Hindu Schools of Thought
The term “Hinduism” refers to religions and philosophies native to India. There are nine
Hindu schools of thought, and they are broken into two groups: the astika (orthodox) and the
nastika (heterodox). Astika schools believe that the Vedas, ancient Hindu scriptures, are
completely valid and infallible, while the nastika schools disagree with at least part of the Vedas.
The Vedas conclude with a collection of texts called the Upanishads, which means “to listen to
the teacher.”
The Nyaya school is astika. Nyaya scholars believe that moksha, which is liberation of
the atman (eternal self) from samsara (the cycle of reincarnation), can be brought about through
correct knowledge of the material world. Nyaya scholars argue that proper forms of logic will
free the atman from consciousness and bring it into an unconscious state called apavarga. The
acquisition of false knowledge leads to the accumulation of karma, which loosely translates to
“the sum of a person’s actions” (Oxford) and furthers the samsara cycle. Nyaya scholars believe
in dharma, or the “eternal and inherent nature of reality” (Oxford), and an ishvara, which is a
god-like coordinating force that organizes the universe (Rukmani). They do not believe in the
ideas of purusha and prakti, and emphasize the use of logic to attain moksha while not focusing
on yoga or meditation.
The Vaisheshika school is astika, and its followers believe that moksha is achieved
“through a comprehensive analysis of nature” (Sarma, 141), which is similar to the ideas of
Nyaya. They also believe in karma, samsara, the atman, dharma, and ishvara. Vaisheshika
scholars do not believe in purusha or prakti, and emphasize the use of logic to attain moksha
while not focusing on yoga or meditation.
The Samkhya school is astika, and focuses on the concepts of purusha (consciousness)
and prakti (materiality). Once “the individual properly discerns the duality between purusha and
prakti” (Sarma, 167), they will achieve moksha and escape samsara. This school also believes in
karma, the atman, and dharma. The school has a history of focusing on meditation and yoga
while not placing heavy emphasis on logic. It rejects the concept of ishvara.
The Yoga school is astika, and is the only other school that believes in purusha and
prakti. Yoga scholars also believe that moksha is achieved through the discernment of purusha
and prakti, as well as in the concepts of karma, samsara, the atman, dharma, and ishvara. This
school places heavy emphasis on postures and breathing exercises; Yoga scholars argue that the
“Eight Limbs” (or eight practices) of Yoga will lead to moksha. This school does not emphasize
the use of logic.
The Mimasa school is astika, and focuses on the proper interpretation of the Vedas and
prioritizes Vedic rituals and meditation over logic and yoga. They believe that moksha is
achieved when one lives in perfect harmony with one’s dharma, which this school defines as
one’s destiny or purpose. Mimasa scholars also support the ideas of karma, samsara, the atman,
and Vedic deities as a form of ishvara; they do not believe in purusha or prakti.
The Vedanta school is astika, and argues that moksha is obtained when one is aware of
the oneness of the universe and then “exhibits the appropriate bhakti (devotion) and follows the
path of prapatti (self-surrender)” (Sarma, 214). This school argues that the atman is not an
independent entity, and is rather a facet of the entire universe. Vedanta scholars also support the
concepts of karma, samsara, dharma, and ishvara; they reject the concepts of purusha and prakti.
Vedanta scholars place heavy emphasis on logic to deduce the oneness of the universe, and do
not emphasize meditation or yoga.
The Charvaka school is nastika, and believes that matter is the only reality. It rejects the
concepts of karma, moksha, samsara, the atman, jiva, anekantavada, ahimsa, nirvana, dukka, and
anicca. Charvaka scholars believe that the only reliable source of knowledge is perception, and
that inferences are not reliable; smoke does not always mean fire. All proper logic, according to
Charvaka, is based on perception.
Buddhism is nastika, and Buddhists believe in nirvana, which is a state of enlightenment
that liberates one from samsara. Buddhists also support the ideas of karma, dukka (suffering,
which is the reason for samsara) and anicca (impermanence). They reject the idea of the atman,
as they believe that all things are impermanent and there can be no permanent self. They also do
not argue in favor of the jiva, anekantavada, ahimsa, or moksha. They emphasize the use of logic
to conclude the impermanent nature of reality and the validity of the Four Noble Truths, and
argue that inference and perception are both reliable sources of knowledge.
Jainism is nastika, and Jains believe that moksha (or kevala) is achieved by getting rid of
karma by following Jain principles. One of these principles is ahimsa, or nonviolence to all
living things. Jains believe that all living things are jiva, or omniscient, pure, and sentient beings.
When karma accumulates, it clouds the jiva and prevents kevala. Jains also support the ideas of
samsara, the atman, anekantavada (the idea that each thing has an infinite number of
characteristics due to differing perceptions) and the reliability of inference and perception. Jains
reject the ideas of nirvana, dukka, and anicca.
Works Cited
Rukmani, T S. “God/Isvara in Indian Philosophy.” Encyclopedia.com, Encyclopedia.com,
Sept. 2005, https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcriptsand-maps/godisvara-indian-philosophy.
Ruzsa, Ferenc. “Sankya.” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
https://iep.utm.edu/sankhya/.
Sarma, Deepak. Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader. Columbia University Press, 2011.
"art, n.1." OED Online. Oxford University Press, September 2022. Web. 25 September
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