names, 22 r 3 _ /
m notes-btblrograp~ style ataaons, 16 1.4,
17 I 2 l
plural forms ofterms m, ,o, 2-4
possess1ve forms of terms in. 20.2.2-4
m quoultiOlls, modífymg, 25.3.1 3
sacred works, names of pans of, 24 6.s
term referred to as a term, us~ for,
titles of works m, 22 3 2 1
21 2 2
Japanese names. 16.2 2 .2, 18.2.1.2
Jewish Bible, abbreviattons in, 24 6 1
jownels and Journal artides
author-date style □tations ,n, , 9 2; abstracts.
19.2.8; arucle title. 19 2 3. autl-10,·s name,
19.2 1, date of publicauon 19 2 2, journal
oue, 19.2 4; page numbers, 19 2 6, special
issues and supplements, 19 2 7, volume
and issue numbers, 19.2 s
notes-bibhography style cltallons Ln. 17 2,
abstracts, 17.2.7; article title 17 2.2,
author's name, 17 2 1, date of publication,
17.2.4.2, JOUrnal btle, 17.2.3; page number:.,
r7 2 s, special issues and supplements,
17 2.6, volume and 1ssue numbers
17 2.4.1
templates for notes and bibliography enuies
fig. 16 I
templates for reference lists and parentheucal citations. ftg. 18,
titles of, 17 2.3 19 2 4, 22 3 2 1 22 3 2 2
key terms/keywords
creaung subheads from, 6.2.4
drafting and, 7 3
ídentifying in your paper, b 2.3
idenufying sovrces usmg. 3.2,4
re-sorung notes and, 443
revismg and, 9 3
m your otle, 10.3
Korean names, 16 2.2.2, 18.2.1 2
Law Reports (United Kingdom), 17
11 9, 19 n.9
Leag:,eofNanonsTrearvSulea, 1711.6, 1~ 1r6
lectures
autbor-date style citattons of 19 7 >
notes-bibliography style cnanons of, 17 7.2
atles of, 22.3 2_2
lega] cases
author-date style citations of, 19 1 t 7
names of, 22 1 3
notes-bibliognphv style citations ot, 17 11 7
456
,OH
• ,O[
letlt'~ and other com 11Unm1tions
author dore stvle citauons ol 1~)-1 q .ol
notes blbliography Btyle oranimHlÍ, 17 1 9
leuers ol the alphallet
gndPI llsed to dťnote 22 2.2
1iames
o! 1c„dem1~ cou,ses „nd sub1KB, 22.1 3
alphab...iizmg Ir/, 16 2 2 1 18.2 , 1
terters relened 10 11, ~a 2.2
plurnl ll)rms o! 20 I: 2
possess1ve forms 01, 2/J ,. I
hbmnes. searchin& 101 •outces in. l 2
hne gn,phs, 8 3.3 3 t.abh 8 7 Se, also !'13phs
llsts
puncm&uon tn, ~1 1, 21.4
18212
brand. 22 1 3
c.,p,talwiuon ol, :u.1
Clunese,Japanese, and Korean, 16.u.2,
in h~x, ►
begmning w1lh "Mac," "Saint," 01 "O," i6.2.. 2 2,
1&2 I 2
ol cburchu and religio\15 on;aruzationa.
23 1.6
compound forms oí, ui 2 2 z. 18 2.r.2.,
23 4 2 c
1!1er.11we ,~ew, 10.1 l
live ~,~rtormancesa
amho1-da1e 1tyle citauons or, 19 10,
nutrs•btbtiogrnphvstyl„ otation5 al, 17 to 2,
17 10-4 2
Ion,! govt'mmem dc,cuJllents
au1h11r-da1e style c1u,uons of 19 11 8
notes-bibliography 5tyl~ □tauon< oí, 17 11 8
mai;,lzines and mall'),iOP arude-.
a111hor date style ~Hanons of, 19.3
no1e1.-b1bliography ~tvle citauons r•f 17 l
mPnuscnpl colle.::Uon.s
author dare style C1l.lltions ol elem~m„ ta
1ndude and rh,.. r oider 19 7_4 I, !ormat
ung, 19 7.4 2
nO!e$•b1bllography ~tvle c1tanons of ele,
m"n~ to mclude and their order, 17, 4 1,
fo,matung. 17 7-4 >
utJe. ol, n.3 2 z, :2 12 3
m~pr,6 2 2. 26 1 l
marx1ns, general gwdehnes for, A J 1
mcdu:-val bterary worcs
aur hor -dare style cltauons ot, 1 !J ll t ,
notes•bibbogr.,phy ~tyle □taoons of, 17 8. 1 2
Mt1r1um-Webster's B10,1raph1cal D1r11onary,
22 l I
Mto<ta"' Wtbster's C~ll~g,ate Dlcuo,,a,y 20 3
p 2q3, p 141
monc-1
íore1r,n currenoP•. 2 J.1 4 2
lJS ,u 11ency, 2 l 1-4 ,
moV'le~
a11thor d:ite style cit 111ons of, 19 10 3 1
not>!S-b1bliogr.iphy style citahon~ oi
A1abic 1 i6., ,.:1 1 JS.l.t 2
1
(1103 l
mles of. 22.3.2 1
mu:-ic
s,ores aulhor-date scyle ettauon• o(
19 IO 4,3
sco,.~. notes-b1bliography styl<' e11auons of,
,, 104 J
ttú~s ul compuo1uons. 22.3 2 r n 3 2 2,
u;,:;
Str als,;, l:se p,;<formanr„s: sound tt'cordings
20 3 2 \ 22 I I
m compound words, 20 3,2 1
ol e lecuuntc technology, 22 I J
of ethnic .1nd nanonal woups ,c.3-2 1,
22 I f
govemmenllil end poliocal, 22.1.3, 23.1 6
of h.is1orical rvents, rulumtl u,nns, and
designauons oí titne, :: 1 2
of lega! c:m-,,; 22 1 3
numbe1s in, 23. t.6
of organ,2.,uons:: abbreviauoni for, 24.2.,1,
cap1tail~1ion of. 22 1 1, numbers ,n,
23 l 6
wilh p.uutl~s-. 16.2..2.2.. 18 2.1 2
persona I abbrevianons ,n 24 a 1: capital•
,zanon of, n. r r end-of-line breaks .lnd
20 4- 2.. family membNs w,lh identical, 23. 1 6; ln foretgn 1„11gu.iges, 22 2.1,
numbers m, 21 r.6; plural forms of, 20 1 1,
poc..sess1•te lorms of, 2C> 2 1
n[ places. abbrevianons lor 24 3 1;capmll
ization u(, 22 t 1, comma. used m, 21.2._..
of planrs ~nd arumals, 22 1
profess10nal 11tles and 22 t I u.2.2
of royalty, 7 5
ul shipg, aucralt, and oth~r v~s,els orveh1cles 22 1 3
Spamsh. 16 2 2 2. 18 2 1.2
spctial ryp,~ uf, 16.2 2 =
utles oí u,orks (s~ 111Je~ ,,r ..,.,,ks)
of treAliet, acts and govemment prognim s,
22 I J
use of lir$1, 7 5
rriowspapers and n=spaper art!cles
a11thor-1lllP w;le □tadons of name o(
newspaper, 1~.4-1, m relNence hst.9 and
parenthe ,•~, 194-2 1n 1eict, 19.4 3
noies-bibliography style atauons of. ctini;
m notes, 17 4 2, cmng m ,.,xt. 17 4 3; name
oí newspaper, 17 4 1
note numbt r~
for notes-b1bltography style dtBtlons, I G 3,2
pp. r-19•,o
numbcnug cf, 16 3 ..,
placemenl ol, 25 2. 1 1
457
notes
ab!nevi„ůons
m, 10 1 ~
compl~A allllJons and (ommems 11i l '5- 2.
muluple cllauons 16 .! ,.,
10otnot1•• v,. endnor_., 16.3 1 (see ulso ~nd
no t,"fl, footnotes)
forrnalting, 16 3.4
mdPnwuon 1n, 16.1 1
nwnbenrig of, 16.3 2-16] 3 lstt als~ 1101.e
numb,•rsJ
for an mol presenlat1on, 13 2.2
order ot d,ments m, ta 1 1
parenth~ucal vs foo•nolt'-$ 01 endnOlt5,
16.•q. r. 101mamng •~ 4 3 2
puncruanon m 16 r ,
shot1 íorms for, 16 4 1b,d , 1&.4 2, s.honeoed
notes. 16 4 1, fig 16 2
templalct lo, fig I& I
note,-b1bbogupby styl" ettallons, 3 s I r~
pp 149 so
access dates, 15.4 1 s
bibliogrnphues for, 10 2 (.ctt wls~ b:bllo~
J. 1
plues)
ma.rks, u,,_.;
placem,•nt ol, 25 2 1 1
m speahc types of sotu~s· advert1s,-m~nts.
17 103.7 anexl11b,uonca1alogs, 11 w4,
Ú",e Bibli' and other sacred works, 11 ti 2,
blog,i, 17 5 2, books (stt' !,ook:s
btblJography style □ tanons in): class1cal,
med1('val, and eady Cugllsh hter~,v wo,ks,
17 8 1, graphíc aru, r7 10 1 2; interview,.
17 b ,, 17 10 3 b )Oum•l i!rOdes IStt
Jou,nab and Joumal amcles· aot~s
"°'..S•
bibhograph)" style c11uuons m). lecturo,
17 7.2, l<'gal cases. 1111 7, bve performanrrR 17 10 2, m.,g.azm~ arucl~,. 17 3,
ma11usct1pt collecnons 17 7 4, mav,e,
17 10 3 1, mus,calscll11!11, 17.104 i, r ťWS
papt•r Mrllcles. 17 1, on.- sowci! quo1~d ln
anotJ,e,, 1/ 9 3, onhn~ collecltons. 1! J ~
onhnt< !orums and rru11hng lists, t].\ 4
pai.ntin~. sculptUr•"!S, and pho1ogr~ph.s,
17 10 1 ,, pamphleUI and ,ep<>rts, 17 7 ,
papers pl'l!Sented at mretiog,, 17 7 '2
personal romnum1c-at1rms 17 h.!, pl:,y•,
17 10,i 2, public documents (s« Congr~~.
US nol~·btbho~aphv style atallon, ot
public documents, no,,.s-bibltograp'tt}
1
s1y1„c1tat1onsol), ri,lttence worlts, 17 g 1,
rev1ews. 17 9 2, social media, 17.5.1 sound
1ecc,1dtnl;", r7 10 34, 1„1...vrn1on 1ml r.i:'ho
p1ogr..ms, , 7 10.3-2, these. and dissPr
rauons. 111 1, vidro g~mes and •Ilf'$,
u-~ oí m draít.>, 7.6
noh:·taking
..tec uomcally,
°' 7 ,
on pape1. 4 2 ,
plsv.,ansm. gu.aidm8tagain151, ,e 2-4
Fl'vuiwmg for 1m>grds mvenúne your
q11est1on, ,.,.. 2. re-sorung y0111 notes,
,_ -i 3, '&earching for an answrr, •1 4.1
summary, ;J4Idphrase, 01 quole, 4 , J
USPful advancmg your mu1l:m_g. ~ 3 1: con1„x1, 1ei:ording lhc, 4 3 3, h'le11o1nc,; tu your
workmg hypo1hesis 4 3 2
nouns
plural forms t•I. 20 1
posstss1,-e forms
:0.2
proper (srr n.m,•s)
,,r.
mnnbNs
ln addr~sses, •3 1 7
panerns ol abbre•11>Uons, 16.1 6, cap.l>lllza
non, 1& 1 3, mdentation, J& 1 7, l!alics.
16 1 4, numbei,;, 1& I ~. order ol el,•m~nts,
16 1 1, punctuatmn. 16.1 T,quo1auon
1
17 10 3 5: VldNl!I and podc:n,ts, r7 10 J ~
webs1tes, , 1.5. 1
1empl11.es for nl>!_,,. Rnd bibliogn1phy ,rntlles,
f,g 161
m hulh<>r-date 11yt~ □tauons 18 I ~
tn dL'.l!ICns, :3 t
commas wut,111, :13.2 2
111 compound wotds, 20.3 2 2
dates and ume !l<'rlods, lJ ~ ~. >3 3 t= otso
dnt ..~ and t1me,, references to)
„
deomals and (ract,ons, 23.1 3
d:sr,phnary V11nauons regnrdms. pp. 329-30
end of-line t,n,,1k, ílnd, 20.4,
Ul tn,:wes 2;;,4- 1
rn lists, 23 4:: t
ln names 23 1 6
ln not„s-bibliogr,,phy style c1tat1ons, 16.1 s
ordmal.23 1 ,, :3.3 •
ln ou1lines, 23,i.:2 2
pe1t••ntages ,3 1 J
plu1"1 torms ol 20 1 2.2., 21, 1
posses.,;ive forms ot, 2.0.:- 1
punttuaoon within. 23.2 2, 23 2 ,
ranges of, 23" 4, t~ble 212
~pt"Ued OUl VS nu~•als, 23. I oddre=
1boroughfa16, 23 u·, dal(' ~V'$ll'ms, 23 3.
é"<JUationsand íonnlllas, 21,1 9, g,?ner.rl
rule., 23 1 r mo11.,.,. 23.1.4, numbers begln•
111r..:ase111e11t.l' ~3 1 2.1;partsol pubhsh.,d
w<>rks z3 1 ti; pcrcentafl~ ~nd deomals,
,3 r 3, rel~lt:d n11mbers m the same sen•
.na
tence\ 23 1 1 l. LCiund number...,, 23.r.2.3
rn lables, - 14 t
l\umc:rals
mrnan. 23 24
Ru111an and Arabic eqwvalenls t~ble n.1
1:nu11„ collecuons
auth.or-:iat" stvk □tauons ol, 19 7 5
notcs·b:bllograpby style atauor.s of, 17.:, 5
458
IND[l<
onl;n~ sources„ 15 4
authnr-dare scyle rnotmns ni ,., ~ ~
cnt,:,gones of, 15 4 1 ,
commerc1al d:aabases. 1s ~ 1 4
Jiitlihas.es, 3
2
3
evaluatlni; ior relevanr", 3 3 1
""3luaung for reltab,llt:,• 3 3.1
ovlci·bihliography .cyli, cilauons oí, 17 '>A
$L rchmg the intemN, 3 , 8
surchtng together passag~~ lrom lhe inte, n~t., 4
Stt olso wehs,tes
or.il presentations
d1!$1i;rung. 13 2 antmpate queshons, 13.2..&:
conclus1on. iJ ~ 3, hnndouts, 13.2 s. lnnad 1cuon. • 3..2. , , notrS, 13.'2: 2
plannmg.. 13-1. namm ycrur rocus. 13-1 ,1 , und~rstand thE' d11feience between Hsteners
and readers, 13.1 -:i
outhnes 6.2.1 23.42-; S,·, also storybo3rd
J>'JI:<' numbers and other locerors
rn author-date style olJltions· m book!.,
19 t 8, mJoumaJ •nid~. 19.2.c
rnmmas not used in, 2 3.2 2
10 d1sgenauons and th,-,.e-,; numbenng.
A.1 4.1 , otheridenuliers. A 1 4 3, plaa!·
mtnt1 A1-4-2
Ul notes btbliography sryle cililÚOIW m
books, 17 1.7; in Journal arucle!!, 17.2 5
p,unungs. tltles oC. 22 3.2 1
pamphlet.!i and n,parts
outhor-date style at.iuons of. 19 7 3
notes--bibliography style at.it10M 01, 17 7 3
p:ipcri pr„semed al mr~llng,
authar-date s~le ctauonA ní, 19) ;
11uu.•s-blb1Jographv st)•le cnanons ol, 17 7.2
utles oi, 22.3.2.2
pamphrasmg, 4.2 3, 7 4 7" '
pJ1enthe.ses, 21 8.1
d1,ftntt10ns in. 22 2 t
tnd•of,Une bteaks and, 20 4.2
multiple punctuauon m lfki íond. 21 12.1 2
paumtheucal ataaous
.abbreviauons m, 16.◄ .z
~uthoť•. name m, 1q 1 1
tnrnple of, lig,A 11
lootna!J!s and, 18.3.3
vs footnotes ar endnt1t, s. 1b 4.3.1
formattmg: auth01,d.1t.- style, 16 1 1, t8 3;
notes-h1bbography srv li,, 16-◄ 3 ,
rwwspapers c1ted lu, t!J .p
placement tn text, 111 J 1
pub k documents ln 1911 I
reference works rn. l!J.9 I
s1,c-dal elements ar1d formu! tssue& authors
with sam„ La.st name, 18 3 2 1: moIE· <han
nne work oted, tli 3.-., S, 110 author, 18.32 3,
;
no dat... 18.3 2 4, work!I 11.,th sam, authot
,,ml d~IP 18 3 2 2
templotes for, fig. 181
S(f olro 11uthor-date style otat1011s
pa,entheucal elements. 21.2.4
prt.•r ~il"w. 3 t ~. 3 3 'Z
percentai;1-s, ,3. 1 .3
pr 11odlC11 I&
evaluatm~ for r,:;levance, 3.3.1
g111drs 10, 3 2 5
See olso Joumals and ioumal aruciPS; newsp;ipe15 and newspaper articl!'S
penods,n 1
m ,1bbrev,ations. 24-1 3, '>◄ 2 1
as dectnl.lll pomts ln money, ZJ 1 1
l!Uipses. used to fonn (Stt ellipsH)
1r1ulr ,plc, punc-1uation man,s .snd, : I 11 ,,
2
1
12"2
ln Utl~s oí works, 22 3 3
persona! communicauons
au1hor•date stvle c1tatlons of 19 6,
notes-bihliography style c1tatJ01U1 of, 17.6.a
photogr,1ph&
acknowledgment ar photographer, 26 1.3
11u1ha, rla1„ style citatlons al, 19 10.r ,
eirample of IO text. ftg. A 12
notcs-bibliograph,,. style at~tlon• of,
17 10 I I
placc-nomP< 2124
nbhrevtnuon~ Jor, 24-3 ,
cap1talization of. 12.1 1
cornmu 11s~d m 2L.2..4
plac• Qf publicaaon
ln aulhot•d~te style atat>ons, 19 t 7 1
10 notes-bibbography styl~ cit.111011•. t 7 t b. I
plai1;imm, ◄ >-4,6 1, 25.1
guardmg aga10st. 7 3, oung ,omcr,r, for ldeas
not you1 own, 7 9 3; paraphrase appropnately. 7 9.,. pleas of ignorance, mllunder•
slanding or innocent intentlons, 7 '!-~,
sigual quoumons 7.9.1
plays
author•da1.- .:yle citaúons ol, 19 10-4 a
notn bihUography style OlllllOI\J ol,
17 104::
tilles of. 22. 3 2 1
plural knns
numbeu,. 21.2.1
sp~lltn~ of· gcneral rule,.20.1 1, possessive
10rrns of, 20.2. 1. special cases, 10 , <
pOlk,,sts
autha1-dare style citations ol, 19 ,,, 3 3
notes•bibhogniphy style CllaUOIIS of,
1710.3.3
poetry
ellip,;is pointa u,ed to show om1S,..,oo hom.
25 3 2;
quotnuons from. 25.2. 1.2, 25.-, 2 ;
posse.ssíve.s, spelhng or, 20. 2 I
poster presPnUtion~. 13.3
prefaces, A 2 1.9
prefixe• ,pel.Ing ol worcis wnh, 20 l 3
presidentialpubUcanons
au<hor-d•te 1tyle c,tations af, 1.9 11 3
notes-bibliography ,cyle atations of, 17.1 l 3
problem, 1ese,1rch, 2 2 See also ,esearch,
research questions
procrastination, 7 i. 7 11
prafess10nal tltles, ~z.1 , , 242.2
proper noun.& ·,•c oames
ProQuesr Owen.a110ns ~nd Theses, A :a 1,4,
A.3.2
pseudonyms, 17 1 1 4,191 1.4
public docum~nts
authot-date style cn.auons of Bntish gD"•
emment documents. 19.11 10; Canad1an
govemm~nl documents 19 11 9, congres•
sionel publicanons (see Congress, US
author-date •tyle citations ol); elements of
and formamng, 19 11.1 mtemationf bod
,es, pubhca11ons ar, 19 11 1 ť lega! cas~s.
19 11.7, preSldenual publications, 19 11 .3,
publlcations of govemment depanments
and agenaes, 19.11.4, sum, and local
govemment doc-1Jm~nts, 19 11 8, treaties,
19 11 6, unpubbshed govemment docu
ments, 19 11 12; US Constitunon, 19 11 .5
notes-btblio~3phy style citauons o f Bnt
1sb government documents. 17.11 10,
Canaruan govemment doruments, 17 11 !I,
congressional publications (see Congi~R
US: notes b1bllography slyle atalloru; of)
elements ofand forma1ttng. 17.11 r, inrrr
national bodles, pubbcatJ.ons of, 17.11.11,
lega! ca.ses, 17.11 ~. preSldennal pubhc-a
tions, 17 li 3: publtcanons of govemment
departments and agencies, 17.11.4 statr
and local government documents, 17 1 I 8,
statute,, f1 11.2.5. creaaes. 17.11 6; unpub,
lished govemm•nl documents. 17 11.1 z,
usconsúwuon, 17 11 5
Publir l'op!'t's ofrhr l'Trs1d,,nts of tl,e Umted s1ar,-s
17 11.3, 19 11 l
publisher's n.ame
m author-datr • cyle c1tations, m book.6,
19.1 7 2
m no1es btbhogr:iphy style orations, m
hooks. 17 1.6 1
punctuation
in ahbreviaaons, 20 1.2.3, 24,1.3
apostrOphes ,o t, 20 2, 11 11
in author-date style citauons. 18.1.2
bracl;ets (Stt brackets)
colons. 11.4 21 12 2 1, 23-4.2 1
commas {Stt rommM)
dashes (see da..h1!9)
elhpses (see ellipses)
enrl-01'-lmt: breaks und, 20.4-2
exdamauon po1nts 17 1, 1 19 • 3 1, 01.6,
·:t,J2.l. 21 12 2 I
hyphens ,..,~ hyphNIS)
múluple marb 21 12, nmtttmg one mark,
2112.1;orderof 2, ,, :
in nores-bihliograpljY stylP CllaUOO&, 16 1.2
parentheses, 20.4 ,,~ 1.8. t,, 1 12 2.2, 21,.2 1
periods (see penoďs)
questlon marks, 17.r ,., 19 1 3.1 21 s
21.ll.l
quotauon mark5 (s ·, quot.1tlon marks)
quotat1ons bloclt style, 25 2 2. 1, run-m style,
25 '2.1
10 quotations, modifymg, 25. 3 J ~
semicolons1 2t .2. 2,
.a 3. 21
, , 1 t, 21.4-.-::_1
s!Mrhes, 15.q I 3 21 Cl, i5.2 I 2
in ti1les of worh, n 1
utles ol worl:3, w1tl1in and a,ound,
22
J3
qu<'stlon marks 21 !,
in author-date stylP. atarions. 19 1 3 1
muluplepunctu.ioonma.,k.!.and 2112.1
m notes-bibliographv styl~ c1tauons,
I / I 2.1
questions, research S.,,• rese.arch questions
quotauon marks. 21 10
around quoted materí3I. 25 2-25 3
in author-dat!' style C1t~11ons,, 18 1 4
defimtions in. 22.2.1
multiple punctuation marks ~nd, 21 12 2. 1
ln notes-hihliographv styl~ dtaoons. 16 , 4
plagiansm, use of tn avo,d 7 9 1
plunl fonns ot tem1s ,n, w.r ::-4
possessive fonns oí 1erms m 20. 2 2-4
quot„nons IO, 22 , 1
fot quotations witlun quot11tions, 25.2.1.2
:Stčne quotes used Jl', :,:t.:.,
titles of works in, 22 3 2 2
quotanons. p 358
accuracy of, 25 l
block style· ep,graphs, 2s : ,: 3, írom poeoy
and drama. 25 2 2.2. from prose. 25 2.2.1
brackets used m n 8 ,, ,5.3 1 3, 25 3.r..,
:5 3 2 3
drafong and, 7 4, 7 5
elltpses ~ed in 21 1, '5-l , 1-25 3 2,5
~p1graphs 25 2 , 3
from foreign languag1•s 21 2.1
incorporating into ttJ<t, 7 ~. 25 2
modtfying 25 3, captt ,ltraoon and puncrua•
uon. 25.3 r -:i; insvnoos, 7 s, 25.3 r-4; Jtal•
tcs, ,5.3 1.3, nate numbP1 onutted, 25.31 S,
omissions and Us~ ol elhpsPS, 1 S, 25.3.2,
spelltng. 25 3. t I
tn notr-taking. 'I 2 3
on.e source quoted tn ono!.h~,· au1bor-dot~
i~JOE •
460
CJUOl8UUns (LO~t111ued}
$tyl~ cliallons o!, 19 !11, ,,.,,,.5.t,1btu,graptJy
style atations of. 17 9 ,
pl~t„meni of souice clt~U• ne.-~: i 1,
,5.:.~.1
pl,,g,•nsm and 7.9 1, i; 1
wtthm quotaoons. 25.;u .2
non,on style 25 2 1
spellíng of words in, p. 293
Quť11n, 14.6 s
radio p1agrams
author-clate style citauorui or IQ 10 3 ,
no1.-s b1bliography style c,t..1uon.:. ol,
17 IO 3 2
Readrr•' Gulď, to F,-r1,1<hr-tl Lir, ,01111,, 1. 2 5
t"8S0ll(Sl, S-4-~-4-4, 5.5
reference lists. 18.2
arrijnjtement o! entnes lphabetical and
ch1onologi.cal by author 18 2 1 1 by
~-Uttgory, 18 2 1 3; speťlal types ol names,
account:Ulg for. 18 2 1.2
Wllh ~uthor-date style c,11,11ons, 15.3 2
otmg newspapers m, 19 4 2
n • J15..-rration or the<,ts,A.~ 3-S
example oí, fig 1, 16
C11tit"1 of ~lements 1n. , 9 1 i
pubhc documems ln, 19 !I 1
•ource~ that mav be omltled lrom. 18.2.2
1emplates for, fig. r8. 1
1el,renr:-e works
dUli101 •d~te style a1auons of, 19.9 1
notei;-b1btiogrnphy stVIO ataUon~ ol I ' q I
>htt(h1ng for sources rn, 3-2 2
Jk:1istera/Di'f:a~rs,17 11 2 ••tCJ rt:.1
1el1gious works Stt RlblP, sat.1ed works
re~ated words. 21 2 4
r.:ports S<,e pamphlets &nd 1cpuns
~SťJtC'h q\,11!,i;UOnti
answcr, and, !
.,.:-
~onft•1rnce prnposals, posed rn r 3 ~
ě\•alu.i1111a, 2 1-4
fmdmg • topic. -z. t
l1UlUJ cl.um u answer to s 1. 5 4 2 (~e~ ~;:,a
tl~IITII)
man.,:~11hle. m bng them, 2 1 1
qunhty of ~ha ping the, 1 ~
qlNSIIOnlflt1, 1,J 3
res1aung, 10 1 2
s1gn1flci.nct- ol, "' , 3
Sf,· al:so storyboa1d; 11101i:J11g hypoů,~.ll15
revJew!S
iUthor•daic style aiaoons o:, ''1•9•"
nok blbhogr.irihy s1yle 01a110ns or, 17 9.
R11\11u-:J !,·a11,1,s OJ Canuda, 17.It.9, l'J 11 9
revi~:mg
dr.ms, p. 102, blmd spots m you, a111um~n1,
ch.-cking lc11. 9 , , coherence or U1!' body,
checkmg for, 9.3; mcroducuon, conrluslon.
u11d cla1m, checkmg your, 9 2, lcl ll cool.
then parnphr:ise, 9 s. pa,agraphs, ch•ddng
yo111 94
~emences, l'P 113-14. chaose u,~ nr,ht wo1d,
11 3; d,agnou what )'DU read, 11 2, focus
on th" hrst ~en or eig)lt wo1d1, 11 1, givi,
tlup and tum 1t m, 11 s. polishmg. , 1 ~
~acrcd works
1hr B1bic (>r• Bible)
other aaaed wo1ks: authur-dale Etyl♦,
rJl.lltlons 01, 19 8 ,, cap1tal!zat10111md
1taliazanon appllcable to, 2,4 o s, nor~
b,bhc,w;iphy style otations ol, 171!..1
111,l!'l m,:2.3 2 3
conversrng w1th readt1s a5 g,Jal of 1 3
SC31lerplot. lab • &.7
scholarly contexu, nbbreviJnons use<! m, 2◄ ,7
se1Pnllh< namt's of plams and animalll. 22.1 l
~emicolons, J 1 3
ln l11ts, 234,2 I
mulopt~ punclua11on marks a11d, 21 12.2 1
in a~rn•!:S, 21 2a
leltO\'~rs. fůe away, 6 3
seoteuc~
rese.;rch
~1111s ol, 1
2, p. 10
argument, 5.1 (see also argume111, llu1lding
in)
mana.nng .ruuety dunng, ~-S
m~anrng of t 1
rnodels for. 3 1.2
probl„ms pracucal and conreptual, ~ J r
sp,,clal meamng of, :2.2
pure and apptied, , 3, 2 2 ~
,ou1ces to, (see sourcc,)
spuit of. pp 134-:Js
SUAAc•ting fUrther. lo 2 l
1allc:ing about. p 127 (s« also 01al pn-~en1a
t.ons}
lhl!m,s applkable IO, p. ,
warr,1nls dJftirulty o( ~ 1-4 -4
u worlďs b1gges: mdlllitry. r• ~
Ul~l Úle nght word, 1 1 3
d1a1!nOtlC' wh:n vou read 11 ,
draítin~ rusi. 1.:..1 s
foru.s on thr, firs1 5€.Ven or -e!ght wocds. 11 ! •
avoid i;eparaong subJects and ve1bs, 11 1 3;
choo•lng art1ve or pa..<srve ve,h , 11 1 6
~t r.o lhe subjen, 11.1 1, put farmlwr rn
!ormauo11 ar 1tie beginmng. 11 1 5; pur key
actions m ~Nbs. 11 1,4, subJectli should
besbon;indconaete
11,
peTson pronowi.-.s, 11 1 7
i"'"
1t up 11nd tum 1t in. 11 ;
poli!hm)I. 11 4
revmng,pp t13•14
2,u.:11glirJ1•
461
serles oůes
m aulbor-!lalr tyle t11~1""ros 19 t r,
m notes btbliu~,r::iphy >tyli: ci1aoo11s. 17 1 s
ships, narnes ol, • 2 I 3
shon stoňes, ut.:i,s 01, 22 3.2.2
s ashes 15 4 1 J , i 9
1 ~
social media
author-date Jtylc Cli 111011-s of, 19 5.3
notes-bíbhography stvle citauons of, 17 s 'l
softwar~ lunctions
citalloo management wols. 15.6
gnphics, pp 37<>-ll
note•takmg••,.,.,
speD-cllecking. p '294
sound 1ect11du1g!>
author-date style a•,mons of. 19.10 3 4
notl'$•lňbl101:11phv atvll! c1t:i11ons ol
,s,
l].!034
sources
bibliographrcs, hs1cd in \s,e bibtiogr„phle,1
atallons of (ser c11.,t1„ns)
engagmg. 4- 1. pp 36-39, Oi>auve ag1ee~,11
looklng !or ,4.., 1, neau~e dJsagreemem,
loolting for ~ 1 2, no1e-1alung and "' .i 1
nndJng and llSln,;. PP 25 26
of ioeas oot your °"o,,.~ 1
lrindsof,3 1
loolting beyond the usual. ~4
online (6<:ť onhn~ so111re,;J
pnmary. 3.1 ,
recording citiuon >tyh•, 3,5. 1. complete
btblrog,aphlr 1nformauon. 3.5.2
refo1enre ltsts, ltRted m (S•'<' reference l„L,)
re{e1ences to u, ŮU' !<!XI, 1 ~
relevance, evaluaung for. 3.3.1
relíab1hty, ""•l11a1lr.g 101, 3 3 2
searchmg lnr b1bliogr.Jplut' uarls. íollo...111~.
3 2 7, gu1de,i to p~11od1cal titerature. 3 i 5,
the internet. searching. 1.2.8, hbranans.
3 2 1, the hb1arv c.1talog. 3 2 4, online
databases, 3.2.3, 1eler~nee works, 3., ,.
someonP. who
about your topíc,
linthng 3 2 'I. 1he >tdds. prowling 3 2 f
knn,,.-,
secondary 3 , 2
lhlng notc,s on(<« nc1te ukingi
lertlaty, ]. I 3
sp:ic,ng. gene ml 111ulcUn<?S lot A , 3
Sparush nam"" 16 2 2 2 ,s 2 1-::
spe!ting
authontie, for, p 201
of compou11d~ ant! word~ w,th prefixes.
203
end-of-ltn~ b1P 13 and, :io 4
of plurals, 20 J
of poss.,.s1ve·. :>o :i
lD qunt.Jtinm, mod1lymg, .5-3 1 r
50ffillalE for rlu·Cltinv~ p 294
of ntlts ol works, 21 3
s1.,1~ governmem docu111enrs
~utl10r~date stv1e r 1uaio,L11 of, u;
1~ ~
notes-b1bllo1;r3phv <t)'IP c11~uons oi, 17 , , a
51,llut.-s ul !Ar9e of the U•ult.1 sr,11,. of Ammca.
•1B9-r&73. 17 u ;z ,. 19 11 2 5
S1a1u1eso(Ca1'11Ja, 17 11 lj, •~ 11 9
&toryboard
bt1Ild1ng a, ;z-4, t'-./1rl~n,~ ycu ~hould look for
2 4 3; Jc,okmg at tl',.,,whole, 2 4.4, stare you1
quesnon/wo1ku1g liypoú,t!«~~ ~ 4 r, state
your reasons, 2 4 2
cla,ms and,5 , i • ~ 4,
tnarn claim, st;mng your, ~ 2 '1
oul]11u, conve,ung lu," 2 I
qucstior.s outl1mng an argum~r.i. ~nswers
IOJ, 5-.6
Ser al.sii ou:lmes ••mrkmg hypothP-51S
.su~heads, A.,., 4
:submiss1on page,,\ 2 1 1
:aummanes, m drafts. 6 , B ~ I •I
~uprcme Couri Reporu,, 1 11 7 19 11 7
su,,,r111~ Coun Rqxirts (C~11~1lal. r, 11 9,
1911.9
table oí cunu,ms, A~ , 7 fig A 3, llg A 4
1abl""
..bbreviauons usHI lil, 24 , 4, 24-3 1 244 2,
>6 2
as b,,st choice for gruphl~ ,~pre<sental10n, tl 2
body of, 26 2 6
c,u11011 ot source, z6 1 .3
color and shadmg ln, ,b 2 3
column heads. 26 2 1, :b 2.4
defimuon of, p 86n, p 370
de!lgntng.83.1-1!3 2
exampJe„ of iig, A 13, tab I~ 11 1, Utble 8 •,
tah:e "-3, tablP 8 .c tabk' AS t blE d 6,
table 25. t, tahle ~ 2, tabl~ 26 3
, ><plana tory mtrodu~t,ons m 7 7
fnornotes for, 26.2.7
gu,delines for, 8.3 3 ,
honzontal ahgmn„nt, .e, 6 1
hsl ol A2 11!.fig A.r;
numbe11ng ar, '!ti.!:J
J umbe,s 111. 23 4 1
i,t:nods used as tedd,-1 • m n 1
p,,nru.s<ian to r,p, ,dnCE, zt;, 1 •
rositJon in the te:xt 1 lit
presentauon of m ad, ,:,rmuon or th~;is,
A313
11tles In 26 2 3
i.-ce and onenratio11 o• ~li 1 ~
source tines for, ~6 I 3
tdhS1kal
s1gt11f~.lnc~
r Ofl"..r;, on
urunure of, '26~ 1
<lub, olumn .6, 1 :., 5
ml~~ 01 s l , ,~ , ~
srrllcal a,1g,,mt'nl, -;6J.? 6 l
,.,_.
7 '3
462
N[•c ·
televis1on programs
authot-date sryle cllatloll$ ol, 19. !0.3 2
notes-bibliography style citatíons of,
17 10.3.2
titles of episodes, 22.JďZ.2
theater See Uve performances, plays
theses. Se• clissertaoons and theses
thes1s See daims
time. See dates and ůme. re.řerences to
t1tles fot your work
atle pages, A.z 1.2, lig. Al, lig A 2
your clissertanon or thes1s, A. I.S
you1 pa per, 1o 3
ntles of works
in author-date stVle c1tat1ons 19 1 3, 19 2 . 3
cap1talizat1on of122.3.1 22.3.2.3, headlinesryle. 22 3.1 t, sentence-style, 22 3.1 2
ln foreign languages 22 3. 1,2
in 1talics, 22.3.2.1
m notes-b1bhography style atanons, 17 1.2,
17.2.2
punctuation withm and around, :n 3 3
in quotation marks, 22.3.2.2
spelling of, 22 3
topics See research questions
rranslatot's name m otations, 17. 1 1.1-17. 1 1.2,
191 1.1-191.12,fig. 16.1,fíg 18.1
treaties
aulhor-date sryle atations of, 19.1 r.6
names of, 22. 1 3
notes-b1bliography styl~ c1tanons of, 17 11 6
Jn>anes and Otlier Jniemationnl Acts Senes,
1/ li 6, 19.11.6
Unlle<I Nanons 'Ireary Senes, 17. r 1.6, 19 lt 6
Uruted States, abbreviation oí, 24.3 1
Un,red Sta1rs Code, 17 11 2 s. 19 11.2.5
Un1reJi Stares Statutes at Large. 17 11 1 5. 17 li 6.
19.11 2 5, 19, 11 6
Unitéd S1a1es Supreme Court Reports. 17. 11 7
19 11 7
Urnted Slates Treanes and Other lntemat1onal
Agreem!'l1ts, 17 11.b, t9 n.6
Upanishads, 22.3.2.3
URl.s
changes m, 15.4.1 1
tn atations, 15.41
end-of-hne breaks and, 20 4-2
periods used in, 21.1
recordmg for b1b!Jographtc tnformacion, 3.5.2
slashes used m, 21 9
US Consntution
author-date style citanons of, 19 li 5
notes-bibltography style citations of
17 !l 5
US currency, 2 5. r.4. t
US stales
abbrev,auons of, 24.3.1
Vedas, 24-6.5
video games
author-date style cnations oí, 19.10.3.5
notes-bibhography style ciraaons o!,
17.10.3.5
videos
authot-date sryle citanons of. 19.10.3.3
nores-b,b!Jography style citations of,
I ] ID.3.3
volum.e numbers in atations
in author-date style, 19.1.5
m notes-b,bhography style, 17 1 4
warrants, 5.4-4, 5.5, 6 2.8-4, fig. S t
webslles
author-date sryle citations of, 19 5.1
evaluBnng reliability of, 3.3.2
notes-b1bliography style atations of, 17.5.1
searclung for ideas on, 2. 1.1
titles of. 22 3.2.3
See olso onlrne sources
Weekly Comp1lat1on of Pres1d<'l1rial Documem:s,
17 11.3, 19.11 3
Wiktpedia. 2. 1 1, 3.1.3, 3.2.8, 22 3.2.3
workmg hypothes1s
a daim and, s 3
note-talong and, 4-3 2, 4 4-1
proposmg, 2.3
reviewmg progress on. 4-4
nsks m, 2.3. 1
usinga reiected, 10.11
See also argument, bu,ldíng an; research
quesnons; storyboard
wnter's block, 7.11 Se, also procrastination
wnting
draftmg (ser draftlng)
effecave habiis for, 7.2
feedback on fi.nd general pri.náples in
specific comments 12.2; talk with your
rearler, 12.3; treat comments as advice or
datD, 11.1
a first draft (see first draft)
managing anxiety and, 4.5
research-based, 1 1
revising (see revising)
wnnng ;:roups. 2,5
,.