Essentials of Marketing Research
Fourth Edition
Joseph F. Hair, Jr.
University of South Alabama
Mary Celsi
California State University–Long Beach
David J. Ortinau
University of South Florida
Robert P. Bush
Houston Baptist University
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About the Authors
Joseph F. Hair is Professor of Marketing and the Cleverdon Chair of Business at the University of South Alabama, and Director of the DBA degree program in the Mitchell College
of Business. He formerly held the Copeland Endowed Chair of Entrepreneurship at Louisiana State University. He has published more than 60 books, including market leaders
Multivariate Data Analysis, 7th edition, Prentice Hall, 2010, which has been cited more than
125,000 times; Marketing Research, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2009; Principles of
Marketing, 12th edition, Thomson Learning, 2012, used at over 500 universities globally; A
Primer in Partial Least Squared Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), 2nd edition,
Sage, 2017; and Essentials of Business Research Methods, 3rd edition, Taylor & Francis,
2016. In addition to publishing numerous referred manuscripts in academic journals such as
Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Business/Chicago, Journal of Advertising Research, and Journal of Retailing, he has presented
executive education and management training programs for numerous companies, has been
retained as consultant and expert witness for a wide variety of firms, and is frequently an
invited speaker on research methods and multivariate analysis. He is a Distinguished Fellow
of the Academy of Marketing Science, the Society for Marketing Advances (SMA), and has
served as president of the Academy of Marketing Sciences, the SMA, the Southern Marketing Association, the Association for Healthcare Research, the Southwestern Marketing
Association, and the American Institute for Decision Sciences, Southeast Section. Professor
Hair was recognized by the Academy of Marketing Science with its Outstanding Marketing
Teaching Excellence Award, and the Louisiana State University Entrepreneurship Institute
under his leadership was recognized nationally by Entrepreneurship Magazine as one of the
top 12 programs in the United States.
Mary W. Celsi is a Professor of Marketing at California State University, Long Beach. She
has published research in several top journals, including Journal of Marketing, Journal of
Consumer Research Journal of Retailing, California Management Review, and Journal
of the Academy of Marketing Science. She has expertise in qualitative and quantitative
research methods. Her publications span a wide range of interests, from internal marketing
to digital marketing and consumer culture theory. Her research has been cited more than
5,000 times in scholarly publications.
David J. Ortinau is Professor of Marketing at the University of South Florida (USF).
His Ph.D. in Marketing is from Louisiana State University. He began his teaching career at Illinois State University and after completing his degree moved to USF in Tampa.
Dr. Ortinau continues to be recognized for both outstanding research and excellence in
teaching at the undergraduate, graduate, and doctorate levels. His research interests range
from research methodologies and scale measurement development, attitude formation,
and perceptual differences in retailing and services marketing environments to interactive electronic marketing technologies and their impact on information research problems.
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About the Authors
He consults for a variety of corporations and small businesses, with specialties in customer
satisfaction, service quality, service value, retail loyalty, and imagery. Dr. Ortinau has presented numerous papers at national and international academic conferences. He continues
to make scholarly contributions in such prestigious publications as the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Retailing, Journal of Business Research, Journal of
Marketing Theory and Practice, Journal of Healthcare Marketing, Journal of Services
Marketing, Journal of Marketing Education, and others. He is a co-author of marketing
research textbooks titled Marketing Research: In a Digital Information Environment,
4e (2009) as well as guest co-editor of several JBR Special Issues on Retailing. He is an
editorial board member for JAMS, JBR, JGSMS, and JMTP as well as an Ad Hoc reviewer
for several other journals. He has multiple “Outstanding Editorial Reviewer” Awards from
JAMS, JBR, and JMTP, and recently served as the JBR co-associate editor of Marketing
and is a member of JMTP Senior Advisory Board. Professor Ortinau remains an active
leader in the Marketing Discipline. He has held many leadership positions in the Society
for Marketing Advances (SMA), including President; Founder and Chairman of Board of
the SMA Foundation; and is a 2001 SMA Fellow. He has been chair of the SMA Doctoral
Consortiums in New Orleans, Orlando, and Atlanta. Dr. Ortinau has been an active member of the Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) since the early 1980s, serving AMS in a
wide variety of positions such as 2004 AMS Conference Program co-chair, AMS Doctoral
Colloquium, Meet the Journal Editorial Reviewers, and special sessions on Research Methods as well as How to Publish Journal Articles. Recently, Dr. Ortinau served as the Program Co-chair of the 2016 AMS World Marketing Congress in Paris, France and became a
member of AMS Board of Governors.
Robert P. Bush is a Professor of Marketing, and Associate Dean of the Archie W. Dunham
College of Business, Houston Baptist University. He formerly held the Alumni and Friends
Endowed Chair in Business at Louisiana State University at Alexandria. Throughout his
academic career, he has served as reviewer and special editor for several major Marketing
Journals. He has authored, edited, or coauthored six textbooks, published over 25 articles
in leading Marketing Journals, and has over 30 publications in national and international
proceedings.
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Brief Contents
Part 1 The Role and Value of Marketing
Research Information
1
2
Marketing Research for Managerial
Decision Making
The Marketing Research Process
and Proposals
1
2
24
Part 2 Designing the Marketing Research
Project
47
3
4
5
Secondary Data, Literature Reviews,
and Hypotheses
Exploratory and Observational Research
Designs and Data Collection Approaches
Descriptive and Causal Research Designs
48
74
106
Part 3 Gathering and Collecting
Accurate Data
133
6
7
8
Sampling: Theory and Methods
Measurement and Scaling
Designing the Questionnaire
134
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Part 4 Data Preparation, Analysis,
and Reporting the Results
219
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11
12
13
Qualitative Data Analysis
Preparing Data for Quantitative Analysis
Basic Data Analysis for Quantitative Research
Examining Relationships in Quantitative
Research
Communicating Marketing Research Findings
Glossary
Endnotes
Name Index
Subject Index
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Contents
Part 1 The Role and Value of Marketing
Research Information
1
1 Marketing Research for Managerial
Decision Making
Geofencing
The Growing Complexity of Marketing
Research
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
CONDUCTING INTERNATIONAL
MARKETING RESEARCH
The Role and Value of Marketing Research
Marketing Research and
Marketing Mix Variables
Marketing Theory
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
THE PERFECT PRICING EXPERIMENT?
The Marketing Research Industry
Types of Marketing Research Firms
Changing Skills for a Changing Industry
Ethics in Marketing Research Practices
Ethical Questions in General
Business Practices
Conducting Research Not Meeting
Professional Standards
Abuse of Respondents
Unethical Activities of the
Client/Research User
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD
Unethical Activities by the Respondent
Marketing Research Codes of Ethics
CONTINUING CASE STUDY: THE SANTA
FE GRILL MEXICAN RESTAURANT
Emerging Trends
Marketing Research in Action
Continuing Case: The Santa Fe Grill
Summary
Key Terms and Concepts
Review Questions
Discussion Questions
Appendix A
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2 The Marketing Research Process
and Proposals
Solving Marketing Problems
Using a Systematic Process
Value of the Research Process
Changing View of the Marketing
Research Process
Determining the Need for
Information Research
MARKETING RESEARCH
DASHBOARD: DECISION
MAKERS AND RESEARCHERS
Overview of the Research Process
Transforming Data into Knowledge
Interrelatedness of the Steps and the
Research Process
Phase I: Determine the Research Problem
Step 1: Identify and Clarify
Information Needs
Step 2: Define the Research Questions
Step 3: Specify Research Objectives
and Confirm the Information Value
Phase II: Select the Research Design
Step 4: Determine the Research
Design and Data Sources
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
MEASURING EFFECTIVENESS
OF ONLINE ADVERTISING FORMATS
Step 5: Develop the Sampling
Design and Sample Size
Step 6: Examine Measurement
Issues and Scales
Step 7: Design and Pretest
the Questionnaire
Phase III: Execute the Research Design
Step 8: Collect and Prepare Data
Step 9: Analyze Data
Step 10: Interpret Data to
Create Knowledge
Phase IV: Communicate the Results
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Contents
Step 11: Prepare and Present
the Final Report
Develop a Research Proposal
Marketing Research in Action
What Does a Research Proposal Look Like?
Summary
Key Terms and Concepts
Review Questions
Discussion Questions
Part 2 Designing the Marketing
Research Project
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3 Secondary Data, Literature Reviews,
and Hypotheses
48
Will Brick-and-Mortar Stores
Eventually Turn into Product Showrooms? 49
Value of Secondary Data and
Literature Reviews
50
Nature, Scope, and Role of
Secondary Data
50
Conducting a Literature Review
51
Evaluating Secondary Data Sources
51
Secondary Data and the Marketing
Research Process
53
Internal and External Sources
of Secondary Data
54
Internal Sources of Secondary Data
54
External Sources of Secondary Data
54
CONTINUING CASE STUDY:
THE SANTA FE GRILL MEXICAN
RESTAURANT USING
SECONDARY DATA
58
MARKETING RESEARCH
DASHBOARD: TRIANGULATING
SECONDARY DATA SOURCES
62
Synthesizing Secondary Research for the
Literature Review
62
Developing a Conceptual Model
63
Variables, Constructs, and
Relationships
63
Developing Hypotheses and Drawing
Conceptual Models
64
CONTINUING CASE STUDY: THE SANTA
FE GRILL MEXICAN RESTAURANT
DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS
AND HYPOTHESES
67
Hypothesis Testing
67
Marketing Research in Action
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The Santa Fe Grill Mexican Restaurant
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Summary
Key Terms and Concepts
Review Questions
Discussion Questions
4 Exploratory and Observational
Research Designs and Data
Collection Approaches
Customer Territoriality in “Third Places”
Value of Qualitative Research
Overview of Research Designs
Overview of Qualitative and Quantitative
Research Methods
Quantitative Research Methods
Qualitative Research Methods
Qualitative Data Collection Methods
In-Depth Interviews
Focus Group Interviews
Phase 1: Planning the Focus
Group Study
Phase 2: Conducting the Focus
Group Discussions
Phase 3: Analyzing and Reporting
the Results
Advantages of Focus Group
Interviews
Purposed Communities/Private
Community
Other Qualitative Data Collection
Methods
Ethnography
Case Study
Projective Techniques
CONTINUING CASE:
THE SANTA FE GRILL
Observation Methods
Unique Characteristics of Observation
Methods
Types of Observation Methods
Selecting the Observation Method
Benefits and Limitations of
Observation Methods
Social Media Monitoring and the
Listening Platform
Netnography
Marketing Research in Action
Reaching Hispanics through Qualitative
Research
Summary
Key Terms and Concepts
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Review Questions
Discussion Questions
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5 Descriptive and Causal
Research Designs
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Magnum Hotel’s Loyalty Program
107
Value of Descriptive and Causal Survey
Research Designs
108
Descriptive Research Designs
and Surveys
108
Types of Errors in Surveys
109
Sampling Errors
109
Nonsampling Errors
110
Types of Survey Methods
110
Person-Administered Surveys
111
Telephone-Administered Surveys
112
Self-Administered Surveys
115
Selecting the Appropriate Survey Method 118
Situational Characteristics
118
Task Characteristics
119
Respondent Characteristics
120
Causal Research Designs
122
The Nature of Experimentation
123
Validity Concerns with Experimental
Research
124
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
RETAILERS USE EXPERIMENTS
TO TEST DISCOUNT STRATEGY
125
Comparing Laboratory and Field
Experiments
126
Test Marketing
127
Marketing Research Dashboard
128
Riders Fits New Database into
Brand Launch
128
Summary
130
Key Terms and Concepts
131
Review Questions
131
Discussion Questions
132
Part 3 Gathering and Collecting
Accurate Data
6 Sampling: Theory
and Methods
Mobile Web Interactions Explode
Value of Sampling in Marketing
Research
Sampling as a Part of the
Research Process
The Basics of Sampling Theory
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Population
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Sampling Frame
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Factors Underlying Sampling
Theory
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Tools Used to Assess the Quality
of Samples
139
MARKETING RESEARCH IN ACTION
CONTINUING CASE STUDY: THE SANTA
FE GRILL
139
Probability and Nonprobability Sampling 140
Probability Sampling Designs
140
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
SELECTING A SYSTEMATIC RANDOM
SAMPLE FOR THE SANTA FE GRILL
142
MARKETING RESEARCH
DASHBOARD: WHICH IS
BETTER—PROPORTIONATELY OR
DISPROPORTIONATELY STRATIFIED
SAMPLES?
145
Nonprobability Sampling Designs
146
Determining the Appropriate
Sampling Design
148
Determining Sample Sizes
148
Probability Sample Sizes
148
CONTINUING CASE STUDY:
THE SANTA FE GRILL
149
Sampling from a Small Population
150
MARKETING RESEARCH
DASHBOARD: USING SPSS
TO SELECT A RANDOM SAMPLE
150
Nonprobability Sample Sizes
151
Other Sample Size Determination
Approaches
151
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
SAMPLING AND ONLINE SURVEYS
151
Steps in Developing a Sampling Plan
152
Marketing Research in Action
154
Developing a Sampling Plan for a
New Menu Initiative Survey
154
Summary
155
Key Terms and Concepts
156
Review Questions
156
Discussion Questions
156
7 Measurement and Scaling
Santa Fe Grill Mexican Restaurant:
Predicting Customer Loyalty
Value of Measurement in
Information Research
Overview of the Measurement Process
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What Is a Construct?
161
Construct Development
161
Scale Measurement
163
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
UNDERSTANDING THE DIMENSIONS
OF BANK SERVICE QUALITY
163
Nominal Scales
164
Ordinal Scales
164
Interval Scales
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Ratio Scales
166
Evaluating Measurement Scales
167
Scale Reliability
167
Validity
168
Developing Scale Measurements
169
Criteria for Scale Development
169
Adapting Established Scales
172
Scales to Measure Attitudes and Behaviors 173
Likert Scale
173
Semantic Differential Scale
174
Behavioral Intention Scale
176
Comparative and Noncomparative
Rating Scales
177
Other Scale Measurement Issues
180
Single-Item and Multiple-Item Scales 180
Clear Wording
180
Misleading Scaling Formats
181
Marketing Research in Action
184
What Can You Learn from a Customer
Loyalty Index?
184
Summary
186
Key Terms and Concepts
187
Review Questions
187
Discussion Questions
188
8 Designing the Questionnaire
190
Can Surveys Be Used to Develop
University Residence Life Plans?
191
Value of Questionnaires in
Marketing Research
192
Pilot Studies and Pretests
192
Questionnaire Design
193
Step 1: Confirm Research
Objectives
193
Step 2: Select Appropriate
Data Collection Method
194
Step 3: Develop Questions
and Scaling
194
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
“FRAMING” YOUR QUESTIONS CAN
INTRODUCE BIAS!
198
Step 4: Determine Layout and
Evaluate Questionnaire
203
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
SMART QUESTIONNAIRES
ARE REVOLUTIONIZING SURVEYS
204
Step 5: Obtain Initial
Client Approval
207
Step 6: Pretest, Revise, and
Finalize the Questionnaire
207
Step 7: Implement the Survey
207
The Role of a Cover Letter
208
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
COVER LETTER USED WITH THE
AMERICAN BANK SURVEY
209
Other Considerations in Collecting Data
210
Supervisor Instructions
210
Interviewer Instructions
211
Screening Questions
211
Quotas
211
Call or Contact Records
211
Marketing Research in Action
212
Designing a Questionnaire to
Survey Santa Fe Grill Customers
212
Summary
217
Key Terms and Concepts
218
Review Questions
218
Discussion Questions
218
Part 4 Data Preparation, Analysis,
and Reporting the Results 219
9 Qualitative Data Analysis
220
Why Women are “Claiming
the Throttle”
221
Nature of Qualitative Data Analysis
222
Qualitative versus Quantitative Analyses 222
The Process of Analyzing
Qualitative Data
223
Managing the Data
Collection Effort
223
Step 1: Data Reduction
223
Step 2: Data Display
230
Step 3: Conclusion Drawing/
Verification
231
Writing the Report
235
Analysis of the Data/Findings
236
Conclusions and Recommendations
237
CONTINUING CASE: SANTA FE GRILL:
USING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
238
Marketing Research in Action
239
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A Qualitative Approach to Understanding
Product Dissatisfaction
Summary
Key Terms and Concepts
Review Questions
Discussion Questions
Appendix A
Advertising’s Second Audience:
Employee Reactions to Organizational
Communications
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10 Preparing Data for Quantitative
Analysis
Scanner Data Improves Understanding
of Purchase Behavior
Value of Preparing Data for Analysis
Validation
Editing and Coding
Asking the Proper Questions
Accurate Recording of Answers
Correct Screening Questions
Responses to Open-Ended Questions
The Coding Process
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
DEALING WITH DATA FROM DATA
WAREHOUSES
Data Entry
Error Detection
Missing Data
Organizing Data
Data Tabulation
One-Way Tabulation
Descriptive Statistics
Graphical Illustration of Data
Marketing Research in Action
Deli Depot
Summary
Key Terms and Concepts
Review Questions
Discussion Questions
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11 Basic Data Analysis for Quantitative
Research
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Data Analysis Facilitates Smarter Decisions 273
Value of Statistical Analysis
274
Measures of Central Tendency
274
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
SPLITTING THE DATABASE INTO SANTA
FE’S AND JOSE’S CUSTOMERS
276
SPSS Applications—Measures of
Central Tendency
276
Measures of Dispersion
277
SPSS Applications—Measures of
Dispersion
278
Preparation of Charts
281
How to Develop Hypotheses
281
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT
AND TESTING
282
Analyzing Relationships of
Sample Data
283
Sample Statistics and Population
Parameters
283
Choosing the Appropriate Statistical
Technique
283
Univariate Statistical Tests
286
SPSS Application—Univariate
Hypothesis Test
287
Bivariate Statistical Tests
287
Cross-Tabulation
288
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
SELECTING THE SANTA FE GRILL
CUSTOMERS FOR ANALYSIS
288
Chi-Square Analysis
290
Calculating the Chi-Square Value
291
SPSS Application—Chi-Square
292
Comparing Means: Independent
Versus Related Samples
293
Using the t-Test to Compare
Two Means
294
SPSS Application—Independent
Samples t-Test
295
SPSS Application—Paired
Samples t-Test
296
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
297
SPSS Application—ANOVA
298
n-Way ANOVA
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SPSS Application—n-Way
ANOVA
301
Perceptual Mapping
304
Perceptual Mapping Applications
in Marketing Research
305
CONTINUING CASE STUDY:
THE SANTA FE GRILL
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Marketing Research in Action
306
Examining Restaurant Image Positions—
Remington’s Steak House
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Summary
313
Key Terms and Concepts
313
Review Questions
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Discussion Questions
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Contents
12 Examining Relationships
in Quantitative Research
Data Mining Helps Rebuild Procter &
Gamble as a Global Powerhouse
Examining Relationships
between Variables
Covariation and Variable Relationships
Correlation Analysis
Pearson Correlation Coefficient
SPSS Application—Pearson
Correlation
Substantive Significance of the
Correlation Coefficient
Influence of Measurement Scales on
Correlation Analysis
SPSS Application—Spearman
Rank Order Correlation
What Is Regression Analysis?
Fundamentals of Regression Analysis
Developing and Estimating the
Regression Coefficients
SPSS Application—Bivariate
Regression
Significance
Multiple Regression Analysis
Statistical Significance
Substantive Significance
Multiple Regression Assumptions
SPSS Application—Multiple
Regression
What Is Structural Modeling?
An Example of Structural Modeling
Marketing Research in Action
The Role of Employees in Developing a
Customer Satisfaction Program
Summary
Key Terms and Concepts
Review Questions
Discussion Questions
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13 Communicating Marketing
Research Findings
It Takes More than Numbers to
Communicate
Value of Communicating
Research Findings
Marketing Research Reports
MARKETING RESEARCH DASHBOARD:
CRITICAL THINKING AND MARKETING
RESEARCH
Format of the Marketing
Research Report
Title Page
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
Introduction
Research Methods and Procedures
Data Analysis and Findings
Conclusions and Recommendations
Limitations
Appendixes
Common Problems in Preparing
the Marketing Research Report
The Critical Nature of Presentations
Guidelines for Preparing Oral
Presentations
Guidelines for Preparing the Visual
Presentation
Marketing Research in Action
Who Are the Early Adopters of
Technology?
Summary
Key Terms and Concepts
Review Questions
Discussion Questions
Glossary
Endnotes
Name Index
Subject Index
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