lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Apuntes Inglés Técnico para Psicología Inglés Técnico para Psicología (Universidad de Deusto) StuDocu no está patrocinado ni avalado por ningún colegio o universidad. Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 INGLÉS TÉCNICO PARA PSICOLOGÍA Página 1 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 UNIT 1: BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY What is Psychology? How does the BPS define Psychology? o Psychology is the scientific study of human mind and behaviour: how we think, feel, act and interact individually and in groups o Psychology is concerned with all aspects of behaviour and with the thoughts, feelings and motivations underlying that behaviour o Psychology is a science and psychologists study human behaviour by observing, measuring and testing, then arriving at conclusions that are rooted in sound scientific methodology How does the APA define "psychology"? ❖ Psychology is the study of the mind and behaviour ❖ The discipline embraces all aspects of the human experience — from the functions of the brain to the actions of nations, from child development to care for the aged ❖ In every conceivable setting from scientific research centres to mental healthcare services, "the understanding of behaviour" is the enterprise of psychologists How can psychology help individuals? - Psychologists work in many different areas of society and are concerned with practical problems - A few examples: • Helping people to overcome depression, stress, trauma or phobias Página 2 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 • Easing the effects of parental divorce on children More examples? • Helping people to overcome depression, stress, trauma or phobias • Easing the effects of parental divorce on children • Speeding up recovery from brain injury • Helping to stop or prevent bullying at school or in the workplace • Ensuring that school pupils and students are being taught in the most effective way • Making sure that people are happy at work and perform to the best of their abilities • Helping the police, courts and prison service to perform more effectively • Helping athletes and sports people to perform better 10 things you might not know about psychology → Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour. It is both a thriving academic discipline and a vital professional practice How many do you know? What do they do? What do they do? Which tools do they use? Who do they work with? Where do they work? Features of this branch Página 3 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 1. Clinical Psychology 2. Counselling Psychology 3. Health Psychology 4. Forensic Psychology 5. Occupational Psychology 6. Neuropsychology 7. Educational Psychology 8. Sport Psychology 1. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY ♦ They do assessment and treatment work in hospitals, clinics and private practice ♦ Health problems, such as anxiety, depression, PTSD, personality disorders and substance abuse ♦ Psychometric testing, interviews and observations ♦ Treatments plans might include counselling and coping therapists ♦ Psychiatrists, nurse therapists, social workers and counsellors ♦ Research into mental health, service delivery and treatment evaluation ♦ Medical setting with a focus on patient treatment ♦ Rewarding but also intense and draining (NHS) 2. COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY ♦ They offer relationship counselling and group therapy for clients looking for support and assistance ♦ Stress, vulnerability, relationship problem or dissatisfaction with their life ♦ Relationships/ family/drug and alcohol/school/ bereavement/AIDS or HIV/domestic violence/sexual abuse Página 4 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 ♦ Many environments: hospitals, schools, youth organisations, prison, addiction clinics ♦ Closely related to clinical psychology ♦ Not a well established career path ♦ Enthusiasm and confidentiality ♦ Good supervision and support ♦ Experience in charities, such as Relate and Mind 3. HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY ♦ They promote healthy living behaviours to prevent mental and physical illnesses ♦ They work with sufferers of illnesses or in an accident ♦ Help with coping strategies to help readjust their lifestyles ♦ Research into links between attitude, personality and various other social factors on how these factors affect the person’s individual health and well-being ♦ Qnnaires, interviews & psychometric tests ♦ They design treatments, monitor delivery and evaluate success ♦ Relatively new, career path not well established ♦ Focuses more on research and promoting health than doing client-based work ♦ The study of how thoughts, feelings and behaviours stem from, interact with, or cause, physical or mental efficiency, efficacy, comfort and well-being ♦ Most health psychologists help people change unhealthy behaviours ♦ Other are more research-focused, studying health behaviours ♦ Psychology as a health profession o As a health profession, psychology has evolved from one with a focus on mental health to one that includes behavioural health Página 5 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 o Psychologists play an integral role in helping people modify their behaviour to prevent or reduce the risk of disease and illness o Psychologists play also an important role in helping individuals recover from illness or related physical and mental dysfunction, due to their understanding of interrelationships between biological, social, emotional, and cognitive processes o One of APA objectives is "promoting health", along with advancing psychology as a science and a profession and promoting human welfare o APA advocates for giving up the mind-body dualism, and stop treating mental and physical disorders separately, with priority given to physical health 4. FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY ♦ Assess offenders and design and run therapies to reduce risk of reoffending ♦ IQ & personality testing, risk assessment, neurological deficit testing, interviews and behavioural observations ♦ Therapies might be 1:1 or in groups: o CBT/Anger management/Relaxation/Substance abuse ♦ Hospital & secure hospital units, probation service ♦ A life working in a prison is not for everyone: assistant or placement ♦ It is not about offender profiling ♦ Prison is a testing environment and offender challenging clients Página 6 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 5. OCCUPATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ♦ Aim to improve organisationalperformance by o improving productivity, o staffwellbeing, or o profits ♦ They work with both managers and employees ♦ Involved in training and development, team work, stress management, communication skills, facilitating culture change, customer-focused approach, counselling, recruitment and selection ♦ Skills and knowledge base very similar ♦ Institutions rather than individuals ♦ Not as obvious as clinical, but powerful 6. NEUROPSYCHOLOGY ♦ They carry out assessments, provide rehabilitation& treatmentand research the brain ♦ They work in hospitals, in acute settings or rehab centres, often multidisciplinary teams and research ♦ Expert advice for the justice system ♦ Psychological problems and disorders caused by illnesses: tumours, strokes, substance abuse & traumatic injuries ♦ Assess psychological function impairment: thinking, emotional and behavioural expression ♦ Devise treatment: rehab and indep. management ♦ Measure the impact of brain injuries and disorders Página 7 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 ♦ Small field, focus on physical brain 7. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ♦ They work with CYP experiencing difficulties in schools and learning ♦ They use observations, test, qnnaires and interviews ♦ Design and implement interventions: o Behaviour management/Learning strategies/Relaxation techniques ♦ They design and run programmes to support parents/carers/teachers and write reports & make recs ♦ Research on social, cognitive and emotional developmental issues ♦ Many work for LEdAs, health or social services, independent schools & private practice ♦ Education and developmental psychology ♦ Broadly similar to other areas, not only work with SEN but whole classes and schools 8. SPORT PSYCHOLOGY ♦ They set goals and support and motivate clients to achieve them ♦ Teach skills such as positive self-talk, visualisation, stress management and relaxation techniques ♦ They research psychological aspects of sports ♦ They evaluate the way people think and behave during sports and how that thinking affect performance ♦ They work with coaches, fitness instructors and other sports professionals Página 8 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 ♦ They also help clients to psychologically prepare for sporting events or deal with psychological effects of poor performance or injury or help a client lose weight ♦ National Sport Governing bodies, professional sporting clubs, health centres and individual clients ♦ Emerging career, not well established, very specific UNIT 2: MENTAL DISORDERS: POPULAR MYTHS Outline ♦ This topic is about mental health. We will explore: o Some mental health disorders o Some popular myths and stigma associated with mental health - Lecture: Mental health - Workshop 2: Academic writing - Coursework: Essay on mental health (topic TBC) o G: oral communic. → %* o E1: Written outputs → o E2: Read texts → o E3: Communicate → % 8% una cara ---- 1. What is a mental health disorder? 2. Can you name some mental health disorders? 3. Psychopathology 4. Normal and abnormality 5. What is the DSM-V? OCD: TOC Página 9 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 1. Mental Health Disorders A mental disorder is a significant impairment in psychological functioning 3. - Schizophrenia sprectrum and Psychotic disorders - Mood disorders: depressive and bipolar disorders. - Anxiety disorders: obsessive-compulsive, and rexaled disorders - Somatic disorders and related disorders - Dissociative disorders. (personalidad multiple) - Personality disorders - Sexual dysfunctions, paraphilic disorders, and gender identity disorders - Substance related disorders - Sleep -wake disorders - Trauma-and stressor-related disorders - Feeding and eating disorders: anorexia, bumilia.. Psychopathology - Scientific study of mental, emotional and behavioural disorders - Abnormality Página 10 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 4. Subjective discomfort: feelings of pain, unhappiness or emotional distress 5. BUT psychopathology doesn’t always cause personal anguish a. Mania: on top of the world 6. ALSO lack of discomfort might reveal a problem 4. What is normal? - Statistical abnormality o - Abnormality based on the basis of a extreme score on some dimension Social nonconformity - Failure to conform to societal norms or the usual minimum standards for social conduct Situational context - A young woman ties a thick rubber cord around her ankles, screams hysterically, and jumps headfirst off a bridge Página 11 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Cultural relativity - Judgements are made relative to the values of one’s culture. ALL cultures classify people as abnormal if: a) they fail to communicate with others or b) are consistently unpredictable in their actions Cultural bound syndromes - Every culture recognises existence of psychopathology - Most have a few folk names for afflictions that you will not find in the DSM - They occur in all societies, e.g., Keel & Klump (2003) believe that the eating disorder bulimia is primarily a syndrome of western culture like the United States o Amok - Where: Malaysia, Laos, the Philippines and Polynesia - Men who believe they have been insulted might are sometimes known to go amok - After a period of brooding, they erupt into an outburst of violent, aggressive, or homicidal behaviour randomly directed at people and objects - Other symptoms: persecutory ideas, amnesia, exhaustion o Susto - Where: Latin America, Hispanic population in USA - Symptoms include insomnia, irritability, phobias and increase in sweating and heart rate - It is thought to be caused by fright that results in loss of soul from the body Página 12 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - Natural susto may occur after a near miss or accident - A supernatural susto may occur after witnessing a supernatural phenomena such as a ghost; a supernatural susto might be sent by sorcerers o Koro - Where: South and East Asia - Genital Retraction syndrome - Sudden and acute anxiety that penis will recede into the body - Victims also believe that advanced cases can produce death o Ghost sickness - Where: American Indians - People who become preoccupied with death and the deceased - Symptoms include general weakness, dizziness, loss of appetite, hallucinations, suffocation feelings, recurring nightmares, and a pervasive feeling of terror o Zār - Where: North Africa & Middle East - Zār custom involves the possession of an individual (usually female) by a spirit - Zār is marked by dissociative episodes with laughing, shouting, hitting the head against a wall, singing, or weeping - Individuals may show apathy and withdrawal, refusing to eat or carry out daily tasks, or may develop a long-term relationship with the possessing spirit Página 13 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 o Dhat - Where: Indian subcontinent - Male patients report that they suffer from premature ejaculation or impotence, and believe that they are passing semen in their urine - They may also experience fatigue, loss of appetite, weakness, anxiety and sexual dysfunction - The condition has no organic aetiology Classification - DSM-V o Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - An important note - Medical students disease o Students have a predictable tendency to notice in themselves the symptoms of each disease they study The dark side of the moon → Psychosis - Psychosis is the most dramatic and serious of all mental problems - A person with psychosis undergoes a number of striking changes in thinking, behaviour and emotion - A withdrawal from reality marked by hallucinations and delusions, disturbed thoughts and emotions, and by personality disorganisation - Hallucinations are imaginary sensations, such as seeing, hearing or smelling things that do not exist in the real world - Most common psychotic hallucination is hearing voices Página 14 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - Organic psychoses: involving a clear cut brain injury or disease (e.g., poisoning by lead or mercury: the mad hatter) An enemy behind each tree → Delusional disorders - People who suffer from delusional disorders usually do not suffer from hallucinations, emotional excesses or personality disintegration - BUT their break with reality is unmistakable - Delusions are deeply held beliefs - They are false, sometimes far-fetched but they are all about experiences that might happen in real life Página 15 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Shattered reality → Schizophrenia - Schizophrenia is marked by delusions, hallucinations, apathy, thinking abnormalities, and a “split” between thought and emotion - 4 major subtypes Shattered reality → Hebephrenic or disorganised schizophrenia - It comes close to matching the stereotyped images of “madness” seen in movies - Personality disintegration is almost complete: emotions, speech and behaviour - Result is silliness, laughter, bizarre or obscene behaviour Shattered reality → Catatonic schizophrenia - The person seems to be in a state of total panic - Stuporous conditions in which odd positions may be held for hours or even days - They appear to be struggling desperately to control their inner turmoil - Mutism and marked decrease in responsiveness to the environment Shattered reality → Paranoid schizophrenia - Most common schizophrenia - It centres on delusions of grandiosity and persecution - They also hallucinate and their delusional are more bizarre and unconvincing than those in a delusional disorder Página 16 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Shattered reality → Undifferentiated schizophrenia - Prominent psychotic symptoms, but none of the specific features of the other 3 types Peaks and Valleys → Mood disorders - Mood disorders are major disturbances in emotion 7. Several disorders within this category: o Major depressive disorder o Bipolar disorder o Dysthymic disorder o Cyclothymic disorder Peaks and Valleys → Major depressive disorder 8. Everything looks bleak and hopeless. The person has feeling of failure worthlessness and total despair Peaks and Valleys → Bipolar disorder 9. Bipolar I disorder: People experience both extreme mania an deep depression o Loud, elated, hyperactive, grandiose and energetic o Deeply despondent and possibly suicidal 10. Bipolar II disorder: the person is mostly sad and guilty ridden, but has one of two mildly manic episodes (hypomania) o Excessively cheerful, aggressive or irritable, and they may brag, talk too fast, interrupt conversations or spend a lot of money Peaks and Valleys → Chronic mood disorders 11. Dysthymic disorder: If a person is mildly depressed for at least 2 years (1 year in children) Página 17 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 12. Cyclothymic disorder: If depression alternates with periods of when the person mood is cheerful, expansive or irritable Anxiety disorders → When anxiety rules 13. Distress seems greatly out of proportion to a person’s circumstances 14. Disorders within this category: Generalised anxiety disorder Panic disorder Phobias Stress disorders o Body dysmorphic disorder: repetitive mirror checking or other behaviours to check if there is a body flaw. o Dissociative disorders o Somatoform disorders56 o Obsessive compulsive disorder o Hoarding disorder: hoarding possessions not considering the value. o Trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder) arrancarse el pelo o Excoriation (skin-picking) disorder pellizcarse When anxiety rules → Generalised anxiety disorder o o o o 15. A person with a generalised anxiety disorder has been extremely anxious or worried for at least 6 months o Sweating, racing heart, clammy hands, dizziness, upset stomach, rapid breathing, irritability and poor concentration When anxiety rules → Panic disorder 16. In a panic disorder people are highly anxious and also feel sudden, intense unexpected panic 17. With or without agoraphobia o Chest pain, racing heart, dizziness, choking, feelings of unreality, trembling and fears of losing control o Also intense fear that a panic attack will occur in a public place When anxiety rules → Phobias Página 18 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 18. Agoraphobia: something embarrassing will happen if they leave home or enter an unfamiliar situation 19. Social anxiety disorder (social phobia) : people fear situations in which they can be observed, evaluated, embarrassed or humiliated by others. Avoidance of certain situations, such as eating, writing, or speaking in public a. They might experience uncomfortable physical symptoms, such as pounding heart, shaking hands, sweating, diarrhoea, mental confusion and blushing. b. What kind of situations are they going to avoid? 20. Specific phobia: the person’s fear is focused on particular objects, activities or situations When anxiety rules → Stress disorders 21. They occur when people experience distress outside the range of normal human experience Página 19 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 a. Symptoms include reliving the traumatic event(flashback), avoidance of reminders (evitar recordar) and blunted emotions. Also insomnia, nightmares, wariness, poor concentration, irritability and explosive anger and aggression 22. Acute stress disorder 23. Adjustment disorders. 24. Posttraumatic stress disorder When anxiety rules → Dissociative disorders Dissociative identity disorder (two or more separate identities or personality states) 25. Episodes of: a. Amnesia (inability to recall one’s name or past) i. Fugue (sudden unplanned travel away from home and confusion about personal identity) b. Multiple identity (two or more separate identities or personality states) c. Depersonalization (observing one’s body) / derealization (feelings of unreality) disorder When anxiety rules → Somatoform disorders 26. These people are preoccupied with bodily functions a. Hypochondriasis: interpretation of normal bodily functions as symptoms of terrible diseases b. Somatic stmptom disorder: people express their anxieties through various bodily complains c. Pain disorder: similar to somatisation, but pain with no identifiable physical basis When anxiety rules → Obsessive compulsive disorder 27. People are preoccupied with certain distressing thoughts and feel compelled to perform certain behaviours 28. OCD is diagnosed when obsessions and compulsions: a. Consume excessive amounts of time (approx. 1 h+) b. Cause significant distress and anguish Página 20 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 c. Interfere with daily functioning at home, school, or work; or interfere with social activities/family life/relationships Mental health 29. A person who is considered 'mentally healthy' is someone who a. can cope with the normal stresses of life and carry out the usual activities they need to in order to look after themselves; b. can realise their potential; c. and make a contribution to their community 30. However, your mental health or sense of 'wellbeing' doesn't always stay the same and can change in response to circumstances and stages of life How common are mental illnesses in the UK? - Anxiety will affect 10% of the population - Bipolar disorder will affect one in 100 - One in every 150 15-year-old girls will get anorexia, and one in every 1000 15-year-old boys - 20% of people will become depressed at some point in their lives - OCD will affect 2% - Schizophrenia will affect one in 100 - Personality disorder will affect one in 10, though for some it won't be severe WORKSHOP I MENTAL DISORDERS: POPULAR MYTHS Outline - In this workshop we are going to explore and discuss some popular myths and stigma associated with mental health o Videoclip: Extreme OCD camp (11.40 min) o Debate: Myths & advocacy work Página 21 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Extreme OCD Camp - Documentary following six British teens and young adults with obsessivecompulsive disorder as they embark on an incredible journey to the American wilderness for treatment Obsessive compulsive disorder - 4 main categories of OCD & numerous sub-types: o Checking o Contamination/Mental Contamination o Hoarding o Ruminations/Intrusive Thoughts Extreme OCD Camp Jack: Contamination OCD - germs Josh: Symmetry OCD Imogen: Thoughts that terrible things will happen Olivia: Contamination OCD - smells Andrew: Avoidance of number 13 & Asperger's Megan: Intrusive thoughts Time to change - England's most ambitious campaign to end the stigma and discrimination faced by people who experience mental health problems o Mind Página 22 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 o Rethink mental illness Time to change: myths - Mental health does not affect young children. Young children are generally happy if they have problems it's just part of growing up - Depressed people are weak. They could snap themselves out of their bad mood if they just concentrated on being positive - Addicts are weak people. They aren’t sick and money shouldn’t be wasted on helping them get ‘well’ - Troubled youth just need more discipline - Mental health problems are not real illnesses in the same way that physical illnesses are - Schizophrenics are often dangerous and violent. It is common for schizophrenics to kill people - Myth: Mental health does not affect young children. Young children are generally happy - if they have problems it's just part of growing up. o Fact: Up to one in five children in the UK have a recognised mental health problem, and many do not receive the treatment they need. Depression affects one in every 50 children under 12 years old, and one in every 20 teenagers. Left untreated, these problems can get worse - anyone talking about suicide should be taken very seriously - Myth: Depressed people are weak. They could snap themselves out of their bad mood if they just concentrated on being positive Página 23 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 o Fact: We know now that depression has nothing to do with being weak. Depression comes from changes in the brain that result in very real symptoms. Psychotherapy and/or medication has been shown to help - Myth: Addicts are weak people. They aren’t sick and money shouldn’t be wasted on helping them get ‘well’ o Fact: Over half of all alcoholics and drug addicts have a mental health problem. The most common are depression and anxiety disorders. Drugs and alcohol can be used as a way of dealing with emotional problems - treating the underlying problem can help with the addiction - Myth: Troubled youth just need more discipline o Fact: A report by the Prison Reform Trust estimates that nine out of ten people in prison have mental health problems. Over 90% of imprisoned young offenders have at least one, or a combination of, the following: personality disorder, psychosis, neurotic disorder or problems with substance misuse. In addition, over 30% will have spent time in the care system. Nearly 30% of young women in prison report that they have been sexually abused. These troubled young people have a complicated range of needs and require a combination of services to help with their problems. Increasing discipline is not likely to help. - Myth: Mental health problems are not real illnesses in the same way that physical illnesses are o Fact: Brain disorders have been shown to have a genetic and biological cause, in exactly the same way that diabetes and cancer have. There is also evidence Página 24 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 that shows they can be treated effectively, through the use of psychological therapies and/or medication for example - Myth: People with schizophrenia are often dangerous and violent. It is common for schizophrenics to kill people o Fact: Schizophrenics are actually more likely to harm themselves than they are to harm other people. The incidence of violence in people with schizophrenia is not much higher than in the general population More myths - Myth: Mental health problems are very rare o Fact: Mental health problems affect one in four people. Often people don’t talk about their problems for fear of being mocked or teased - Myth: It is a normal part of ageing for old people to be lethargic and to lose interest in activities they used to enjoy. It’s also normal for them to have problems sleeping o Fact: These are all signs of depression. Depression in the elderly often goes undiagnosed and untreated. The elderly and their families should look out for signs of depression and go to the GP if they are concerned - Myth: Homeless people with a mental illness have no chance of recovery o Fact: Homeless people can be helped by being given access to treatment, support for housing and other services. This can significantly decrease homelessness - Myth: Mental illness is a personal problem not a business concern o Fact: Depression is a leading cause of disability in the UK and accounts for a great deal of sickness absence Página 25 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - Myth: You are unlikely to be depressed. You are probably just going through a phase. If you don’t do anything you will probably start to feel better naturally o Fact: Depression is quite a common condition - about 15% of people will have a bout of severe depression at some point in their lives. However, the exact number of people with depression is hard to estimate because many people do not get help, or are not formally diagnosed. Women are twice as likely to suffer from depression as men, although men are far more likely to commit suicide. This may be because men are more reluctant to seek help for depression. Suffering in silence is not the answer - psychotherapy and/or medication have been shown to help - Myth: Doctors spend most of their time treating physical health as this is the most common kind of illness and the most important o Fact: Depression is the most common reason for visiting a GP. Mental health is just as important as physical health. The two are inter-connected, not separate. In fact, mental ill health can cause physical symptoms UNIT 3: HEALTH, NORMATIVE BELIEFS AND MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT HEALTH BEHAVIOUR This unit is about health. We will explore: - Health psychology and behaviour - Health-promotion behaviour and risk factors - Normative beliefs and misconceptions - Devise and present a health promotion intervention Página 26 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Health and illness 1. David has broken his leg and has to walk around using crutches because the plaster has to stay on for six weeks 2. Amanda has caught a bad cold, which has developed into influenza. The influenza makes her feel extremely poorly and she has only just got out of bed after five days. Amanda feels weak and shaky 3. Emma has discovered a small lump in her left breast and following a biopsy at the hospital has been told that it is cancerous and that she will need an operation followed by chemotherapy treatment 4. Tony as high blood pressure, which has been undiagnosed for a number of years. The high blood pressure has caused some damage to his heart. Tony exercises regularly at the gym and feels fit and healthy 5. Linda eats a healthy diet, does not drink much alcohol, and takes regular exercise. Nevertheless, she often feels anxious, suffers panic attacks and is often too frightened to leave her home - A person might be ill in one respect but well or healthy in others - Health and illness in not and either/or distinction - Illness is not a lack of health - Being healthy does not mean a person is well in all respects – both psychologically and physically Página 27 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Defining health - Illness-wellness continuum - Baseline health - Age - Interlinks between mental and physical health - Acute and chronic threats to health - Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO, 1946) - The positive dimension of mental health is stressed - Critics (Awofeso, 2005): - the WHO definition of health is utopian, inflexible, and unrealistic, as includes the word “complete” - ‘a state of complete physical mental and social well-being’ corresponds more to happiness than to health - Other definitions (Awofeso, 2005): - a dynamic state of well-being characterized by a physical and mental potential, which satisfies the demands of life commensurate with age, culture, and personal responsibility - a condition of well being, free of disease or infirmity, and a basic and universal human right - Health does not just mean the physical well-being of the individual but refers to the social, emotional, spiritual and cultural well-being of the whole community (Australian Aboriginal people) Página 28 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Health Psychology I - Illness isn’t always something that just happens to us - The choices we make, the ways we conduct our lives, the beliefs we hold, all have profound consequences for the health of our bodies - Smoking, excess drinking and over-eating are obvious examples of behaviours that have a direct effect on our health, and which in many instances, we have a strong degree of control over Health Psychology II - Health psychologists want to know why we adopt certain behaviours to excess, even when we know them to be harmful - They investigate ways to get us to reduce or cease these behaviours once we’ve started them - Health psychology isn’t only about trying to control excess consumption Health Psychology III - Health psychologists investigate ways of encouraging people to follow self-screening procedures in illnesses such as breast and testicular cancer, where early detection can vastly improve survival rates - They also explore the reasons that deter many people from doing so - Psychologists can also play a part once an illness has been diagnosed, by working in palliative care with patients and their families, for example, or by helping people adjust to the life changes imposed by a chronic illness or disability Health Psychology IV Página 29 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - 230,000 women in the United States learn that they have breast cancer each year - Many of them have no family history of breast cancer or other known risk factors - Distress typically continues even after the initial shock of diagnosis has passed - While undertaking a lengthy treatment process, they may find themselves faced with new problems o Personal relationships in turmoil o Tiredness o Worry about their symptoms, treatment and mortality o Discrimination from employers or insurance companies Health Psychology V - Negative emotions associated with diagnosis can cause women to stop doing things that are good for them and start doing things that are bad - For some women the news leads to depression, which can make it more difficult for them to adjust, make the most of treatment, and take advantage of whatever sources of social support are available - Depression can also decrease women's survival, research shows. According to a meta-analysis, mortality rates were as much as 26 times higher in patients with depressive symptoms and 39 times higher in patients who had been diagnosed with major depression Health Psychology VI - Their primary goal is to help women learn how to cope with the physical, emotional, and lifestyle changes associated with cancer as well as with medical treatments Página 30 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - Focus may be on how to explain their illness to their children or how to deal with a partner's response. It may be on how to choose the right hospital or treatment. It may be on how to control stress, anxiety or depression - Psychologists can help spouses manage the challenge of offering both emotional and practical support while dealing with their own feelings - Emotional recovery may take longer than physical recovery and is sometimes less predictable. Breast cancer survivors need time to create a new self-image that incorporates both the experience and their changed bodies Health Psychology VII - Central to health psychology is recognizing that the mind and body are deeply entwined - Our mood, our stress levels, our loneliness can all affect our health - Physical injuries literally take longer to heal when we’re stressed - In turn, our health can affect our mental wellbeing Health Psychology VIII - Many diseases and half of all deaths in North America can be traced to unhealthy behaviours (Mokdad et al., 2004) - A century ago, people died primarily from infectious diseases and accidents - Today people generally die from lifestyle diseases, which are related to healthdamaging personal habits Behavioural risk factors Página 31 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - Actions that increase the chances of disease, injury or early death - Out of the nine leading causes of death in the US, 8 were related to behavioural risk factors (Mokdad et al., 2004) - Can you guess what these leading causes are? - The top 10 causes of death in the world between 2000 and 2011 were: ischaemic heart disease, stroke, lower respiratory infections, chronic obstructive lung disease, diarrhoea, HIV/AIDS, lung cancers (along with trachea and bronchus cancers), diabetes, road injuries and prematurity (WHO, Factsheet N°310) Tobacco Illicit use of drugs Diet/ inactivity Motor vehicles Alcohol Sexual behaviou r Infection Firearms Toxic agents Health-promoting behaviours - To prevent disease, health psychologist tend to remove behavioural risk factors - In some cases, lifestyle diseases can be treated or prevented by making specific, minor changes in behaviour - Hypertension → less sodium Página 32 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - Psychologists are also interested in getting people to increase behaviours that promote health - Regular exercise - Controlling smoking and alcohol use - Maintain a balanced diet - Getting good medical care - Managing stress Major health-promoting behaviours Tobacco → do not smoke do not use smokeless tobacco Nutrition → eating a balanced low-fat diet appropriate caloric intake Maintaining a healthy body weight Exercise → 30 minutes of aerobic exercise 5 days a week Página 33 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Blood pressure → lower blood pressure: diet and exercise or medication if necessary Alcohol and drugs → no more than 2 drinks per day abstain from using drugs Sleep and relaxation → avoid sleep deprivation period of relaxation every day Sex → practice safer sex avoid unplanned pregnancy Injury → Página 34 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 avoid dangerous driving habits use sea belts minimise sun exposure forgo dangerous activities Stress → learn stress management lower hostility Example of a health promotion intervention Meat-free Mondays WORKSHOP I: HOW TO PERSUADE PEOPLE Explaining and influencing behaviour Theories of lifestyle change - We are all surrounded by risk - However, people often unnecessarily increase their risk by engaging in behaviour that can damage their bodies and health - Much of the work in health psychology revolves around learning why people do things to protect their health or put their health at risk - If we know why people do things, we can work with them to alter that behaviour Página 35 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 The Theory of Planned Behaviour - One of the best known and influential models to help understand why we choose to behave the way we do in relation to our health - This model proposes that whether or not we choose to behave in a certain way depends on our attitudes and beliefs about that behaviour o what we think the likely outcome of it will be o whether we believe other people (especially those close to us) engage in it o whether we think we’re actually capable of behaving that way - To predict whether a person intends to do something, we need to know: o Whether the person is in favour of doing it (attitude) o How much the person feels social pressure to do it (normative beliefs and subjective norms) o Whether the person feels in control of the action in question (perceived behavioural control) - By changing these three ‘predictors’, we can increase the chance that the person will intend to do a desired action and thus increase the chance of the person actually doing it - The benefit of this model is that it provides an immediate guide as to how to influence people’s health-related behaviours - It suggests that persuading a smoker that most people don’t smoke is likely to deter him or her from smoking - Similarly, highlighting the positive outcomes likely to emerge from stopping – such as living longer, feeling fitter, saving money and not having smelly clothes – may also help someone decide Página 36 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - Finally, it can help if the person can be persuaded that it is well within their ability to stop smoking. This might involve telling them about other people’s successes, or offering them aids, such as nicotine patches or gum - However, other findings in relation to behavioural change are not so obvious, for instance health-promotion campaigns that use dramatic imagery to highlight the dangers of drink-driving - A 2010 study by Nestler and Egloff (cited in BPS Research Digest, 2010) found that for a portion of the population these kinds of campaigns can backfire - People who are what is known as cognitively avoidant respond to threats by distracting themselves or denying that the threat is relevant to them - When Nestler and Egloff gave participants a scare story about a fictional illness (Xyelinenteritis) related to the consumption of caffeine, those with a high score for cognitive avoidance rated the threat from the illness as less severe after reading the scare story than they did after reading a milder, low-key version What are normative beliefs? - Normative beliefs - Normative beliefs are an individual’s beliefs about the extent to which other people who are important to them think they should or should not so certain behaviours - Some examples of normative beliefs o Three measures of smoking normative beliefs (Page et al., 2011): ▪ perceived prevalence of smoking ▪ perceived popularity of smoking among successful/elite elements of society ▪ perceived disapproval by friends and family Página 37 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 o Sexual normative beliefs (Pai, Lee & Yensexual, 2011): ▪ 16-item scale that assesses participants’ perceptions of their parents’ and friends’ approval of adolescent girls engaging in four behaviours: • kissing • light petting • heavy petting • sexual intercourse o Sex-specific weight normative beliefs and their relationship with weight control behaviour of college women and men (Clemens et al., 2008) ▪ Eleven practices: exercising, eating fewer calories, eating less fat, skipping meals, fasting or starving, using non-prescription diet pills, using a dietary supplement, using anabolic steroids, using laxatives, using diuretics, and self-inducing vomiting ▪ 44 normative belief measures to assess perceptions of these same 11 behaviours among same-sex and opposite-sex close friends and among typical same-sex and typical opposite-sex people of the same age (ie, 11 practices in 4 reference groups) WORKSHOP II: MAJOR HEALTH-PROMOTING BEHAVIOURS Página 38 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Tobacco Stress Nutrition Injury Exercise Health promotion Sex Blood pressure Sleep & relaxation Alcohol & drugs Tobacco do not smoke do not use smokeless tobacco Activities to make people not think about tobacco Break relationship between lunch, coffee…. Awareness campaigns Nutrition eating a balanced low-fat diet appropriate caloric intake maintaining a healthy body weight Self-image, self-perception 5-a-day Página 39 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Exercise 30 minutes of aerobic exercise 5 days a week Exercise programmes depending on age, fitness motivation Blood pressure lower blood pressure: diet and exercise or medication if necessary Smoking cessation Alcohol and drugs no more than 2 drinks per day abstain from using drugs Raise awareness – prevention Environment – social pressure? Factors playing a role – why do they do that? Sleep and relaxation avoid sleep deprivation period of relaxation every day Exercise Seek medical advice if sleep deprived Página 40 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Relaxing activities before going to bed Sex practice safer sex avoid unplanned pregnancy Preventative work - teenagers Injury avoid dangerous driving habits use seat belts minimise sun exposure forgo dangerous activities Stress learn stress management lower hostility Relaxation exercises UNIT 4: PSEUDOPSYCHOLOGIES AND ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY What is a pseudopsychology? - “Pseudo” means “false or not true” - Any unfounded system that resembles psychology - Many pesudopsychologies give the appearance of a science but they are actually false - Pseudopsychologies change little over time because followers seek evidence that appears to confirm their beliefs and avoid evidence that contradicts them - Scientists, in contrast, actively look for contradictions as a way to advance knowledge - They are sceptical critics of their own theories Página 41 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Phrenology - It was popularised in the 19th century by Franz Gall - It claimed that personality traits are revealed by the shape of the skull - Moderns research has long since shown that bumps on the head have nothing to do with talents of abilities - Gall's assumption that character, thoughts, and emotions are located in localised parts of the brain is considered an important historical advance toward neuropsychology Palmistry - Palmistry is a practice originating in the Far East. The practice of palmistry has been used in the cultures of India, Tibet, China, Persia, and some countries in Europe. - Similar false system that claims that lines on the hand reveal personality traits and predict the future Graphology - Personality traits are revealed by handwriting - Graphology analysis o Write a few sentences freely - Size o Small writing is generally a strong indicator of a detailed, technical personality o Large rounded and dominant central case letters indicate a friendly and sociable personality - Letter-word slope o Backwards slopes indicate an introverted personality; forward slopes are extraverted Página 42 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 o The degree of slope reflects the degree of extraversion or introversion o The degree of consistency of the slope (ie parallel strokes) indicates the degree of emotional consistency - Line slope o Writing which rises to the right shows optimism and cheerfulness o Sagging to the right shows physical or mental weariness (This applies to signatures sloping-downwards also) - Spacing: o Space between words indicates social attitude to others o Close words are a sign of sociability o Large spaces between words indicate the person is comfortable alone, and may even distrust others o Spacing between letters shows artistic spatially aware character, (artists, etc.) Astrology The most popular pseudopsychology - It is arguably the most popular pseudopsychology - Astrology holds that the position of the stars and planets at the time of your birth determines personality trait and affects behaviour - Like other pseudopsychologies, astrology has repeatedly been shown to have no scientific validity - Coon and Mitterer (2011) describe several studies that object to astrology: - 3,000 predictions by famous predictions o Only a small percentage were fulfilled Página 43 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 o - They tended to be vague If astrologers are asked to match people with their horoscopes, they do no do better than expected by chance - There is no connection between star signs and intelligence or personality traits - No connection with the compatibility of couples or with leadership or career choices It seems clear that it does not work, BUT why does astrology often seem to work? - Uncritical acceptance - Horoscopes seem to be accurate - They are typically based on the tendency to believe positive or flattering descriptions of yourself - When your personality is described in desirable terms, it is hard to deny that the description has the “ring of truth” - Fallacy of positive instances - Even when an astrological description contains a mixture of positive and negative traits, it may seem accurate - This apparent accuracy is an illusion based on this fallacy, in which we remember or notice the things that confirm our expectations and forget the rest Página 44 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 The Barnum effect - Pseudopsychologies also take advantage of the Barnum effect, which is a tendency to consider personal descriptions accurate if they are stated in general terms - Horoscopes, palm readings, and other products of pseudopsychologies are conveyed in such general terms that they can hardly miss How to think like a psychologist - Or scientific research o A form of critical thinking based on careful measurement and controlled observation - Systematically recording facts and events is the heart of all sciences - To be scientific our observations must be systematic, so that they reveal something about behaviour - In its ideal form, the scientific method has 6 elements: • Making observations • Defining the problem • Proposing a hypothesis • Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis • Publishing the results • Theory building Página 45 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Observation - Many people believe that women are more chatty than men - Is there any truth to this belief? - Mathias Mehl and his colleagues observed that the results of a few published reports seem to support that stereotype Defining a problem - They noticed that none of the studies had actually recorded men’s and women’s normal conversations over a period of time - They defined the problem as How can we record natural conversations without bothering people and perhaps biasing our observations? Proposing a hypothesis - A hypothesis is a tentative statement about, or explanation of, an event or relationship - Testable hunch or educated guess about behaviour Página 46 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Frustration encourages aggression Gathering evidence/testing hypothesis - Researchers used an electronically activated recorder to track people’s conversations - Device recorded sounds for 30 seconds every 12.5 minutes - Number of words spoken was counted and used to estimate the total number of words spoken each day 16,215 words a day ---- 15,699 words a day Theory building - In research, a theory acts as a map of knowledge - Good theories summarise observations, explain them and guide further research Página 47 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - Mehl and colleagues did not present a theory but they discussed how their findings could affect such a theory Publishing results - Scientific information must be publicly available - Other researcher can read the results and make observations - If other researcher are able to replicate your results, these will be more credible Are Women Really More Talkative Than Men? WORKSHOP II: ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY - Anomalistic psychology may be defined as the study of extraordinary phenomena of behaviour and experience, including (but not restricted to) those which are often labelled "paranormal“. - It is directed towards understanding bizarre experiences that many people have without assuming a priori that there is anything paranormal involved - It entails attempting to explain paranormal and related beliefs and ostensibly paranormal experiences in terms of known psychological and physical factors Research within the APRU - Cognitive biases related to paranormal experiences Página 48 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - Personality characteristics associated with paranormal belief and experience - The development and maintenance of paranormal and related beliefs - Dissociative states, eg., dissociative identity disorder - False memories - Sleep-related disorders, including sleep paralysis - The psychology of psychic readings - The psychology of superstition - The psychology of coincidences Non-paranormal accounts for a range of ostensibly paranormal experiences - ESP - PK - Psychic readings - Out-of-body and near-death experiences - Astrology and other divinatory techniques - Reincarnation - UFOs and alien abduction - Ghosts and poltergeists Interview with Prof. Chris French Página 49 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 WHAT IS ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY? Anomalistic psychology is essentially the psychology of paranormal beliefs and ostensibly paranormal experiences. So, most of the research is directed trying to come up with non-paranormal explanations for ostensibly paranormal experiences, and then see if we can find evidence to support those explanations. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY AND PARAPSYCHOLOGY? The difference between anomalistic psychology and parapsychology is pretty much in terms of the aims of what each discipline is about. Parapsychologists typically are actually searching for evidence to prove the reality of paranormal forces; to prove they really do exist. So the starting assumption is that paranormal things do happen, whereas anomalistic psychologists tend to start from the position that paranormal forces probably don't exist and that therefore we should be looking for other kinds of explanations, in particular the psychological explanations for those experiences that people typically label as paranormal. IS PARAPSYCHOLOGY A REAL SCIENCE? The question of whether or not parapsychology is a real science is one that divides opinion sharply. Parapsychologist would insist that what they do is science. Many sceptics will see it as pseudoscience. My personal opinion is that Parapsychology is a real science. Science isn't about a particular subject matter or content. It's about how you go about doing things. It's the method that's important. And as long as the parapsychologist adopt the scientific method, whether or not paranormal forces exist is irrelevant. And if it meets that criteria, then Parapsychology is a science. Página 50 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 DO YOU BELIEVE IN THE PARANORMAL? Personally, I do not believe that Paranormal forces exist. But I'm certainly not so sure about that that I would say I know they definitely couldn't exist. On the basis of the evidence as I see it, I would bet money against it. But I would support parapsychologists trying to find evidence that would convince me. So far that evidence isn't available. DO YOU HAVE TO BE A SCEPTIC TO BE AN ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGIST? In practice, most people who describe themselves as anomalistic psychologists would also describe themselves as sceptics, but what they mean by sceptics is they are not actually dismissing these claims. They're saying show me the evidence; convince me. Scepticism in the proper sense is not about dismissal. It's about doubt, but being open to the possibility that you are wrong and that the other guy's correct. WHY DO YOU THINK YOUR WORK IS IMPORTANT? The reason I'm so fascinated by Anomalistic Psychology and Parapsychology is because most people in opinion poll after opinion poll actually believe in this stuff and a sizeable minority of them actually claim direct personal experiences of the paranormal. So, we’ve got a situation there were any claim from seeing a ghost, to experiencing telepathy, to even being abducted by aliens, there is a huge proportion of the population that actually believe in this stuff. Now, either that means that paranormal forces are real, if they are we should take that on board, accept it, and the wider scientific community should try and study those forces or alternatively, it's telling something very important about human psychology. So, either way it's worth taking those claims seriously. Página 51 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 WHAT DOES A TYPICAL DAY INVOLVE FOR YOU? A typical day for me as with anyone else working in a University will be divided between research, teaching, and admin. I will say nothing more about the admin. The teaching I enjoy thoroughly because anomalistic psychology not only really hooks the students in but it's a great tool to actually teach them the basic skills of critical thinking. Why some kinds of evidence should be given more weight than other kinds of evidence and its also great fun. WHAT DOES A TYPICAL DAY INVOLVE FOR YOU? On the research side then the research will vary from setting up studies where we'll compare groups of people who believe in the paranormal with groups of people who don't believe in the paranormal in terms of how they interpret information, how they remember information, personality characteristics and so on and so forth, in an attempt to understand why some people, seem to be prone to believing in the paranormal and some don't. On top of that there may well be media events, etcetera, etcetera, public education, so the day can be very, very varied there's no straight routine, but apart from the admin then I enjoy most of it. WHAT ABILITIES DO YOU NEED? Other than the abilities that you need to be either an anomalistic psychologist or a parapsychologist. Basically, a respect for scientific method and the ability to handle quantitative and qualitative data. A lot of that will involve being able to understand and carry out statistical analysis, to know about experimental design, to know about how to test these kinds of claims properly. If you are a parapsychologist, you have a set of experiments that would rule out any non-paranormal explanations for any findings you may obtain. If you are an anomalistic psychologist, again you need to understand experimental design and be able to control for any confounding factors, and so on and so forth. And at the end of the day you'll be able to draw stronger conclusions from your results and hopefully be able to convince people that your hypothesis was correct. Página 52 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 UNIT 5: HEALTH AND WELL-BEING OUTCOMES IN OLDER PEOPLE Older people - Late adulthood and aging - Health and well-being in older people Late adulthood: integrity vs despair - According to Erikson and his life-stage theory of human development, old age is a time of reflection - An older person must be able to look back over their life with acceptance and satisfaction - People who have lived richly and responsibly develop a sense of integrity (selfrespect) and face aging and death with dignity - If previous life events are viewed with regret, the older person experiences despair (heartache and remorse) and see life as missed opportunities Old age - After the late fifties, personal development is complicated by physical aging - Our views of older people are often coloured by myths as many people believe that most are lonely, poor and troubled by ill health - However, it is wrong to believe that most older people are sickly or senile - Mentally, many older people are at least as capable as the average young adult Página 53 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - These are people who have continued to work and remain intellectually active You are more likely to stay mentally sharp in old age if: - You remain healthy - You live in a favourable environment (you are educated and have a stimulating occupation, an above-average income and an intact family) - You’re involved in intellectually stimulating activities (reading, travel, cultural events) - You have a flexible personality - You are married to a smart spouse - You maintain your perceptual processing speed - You were satisfied with your accomplishments in midlife Old Age At age 77, John Glenn became the oldest person to fly into space, on October 29, 1998, on Space Shuttle Discovery Glenn's flight offered valuable research on weightlessness and other aspects of space flight on the same person at two points in life 36 years apart—by far the longest interval between space flights by the same person— providing information on the effects of spaceflight and weightlessness on the elderly, with an ideal control Página 54 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Successful aging - Similar to the elements of wellbeing at midlife - Four psychological characteristics shared by the healthiest, happiest people are: - Optimism, hope and an interest in the future - Gratitude and forgiveness, an ability to focus on what is good in life - Empathy, an ability to share the feelings of others and see the world through their eyes - Connection with others, an ability to reach out, to give and receive social support Aging - How can we predict how aging will affect us? Chronological age doesn’t necessarily forecast the behavioural or biological changes that accompany aging - Four other ways of measuring age that do a better job at capturing the impact of changes in later life: o Biological age: the estimate of a person age in terms of biological functioning. How efficiently are the person’s organs, such as heart or lungs, working? o Psychological age: a person’s mental attitudes and agility and the capacity to deal with the stresses of an ever-changing environment (memory, ability to learn and personality) o Functional age: a person’s ability to function in give roles in society. Functional age might provide a better basis for judging readiness to retire Página 55 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 o Social age: whether people behave in accord with the social behaviours appropriate for their age Older people are assets to society - The fact that people are living longer should be celebrated - But at the same time, this ageing population has long-term health conditions putting pressure on health and social care services - 3.8 million 65+ live alone in the GB (36% of all people aged 65+); Nearly 2.5 million people over 75 live alone; 1.8 million of these are women (Age UK, 2014) Some data on older people - Significant proportions of the population have complex and chronic health care needs alongside social and emotional needs which are not always picked up - arthritis, poor memory, poor vision, lupus, diabetes, high blood pressure, mental health (depression, schizophrenia and addiction) stroke, cancer, fractures and hip replacements - 79% of participants rate themselves as poor in carrying out daily living activities in at least one of the three activities measured - People most commonly rated themselves as poor at: o “getting out and about” (64%) o “doing daily tasks around the home” (59%) o “looking after themselves” (26%) Página 56 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - 17% of all respondents said they had no control at all over their daily lives o Physical health was mentioned as one of the main factors restricting people’s ability to feel in control of their daily lives - When asked about their ability to cope, nearly half of our participants (49%) rated themselves as poor in at least one item under coping skills - - Participants were asked how much contact they had o 13% had no contact at all with family o 21% had no contact with friends o 22% had no contact with neighbours 5% had no contact with family or friends and 3% had no contact with any of the all three groups - 43% of all the service users interviewed stated that they would like more contact with other people - 1 in 4 did not have access to a listening ear – someone who will really listen to them if they need to talk - Significant numbers of people (46%) reported that they didn’t have any activities that they enjoyed doing with their time Página 57 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 WORKSHOP I: OLDER PEOPLE ARE HAPPIER Older people are happier - Dr. Carstensen is Professor of Psychology and Public Policy at Stanford University, where she is the founding director of the Stanford Center on Longevity, which explores innovative ways to solve the problems of people over 50 and improve the well-being of people of all ages - She is best known for her socioemotional selectivity theory, a life-span theory of motivation - Video on this theory (11.35) la chica que habla de que la gente mayor es más feliz Questions 1. Name some of the problems and improvements associated with aging she mentioned Problems: They are not involved in society. Diseases, poverty, loss of social stages. Improvements: they can feel mixed emotions. They feel less stressed. Increase of knowledge, expertise. The thought that they are not going to live for ever changes their point of view towards life. We see our priorities much more clearly. 2. What is the paradox of aging? They invest in parts of life more important. Stress, anger, and negative emotions go down with age, but people think it’s the other way. 3. Describe the methodology and data collection procedure of the study where Laura and her team followed the same group of people over a 10-year period Página 58 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 The participants between 18 to 94 years old, use an electronic device which registers diary their emotions at one point of the day (questions). Longitudinal study. 4. What were the key findings of this study? Lifetime, your life is monitored in different way, you have less time left so you change your goals and look for the important. 5. Is it accurate to say that older people are just happy? Yes. Cognitively they center their attention and memory is focused con positive emotions. 6. How can older people have a positive impact on the quality of life of all members of society? UNIT 6: GENDER, SEX AND HEALTH Sex - The biological classification as male or female Gender - Psychological and social characteristics associated with being male or female - It is defined especially by one’s gender identity and learned gender process There are important biological and behavioural differences between males and females - They affect manifestation, epidemiology and pathophysiology of diseases and the approach to health care - Greater sensitivity to sex and gender is needed in medical research, service delivery, and wider social policies (Doyal, 2001) Página 59 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - Despite our knowledge of these crucial differences, there is little gender-specific health care; the prevention, management and therapeutic treatment of many common diseases does not reflect the most obvious and most important risk factors for the patient, i. e., sex and gender (Regitz-Zagrosek, 2012) Do Gender Differences Matter in Health Outcomes? Why gender and health? (cont'd) - The distinct roles and behaviours of men and women in a given culture, dictated by that culture's gender norms and values, give rise to gender differences - Gender norms and values, however, also give rise to gender inequalities - that is, differences between men and women which systematically empower one group to the detriment of the other - Both gender differences and gender inequalities can give rise to inequities between men and women in health status and access to health care - A woman cannot receive needed health care because norms in her community prevent her from travelling alone to a clinic - A teenage boy dies in an accident because of trying to live up to his peers’ expectations that young men should be "bold" risk-takers - A married woman contracts HIV because societal standards encourage her husband’s promiscuity while simultaneously preventing her from insisting on condom use - A country's lung cancer mortality rate for men far outstrips the rate for women because smoking is considered an attractive marker of masculinity Página 60 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - In all these cases, gender norms and values, and resulting behaviours, are negatively affecting health Gender, Women and Health Network (WHO) - Gender, Women and Health has prepared analyses of the impact of gender inequality on a number of health problems - Each document is a concrete example of gender analysis – that is, the careful examination of a particular area of health to determine if, and in what ways, gender norms, behaviours, and inequality are contributing to poor health, disability, mortality, or lack of well-being Gender, Women and Health Network (cont'd) - Gender and blindness Gender and health in disasters Gender and mental health Gender and road traffic injuries Gender and tuberculosis Gender and HIV/AIDS Gender and aging Gender and tobacco Gender, health and work Gender and malaria Página 61 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Gender and mental health - No sex differences in the overall prevalence of mental and behavioural disorders BUT there are significant differences in the patterns and symptoms of the disorders - In childhood, most studies report a higher prevalence of conduct disorders, for example with aggressive and antisocial behaviours, among boys than in girls - During adolescence, girls are more prone to symptoms that are directed inwardly, while adolescent boys are more prone to act out Gender and mental health (cont'd) - During adolescence, girls have a much higher prevalence of depression and eating disorders, and engage more in suicidal ideation and suicide attempts than boys - During adolescence, boys experience more problems with anger, engage in high risk behaviours and commit suicide more frequently than girls - In adulthood, the prevalence of depression and anxiety is much higher in women, while substance use disorders and antisocial behaviours are higher in men - In the case of severe mental disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar depression, there are no consistent sex differences in prevalence, but men typically have an earlier onset of schizophrenia, while women are more likely to exhibit serious forms of bipolar depression - In older age groups, although the incidence rates for Alzheimer’s disease is reported to be the same for women and men, women’s longer life expectancy means that there are more women living with the condition Página 62 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - With the exception of China and parts of India, the rate of death by suicide is higher for men than women in almost all parts of the world by a ratio of 3.5:1 Gender and aging - The basic diseases which afflict older men and women are the same: cardiovascular diseases, cancers, musculoskeletal problems, diabetes, mental illnesses, sensory impairments, incontinence, and – especially in poorer parts of the world – infectious diseases - However, rates, trends, and specific types of these diseases differ between women and men - Health in old age has to do not only with presence or absence of disease. Availability and quality of care are also important - Crisis situations can disproportionately affect older people – especially older women UNIT 7: WORK-LIFE BALANCE & WELL-BEING Stress - Stress is the mental and physical condition that occurs when we adapt to the environment - Stress can be a major behavioural risk if it is prolonged or severe, but it is not always bad - Events that produce stress are: Página 63 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Work pressures, marital problems, financial problems Travel, a new job or dating General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) - The impact of long-term stresses can be understood by examining the body defences against and responses to stress, a pattern known as the general adaptation syndrome - It is a series of bodily reaction to prolonged stress - The body responds in the same way to any stress, be it an infection, failure, embarrassment, a new job, trouble at school, or a difficult interpersonal relationship Página 64 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - Alarm: your first reaction to stress recognizes there’s a danger and prepares to deal with the threat, a.k.a. the fight or flight response Main stress hormones, ie., cortisol, adrenaline, and noradrenaline are released to give energy - Resistance: source of stress is probably resolved and homeostasis begins restoring balance and recovery Problems begin to manifest when you find yourself repeating this process too often with little or no recovery, which takes you to the final stage - Exhaustion: the stress has continued for some time, your adaptation energy supply is gone Here is where stress levels go up and stay up! Work-Life balance - Work-Life Balance refers to the effective management between work and the other roles and responsibilities that are important to people as human beings and as members of society - In a perfect world, work and home balance out neatly; but in today’s demanding working environments, this idea no longer holds - The literature has looked at dimensions like Personal Life Interference with Work, Work Interference with Personal Life and Work Personal Life Enhancement - Personal Life Interference with Work Página 65 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - - I neglect personal needs because of work I miss personal activities because of work Work Interference with Personal Life My personal life drains me of energy for work I am too tired to be effective at work Work Personal Life Enhancement Personal life gives me energy for my job My job gives me energy to pursue personal activities Do we live to work or work to live? - Getting the right balance between work and leisure is important in determining the well-being of a nation - This is the issue explored in the latest findings from the Office for National Statistics (ONS) Measuring National Well-being programme Almost one in two (48.4 per cent) of adults aged 16 and over in Great Britain report a relatively low satisfaction with their work-life balance Approaching two in three (62.6 per cent) of all adults aged 16 and over respondents in the UK report that they are somewhat, mostly or completely satisfied with the amount of leisure time they had Página 66 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Burnout - Burnout occurs when workers are physically, mentally and emotionally drained - They experience emotional exhaustion, cynicism and detachment and feelings of reduced personal accomplishment - It may occur in any job, but it is specially a problem in emotionally demanding professions, such as nursing, teaching, social work, childcare, counselling or police work College Life Stress Inventory - The College Life Stress Inventory is scored by adding the rating for all of the items that have happened to you in the last year - Approximate guide to the meaning of your score: 0-150 very low 1471-1910 high 151-590 low 1911-2350 very high 591-1030 below average 2351 or more extremely high 1031-1470 average - REMEMBER, stress is an internal state - If you are good at coping with stressors, a high score may not be a problem for you - Now that you know about your levels of stress, what can you do about it? Página 67 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Stress management and self-care - Behavioural and cognitive approaches - Exercise - Relaxation techniques - Mindfulness Mindfulness - Mindfulness means maintaining a moment-by-moment awareness of our thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and surrounding environment - Mindfulness also involves acceptance, meaning that we pay attention to our thoughts and feelings without judging them - It has its roots in Buddhist meditation - Jon Kabat-Zinn, with his Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program, has made this approach popular UNIT 7 WORKSHOP I: HOW TO MAKE STRESS YOUR FRIEND The stress response - When danger is faced, or anticipated, the following effects occur Heart rate and strength of heartbeat typically increase Blood pressure increases: hardly to notice but some consequence are not e. g., headaches Página 68 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Blood vessels in skin narrow or constrict Muscles become prepared for action by increasing blood flow to them Sweat glands begin to work harder Lungs take more air because the air passages open up The pupils of the eyes dilate Salivation is temporarily turned off Digestive processes are altered Intestinal activity is changed - We know what stress is and how it can affect people, but can stress be helpful for us? - Can we make stress our friend? How? Kelly Mcgonigal: How to make stress your friend - Kelly McGonigal is a health psychologist at the Stanford Graduate School of Business and the School of Medicine - Kelly McGonigal translates academic research into practical strategies for health, happiness and personal success Questions - Kelly McGonigal says that she has changed her mind about stress. What did she think about stress before and what does she think today? Página 69 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 She doesn’t want to get rid of stress but make us think better of stress. Stress can be harmful even thinking it can hurt you. Thinking different about stress can make you healthier. - According to Kelly McGonigal, how do you think about stress so that it becomes your friend? Thinking it is a impulse of courage, that the faster breathing is to get more oxygen in our brain, the high heart rate is preparing us for a challenge. - Oxytocin is a neurohormone that is relevant to the stress response. Can you tell in which ways it is important? What effect does it have in your cardiovascular system? Blood vessels, and heart are helped by this hormone, strengthens our heart. Our heart has receptors of this hormone that makes it hill and strength. This hormone is delivered by stress. - What concluding point is she making at the end of her talk? Experiencing stress can provoke a 30% increase in dying but those who cared about others did not. Caring for other created resilience. UNIT 8: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CLINIC - Is Susana suicidal? Use clinical intuition, that is to be able to know if someone is in danger mentally. - Should John be committed to a mental hospital? - If released, will Tom be a homicide risk? Página 70 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - Facing such questions, clinical psychologists struggle to make accurate judgments, recommendations, and predictions - Such clinical judgments are also social judgments and thus vulnerable to illusory correlations, overconfidence bred by hindsight, and self-confirming diagnoses Illusory correlations - A given correlation may or may not be meaningful; it depends on how statistically common the correlation is - For example, if two of your friends have blue eyes and are gay, does that mean that all gay people have blue eyes? - It is tempting to see correlations where they don’t exist. If we expect two things to be associated — if, for example, we believe that premonitions predict events — it’s easy to perceive illusory correlations - Even when shown random data, we may notice and remember instances when premonitions and events are coincidentally related, and soon forget all the instances when premonitions aren’t borne out and when events happen without a prior premonition Clinicians, like all of us, may perceive illusory correlations - If expecting particular responses to Rorschach inkblots to be more common among people with a sexual disorder, they may, in reflecting on their experience, believe they have witnessed such associations Página 71 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 - To discover when such a perception is an illusory correlation, psychological science offers a simple method: Have one clinician administer and interpret the test. Have another clinician assess the same person’s traits or symptoms. Repeat this process with many people - To reduce the risk of being fooled by illusory correlations, beware of the tendency to see relationships that you expect to see or that are supported by striking examples readily available in your memory Hindsight - If someone we know commits suicide, how do we react? One common reaction is to think that we, or those close to the person, should have been able to predict and therefore to prevent the suicide “We should have known!” - In hindsight, we can see the suicidal signs - One experiment gave participants a description of a depressed person - Some participants were told that the person subsequently committed suicide; other participants were not told this - Those who had been informed of the suicide became more likely to say they “would have expected” it Página 72 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 Rosenhan's study: on being sane in insane places To reduce the risk of being fooled by hindsight bias, realize that it can lead you to feel overconfident and sometimes to judge yourself too harshly for not having foreseen outcomes. Self-confirming diagnoses - A third problem with clinical judgment is that it may prod patients to produce evidence that seems to support it and so, the client fits into the therapist’s expectations - Imagine yourself on a blind date with someone who has been told that you are an uninhibited, outgoing person - To see whether this is true, your date slips questions into the conversation, such as “Have you ever done anything crazy in front of other people?” As you answer such questions, will you reveal a different “you” than if your date had been told you were shy and reserved? - Snyder and Swann (1984) gave interviewers some hypotheses to test concerning individual's traits - They found that of people often test for a trait by looking for information that confirms it - If people are trying to find out f someone is an extravert, they often solicit instances of extraversion: what would you do if you wanted to liven things up at a party? To reduce the risk of being fooled by self-confirming diagnoses, guard against the tendency to ask questions that assume your preconceptions are correct; remember that clients’ verbal Página 73 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 agreement with what you say does not prove its validity; consider opposing ideas and test them. Clinical versus statistical prediction - It is not surprising, given these hindsights and diagnosis-confirming tendencies, that most clinicians and interviewers express more confidence in their intuitive assessments than in statistical data - Clinical intuition: less acceptance of scientific method by clinical than by nonclinical psychologists - Statistics predict better but are less convincing than intuitive prediction UNIT 8: ON BEING SANE IN INSANE PLACES - If sanity and insanity exist, how shall we know them? The question is neither capricious nor itself insane. However much we may be personally convinced that we can tell the normal from the abnormal, the evidence is simply not compelling (p. 250) - At its heart, the question of whether the sane can be distinguished from the insane (and whether degrees of insanity can be distinguished from each other) is a simple matter: do the salient characteristics that lead to diagnoses reside in the patients themselves or in the environments and contexts in which observers find them? (p. 251). Página 74 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|2679158 On being sane in insane places - 8 people posed as "pseudopatients”: 5 men (including Rosenhan himself) & 3 women - 12 psychological hospitals in 5 states - On arrival, complained of hearing voices that said "empty," "hollow," and "thud” - Otherwise acted completely normal and gave truthful responses to interviewer - All were admitted and 11 of the 12 were diagnosed with schizophrenia - Even hospital staff treated "patients" strangely - Hospital clinicians then searched for early incidents in the pseudopatients’ life histories and hospital behaviour that “confirmed” and “explained” the diagnosis - Rosenhan tells of one pseudopatient who truthfully explained to the interviewer that he had a close childhood relationship with his mother but was rather remote from his father - During adolescence and beyond, however, his father became a close friend while his relationship with his mother cooled. His present relationship with his wife was characteristically close and warm “This white 39-year-old male . . . manifests a long history of considerable ambivalence in close relationships, which begins in early childhood. A warm relationship with his mother cools during his adolescence. A distant relationship to his father is described as becoming very intense. Affective stability is absent. His attempts to control emotionality with his wife and children are punctuated by angry outbursts and, in the case of the children, spankings. And while he says that he has several good friends, one senses considerable ambivalence embedded in those relationships also” Página 75 de 75 Descargado por Carmen Acevedo (carmenacevedo9@gmail.com)
