Construction and Design of Prestressed Concrete Segmental Bridges Walter Podolny, Jr., Ph.D., P.E. Bridgc Division ()Hicc Ellgineering h'dcr;ti II iglll\'d Y :\d millisl ratioll L' .S. Depart illenl 01 Tr;lIls[Jortalioll or Jean M. Muller (:llaillll;11I (lilhe Board Figg alld ),[uJkr Ellgincers, [Ill. BR1T" LEM". -9 AUG 1982 82/19656 A Wiley-Intersdence Publication John Wiley & Sons New York Chichester Brisbane Toronto Singapore Copyright © 1982 by john Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published simuhaneollsly in Canada. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department. john Wilt·)' & Sons, Inc Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: Podoln)', Walter. Construction and design of prestressed concrete segmental bridges. (Wiley series of practical construction guides ISSN 0271-6011) "A Wiley-Interscience publication." Includes index. I. Bridges, Concrete-Design and construction. 2. Prestressed concrete construction. I. Muller, jean M. II. Title. III. Series. 81-13025 AACR2 TG355.P63 624.2 ISBN 0·471-05658-8 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 ·d e . -------- .-------­ 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 -- - ---­ .. ... Series Preface The Wiley Series of Practical Construction Guides provides the working constructor with up-to-date information that can help to increase the job profit margin. These guidebooks. which are scaled mainly for practice, but include the necessary theory and design. should aid a construction con­ tractor in approaching I\ork problems I\'it h more knowledgeable confidence, The guides should be useful also to engineers. architects. planners. specification writers. project managers, superin­ tendents, materials and equipment manufacturers and, the source of all these callings, instructors and their students. Construction in the United States alone will reach $250 billion a year in the early I980s. In all nations, the business of building will continue to grow at a phenomenal rate, because the population proliferation demands !1('I\ living. I\'orking. and recreational facilities. This construction will have to be more substantial. thus demanding a more professional performance from the contractor. Be­ fore science and technology had seriously affected the ideas, job plans, financing, and erection of structures, most contractors developed their know-how by field trial-and-error. Wheels, small and large, were constantly being reinvented in all St'C(ors. bccause there ,\as no interchange of knmdedge. The current complexity of cOlIStru{'­ tion. even in more rural areas, has revealed a dear need for more proficient. professional methods and tools in both practice and learning, Because construction is highly competitive. sOllle practical technologv is necessarily proprietary. BUI most practical day-to-day problems are common to the whole construction industry. These are the subjects for the Wiley Practical Construction Guides. M. D. MORRIS. P.E. v Preface Prestressed concrete segmental bridge construc­ tion has evolved, in the natural course of events, from the combining of the concepts of prestress­ ing, box girder design, and the cantilever method of bridge construction. It arose from a need to Qvercoml: construnion difficulties in spalIning deep valleys and river crossmgs without the use of conventional falsework, which in some instances may be impractical, economically prohibitive, or detrimental to environment and ecology. Contemporary prestressed, box girder, seg­ mental bridges began in Western Europe in the 1950s. Ulrich Finsterwalder in 1950, for a cross­ ing of the Lahn River in Balduinstein, Germany, was the first to apply cast-in-place segmental con­ struction to a bridge. In 1962 in France the first application of precast. segmental, box girder COll­ struction was made by Jean Muller to the Choisy­ Le-Roi Bridge crossing the Seine River. Since then the concept of segmental bridge construction has been improved and rdined and has spread from Europe throughout most of the world. The first application of segmental bridge con­ struction in North America was a cast-in-place segmental bridge on the Laurentian Autoroute near Ste..\dele. Qllebec. in 1964. This was fol­ lowed in 1967 by a precast segmental bridge cross­ ing the Lievre River near ~otre Dame du Laus, Quebec. In 1973 the first U.S. precast segmental bridge was ope lied to traffic in Corpus Christi. Texas, followed a year later by the cast-in-place segmental Pine Valley Bridge near San Diego, California. As of this date (1981) in the United States more than eighty segmental bridges are completed, in construction, in design, or under consideration. Prestressed concrete segmental bridges may be identified as precast or cast in place and cat­ egorized by method of construction as balanced cantilever, span-by-span, progressive placement, or incremental launching. This type of bridge has extended the practical and competitive economic span range of concrete bridges. It is adaptable to almost any conceivable site condition. The objective of this book is to summarize in one volume the current state of the art of design and constrllction methods for all I ypc,; of segmelHal bridges as a ready reference source for ellgillcer­ ing faculties, practicing engineers, contractors, and local, state, and federal bridge engineers. Chapter I is a quick review of the historical evo­ lution to the current state of the art. It bITers the student an appreciation of the way in which seg­ mental construction of bridges developed, thc factors that influenced its development, and the various techniques used in constructing segmental bridges. Chapters 2 and 3 present case ,tudies of the pre­ dominant methodology oi constructing segmental bridges by balanced cantilever in both cast-in-place and precast concrete. Conception and design of the superstructure and piers, respectively, are dis­ cussed in Chapters 4 and 5. The other three ba­ sic methods of constructing segmental bridges­ progressive placement, span-by-span, and incre­ mental launching-are presented in Chapters 6 and i. Chapters 2 through i deal essentially with girder type bridges. However, segmental construction may also be applied to bridges of other types. Chaprer 8 discusses application of thc segmcntal concept to arch, rigid frame, and truss bridges. Chapter 9 deals with the cable-stayed type of bridge and Chapter 10 with railroad bridges. The practical aspects of fabrication, handling, and erection of segments are discussed in Chapter II. In selected a bridge type for a particular site, one of the more important parameters is economics. Economics, competitive bidding, and contractual aspects of segmental construction are discussed in Chapter 12. Most of the material presented in this book is not vii - viii Preface original. Although acknowledgment of all the many sources is not possible, full credit is given wherever the specific source can be identified. Every effort has been made to eliminate errors; the authors will appreciate notification from the reader of any that remain. The authors are indebted to numerous publica­ tions, organizations, and individuals for their assistance and permission to reproduce photo­ .."iiliiI........... __•_ _ _ _ _ _ ---·--­ graphs, tables. and other data. Wherever possible. credit is given in the text. WALTER PODOLNY, JR. JEAN M. MULLER Burkt, 1'h-~i1/i(J Pans, France january 1982 Contents 1 Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Construction 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 1 Introduction, 1 Development of Cantilever Construction, 2 Evolution ()f Prestressed 1.3 Concrete, 4 1,4 Evolution of Prestressed Concrete Bridges, 5 1.5 Long-Span Bridges with Conventional Precast Girders. R 1.6 Segmental Construction, 10 1.7 Various Types of Structures, 12 1.8 Cast-in-Place and Precast Seg-mental Construction, 17 1.9 Various \Ici hods of Construction, 18 1.10 Applications of Segmental Construction in the Cnited States, 26 1.11 Applicability and Advantages of Segmental Construction, 28 References, 30 1.1 1.2 ~, 13 2.14 2.15 2.lG 3 Precast BaLanced Cantilever Girder Bridges :U 3,2 :5.3 3.-1: :~,5 2 Cast-In-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 2.1 2,2 2.3 2,4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Introduction, ~~ 1 Bendorf Bridge, German" 35 Saint Adele Bridge, Canada, 37 BOllguen Bridge in Brest and Llcroix Falgarde Bridge, France, 38 Saint Jean Bridge over the Garonne River at Bordeaux, France. 41 Siegtal and Kochertal Bridges. Germany, 43 Pine Valley Creek Bridge, U.S.A.,46 J.b 31 Gennevilliers Bridge, France, 52 Grand';"'fere Bridge, Canada, 55 Arnhem Bridge, Holland, 58 :-';apa River Bridge, C.S.A., 59 Koror-Babelthuap, C.S. Pacific Trust Territon', 61 Vejle \'jord Bridge, Denmark, 63 Houston Ship Channel Bridge, C.s.A.,68 Other ~otable Structures, 71 Conclusion, 81 References, 81 ;~,7 :L8 :t9 3.1 () ;) .11 :U2 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 82 I III roclllU iOIl , 82 Choisy Le Roi Bridge and Other Structures in Greater Paris, France, 83 Pierre Benite Bridges near Lyons, France, 89 Other Precast Segmental Bridges in Paris, 91 Oleron Viaduct, France, 96 Chillon Viaduct, Switzerland, 99 Hartel Bridge, Holland, 103 Rio-~iteroi Bridge, Brazil, 106 Bear River Bridge, Canada, 108 J FK ;"'lell1orial Cause\\ay, U.S.A., 109 Saint Andre de Cubzac Bridges, France. 113 Saint Cloud Bridge, France, 114 Sallingsund Bridge, Denmark, 122 B-3 South Viaducts, France, 124 Alpine ~Iotorway Structures, France, 129 Bridge over the Eastern Scheidt, Holland, 134 IX Contents x 3.17 3.18 4 Design of Segmental Bridges 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 5.4 5.6 5.7 Introduction, 225 Loads Applied to the Piers, 230 Suggestions on Aesthetics of Piers and Abutments, 232 Moment-Resisting Piers and Their Foundations, 234 ........ iI' ...._ .. _._._ _ _ _ _ _ ~.--~ -------­ 5.8 5.9 148 Introduction, 148 Live Load Requirements, 149 Span Arrangement and Related Principle of Construction, 149 Deck Expansion, Hinges, and Continuity, 151 Type, Shape and Dimensions of the Superstructure, 159 Transverse Distribution of Loads Between Box Girders in ~1ultibox Girders, 164 Effect of Temperature Gradients in Bridge Superstructures, 170 Design of Longitudinal Members for Flexure and Tendon Profiles, 173 Ultimate Bending Capacity of Longitudinal Members, 190 Shear and Design of Cross Section. 193 Joints Between Match-Cast Segments, 199 Design of Superstructure Cross Section, 202 Special Problems in Superstructure Design, 203 DeAections of Cantilever Bridges and Camber Design, 205 Fatigue in Segmental Bridges, 210 Provisions for Future Prestressing, 212 Design Example, 212 Quantities of Materials, 219 Potential Problem Areas, 220 References, 224 5 Foundations, Piers, and Abutments 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.5 Captain Cook Bridge, Australia, 136 Other Notable Structures, 139 References, 147 6 Progressive and Span-by-Span Construction of Segmental Bridges 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 7 7.5 7.G 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 225 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 321 Illlrodunioll.321 Rio Carolli, Venezuela, 323 Val Resle! Viaduct, Italy, 327 Ravensbosch Valley Bridge. Holland, 329 Olifant's River Bridge, South Africa, 331 Various Bridges ill France. 333 Wabash River Bridge, U.S.A., 335 Other ~otable Bridges. 338 Design of Incrementall) Launched Bridge~. 34::1 Demolition of a Structure by Incremental La~nching, 352 References, 352 Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigid Frames, and Truss Bridges 8.1 8.2 281 Introduction, 281 Progressive Cast-i n- Place Bridges, 283 Progressive Precast Bridges, 289 Span-by-Span Cast-in-Place Bridges, 293 Span-by-Span Precast Bridges, 308 Design Aspects of Segmental Progressive Const ruction, 314 References, 319 Incrementally Launched Bridges 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 8 Piers with Double Elastomeric Bearings, 241 Piers with Twin Flexible Legs, 253 Flexible Piers and Their Stability During Construction, 263 Abutments. 271 Effect of Differential Settlements on Continuous Decks, 276 References, 280 Introduction, 354 Segmental Precast Bridges over the Marne River, France, 357 Caracas Viaducts, Venezuela, 363 Gladesville Bridge, Australia, 371 Arches Built in Cantilever, 374 Rigid Frame Bridges, 382 354 xi Contents 8.7 9 Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.1 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9,9 11 Truss Bridges, 392 References. 399 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges Il.l 11.2 400 Introuuction,400 Lake Maracaibo Bridge, Venezuela. 405 Wadi Kuf Bridge, Libya. 407 Chaco/Corrientes Bridge, Argentina, 408 \lainbrticke, GermallV, 410 Tiel Bridge. ~etherlands. 412 Pasco-Kennewick Bridge. C.S.A., 418 BrolOnne Bridge, France. 41!:l Dalluhe Canal Bridge, 11.3 11.1 11.5 11.6 11.7 :\ll~lri;l, '1~7 9.10 10 ~()table Examples of Concepls, 4:W Referellces, 439 Segmental Railway Bridges Illtl'OdllUioll 10 Panicubr :\spects of Rail\Va~ Bridges and Field of Applicatioll, 441 IO,':! La VOlllte Bridge over the Rholle Ri\'('l'. Frallct'. 4·12 10.:l \Ior:llld Bridge III L\om, Frallce,442 IO,,! Cerg\ POlltoise Bridge Ileal' ":Iris, Frallce, ·'·H 10,5 :-'!allle La Vallee and Torn Bridges for the ~e\V Express Lille lIeal' Paris, Fl'allce, 444 !(Ui Clichy Bridge Ileal' Paris, Frallce, ·l!q 10.7 Oidaill's Bridge, SOllth :\frica, '1:)2 1O.H [ncremental" Lallllched R;lil\\';!\ Bri( for the High-Speed Line, Paris to Lmlls, France, 45:~ 10.9 Segll1ental Raih,'av Brid~es ill Japall,457 to, 1() Special Oe'iign A~ peets of Segmenral Railwav Bridges, 458 10.11 Proposed Concepts for Future Segmental Railwav Bridges, 404 11.8 441 12 IO.l l~.l 12,,~ 13 Scope and Introduction. 465 Concrete and Formwork for Segmental Construction. 466 Post-tensioning Materials and Operations, 470 Segment Fabrication for Cast-In-Place Cantilever Construction, 475 Characteristics of Precast Segmellts and \Iatch-Cast Epoxy Joints. 485 \1anufacture of Precast Segments, 493 Handling and Temporan :\ssclllhh of Preca,1 Segments, 507 Placing Precast Segments, 50!} References. 517 Economics and Contractual Aspects of Segmental Construction 12.2 1:3.4 LL") 13,6 Index Index Index Index 518 Bidding Procedures, 518 Exam pies of Some Interest illg Biddillgs alld Costs, 523 j lit I CI,C ill EITlticll(\ ill Concrete Bridge~, 528 References, 535 Future Trends and Developments 1:3.1 1:),2 1:3,:~ 465 536 Introductiol1,536 ~!aterials, 536 Segmental Application to Bridg;e Decks, 542 Se~l11enlal Bridge Piers and Substructures, 543 Application to Existing or :\ew Bridge I) pe~, ij·H Summary, 548 References, ;")49 of Bridges of Personal Names of Firms and Organizations of Subjects 551 555 557 559 1 Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Construction 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 INTRODUCTION DEVELOP!'v1ENT OF CANTILEVER CONSTRUCTION EVOLUTION OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE EVOLUTION OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGES LONG-SPAN BRIDGES WITH CONVENTIONAL PRE­ CAST GIRDERS 1.6 SEGMENTAL CONSTRUCTION 1.7 VARIOUS TYPES OF STRUCTURES 1.7.1 Girder Bridges 1.7.2 TnJsses 1.7.3 Frarn(>, with Slant I.(>~, 1.7.4 Concrete Arch Bridges 1.7.5 Concrete Cable-Stayed Bridges 1.8 CAST-IN-PLACE AND PRECAST SEGMENTAL CON­ STRUCTION 1.1 Introduction The conception, development, and worldwide ac­ ceptance of seglllental c()n~trllcti()n in till' field or prestressed concrele bridges represents one 01 the most intere~ting and illlport;lIlt achievelllents in civil engineering durillg the past thirtv \ears. Rec­ ognized to<i;l\ in all COlllltries ;111d particlilariv ill the United States as a sale, praCTical, and econolllic construction method, the seglllental concept prob­ ably owes its rapid growth and acceptance to its founding, frOl1l the I)eginning, on sound construc­ tion principles sllch as cantile\'er construction. Using this method, a bridge structure is made up of concrete elements usually called segments (either precast or cast in place in their final position in the structure) assembled by post-tensioning. If the bridge is cast in place, Figure 1.1, travelers are used to allow the various segments to be con­ structed in successive increments and progressively 1.8.1 1.8.2 1.8.3 1.9 1.10 1.11 Characteristics of Cast-in-Place Segments Characteristics of Precast Segments Choice between Cast-in-ptace and Precast ConstnJction VARIOUS METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION 1.9.1 Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever 1.9.2 Precast Balanced Cantilever 1.9.3 Span-by-Span ConstnIction 1.9.4 Progressive Placement ConstnIction 1.9.5 Incremental Launching or Push-Out ConstnJction .\PPUCATTONS OF SEGMDITAL CONSTRUCTTON IN THE UNITED STATES APPLICABILITY AND ADVANTAGES OF SEGMEN­ TAL CONSTRUCTION REFERENCES prestressed together. II the bridge is precast, seg­ Illent.s are Illanufactured in a special casting vanl or factory, transported to their final position, and placed ill the structure bv various tvpes or lallnch- FIGURE 1.1 Cast-in place form traveler. 1 I 2 Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Construction FIGURE 1.2. Olcron Vi'HIlIct, scgllH'llIal (ollSlrllclioll ill progress. 011\' t"pical P)('CISI seglllt'llt placcd jll tile 01('1"011 Vi;,dllCl. Ill).; equiplllent. Figure l.~, while prestressing .!lhincs the ;t;,-,;clIlhly al1d prmides the stnJcturai strellgth. \1ost carl\' seglllelltal bridges were huill as call' tilc\'crs, where construction procceds ill a S\'l1lIIlet­ rical fashion from the bridge picrs ill sllccessi\(' ill­ ('n'lIlcllts to cOlllplete each spall and lil1al!\ the eillire superstructure, Figure 1.3. Later, olher COII­ ,tructioll methods appeared in conjunction with FIGURE 1.3. Cantil<'\er (omtrucliol1 applied to pre­ st ressed concrete bridges. the scglllelital cOllCept to IUrlhcr it, !icld of appli­ C;1t io 11. 1.2 Developmerrt oj Cantilever Construction The idea ofcalltile\'er (ollstrllctioJl is anciellt ill the Oriellt. Shogun';, Bridge located ill thc cit\ of' .'\'ikko, Japall, is the eadicst recorded GtlltileHT bridge ,Illd dates b;lck 10 the fOlll'1!J CeIJtlIr~. The Wall<iipol'c Bridge, Figure lA, was built ill tlte sc\'clIteellth century in Bhutall, betweell lndia and Tibet. It is constructed frolll great timbers that arc corbeled OUt IowaI'd each othcr from mas· si\e abut mellts and thc narrowed illlen al fillall\' capped with a light beam. 1 FIGURE 104. Wandipore Bridge. Development of Call t ilever Constmdion Tholllas Pope, a :\ew York Clrpenter, was ~() in­ spired b\' these structures that he used the concept in his "Fhing Le\cr Bridge," In IH [0 he built a 50 ft ([5 rn) model on a scale of ~ in, to I It ([ to 3~ 111) represellting half of a proposed IHOO ft (549 Ill) span. It was to be a single wooden structure cr()sS~ ing the Hudson River near New York City, Figure 1.5. According to witnesses the 50 ft ([5 Ill) unsup­ ported arm withstood a [0 ton (9 1111) weight. Pope puhlished the design of his daring and interesting concept the following \'ear. Althollgh arched in form. the optil1listic span was a calltilever beam in principle. with the "fhing levers" projected from great maSOIll'\' abutments, tined out on the :\ew YOl·k side as apartlllents, Pope's presentation of this desigll was anolllpatlied bv rile following couplet": 3 ThaI half an arc ~hol!ld sund UPOIl rhe ground Without support while building, or a rest; This caus'd the theorist's rage and 'iceptic's jest. Prefabrication techniques were successfullv combined with cantilever construcriot1 in many bridges near the end of the nineteenth century, as exemplified by such notable structures as the Firth of Forth Bridge, Figure 1.6, and later the Quebec Bridge, Figure 1.7, mer the Saint Lawrence River. These st.rllClU res bear witness to the engineering genius of an earlier generation. Built more re­ cently, the Greater :\ew Orleans Bridge over the \Iississippi River, Figure 1.8, represelJls 11lodcm cOlHemporan' long-spall ,Iecl clI1filevcr cOllslrnc­ I [()Il. Lei the broad arc the spaciolls Hudso[J stride And spall Columbia's rivers far [JJore wide COll\ince the world ,\lllcricl hegins To fo'nn Arts. the ;lIlCiClll \\()rk of killgs, Stupendous plan! which llone belorc c'cr j'otlild. FIGURE 1.6. - Firth of Forth Bridge. Because the properties and behavior of pre­ stressed concrete are related more closetv to those of structural sleel than those of comelttional rein­ rorced cOllcrete. the applicatiotl of this material to cllllileH:r construction W~IS a logical step ill the COil! iIwing developmetlt or bridge cngllleeriJlg, FIGURE l.i. (~uchec FIGURE l.8. Greatcr :-.lew Orleans Bridge. Bridgt:. 4 Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Construction This applicatioll has eyol\'ed over many years by the slIccessive de\'e!opment of mallY concepts and innovations. III order to see how the present slate olthe art has beel1 reached, let us briefly trace the devcloplllelll of presu'essed concrete and in par­ ticular its applic<ltioll to bridge construction. 1.3 Evolution of Prestressed Concrete The in\'cllIioll of reinforced concrete stirred the Illlagination 01 t'llgilleers in 11I;JJl\ countries. Thev envisiolled IlIa tat relllcndoll s ad va 11\,1 ge could be achie\cd, if the steel could he lensioned to put the ,qrllctllrc in a pennallclli state 01 compression g-1'Catcr thall all\ tellsile stresses g-clleraled by the <tpplied loads. The pre~ellt state of the art of pre­ stressed concrete has C\ohcd froll1 the erfort and ('x]lericlln' of lIIall\' ell~ille('rs and scielltists o\'cr lhc past nillet\' \cars" I 1OW('\'('I' , lire concept of pre­ stressing is centllries old. Swiss imcstigators ha\'c shown tl1;lt as earh as :!70(l H.C. thc :tnciellt Egyp­ tians prestressed their s(,;lgoing \'('sscls long-itlldi­ nail\'. This h;IS 1)(,(,1l detenl1illcd from pictorial represcntations fOlllld in Fifth Dynast\' tOIllI)s. The hasic principle or prestressing was used in the era It of cooperage WhCll the cooper wound ropes or !!letal hands aroulld wooden staves to forlll harrels.: l When thc I)ands were lightened, thcv were under tensile prestress, which created cOlllpression betwecn the SWH'S and enabled thelll \0 rcsist Iroop tCllsiol1 produced by internal liquid pressure. I II other words, the hands and staves wcre hot h prest ressed hefore thev \\'(Te subjected to all\ sel\'i('(' loads. The woodell cartwheel with ils shrunk-Oil iroll rim is al10ther example of pre­ stressed cOl1struction. The (irst all(,lIlpt to introdllcc internal stresses in reinforced (OllCl'('te mel1lbers iJy tensioning the steel reinforcement was made about 1886 whell P. H. Jackson, all engineer ill San Francisco, obtained a Ullited St;ltes patent ()r tightenin~ stcel rods in concrete nJ(:lIliJers serving as Hoor slabs. ] n 1888, C. E. \N. Dilhrillg of Berlin secured a patent for the Illallufacture of slabs, battens, and small beams for structural engineering purposes by embedding tensiollcd wire in concrete in order to reduce cracking. This was the first attempt to provide pre­ cast concrete units wit h a tensioned reinforcement. Several structures wcre constructed using these concepts; IHlWe\'er, ollly mild steel reinforcement was available at the time. These structures at first hehaved according to predictions, but because so little prestrcss force could be induced in the mild steel, the\' lost their properties because of the creep and shrill kage of the concrete. I n order to recover some 01 the losses, the possibilitv of retightening the reinforcing rods after some shrinkage and creep of the concrete had taken place was suggested in 190f\ by C. R. Steiner of the L'nited States. Steiner proposed that the bond of em­ bedded steel hars be destroyed b\· lightly tension­ ing the bars while the concrete \\'as still voung and then tellsioning them to a higher stress when the concrete had hardened. Steiner was also the first to suggest the lise of cuned tendons. In 19:25, R. E. Dill of :\ebraska took a further slep t()\\'anl freeing cOllcrete beams of any lensile stresses In tensioning high-tensile steel wires after the concrete had hardened. Bonding was to he prevented 1)\ suitahh' coating the wires. He explicith llI{'llliollCd the ;!(h';llltage of lIsing st('eI with a high elastic lilllit alld high strength as COll1­ pared to onlinan reillforcing hal'S. In 19:21'1, E. Freyssillct of France, who is credited wit h the !llOdtTll dc\('loplllellt of prest rcssed COI1­ nete, started min,!.!; high-strellgth steel wires prestressil1g. Although Frnssillct also tried tile lIlethod oj pretcllsiol1lllg, where the steci was bOl1ded to the cOl1crete without elld al1chorages, the lirst 1)l;lctlcd applicatioll of this method \\"as ll1ade 1)\ E. H(lH'! ai;olll I ~nH. Wide applicatioll 01 the prestressil1g tcchlJiqlle was 1l0! possible ulltil reliahle al1d ecollol11icailllt'thods (If tellsionillg alld elld allchorage were dc\·ised. From approximately 1939 OIL E. Fn'\ssillet, "fagllt'l, awl othelS d('­ \'cloped differcllt 1ll(,tl\()(ls alld procedures. Prc­ st ress hegall to gail1 SOlllC importallce ahow 1945, while allernatin' prestressing lllethods were beillg devised 1)\, ellgilleers ill \'arious coulltries. During the past thirty \'ears, prestressed con­ crete ill the Cllited States has growll from a hrall<!-IH':W idea illto all an:cpted lllethod or COI1­ crete construction. This growth. it result of a l1ew applicatioll of existing l1latelials and theories, is in itsel f phellolllenai. I II Europe the shortage of ma­ terials and the cllforced economies in construction gave prestressed concrete a substantial start. De­ veloplllent in the Cnited States, however, was slower to underway. Designers al1d contractors hesitated mainly because of their lack of experi­ ence and a reluctance to abandon more familiar methods of construction. Contractors, therefore, bid t he first prestressed concrete work conserva­ tively. Moreover, the equipmcnt available for pre­ stressing and related techlliques was essentially new and makeshift. However, experience was gained rapidly, the quality of the work improved, ror .. ._ ", 1\1 {'I Evolution of Prestressed Concrete Bridges .......... 5 " ~~'T .---- ---::: ""~~ ..... , \ FIGURE 1.9. River. ~ Frevssinet\ Esbh Bridge on the '.larne and prestressed concrete became more :md more competitin: with other Illaterials. 1.4 Evolution of Prestressed Concrete Bridges Although France lOok the lead ill Ihe de\Tlopmenl of prestressed concrete. Ill;Ul\ European COUllt ric:; SIKh as Belgilllll. England, (~erlllall\. Switzerland. and Holl;llld quickh showed interest. As earl:: as 1948. Frcnsinet llsed prest ressed coneret e for I he constructioll fi\'e bridges o\'er the \larne River ,near P;lris, \\ith ~W ft (7t Ill) spans or all excep­ tiollally light ;l()pC;lrance. Figure 1.9, ,\ Sllne\ made ill (;erlll;lll\ .showed I hat between IIJ49 ;lIld 1953. out 01 ;)00 bridges built. 350 \\ere pre­ stressed. or FIGURE 1.10 (COllrtt"\' \\'allllll Lane Bridge. Philadelphia of the Portland Cement :\ssociation), Prestressing in the Lnited Slates followed a <Iii ferent course, Instead of linear prestressing. cir­ cular prestressing as applied to storage tallks took lhe lead. Lillear prestressillg as applied to be;tllls did [lOl sian until 1949. The first strllcture of tiJis tYlw W;l~ a hridge ill \LtdisOlI COllll(\', Telll]essee. followcd ill I~);)() In the well-known HiO ft HH.HO Ill) spall Walilut LlIle Bridge in Philadelphia, Fig. lire 1.10. Ih the middle or 1951 it was estimated that 17:'1 brid!.{cs alld 50 buildillgs had heel] Cllll· strllClcd ill Ellrope ;lIld 110 !llore thall 10 strllClure~ ill the Lilited State~. III 1952 the Portlalld Cellleill .\sS()Ciatloll cOllducted a SUnle\' ill this COUllln' silowill!.{ 100 or Illorc structurcs cOlllpleted or .r.--TI =: L f2" IV ~ I' ~--------~ ! .....' I ... \...:.i • I ~I L I. 2'· 4" .1 V FIGURE 1.11. m .-\:\SHTO·PCI I-girder c!'Oss sections. I 'I 6 Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Constme/ion under construction. In 195:1 it was estimated that there were is bridges in Pennsyh'ania alone. After the Walnut Lane Bridge, which was cast ill place and post-tensioned, precast pretensioned bridge girders e\'oh'ed, taking ach'antage of the in­ herent economies and qualin' control achievable with shop-fabricated members, With few excep­ tions, during the 1950s and early 1960s, most mul­ tispan precast prestressed bridges built ill the Cnited States were designed as a series of simple spalls. The\' were designed with standard AASHTO-PCI* girders of various cross sections, Figure Ll1. for spans of approximately 100 ft (~O,S m), hut more cOlllmonh for spans of 40 to 80 It {I:! 10 :!4 IIlL The a<!\'alltages of a continuous cast-ill-place st ruet ure were ab;lI1doned in I;l\or of the simpler constructioll offered bv plallt­ produced st;tJ1(brdizcd units. AI thi~ lillIe, plecast prctensiollcd lll(,llIl)er~ found all outstandillg application in the Lake Pontchartraill crossing Ilorth of ;\cw Orleans, Louisiana. The crossillg consisl eel of more t hall :!:!()O idelltical S(i It (Ii 111) spalls, Figures I,I:! through I. H. Each SP,lll \\'a~ Illadc of a sillgle ~()() tOil 1I1011olith with pretensioned longitudillal gird­ State High"';l\ "11(1 TL'"'i'or!.llioll Offlci"b (1"'CVlOU,h known ", AASIIO. Amcrican A"ocialloll of Slall' IIlghw;l\ Offlci;lIs) "lid Presln'"ed (;OIl(T('I(' illSlitlltC, "\ltl(,l ;(;]It ;\,,,,,'1011;011 01 FIGURE 1.13. r FIGURE 1.12. Lake l'olltchartraill Brid!-\c. C.S.A. crs all d a reill/()J'Ccd (,Ollcre1 e dec k cast ill tegrall\'. resting ill turn Oil a prccast cap alld two pre­ stressed 'PUll piles. The speed of erectioll \\'as ill­ credihle. oftell Illore thaI! eight (,()]llpiell' spam pi;.ccd ill a sillgle da\. III the middle 19GOs a growIllg COlK('rll \\;IS 'ihoWIl about the s;det\' of highw,tys. Tile AASHTO Traffic Safel\' COllllllit!ee called ill ;1 1~)(ii rcporr1 for the ", , , adoptioll and llSC of t\\O­ Sp;1l1 hridges for overpasses lTOSSillg dilided Illgh­ \\'<I\,S , . . to elilllillate the bridge piers nonllalh placed adjacellt to the ,houlders." Figllrc LIS. terstat{' high"',l\'s tOd;1\ reqllire oHTpasses witl; two, tl1r('e, aud /<lllr 'pallS of II» to 1HO II (54.9 Ill) or 101lger. III the case of ri\er OJ strealll (Tossings. Lake POlltchartrain Bridge, U,S.A. It;­ ........ ...""..""., ' <,,~.-' (a) 33'-0" ..~-------------------- 18'-9" (b) FIGCRE 1.14. \erse sectioll. Lake Ponlch;lItrain Bridge. C.5..-\. (11) Longilwlinal ,e.-lion. (Ii) Trans­ 7 tt Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Construction 8 STANDARD 4-SPAN INTERSTATE CROSSING Span tor Skewed Brldge$ Span Skew 30­ 144' 4!5­ 60" 177' 2!50' FIGL'RE 1.15. Standard four-span illlcrstatc clOssing (COllrleS\ of lilt' POrlbnd Cemcnt .\sso(iat ion 1. longer spans in the range of 300 rt (9].5 111) or longer may be required, and there is a very distinct lrend toward l()llger-~pan bridges. I t soon became apparent that the conventional precast pretell­ ,jollC'd AASHTO-PCI ginlers were limited In their transportable lellgth and weight. TrallSportation mer the higlm<l\s limits the precast girder to a length or 100 to 120 It C~O.5 to :)G.()), depending upon local regulatiolls. 1.5 Long-Span Bridges with Conventional Precast Girders As a result of longer spall requirements a study was conducted I)\' the Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) in cooperatioll with the Portland Celllel1l As­ sociation (peA).:' This study proposed thai simple spans up to 140 It (42.7 Ill) and continllous spallS up to ]60 ft (48.H m) be constructed of stalldard precast girders lip to 80 ft (24 111) in length joined 1)\· splicing. To obtain longer spans the use of in­ clined or haullched piers was proposed. The following discussion and illustratiollS are hased 011 the grade-separalion studies conducted In PCI and PCA. Actual structures will be illus­ trated, where possible. to emphasize the particular design concepts. The design stud), illustrated in Figure 1.16 uses cast-in-place or precast end-span sections and a two-span unit with AASHTO I girders. s Narrow median piers are maintained in this design, but the abutments are extended into the spans by as much as 40 ft (12 m) using a precast or cast-in-place frame in lieu of a closed or gravity abutment. \\'hen site conditions warrant, an attractive type of bridge can be built with extended abutments. A similar span-reducing concepl is developed in Figure] .17, using either reinforced or prestressed COl1crele for cantilever abutlllents. An aesthetic abutment design in reinforced concrete was de­ n.-loped for a grade-separation structure on Ihe Tram-Canada Highway near Druml1lolldvilJe in the Province of Quebec, Figure 1.18. This 1'1'0­ \ided a :)2~ It (9.9 Ill) span reduction that led 10 Ihe lISe of t\Ve IV Standard AASHTO I girders 10 SP;1I1 97~ It (29.7 111) to a simple, llarrow median pIer. :\ c<lsi-in-placc reinlorced cOllcrete frame wilh olliward-:-.loping legs provides a stahle. ccnter sup­ porring struclure that reduces spall lellgth by 29 It (H.H 111). Figure].1 Y. This enables either standard box secriolls or I seclions 84 ft (25.6 Ill) IOllg 10 be w,cd ill Ihe two main spans. This hn'out was used (()J the Hohbema Bridge in Alberta. B.C.. Canada, shown in Figure 1.20. This bridge was builr with precasl challuel girder sectiolls, but could be buih wilh AASHTO I girders or hox secriollS. The me­ diall frallle with inclined legs was cast ill place. 'I'll(' schematic and photograph in Figures 1.21 and 1.22 show the Ardrossan Overpass in Alberta. I t is similar to the Hobbema Bridge except that the spans are longer and, with the exception of a casi-in-place footing, the median frame is made up of precast units post-tensiolled together, Figure 1.2 I. The finished bridge, Figure ] .23, bas a 64' Af: II \. Precosl or CO$t-m~ploce Frome L_~h=::;::::==:;=t:;::===;:::j E.LE.VATION SECTION A-A FIGURE 1.16. from reI. G). Extended abutments (courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, ...... -0 _ " 0 9 Long-Span Bridges with Conventional Precast Girders AF'F'ROX . • ,' ..- - - - - ' ELEVATION nz: GIROEA SECTION FIGURE 1.17. Call1iincred !ll,lilllte, rrolll rd. 6). abulllH.'lIb (coulleS\ u[" the Pre~lresse{l Concrete pleasing appearance. The standard units were channel-shaped siringers 64 in, wide and 41 in. deep (1.6 III bv I.tH m). The use of precast ullits allowed erection or the entire superstructure, in­ cluding the median rrame. in onlv three weeks. The bridge was opened to trafficjusr eleven weeks after construction began in the early sumlller of 196(), or FIGURE 1.18. DIll1l11l101Hhille Bridge (collrtesv the Portland (:CIIlI'11l :\"'ociatlOn). or lh lise lemporan bents. Fii-iure 1.21. standard units t)O It (18.3 Ill) long can be placed over Ihe median pier alld connected to main span 1I11ih with cast-in-place reinforced concrete splices located near the poim of dead-load contrallexure. FIGURE 1.19. Median frame cast in place (courtesv of the Prestressed CotHTl'tc Institute. from ref. 6). Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Construction 10 FIGURE 1.20, l<ollncs\' HolJhem,l Bridge. completed structure of the Ponland CCIl1Cllt Association). from the side pier o\'er the maill pier to the hinge­ support for the suspended span. The t\'pe of construction that uses long, standard, precast, prestressed lIllits never quite achieved the recogllition it deserved. As spans in­ creased. designers turned toward post-tensioned GIst-in-place box girder construction. The Califor­ nia Division of H ighwa;s, for exallIple, has been quite successful with cast-in-place, multicell, post­ tensioned box girder construction for multispall structures with spans of 300 It (91.5 lll) and even longer. However, this t\'pe of construction has its own Iilllilations. The extensive fOrInwork used during casting often has undesirable effects on the em'ironlllclit or the ecology. 1.6 This design is slightly morc expensive than PI'('\,I­ ous oncs but it prO\ides the mosl open t\'IK' tW()­ span structure. The structural arrangement of the Sehastian Inlet Bridge in Florida consists a three-span \I!lit o\'er the lllain challnel, Figure J .~5, The ell<lspall of this three-spall ullit is 100 It (30.5 lll) IOllg and cantileH:rs 30 ft (9 Ill) beyond the piers to support a l~O ft (3G.G Ill) precast prestressed drop-in spall, Figure I.~(). The end-spall seClioll was huilt in two seglllellts witlI a cast-in-place splice with the help 01 a falsework bent. The :\apa River Bridge at V,t1­ kjo, California (not to be confused with the \:apa River Bridge described in Section 2.11), used a prccast concrete calltile\,cr-suspended spall COll­ cept silllilar to the Sebastian bllet Bridge, at about the same tillle. The olll" differellce was that the cantile\'er girder was a sillgle girder extcllding or Segmental Construction Sq~melltal constructioll lias hecn delilled 7 as a Illcdtod of COllst ruct ion in whieh primar\' load­ supporting lIlclllhers arc composed of indi\'idual lllemhers called segmcllts post-tellsiolled together. rile cOlJcepts dncloped ill the pel-peA studies and desnibcd ill the prcC(:dillg scctioll cOllie under this delillitioll. alld wC' Illight call theln "longitudi­ nal" seglilelltal cOllstruction becallse the indi\'idual clelllcilts arc IOllg with respect to their width. III Europe, llleanwhile, sel{lllelltal constructioll proceeded ill a sligl1th differellt malltler ill COlJ­ jUllctiotl with box girder dcsil{ll. SCI{InCllts wcre cast ill place ill r<:lathclr short lellgths hut in flll1­ loadw;I\ width and depth. T()(bv segmclltal COIl­ struction is uSllally understood to hc the type de­ \clojJcd ill Europe, Howc\cr, as will be shown lalcr, tlte segllH'llts lIced lIot he of full-roadw;l\' ELEVATION 16'-6' Lf7-----L---'---'-;..;;;......I----r1-. e llI: 48 AASHO-PCI eox SECTION SECTIONS A-A FIGURE 1.21. Median frame precast (collrtes\, InstifUle, hom reI'. G), -- ., or the Prestressed Concrete Segmental Construction FIGURE 1.22. Ardross<ln Overpass preca~t llledia II frame (counes\ of the Portbnd Ccment Association). width and can become rather IOllg in the 1011­ gitudill<l I d ircctioll of t he bridL{l\ dependi Ilg OIl the constrlluioll S\stelll lllilized. Eugene Frevssinet. ill It.H5 to 1941:). was the lil-st to use precast segmental constructioll for pre­ stressed COIlClTte bridge;., :\ bl'idge at LUZallL\ over the \bnH: Ri\ ('I' ahout :iO llliles east or Paris. Figure I. '27, \\;IS followed In a groll p or lin~ precast bridges mer tlrat rin:!'. Shorth thereafter, Urich Finsterwal<it:r applied Gist-in-place seglllelltal pre­ stressed cOllstructioll in a babllced cantilever fashion to;1 bridge (l'n-;,illg the Ltl1ll Rin:r at Bal­ duinsteill. Cenll;lIl\. rhis S\stelll or c<lntile\er segmental COIlst rllct iOll rapidlv gained wide ac­ ceptal1l:e ill (~enllall\. arter cOIlstructioIl of a bridge U'os.,ing the Rhillc at Worllls ill 195:2. as shown ill Figun.: I.~H.' \\ith three spam or :):)0. 371, and :~,iO II (100. 11:~. :111<1 HH Ill). :\Iore thall 300 such slrucllllT'i, with spalls ill excess of ~51) It (76 m), werc constl'llued bctweell 19:,)() al1d 1965 11 FIGURE 1.23. Completcd Ardrossan Ovcrpass (courtesy of the Portland CClllent Association). in Europe.:l Since thell the concept has spread throughollt the world, Precast seglllenr,ll construction also was evolving during this period, In 1952 a single-span COUllt: bridge near Sheldon. :\cw York. W;15 designed hv the Frey'isillet COlllpam. Although tbis bridge W;IS constructcd longitudinal Luher than the Euro­ peall transversc seglllents, it represents the hrst practical applicatioll of lllatch castillg, The bridge girders were divided into three IOllgitudinal seg­ lllelits that were cast end-to-etld, The center seg­ IIlelll. wa, cast first aiid then the end segments were cast directh agaillst it. Ke\'s were cast at the joints so that the three precast eieIllcnts could be joined at the site ill tbe S,lIlle positioll they h;id in the pre­ casting \;tnL Lpon shipment to the job site the three eleillcllts of a girder were post-tensioned to­ gether with cold joints. HI,It The first major application of lllatch-cast. pre­ cast segmelltal cOllstruction was no[ consummated or FIE:...D SPLICE SCCTIO~ A-A FIGCRE 1.24. Field splice for cOlltinuity (courtesy of the Prestressed COll­ crete lmtitute, from ref. 6), 12 Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Construction FIGURE 1.25. Sebastian Inlet Bridge (courtesy of the Portland Cement Association), 'I' 35' I, ~<L.r The ultimate use of the bridge-that is, high­ way or railwa\' structure or combination thereof. Although man\' problems are com­ mon to these two categories, the considerable increase of live loading in a railway bridge poses special problems that call for specific so­ lutions. 2. The type of structure in terms of statical scheme and shape of the main bending mem­ bers. Many segmental bridges are box girder bridges, but other types such as arches or cable-stayed bridges show a v..·ide \'arietv in shape of the supporting members. The use of cast-in~place or precast segment~ 01 a combillation thereof. The method of construction. 3. ulltil ]962. This struClure, designed by Jeall r-.luller and built by Entreprises Campenon Bernard, was the Choisy·Ie-Roi Bridge over the Seine Rin'r south of Paris, Figure 1.29. This concept has been refined and has spread from France to all parts of the wodd. The technology of casl-in-place or precast seg­ mental hridges has advanced rapidly in the las! decade. During its initial phase the balanced cantilever method of construction was used. Cur­ relltly, other techniques such as spall-b:/-span, in­ cremental laullching, or progressive placelllent also arc available. Any of these cOl1struction methods iliaI' call on either cast-in-place or precast segments or a combination of both. Consequently, a variety of design cOIJcepts and cOllstruction lllethods are now available to economically pro­ duce segmental bridges for almost anv site condi­ tion. Segmental bridges mav be classified broadh' b\ four criteria: 100' C65' 1. 4. The sections that follow will deal brie/l\ with til(' last three classifications. 1.7 Various Types of Structures hOlll the point or view of their statical schellle. there ale essentialh' five categories of structures: (I) girders, (2) trusses, (3) rigid frames, (4) arch frallJes. and (5) cable-staved bridges. 1.7.1 GIRD':lm J5WJ)U-:S Box girders in the JJl;~jorit\ of cases are the most ef'ficient and economical design for a bridge. Whell constructed in balanced GlIltile\'er, box girder derks were initially made integral with the pier~ while a special expansion joint was provided at the center of' each span (or every other span) to allow 180' 1~9' .._3_0'.· 35' 100' ...... 65' ~------.~----- ~ SeClIOn A·A FIGURE 1.26. Sebastian I nJet Bridge (courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete I fl­ stitute, from ref. 6) . .. .. Various Types of Structures FIGURE 1.29. FIGURE 1.27. Luzane\( Bridge over the Marne Ri\'cr n & Widmann). :iii ~;,s "3':"'.": .. _ .. 13 Choisv-Ie-Roi Bridge. for volume changes and to control differential deflections between individual cantilever anTIs. [t is now recognized that continuitv of the deck is desir­ able. and l110st structures are now continuous over several spans, bearings being provided between deck and piers for expansion. Todav, the longest box girder bridge structure that has been built in place in cantilever is the Korol' Babelthuap crmsing in the Pacific rrust ter­ ritories with a center span or 790 ft (24 [ m), Figure 1.:)0.12 A box girder bridge has been proposed for I~'-O" J i FIGURE 1.30. Koror-Babclthuap Bridge. elevation and cross section (rcf. 12). 14 Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Construction longitudinal section 100' I 100' r-----~ I ,I.­ c-~ DO Typical sections at span center and over main piers .. FIGURE 1.3 I. FIGURE 1.33. Tht' (;n'at Belt I'If>jl'ct. the Creal Belt pJ(~jecl ill Denlllark \\'ith a J OiO fl (:126 111) clear main spall, Figure I.;~ I, The box girder design has bcell applied wilh equal suc­ c('ss 10 Ihe cOllstruction of difficult and spectacular stl"ll(:lurcs such as the Saint Cloud Bridge o\('r the Seine Ri\cr lIcar Paris, Figure J ,3:!, or 10 I he constructioll 01' c!e\';tted structures in \('1'\ CO!l­ gestcd urban areas slIch as the B<) \'iaducls Ileal Paris, Figure 1.:1:). 1.7.2 B-3 \'iaduCls, France. The cantilever method ha" potential applications hel\\'een the optimum spall length'. Ollvpical hox girders for the low ranges and of SI;l\Td hridges for the high ranges. 1.7."3 /-/(A,\1/-;S JrlrJI SI..·/'\']" U~(;.'·; Whcll tile configuration of the sitc allows, the lise 01 inclillcd legs reduce" the dfcctin' span length. lRl'SSFS Whcll spall lellglh illcreases, Ihe I\']lied box girder hecollles hea\"i' ami diHicult 10 build. For Ihe pur­ pose or rcdu~:illg dead weighl while silllplir\"illg casl ing or VtT\' dccp wch sect ions. a t russ wit h opell webs is a \cr:-' saiisraCl0rV type that call he C()ll\"C­ !Iiellth' huilt ill call1ilever, Figure J ,;)4. The tech­ llological lilllilatiolls lie ill the complication COIl­ !IectiolJs between prestressed dia~()lIals and chords. An otllslanding example is the Rip Brid~c in Brisb;lIIC, Australia, Figure 1.;):1. or FIGURE 1.34. Long-spall COliC! el(" lillSSCS. '.'.6ii''',; .... _,,'otl __ . • I "0<........ FIGURE 1.32. ' ~ Saint Cloud Bridge. France. FIGURE 1.35. Rip Bridge, Brisbane, Australia. ..... ... _ ,oj n ----------~ 15 Various Types of Structures ~ I ;1 ,I .: I{~ ~ I .:: ; __ I I ~ / ~~ '" FIGt:RE 1.36. Pro\·isiollal Ilack ,!;t\"S or ;t tClllporan pier ;1I-e lleeded 10 permil cOllslructioll III LIlltilcHT. Figure 1.3(). ["his requircllIcllt 111;1\ ,olllclill1cS presclIl diflindl\ .. \11 illtercstillg c,ample ,tiel! a ,chcme is (hc BOllhollllllC Bridge oycr 1/](' BL!\ct RiV"tT ill Frallce. Figme 1.:17. The sciIeme is a trallsilioll hClweell the bo, girder with \enied picrs alld Ihe true arch. where the load is clrried Il\ 1he drch rill, ;tiOllg I he pres­ sure lille with lIlinillllllll hClldillg while the deck is supporlcd In spandrel col ti III II s. or ,~ 'I I' ...- / I" __ ! -~ , , ~- 1/ :; Lung-spall fratlle. 1.7.1 (.'O.W.RI:TF . INCH IWI/)(;/:·S COllCITte arches are an ecollolllicti w;!\, to Iransfer loads to the ground where foundation cOl1ditiol1s are adequate to resist horil.ollul loads. Eugene Fre\ssinet prepared a design for a 100{) meter (:~2HO ft) clear span 40 v"{'ars ago. Because of con­ struction difficlllties. however. the maximulTI span built to date (1979) has been no IIlore than I ()O() II C~()() Ill). Construction Oil falsework is made difficult and risb bv the effect of strong winds d II ri ng construct ion. flle lirst outstanding concrete arch was built at PIOllg~lstei bv Freyssinet ill 1928 with three fiOO ft (I H;) Ill) spans. Figure 1.:~H. Real progress was achie\"ed only when free calltilever and provisional ,Ll\ llIelhods were applied to arch constrtKtion. Figure 1.39. The world record is pn:sentlv the Kirk Bridge ill Yugoslavia. Imilt in cantilever and COl1l­ ~;~:~~~~ .......-=<!I!'.;~~:~§~". "':,.~,:."l:n­ ~'*:~r-:~:i'~., . . FIGURE 1.37. Nt; BOllholl1tlle Bridge. FIGURE 1.38. P!ougastel Bridge. France. 16 Prc'stressed Concrete Bridges and Segmelltal Construction , .: FIGURE 1.39. pkted ill 1979 with Figure lAO. 1.7.5 <l dear ~pall of 1:!HO It (:190 Ill). CO'\"CNEn. LWH.-Sr.1l1.1> filUj)(;},) '" \\'!Jcn a span is i>eyolJ(l 1he reach of <l COllE'Il1 iOJl,iI i~ to suspend the deck 1)\ a s\'slem oC pdons alld Sla\'S, Applied 10 sted Sf rUClures Cor the last t wellt \' \cars. t his approach g'aillcd illlll1ediate acceptallce ill thc field of COIl­ crete brid ges wilcli cOllq ruCl ion bcca lIIe possihle girder bridge. a logical stcp FIGt:RE lAO. Kirk BridgTs. Yllg()sl;n'i~L l..4sr ItfCLOS(./'U' 1­ FIGURE 1.41. Long-spall concrete cablc-sta yed bridges. SECOI'fO _~C40SI.lPil' 17 Cast-in-Place and Precast Segmental Construction the structure's deformability. particularlv durin/.{ cmi'S'i'lw:tion, DeAections of a typical cas!:ln:,>Sce GlIltile\'cr are often two or three times those of the same camilever made of precast segments. The local effects of concentrated forces behind the anchors of prestress tendons ill a young con­ crete (two or four days old) are always a potential source of concern and difficulties, /.8.2 FIGURE 1.42. Ihotollllt' Bridge. Frallct', and ecolloll1iGlI ill balallced calltilevel' with a larg-e nUlllber of sta\'s 1IIlifol'lllh' di~tril)ljted ;dollg- the deck. Fig-ure IAI, I'lIe long-cst 'ipall or this type is the Brotolllle Bridge ill Fraw" with a 10;)0 It ctW 01) dear Illaill'ip,lll mer the Seille River. Figlll'(' 1.42, Single In lOllS alld olle lillc of Sla\s :IIT iOCllCd along the centl'rlllll' 01 !Ill' hl'ld;..il', 1.8 1,8,1 Cast-in-Place and Precast Segmental C()ns/ruction Cfl,W, ! CT/JUS TICS OF L1SI',/\',/JI..I<:F S /·:C.\I F,\ r\ In cast-in-pl:ln: U)lISlrllctioll. \('gTlll'Ili'i ;IlT c;t'il olle after another illliteir fill:d InelltO!l ill lite stl'llctllt't', Special equipnll'lll is llSed for Ilti" pllrpme. '>11(11 as traveler's (for c;lIltilcn~1' COIl'ilrllctioll) or f()l'I11work units I1l<)\'ed ;dollg ,t stlpporting g;lllIl'\ (for spall­ b~'-spat1 cOllstrllctiOI1), btl'll seg!!l('nt is rcild'ol'ced with cotH'entional lIntcnsiol1cd steel ;I!ld 'iOllle­ times by trans\'(:rsc or \crucd pn:'itres'iing or hot h. while the assel!,lbl ~ of>eglllclllS i'i ;1,~~!il'\Td h_:: J~?~l: -tellSioning. -'--''''''~-'---'--''''-:-----~~cg'I;ll;~;,re cast end-to-end. it is not difficult to placc IOllgitlldin.d reilll'on:illg steel across the joillls betweell SCg-lllClllS if the desigll calls for colltinltolls reinforcemctll. Joints !Il<lV be treated as reqllired for safe trallsfer of all bending and shear stresses alld for water tightlless ill ag­ gressive eli mates. COllnection betweell ind i\'idual lengths of longitlldillal posHellsiollitlg dllns lll;t\ be made easih' at each joillt alld for each telldon. The method\ essential limitation is that the strength of the concretc is alw<\\s 011 thc critical path of cOllstruction and II <t!~0it~!ll~,=-Il('csgre,;t~\~_'" C/I,/IUCTERISnCS OF PREC.iST [n precast segmelltal constrllction. segments are manufactured ill a plant or near the job site. then transported to their final positioll for asselllblY. I nitialh'. joints between segments were or comen­ tional t>Ve: either concrete poured wel joints or dn mortar packed joints. :Vlodern seglllcntal COI1­ st ruct ion calls for the lllatch-castillg techllique. as mcd for the Choisv-Ie-Roi Bridge ~lI1d further de­ \'eloped and refilled. \\'hcreb:; thc seglllents are precast against each other. preferabh in the same "ciati\'(: order thev will have ill the final strllctllrc, \:0 ;uIjllstlllent is therefore llccessarv between ,cgmcnts before assembly. The joints arc cithcr left <In' (ill ;Ireas where climate permils) or made of a vel'\' thin fillll of epox:: resin or mineral complex. which docs not alter the lIlatch-casting properties. .l'here is llO lIecd for allv waiting period ror joint lllre. and final asselllbly of segments bv prest res­ ~illg 111:1\' proceed as bs! as practicable, Becausc the joints are or negligihle thickness. 1 here is u-;uallv no mechanical cOllllect iOIl bet wecn thc illdi\iduallellgths of tendoll ducts at thejoillt. L'ql:tlh' no attempt is Inade to obtain cOlltinllitv of the longitudinal con\'entional steel through the joints. ,tithollgb se\'eral methods are ~I\'aibhle ~II}(I han: heen applied slIcccssfulh (as ill the Pasco Kellilewick cable-sl<l\ecl bridge, for exalllplc). Segillellts Illay be precast 10llg ellough ill advallce 01 their asselllbh in the structure to reach 'iufficiellt strellgtll and maturitv and to miuilllize both the deHecriol1S during construction alld the elfeets of cOllcrete shrinkage and creep ill the lill~d 5t ruct u re. If erection of precast segments is to proceed smoothl\,. a high of geometry control is re­ quir'ed during match casting to ensure accuracv. 1.1-1. CH01CE BETWEE.V CAST-IX-PLACE ./XD PRECAST CO,VSTRL'CTIO.v Both cast-in-place methods and precast methods h;l\e been successful!:' lIsed and produce suhstall­ (/ s SE(;,\l/~'\TS I 18 Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Construction tially the same final structure. The choice depends on local conditions, includillg size of t he project, time allowed for constructioll. restrictiolls on ac­ cess and environment, and the equipment available to the successful contractor. Some items of interest are listed helm\': 1. SjJ(w/ of COlis/ruction Basical"', cast-in-place calltile\'er construction proceeds at the rate of one pair of segments 10 to 20 It (:1 to 6 m) long even fOllr to se\'en d;l\s. On the average. Olle pair of travelers permits the completioll of 150 f't (46m) of hridge deck per 111011th, excluding the transfer from pier 10 pier and fabrication of the pier table. Oil the otlier hand, precast segmental cOllstructioll allows a cOl1siderablv /'aster erectiol1 schedule. a. For the Oleron Viae! lIct, the average speed of collJpletion of tlw deck was 750 It C22H 1Tl) per lIlont h for more than a year. h, For both the B-:1 Viaducts ill Paris and the Long Kev Briclge ill Florida, a typical 100 to I f)() It (:10 to 4:) Ill) spall was erected ill two working cla\s, repres('l1til1g a construction of I :10() It HO() Ill) of fillished bridge per lIlollth, c. Saillt Cloud Bridge llear Paris, despite t hl' ('x­ cept iOllal di fficlilt y of its geolllet n and design schellle. was COllstructed ill exactlv Olll' \Tar, its total area anloullting to 250,()OO sq It (~;L()()() sq III ). It is evident, then. that cast-in-place GllJlile\'er COlJ­ struction is basically a slow process, while precast seglllental \"ith lllatching jOlllls is ,lI11011g the las­ test. 2. 1117.'('.111111'111 ill Sf'(,Cla/ Equil'lI/f'IIt f lere t hl' situation is usuallv reversed. Cast-in-place requires usually a lower investment. which IlIa kes it COIlJ­ petitive on short structures \\ith long spa ns [ for example, a typical three-span structure with a center span in excess qj approximately :150 f't (J 00 m)]. III long, repetitive structures precast ~egl11elltal may he 1I10re economical than cast-ill-place. For the Chillon Viaducts with twin structures 7000 n (2134 111) long in a d i I'ficu 11 environmcllt, a detailed com parative estimate showed the cast -ill-place method to be 10% more expensive than the pre­ cast. 3. Size alld Weight of S('gmerlts Precast seg­ JIlemal is limited by the capac:it y or transportation and placing equipment. Segmellts exceeding 250 tons are seldom economical. Cast-ill-place con­ struction does not ha\'(' the same limitation, al­ though the weight alld cost of the travelers are di­ rectly proportional to the ,,'eight of the heaviest segment. 4, Ell1!lromnfJlI Rfslricliolls BOI h precast and cast-in-place segmelltal permit all work to he per­ formed from the lOp, Precast. however. adjusts more easily to restrictions such as allowing work to proceed over traffle or allowing access of workmell ami materials to the various piers. 1.9 Variou.~ Methods of Construction Probahh Ihe most signihcant classification of seg­ lllental hridges is In llll'1 hod or cOllslrUClioll. Al­ though cOllstruction mel hods ma\' be as varied as the ingenuit\ Ihe designers alld contractors, thn Ldl into 10111' hasic categories: (J) halall(ed c<lntiienT, (~) spall-I>\ -span cOllstructioll. (:I) pro­ gressive placclIlellt COllst ruet iOIl. alld (4) 111 ('r('­ lIlcl)tal launchillg or push-oUl construction. or 1,9,1 c.'ISr·/.\'·j'j.,l(J, li.1LJ.\'CUl C/.\T/UJUI The h;li;lllccd or frce calli iI('\('1 COllst run ion CO)l­ (ejlt \\'as origillalh dcn'loped to elilllilJate Lllsework, TClIJporan sllOrillg Ilot ollh is ('XPCIl­ si\'(' hUI call he ;1 hazard ill tile Lise of suddcll floods, as cOlJfirllJed 1)\ lll;tm f;tilllles. (her Ila\'iga­ ble waterways or Iran·led highwa\'s or railways, lals('\\ork is either not allowed or ;,('\eIT" re­ strictcd. Cantiien:r cOllstructiol], \\hetlier cast ill place or precast, clilliinates slIch difficulties: C()IJ­ structiolJ ilia\, pro(ced from Ihe permallellt piers, and the Slrllcture is sell-supportillg at all sLtges, The hasic prillciple of the lIIethod \\as outlincd ill Section 1. J (Figme l.~i). In cast-ill-place COllst ructioll the jonn\\'ork is sllpported from a 1ll00ahie form carrier, Figure 1.1. Detaib of the lorlll Iran·lers arc showll ill Fig­ lire 1.43. The forllltra\'eier 1IJ00es forward 011 rails attached to the deck of the completed structure and is anchored to the deck at the rear. With the form tr;J\e!er ill place, a ncw segmellt is formed, cast, and strcssed to the IHe\'iolish constructed segment. I n some instances a covering m<l\ be pro­ vided on the form carrier so that work m<ly pro­ ceed during inclelllent weather, Figure 1.44. The opcration sequence in cast-in-place bal­ anced cantilever construction is as follows: 1. Selling lip and <l(Uustillg carrier. 2. Selling up and aligning forms. Various Methods of Construction 19 CENTERJACt< ,, FRONTAL UPPER WORKING PLATFORM REA~ GANG-BOARD FIGURE 1.43. BOTTOM FRAME WORK Forlll I r;I\\:I('I' IC()t!rtl";\ or D\ckcrhofT & ! FRONTAL LOWER WORKING PLATFORM Widmallll), COIlCl'Cling, cOllStl'llnioll time for a full cycle below two work­ ing da~s, ;lIHI this ollly for ;1 very simple structure 5, lllscriing plt'SlleSs IClldollS illlhc segmcnl and stres'iing or reinforcillg' and 6, 7. RCll1millg I he IOl'll1work, 3. 4. Placing reinlorcclIlcl1l and tendoll ducts. ~[()\'illg I hI.' lorm carrier and slarling ;1 new C\cle, (0 the llCXI position Initia!!\', Ihe normal cOl1slruClion time for a segmellt W;IS olle week per fOl'1nwork lIni!. Ad­ vances ill precast sq';ll1enul construction ha\c bcen applied ret'el)t!\' 10 the cast-ill-pbce method in order to reduce the nde 0[' operaliolls and in­ crease the eificiellc\ of the travelers. \'.'jth todav's techllologY' it does Hot seem possible to reduce the FIGURE 1.44. Bendorf Bridge form tra\-e!er (cour­ tesy of DvckerholT & Widmann). with constant cross section and a moderate a1l10UIlI prestress. For a structure with \;triahle deplh and longer spans, say ;Ibove 250 ft (75111), the typical nell' is more realistically three to lour working' <la\·;;. \Vhe!e a IOllg viaduct type structure is 10 be COIl­ strllcted of cast-ill-place segmellts, an auxiliary stee! girder may be used to support the f()rmwork, Figure 1 A5, as on the Siegtal Bridge. This equip- FIGURE 1.45. Siegtal Bridge, use of an auxiliary truss in cast-in-place construction. 20 Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Construction i ment may also be used to stabilize th~ free-standing pier by the anchming of the auxiliaiy<~teel girder to the completed portion of the structure. Nor­ mally, in construction using the form traveler pre­ viously described, a portion of the end spans (near the abutments) must be cast on falsework. I f the auxiliary steel girder is used, this operation may be eliminated. As soon as a double typical camilever is completed, the auxiliary steel girder is advanced to the next pier. Obviously, the economic justification for use of an auxiliary steel girder is a function of the number of spans and the span length. 1.9.2. PRECAST BALA.\'CED C;/]\'TILEVER For the first precast segmental bridges in Pal'is (Choisy-le-Roi, Courbevoie, and so on, 1961 10 1965) a floating crane was Itsed to transfer the pre­ cast segments from the casting yard to the barges that transported them to the project site and was used again to place the segments in the structure. The concept of sell-openlling launching gantries was developed shortly thereafter for the COllst ruc­ tioll olthe Oleron Viaduct (1964 to 1966). Further refined and extellded in its potential, this concept has heen used ill many large structures. The ereclioll optiollS available Gill be adapted to almost all construction sites. I. Crane Placing Truck or cr,l\vler cranes are used on land where feasible; float.ing cranes Illay be used for a hridge over navigable water, Figur'c 1.46. Where site cOllditions allow, a portal crane may be used Oil the fulllengtb or the deck, prefer­ ably with a castillg yard aligned with the deck near one abutment to minimize the number of handling operations, Figure 1.47. 2. Beam and Winch A1c1hod If access by land or water is available under the bridge deck, or at least around all permanent piers, segments may be lifted inlO place by hoists secured atop the previ­ ously placed segments. Figure 1,48. At first this method did not permit the installation of precast pier segments upon the bridge piers, but it has been improved to solve this problem. as will be ex­ plained later. 3. Launching Gan/rip.I There are essentially two families of launching gantries, Ihe details or which will be discussed in a later chapter. Here we briefly outline their use. In the first family developed lor the Oleron Via­ duct, Figures 1.49 and 1.50. the lalllKhing gantrY is slighth more than the typical span length, alld t he gantry's rear support reaction i;. applied ncal the far end of the last completed cantilever. All segments are brought onto the finished deck alld placed bv the launching gant!'y ill balanced can­ tilever; after cOlllpletion of a calltilever, alter placing the precast segment over the new pier. the launching gantry launches itsclllO the next span to start a new cycle of operations. In the second family. developed for the De­ venter Bridge in Holland and for the Rio Niteroi Bridge in Brazil, the launching gal1lrY has a length approximately twice the tvpical span, and the reac· tioll of the legs is always applied abo"e the perIna­ nent concrete piers, Figures 1.51 amI 1.52. Placing segments with a launching gamry is now in most cases the Illost elegant ane! efficient method, allowing the least disturbance to the envi­ ronment. 1.9.3 SPAN-ln'-SPAN COSSTRUC710.\' 'The balanced cantilever construction method was developed primarily for long spans, so that con­ struction activity for the superstructure could be accomplished at deck level without the use of ex­ tensive falsework. A similar need in the case of long viaduct structures \\·ith relatively shorter spans has been filled by the development of a span-by-span methodology using a form traveler. The following discussion explains this methodol­ ogy.13,14,15.16 FIGURE 1.46. Segment erection by barge-mounted crane, Capt. Cook Bridge, Australia (courtesy of G. Be­ lofr, Main Roads Department, Brisbane, Australia). In long viaduct structures a segmental span-by­ span construction may be panicularly advanta­ geous. The superstructure is executed in one direc­ ... .. " ~~ 21 Various Methods of Construction rt 1:'1 ~:: r: I 11 COUPE TRANSVERSALE o FIGURE 1.47. .\liLt!JC;llI tion, span In span. bv Illeans of a forll1 traveler, Figure 1.5:~, with construuion joints or hinges lo­ cated at the point or cOIltr:lllexllre. The forlll car­ rier in effect provides a tvpe of factory operation transplanted to the jol) site. It h;lS lllany or the ad­ vantages of 1ll;ISS production C011111101lIy associated with precast plant operations as well as the added advantage of permitting ver~;1Ii1e adjustment, ill FIGURE 1.48. France. Hoist placing at Pierre Benile Bridges. Bridge ,II r()urs. Fra[]ce. the field. The form traveler 111;1\' be supported on the piers, or frolll the edge of the previously COlll­ pleted construction, at the joint location, and at the forward pier. In some instances, as in the ap­ proaches of Rheinbrticke, Dusseldorf-Flehe, the movahle formwork may he supported from the ground. Figure 1.54. The forlll traveler consists of a steel superstructure, which is lI10ved from the co111 pleted portioll of the structure to the next span to be cast. For an above-deck carrier, large form work elements are suspended from steel rods during concreting. After concreting and post-ten­ sioning, the forms are released and rolled forward by means of the structural steel outriggers on hoth sides of the form traveler's superstructure. For a below-deck carrier, a similar procedure is followed. l\lany long bridges of this type have been built in Germany, France, and other countries. Typical construction time for a 100 ft (30 m) span superstructure is five to eight working days, de­ pending upon the complexity of the structure. Deck configuration for this type of construction is usually a monolithic slab and girder (T beam or douhle T), hox girder, or a mushroom cross sec­ 22 Prestressed q:oncrete Bridges and Segmental Construction ,/ (a) :r;~::~M' L~oO m~~~J.1.Qjt ~~~_ ..._.~~..... 106.00 , en :400 m-.--l8QfL_+ ~_...~~_.~ 3~. _ _ (b} FIGURE 1.51. S(,({)lJ<i [alllih 01 [;\lIlll'hillg galltri('s. Rio :\itcloi Bridge. Ie) FIGURE 1.49. rOll Fir.s! Llllli'" 01 bUllchillg g;lll!ric, (Ole­ \·iaduCl). lioll. This llIethod has heell lIsed rce<:nlh III the lhe l)el1l1\' Creek pr<~ieci 1lI lhe l'lliled States Oil stale of Washinj.;IoIl. III ils illitial fOrIll. as described above, the spall­ b\'-spall lllelhod is a casi-ill-place techllique. The sallle principle has heell applied in conjullction wit h precasl segmental (,'Ollst ructiolJ for I wo \'ery larj.;c st me' '.Ires ill tile Florida Ke\'s: LOIlj.; Key Bridge alld SevelJ \lile Bridge, \\·ilh SIXlllS of I 1 Hit (36 Ill) and 135 ft (40 Ill), respectively. Segmellts are assembled Oil a steel truss to make a complete spall. Prestressillg telldol1s t hell asslIre 1he <[sselll­ 1>1\. of the various segments ill Olle spall while achieving full cOlltinuity with the precedillg spall, Figw'es 1.55 alld 1.5G. The lIoatinj.; crane lIsed [0 place the segmellts over Ihe trll~S also 1Jl()\'es the [rllss (rolll spall to spall. The contractor lor the Sevcn I\1ilc Bridge modified the erection scheme frolllihat lIsed for LOllg Key Bridge bv sllspending a spall of scgments 11'0111 an O\('r1)(.';ld fabc\\'ork tntss. This is lite first application of' a method that seellls to have a great potelltial for treslle struc­ tllres ill tcrms speed of cOllstructioll and e(OIl­ or (}Ill L 1.9.4 Progressive placement is similar 10 the span-IJ\­ span method ill that construction starts at olle end Ihe structure and proceeds cOlltinuously 10 the or ,.,:....1...- Il.._ • FIGURE 1.52. Rio :'\iteroi laullching girder. .... FIGURE 1.50. Ion Viaduct. ., IT db Placing pn:<.:ast segments on the Ole­ PIWGRL'iS/I'E PL-ICE,HF,,\'T COXSTIWCT/(),\' ...\ ... , ~, ' .'. - Various Methods of Construction h ~;~iiil ~ 23 , i FIGURE 1.53. Span-by-span construction using a form traveler (courtesv or elI'ieh Finsterwalcler), FIGURE 1.54. Form traveler supported from the ground. Dtisseldorf-Flehe Bridge. - PRINCIPE DE POSE FIGURE 1.55. Span-bv-span assembly of precast segments. ., 7 FIGURE 1.56. Placing segments on assembly truss for Long Key Bridge. other end. It derives its origin, however, from the cantilever concept. In progressive placel1lellt the precast segments are placed from one end of the structure to the other in successive cantilevers on the same side of the various piers rather than by balanced cantilevers on each side of a pier. At present, this method appears practicable and economical in spans ranging from 100 t" 300 ft (30 to 90 m). Because of the length of cantilever (one span) in relation to construction depth, a movable tempo­ rary stav arrangement must be used to limit the cantilever stresses during construction to a reaSOll­ able level. The erection procedure is illustrated in Figure 1.57. Segments are transported over the completed portion of the deck to the tip of the cantilever span under construction, where they are positioned by a swivel crane that proceeds from one segment to the next. Approximately one-third of the span from the pier mav be erected bv the free cantilever method, the segments being held in position bv exterior temporary ties and final pre­ stressing tendons. For the remaining two-thirds of the span, each segment is held in position by tem­ porarv external ties and by two stays passing through a tower located over the preceding piers. Al! stavs are continuous through the tower and an­ chored in the previously completed deck structure. The stavs are anchored to the top Aange of the box girder segments so that the tension in the stavs can be adjusted by light jacks. U sed for the first time in France on several structures, Figure 1.58, progressive placement is being applied in the United States for the con­ struction of the Linn Cove Viaduct in ~orth Carolina. In this bridge the precast pier construc­ tion proceeds also from the deck to solve a difficult problem of environmental restrictions. 24 Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Construction TOWER FIGURE 1.57. Progl'e~si\'e The progressive placement method may also be applied to cast-in-place construction. 1.9.5. INCREMENTAL LAUNCHING OR PUSH-OUT COl,'STRUCT/ON This concept was first implemented on the Rio Ca­ roni Bridge in Venezuela, built in 1962 and 1963 by its originators, Willi Baur and Dr. Fritz Leonhardt of the consulting firm of Leonhardt and Andra (Stuttgart, Germany).17 placement ereClion procedure. Segments of the bridge superstructure are cast in place in lengths of 30 to 100 ft (10 to 30 m) in stationary forms located behind the abutment(s), Figure 1.59. Each unit is cast directly against the previous unit. After sufficient concrete strength is reached, the new unit is post-tensioned to the pre­ vious one. The assembly of units is pushed forward in a stepwise manner to permit casting of the suc­ ceeding segments, Figure 1.60. Normally a work cycle of one week is required to cast and launch a segment, regardless of its length. Operations are - - ... . - --­ • 25 Various Methods of Construction FIGURE 1.58. (onstruuiol1. Fontenm' Bridge. progressl\'c placing scheduled so that the concrete can attain sufficient strength over a weekend to allow laullching at the beginning of the next week. Generally. fabrication in the oil-site f~tctorv can be done in the open, al­ though in inclement weather a protective covering mav be provided. Bridge alignlllent in this type or cOllstruction mav be either straiglll or cUlTed; however, the curve lIlust have a COllstatlt radius. This rcquire­ ment of constant rate of curvature applies to bot h horizontal and vcrtical curvature. The Val Ristel Bridge in Italv. which was incrementally bunched on a radius or ·1<):2 It (ISO Ill). is illu"tr~lted ill Fig­ ure 1.61. Roaclw;\\ gco III et n tluts is dictated by construction. as opposed to I he present practice in the Cniled Slates. in which cOI1<;trllctioll is dictated by geolllctrv. To allow the supcrstructurc to movc forward, special low-friction sliding bearings are provided at the various piers with proper lateral guides. The main problcm is to imure the rcsistance or the • ----~ _i_F_#'l~~_ ________________ ===~\ FIGURE 1.60. Incremental launching sequence (murre,\, of Prof. Fritz Leonhardt). superstructure under its own weight at all stages of launching and in all sections. Four methods for this purpose are used in conjullction with one another. I. 2. 3. jIl FIGURE 1.59. Casting bed and laul1<.:hing arrange­ ment (counes\' of Prof. Fritz Leonhardt). - r. 4. A first-stage prestress is applied concentrically to the entire cross section and in successive in­ crements over the entire length of the superstructure. To reduce the large negative bending mo­ mellts ill the fronl (particularly just before the superstructure reaches a new pier) a fabricated structural steel launching nose is attached to the lead segment, Figure 1.62 . Long spans may be subdivided by means of tem porary piers to keep bending moments to a reasonable magnitude, This construction technique has been applied to spans up to 200 ft (60 m) without the use of temporarv falsework bents. Spans up to 330 ft (l00 m) have been built using temporary supporting bents. 'rhe girders must have a constant depth. which is usually one-twelfth to one-sixteenth of the longest span. Another method has been used successfully in Fmnce to control bending moments in the 26 I Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental CQnstructiQn -.j FIGURE 1.61. I ncrcmcnlal launching on a curve (courtCSY of Prof. Fritz Leonhardt). FIGURE 1.62. Stccllaum:hing nose (mul!csv of Prof. Fritz Leonhardt). deck in the forward pan of the superstructure. A system using a tower and provisional stays is attached 10 the front part of the superstruc­ ture. The tension of the stays and the corre­ sponding reaction of the tower on the deck are automatically and continuously controlled during all launching operations to optimize the stress distribution in the deck, Figure 1.63. ft (1035 111). The incremental launching technique was used successfully for the {il'st time in the United States for the construction of the \Vabash River Bridge at Covington, Indiana. After launching is complete, and the opposite abutment has been reached, additional prestress­ ing is added to accommodate moments in the final structure, while the original uniform prestress must resist the varying moments that occur as the superstructure is pushed over the piers to its final position. Today, the longest incrementally launched clear span is over the River Danube near Worth, Ger­ many, with a maximum span length of 550 ft (168 m). Two temporary piers were used in the river for launching. The longest bridge of this type is the O!ifant's River railway viaduct in South Africa with 23 spans of 147 ft (45 m) and a IOtal length of 3400 The state of the art of designing and constructing prestressed concrete segmental bridges has ad­ vanced greatly in recent years. A wide variety of structural concepts and prestressing methods are used, and at least a thousand segmental bridges have been built throughout the world. We may conclude that segmental prestressed concrete con­ struction is a viable method for building highway bridges. There are currently no known major problems that should inhibit utilization of seg­ mental prestressed concrete bridges in the L'nited States. They have been successfully consummated in other countries and are increasingly being em­ ployed in the L'nited Slates. 1.10 Applications of Segmental Construction in the United States WD .' 27 Applications of Segmental Construction in the United States (aJ (bJ FIGURE 1.64. Three Sisters Bridge. (c) (dJ (e) FIGURE 1.63. sional tower and IIHH'lllcnlai bunching with provi­ 'iU\ ,. One of the earliest projects for which segmental constructioll was considered was the proposed I n­ terstate 1-266 Potomac River Crossing in Wash­ ington, D.C., Figure 1.64, otherwise known as the Three Sisters Bridge. This structure contemplated a 750 ft (229 Ill) center span with side spans of 440 ft (134 m) 011 reyerse hve-degree curves, huilt wilh cast-in-place segmental construction. Because of environmental objections. this project never reached fruition. The JFK \[emorial Causeway (Intracoastal Waterway), Corpus Christi, Texas, Figure 1.65, represents the hrst precast, prestressed, segmental, balanced cantilever construction completed in the United States. I t was opened to traffic in 1973. De­ signed by the Bridge Division of the Texas High­ way Department, it has a center span of 200 ft (61 m) with end spans of 100 ft (30.5 m). The first cast-in-place, segmental, balanced can­ tilever, prestressed concrete bridge constructed in the United States is the Pine Valley Bridge in California, on Interstate 1-8 about 40 miles (64 km) east of San Diego. Designed by the California De­ partment of Transportation, the dual structure, Figure 1.66, has a total length of 1716 ft (53,6 m) FIGURE 1.65. JFK Christi, Texas. FIGURE 1.66. CALTRANS). ;"'femorial Causeway. Corpus Pine Valley Bridge (courtesy of 28 Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Construction FIGURE 1.67. Rendering of Houston Ship Channel Bridge. with spans of 270, 340,450, 380, and 276 it (82.3, 103.6, 137.2, 115.8, and 84.1 m). As indicated previously, numerous segmental bridge pntiects have been constructed or are con­ templated in the United States. Many of them will be discussed in detail in the following chapters. Among the most significant are the Houston Ship Channel Bridge with a clear span of 750 ft (228 m), which will be the longest concrete span in the Americas, Figure 1.67, and the Seven Mile Bridge, which will be the longest segmental bridge in :\'orth America, Figure] .58. FIGURE 1.68. Rendering of Seven Mile Bridge. 1.11 Applicability and Advantages of Segmental Construction Segmelltal construction has extended the practical range of spall lcngths for concrete hridges. Practi­ cal collsiderations of handling and shipping limit the prestressed I-girder type of bridge construc­ tion to spans of about ]20 to ISO ft (3710 45 Ill). Bevond this range, post-tensioned cast-in-place box girders on falsework are the only viable con­ crete alternative. At many sites, however, falsework is not practical or evcn feasible, as when crossing deep ravilles or large navigable waterways. Falsework construction also has a serious impact upon environment and ecology. Prestressed concrete segmental construction has been developed to solve these problems while ex­ tending the practical span of concrete bridges to about 800 ft (250 m) or even 1000 ft (300 m). With cable-stayed structures the span range can be ex­ tended to 1300 ft (400 m) and perhaps longer with the materials available today.13 Table 1.1 sum­ marizes the range of application of various forms of construction by span lengths. Although the design and construction of very­ long-span concrete segmental structures pose an important challenge, segmental techniques may 29 Applicability and Advantages of Segmental Construction TABLE 1.1 Range of Application of Bridge Type by Span Lengths" Bridge Types 0- 150 100- 300 100- :~OO 250- 600 200-1000 800 -1500 a1 ft I-type pretensioned girder Cast-in-place post-tensioned box girder Precast balanced cantilever segmental, constant depth Precast balanced cantilever segmental, variable depth Cast-In-place cantilever segmelllal Cable-stay with balanced cantilever' segmental ft II ft fI ft ft O.:\o4il Ill. find even more important applications in moderate span lengths and less spectacular structures. Espe­ cialh in difficult urban areas or ecologv-sensitive sites', segmenlal structures h;I\'e proven to be a val­ uable asset. Tod<l\' 111m I ~iles for new bridges can be adapted for segmental cOllcrete construction. The principal advantages of segmcl1Ial cOllstrllctiol1 ma\' be summarized as follows: 1. Seglllelllal COllsrru('Iion is ;tIl efficient and economical met hod lor a large range of span lengths and I\pes of structllre. Structures with sharp cllrves and \'ariable superelevation mav he easily accol1lll1odated. 2. COllcrete seglllellLtl cOllstruction often pro­ vides for I he lowcst ill\CSll1lCtlt cost. Savitl!-{s of 10 to 20o/c· ovcr comentional mcthods have been realized In competitive bidding 011 alterllate de­ signs or b\' realistic cost comparisolls. 3. Segmelltal cOIl!'trtlcrioll permits a reduction of construction time. This is particularly true for precast methods, where segments may be man­ ufactured while substructure work proceeds and be assemblcd rapidly thereafler. Further cost sav­ ings ensue from the lessenillg of the influence or inflation on total const ructioll costs, 4. SegJl1ental construction protects the envi­ ronment. Segmental viaduct-type bridges Gill minimize the impact of highway construction through em'ironmentalh sensitive areas. \Vhereas conventional cllt-antl-fill nVe highway construc­ tion can scar the cllvil'Onlllellt and impede wildlife migration, an elevated viaduct-type structure re­ quires onh a relatively narrow path along the alignment to provide access for pier construction. Once the piers have been constructed, all con­ struction activit\' proceeds from above. Thus, the impact on the environment is minimized. 5. Interference with existing traffic during construction is significant!;· reduced, and expen­ sive detours call be eliminated. Figure 1.69 indi­ cates how precast segments may be handled while traffic is maintained with a minimum disturbance. 6. Segmental construction contributes toward aesthetically pleasing structures in many different sites. A long approach viaduct (Bl'Otonne, Figure 1. 70), a curved bridge over a ri\'cr (Saint Cloud, Figure 1.7l), or an impressive viaduct over a deep valley (Pine Valley, Figure 1.66) are some examples where nature accepts human endeavor in spite of its itllperfcctiom. 7. Materials and labor arc lIslIal! y available 10­ callv for segmental construction. The overall labor requirelllcilt is less than for cOllventional con­ struction methods. For the precast option a m~jor part of the work force on site is replaced by plant labor. 8. As a consequence, quality control is easier to perform and high-quality work may be expected. 9. Segmcntal bridges when properly designed and when constructed by competent contractors under proper supervision will prove to be practi­ cally free of maintenance for mallv veal's. Only bearillgs and ex pansion joints (usuallv very few for continuous decks) nced to be controlled at regular intervals. . ":;;;. .... FIGURE 1.69. ovel' traffic. . Saint Cloud Bridge, segments placed 30 . Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Segmental Construction 6. Anon., "Long Spans with Standard Bridge Gii'ders," PCI Bridge Bulletin, March-April 1967, Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago. 7. "Recommended Practice for Segmental Construc­ tion in Prestressed Concrete," Report by PCI Com­ mittee on Segmental Construction, journa/ of the Prfltrflsed Concretr Institute, Vol. 20, :\0. 2, March­ April 1975. 8. Clrich Finsterwalder, "Prestressed Concrete Bridge Construction," jounla/ of the A mrriwlI COllcrrte Illsti­ tute, Vol. 62, 1\0. 9, September 1965. FIGURE 1.70. Brotonne Bridge approach. 10. During construction, the technique shows an exceptionally high record of safety. Precast segmental construction today is compet­ itive in a wide range of applications with other materials and construction methods, while it adds a further refinement to the recognized advantages of prestressed concrete. 9. F. Leonhardt, "Long Span Prestressed Concrete Bridges in Ellrope,"jouT/w/ of the Prr'strr,l.lrd COllcretr I II.Ititute , Vol. 10, No. I, Februarv 1965. 10. Jean Muller, "Long-Span Precast Prestressed Con­ crete Bridges Built in Cantilever," Fint Intnllatiolla/ SYllljlO.lium, COllcrrte Bridge Desigll, ACI Publicatioll SP-23, Paper 23-40, American Concrete Institute, Detroit. 1969. II . .lean Muller, "Ten Years of Experience in Precast SegJllen tal Const ruct ion ," j ourlla/ oj' thf' Prr.l/rrs.lf'r! COllrrf'/f' Institute, Vol. 20, ,,",0. I, January-Februan 1975. 12. \fan-Chung Tang, "Kmor-Bahelthllap Bridge-A World Record Span," l'reprint Papn 3441. ASCI-: Convention, Chicago. October 16-20, 1978. 1:-\. A. Ballinger, W. Podolny, Jr., and M . .J. Ah­ ralIallls, "A Report on the Design and Construction of Segmelltal Prestressed Concrete Bridges ill West­ erll Ellrope-1977," International Road Federa­ tion, Washington, D.C., June 1978. (Also a\'ailable f!'Olll Federal Highway Administration, Offices of Research alld Development, \\'ashillgtoll, D.C., Re­ po1'l :\0. FHWA-RD-78-44.) c. 14. Clrich Fillsterwalder, ":\ew De\'Clopmellts in Pre­ stressing Methods and Concrete Bridge COllstruC­ tioll," Ihwir/ag-Bf'Tich/e, 4-1967, September 1967, D\'ckcrhofl & Widmann KG, Munich, Germany. FIGURE 1.71. Saint Cloud Bridge, France, curved bridge over a river. References I. H. G. Tyrrell, History of Bridge Engineering, Henry G. TYITell, Chicago, 1911. 2. Elizaheth B. Mock, The Archi/ec/ure of Bridges, The Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1949. 3. T. Y. Lin, Design of Prestressed Concrete S/ruclurcs. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1958. 4. Anon., "Highway Design and Operational Practices Related to Highway Safety," Report of the Special AASHO Traffic Safety Committee, February 1967. 5. Anon., Prestressed Concrete for Long Span Bridges, Pre­ stressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, 1968. 15. lJlrich Fillsterwalcler, "Free-Cantile\'er COllstructioll of Prestressed COIIC\'ete Bridges alld \1ushroolll­ Shaped BI'idges," First Ill/al/ationa/ SpnjlOsiulll, COI/­ rrr/r Bridgf' Df'sigll, ACI Publication SP-23, Paper SP 23-26, AlIlerican Concrete Institute. Detroit, 1969. 16. C. A. Ballinger and W. Podol ny, Jr., "Segmental Construction in \\'estern Europe-Impressions of an IRF Stud\, Team," Procredings, Conference con­ ducted by Transportation Research Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., TRR 665, Vol. 2, September 1978. 17. Willi Baur, "Bridge Erection by Launching is Fast, Safe, and Efficient," Civi/ Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 47, No.3, March 1977. 18. Walter Podolny, Jr., and J. B. Scalzi, "Construction and Design of Cable-Stayed Bridges," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1976. 2 Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 INTRODUCTION BENDORF BRIDGE, GERMANY SAIl'<T ADELE BRIDGE, CANADA BOUGUEN BRIDGE IN BREST Al'<D LACROIX FAL­ GARDE BRIDGE, FRAl'<CE 2.5 SAINT JEAN BRIDGE OVER THE GAROl'<NE RIVER AT BORDEAUX, FRAl'<CE 2.6 SIEGTAL AND KOCHERTAL BRIDGES, GER\t:ANY 2.7 PINE VALLEY CREEK BRIDGE, U.S.A. 2.8 GENNEVILLIERS BRIDGE, FRANCE 2.9 GRAND'MERE BRIDGE, CANADA 2.10 ARNHEM BRIDGE, HOLL-\ND 2.11 NAPA RIVER BRIDGE, U.S.A. 2.12 KOROR.BABELTHUAP, U.S. PACIFIC TRUST TERRITORY 2.13 VEJLE FJORD BRIDGE, DENMARK 2.i introduction Developed initiallv for steel structures. cantilever construction was lIsed for reinforced concrete bridges as earh as fift\ veal's ago. In 1928. Frevs­ sinet used the cantilever cO!lcept to construct the springings of the arch rib in the Plougastel Bridge. Figure 2.1. The reactions and overturning 1l10­ melHs applied bv the faisework to the lower part of the arch ribs were balanced bv steel ties connecting the two short cantilevers..-\ provisional prestress was thus applied bv the ties to the arch ribs with the aid of jacks and deviation saddles. The first application of balanced cantilever con­ struction in a form c1oseh' resembling its present one is due \0 a Brazilian engineer, E. Baumgart, who designed and built the Herval Bridge over the Rio Peixe in Brazil in 1930. The 220 1£ (68 111) center span was constructed by the cantilever method in reinforced concrete with steel rods ex­ tended at the various sIages of construction by threaded couplers. Several other structures 1'01­ 2.14 HOUSTON SHIP CHANNEL BRIDGE, U.S.A. 2.15 OTHER NOTABLE STRUcrURES 2.15.1 Medway Bridge, U.K. Rio Tocantins Bridge, Brazil 2.15.2 Puente Del Azufre, Spain 2.15.3 2.15.4 Schubenacadie Bridge, Canada 2.15.5 Incienso Bridge, Guatemala Setubal Bridge, Argentina 2.15.6 2.15.7 Kipapa Stream Bridge, U.S.A. 2.15.8 Parrots Ferry Bridge, U.S.A. 2.15.9 Magnan Viaduct, France 2.15.10 Puteaux Bridge, France 2.15.11 Tricastin Bridge, France 2.15.12 Eschachtal Bridge, Gennany 2.16 CONCLUSION REFERENCES lowed in varioLls countries, particularly in France. Albert Caquot, a leading engineer of his time, built several reinforced concrete bridges in canlilever. Shown in Figures 2.2 through 2.4 is Bewns Bridge over the River Seine ncar Paris, with a dear center span of 31 () ft (95 m), being constructed in successive cantilever segments with auxiliarv trusses. 'This bridge design was prepared in 1942. The method was not widely used at that time, because the excessive amount of reinforcing steel Overturning moment due to centering FIGURE 2.1. Cantilever construCLion of arch spring­ ings for Plougastel Bridge, France. 31 L 32 33 Introduction I,' ¥J""'...... ~.~ ~'f/I'III(,.;.A, ttY.... ft ,.,,. flh ~t<, 1.4..Nf/~ I. NJIItI f,ltw",*" FIGURE 2.3. BezoJls Bridge, constructioll procedure. required to balanlt: the calltilevcr moments pro­ duced the tendency toward cracking inherent in an oH.'ITei nl'orced slab suhject to permanent tell­ sile stresses. The introduction of prestressing in conuete stnldllrcs dralllatically changed the situatioll. Cscd successfully in 1950 and 1951 by Fillsterwal­ der with the German firm of DyckerhofT & \Vid­ mann for the construction of the two bridges of Balduillstein and :\eckarrews, balanced cantilever construction of prestressed concrete bridges ex­ perienced a continuous popularity in German\' -~ • FIGURE 2.4. Bezons Bridges under construction. 34 FIGURE 2.5, Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges La Voulte Bridge. France. and surrounding countries. !'\icolas Esquillan de­ signed and built a large bridge by the cantilcvcr mcthod over the Rhine River in France, La Voulte Bridge (J 952), where an overhead truss was lIsed during construction, Figure 2.5. Betwcen 1950 amI 1965 more than 300 such hridges were constructed in Europe alonc. Initially all structurcs were prestresscd by high-strength bars, and hinges werc provided at the center of the various spans. Later other prestressing methods with parallel wire or strand tendons were also used. More important, a significant improvement in structural behavior and long-term performance was made possible b\ the achievement of deck continuity between the various cantilever arms. The first cantilever bridges with continuous deck~ were designed and built in France in 1962: the Lacroix Falgarde Bridge and Bougllen Bridge. Figures 2.6 and 2.22. Subsequently, the a(hantage~ of continuity were recognized and accepted in many countries. From 1968 to 1970 cantilever construction was considered for the Three Sisters Bridge in Wash­ ington, D.C., Figure 1.64. This pn~iecl never reached the construction stage. The hrst cast -in­ place balanced cantileYer segmcntal bridge built in the United States is the Pine Valley Creek Bridge ill California (1972 to 1974), Figure '2.7. To dalc. all segmcntal bridges constructed in the U niled States have been eit hcr prccast or cast -in-place cant ilever const ruction, wit h thc following cxcep­ tions: \-"abash Ri\'cr Bridge. illcremelltallv launched (Chapter 7) Dcnny Creek alld Florida Ke\'s Bridgcs, spall-In. span constructioll (Chapter 6) FIGURE 2.6. BOllguen Bridge in Brest, France. First continuous rigid-frame structure built in balanced cantilever. Bendorf Bridge, Germany FIGURE 2.8. 35 Bendorf Bridge (courtesy of Dyckerhofl & Widmann). ;: . ~ ,;;"Y • FIGURE 2.7. , r­ ,> .... ~ "", ...... 1 t Pinc Valin Creek Bridge, , Lilln COH? Viaduc\. progressive placement stmelioll (Chapler ()) COll­ or The bal;lIlCed clillilever lllethod C()ll~trlleliol! has alreadv been briefly described. III Ihis chapter we shall see how this 1l1ethod has beel! i111­ plelllcll1cd OIl v~lri()lIs structures bcfore we go Oil to cOllsider specific design ;tI1d technological as­ pects. 2.2 (west.) are the river spans consisting of a symmetri­ cal seven-span colltinuOlls girder with an overall length of 1721 ft (524.7 Ill). In part two (east) are the' nine-span contilluous a ppro:Jch girders wit.h the spans ranging froJl1 134.5 ft (41 111) to :WH rt (~H Ill) and havillg an o\eralllellgth of 1657 h (505 m), Figures 2.9 and 2.10. The continuous, seven-span. malt1 river stnlC­ lure consists of twin, independent, single-cell hox girders. Total width of Ihe hrid[.ie cross SCUiOll is I() I 1'1 (30.S() 111). Each single-cell box has a lOp lbnge width 01 43.;~ rt (13.2 Ill), a hottOlll Jlange width of 23.6 ft (7.2 m), and wehs wilh a constant thickness or 1.2 h (().~)7 Ill). Girder dept h is 3-t.2H h (10.45 m) at the pier and 14.44 ft (4.4 111) al midspan represellting, with respect to the main span, a depth-tn-span r;lIio of 1120 and U1:7. re­ specti\'eh'. Girdcr depth of t.he cnd or this se\CIl­ spall unit reduced to 10.H ft (3.3 Ill). The main n~l\igation spall has a hinge at midspan that is deHinge Bendorf Bridge, Germany Longitudinal section An earh alld outstanding example of the casl-il1­ place balanced (;1I11ile\er bridge is the Bendorf autobahn bridge O\'er the Rhine River about 5 miles (8 km) north of Koblenz, West Germ<1ll\'. Built in 1964, this structure. Figure 2.8, has a total length of 337S ft (1029.7111) with a navigation span of 682ft (20S m). The design competition allowed the competing firms to choose the material, configuration, and design of the structure. Navi­ gation requirements 011 the Rhine River dictated a 328 ft (100 111) wide channel during construction and a final channel width of 672 ft (205 m). The winning design was a dual structure of cast-in­ place concrete segmental box girder construction. consummated in two distinct portions. In part one Plan Cross section at river pier Cross section at pier G FIGURE 2.9. Bendorf Bridge, Part One (West), lon­ giwdin<ll section. plan, and cross sections at the ri\'er pier and pier G, from ref. 1 (courtesy of Beton- lind Stahlbetonball). l Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 36 '~-~!. I =Y~,-=t-'-'R' d~··:~,··· ~ ,~- . ,';. - ...,..~\ 9 ,m"L __ "to _..~7_ _ sc,o __ L- __ ,,8,0 ---~-~ cao II, ' a,roa -----.!...-.- sz.o--f!...-¥I,S-_1- ~l,O'! ·--·--.·-.----·---·-----SOS,Om - - - - - - - -----;-,-,.--------.----- -.-_.---._.--, ~ Longitudinal section Federal Plan FIGURE 2.10. Bendorf Bridge, Part T\w (East). longitudinal section and plan. from ref. I (courtesy of Beton- und Stahlbetonbau). signed to transmit shear and torsion forces only, thus allowing the superstructure to he cast l11011olit hically with the rnai n piers. 1 •2 After con­ struction of the piers, the superstructure over the navigahle portioll of the Rhille was completed within one year. The repetition of the procedure in 240 sCi-illlcnts executed one aftcr the other offered numcrous occasions to mechanize and improve the erection Illet hod. 3.4 Thc dcck slah has a longitudinally varying thick­ ness from II in. (279.4 O1m) at midspan to 16.5 in, (419 Illlll) at the picrs, The bottom flange varies ill thickncss from fi in. (152 mm) at midspan to 7.87 ft (2.4 Ill) at the piers. To reduce dead-weight bending-moment stresses in the bottom flange concrcte, compression reinforcement was used extensivel\' in regions away from the piers. Thicknesses or the various elements of the cross seClioll are controlled partly by stress requirements and partly by clearance requirements of the ten­ dons and anchorages. The structure is three-dimensionally pre­ stressed: longitudinal prestressing uniformly dis­ tributed across the cross section; transverse prestressing in the top flange; and inclined pre­ stressing in the webs. A total of 560 Dywidag bars 1! in. (32 mm) in diameter resists the negative bend­ ing moment produced by a half-span, Figure 2, I L The maximum concrete compressive stress in the bottom flange at the pier is IS00 psi (12.4 MPa). As a result of the three-dimensional prestress tbe ten­ sile stresses in the concrete \\'cre negligiblc. The longitudinal prest ressing is incrementalh' de­ creased from the pier to the hinge at midspan ami to the adjacent piers: thus, shear stresses in the webs on both sides of the main picrs are almost constant. Therefore, the web thickness l-emalIlS constant and the diagonal prest ressing remains ycrv nearly constant. Const ruction began on March 1, 1962. After completion of the foundations and piers, balanced calltilever operations began from the west river pier in July 1963 and were com pleted at the' end of that year. Segments were 12 ft (3.65 m) in Icngth in the river span and 11.4 ft (3.48 Ill) in the remaining spans, Segments \\'ere cast on a \\'eekh cycle. As the segments becal1le shallower, the construction cvcle was adyancecl to two segments per week. During winter months, to protect operations from inclem­ ent weather, the form traveler was provided with an enclosure, Figure 2.12, FIGURE 2.11. BendOl-f Bridge, cross section showing tendons in the deck, ref. 2. (courtesy of the American C()!l(Tete Institute). FIGURE 2.12. Bendorf Bridge, protective covering for form traveler (courtesy of Ulrich Finsterwaider), Saint Adele Bridge, Canada 37 ---·1------~---'-26.5' - - - - - - - .j'-"-'--132'-6~-"--"-.1.-55'~'" ' I , , FIGURE 2.13. SIC. ;\dcle Bridge, elevation, from ref. 5 (courtesy of Engineering News-Rf'corrl). III the comtrllctioll of the approach spans, the n\'c spans from the east abutl]lent were built in a rOllline manller with the assistatlce of faisework bents. The rour spans over water were cOllstructed bv a pro,L\"ressi\'e placell1en t cantilever fllet hod (~ee Chapter 6), which elllplm'ed a telllpOl'ar:' cab1e­ stay arrangement to reduce tht: calltilever stresses. 2.3 Saint Adele Bridge, Canada ; This sttllCllln:', buill in 19G·l (the same year as the Bendorf Bridge), represents the lirst segmental bridge, in the COlltelllpOran' sense, cOllstruLied ill North America. [I crosses the River of the :'vlules near Ste. . \dele, Quebec. alld is part of the Laurential) .\lliOrtlllie. II is a single-cell box girder contillllolis three-span dual strllcllIre with a cellter span of265 tr (~().~ Ill) and end spansof I:~~ ft () in. (40.4 m), Figure 2.13. ,\t one elld is a prestressed concrete :'):) t't (If).H m) simple spall. The bridg-e has a Ion ft CW,;')!Il) \Trtical clearance oyer the river ill the GlIIVOIl helow, FIGURE 2.14. Ste, Adele Bridge, view of variable­ depth box girder (COllrtes\" of the Portland Cement As­ sociation), " The \'ariable-depth girder is 16 ft 3 ~ in. (4.96 Ill) deep at the piers and 6 ft (1.83 tTl) deep at midspan and its extremities, Figure 2.14. Each dual struc­ ture consists of;} single-cell rectangular box 23 ft (7 Ill) wiele with the top fiang-e cantilevering- on each side 9 ft (2,75 m) for a total width of 41ft (12.5 m), Fig-ure 2.15, pr()\iding three traffic lanes in each direnioll. Thickness of bottom flange, webs, and top flange are respectively I ft It in, (0.35 m), I ft 6 in. (0.46 Ill), and I ft (0.3 rn).5 A (Otal of 70 prestressi Ilg tendons were required in each girder. Each tendon of the SEEE system cOllsists of seven strands of seyen 0.142 in. (3.6 !llln) wires, The se\'en strands are splayed out through a steel ring ill the anchorage and held in a circular pattern by steel wedges between each of the strallds. The number of tendons anchored off at each seglllent end varies with the distance from the pier, increasing- from an initial six tendons to eig-ht tendons at the eighth segment, then de­ creasing to two tendons at the eleventh segment at midspan. There are an additional 44 positive­ mOlllellt tendons ill the center span located in the bouolll flange. 5 Ste. Adele Bridge, view of end of box girder segment (counesv of the Portland Cement As­ sociation), 38 Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilet!er Girder Bridges counterweighted with iO tons (63.5 !Ill) of concrete hlock, which was gradualh' diminished as COI1­ struction proceeded and the depth of the segments decreased. The first pair of segments (at the pier), each with a length of21 ft 2~ in. (6.4i m), were cast on a temporary scaffolding braced to the pier, Figure 2.1 H, which remained fixed in position throughout the erection process. s Construction of four segments per week, one at each end of a cantilever from two adjacent piers, was attained 1)\ the following fi\'e-d,1\ cOllstruction cycle'>: FIGURE 2.16. Ste. Adele Bridge, dual structure under constructioll bv the balanced cantilever method. frOll! ref. j (courtesv of EligillN'rilig Sl'll',I-RI'(Orrl). Forty-sevell segments are required for each strtlCture, eleven cantile\'ered each side of each pier, a closure segment at midspan of the cellter span, and a segment cast in place on each abut­ lllent. Segments cast hy t he form tr,l\'e!er were 10 It n in, C~.24 Ill) in lellgth.' Four traveling forllls were used 011 the pr<~ject: olle pair 011 each side of the pier for each of the dual structures, Figures 2.16 and 2.li. The forllls \\'ere supported bv a pair of 42 ft (12.8 111) long, 36 in. (914.4 Illlll) deep structmal steel beams spaced 15 f't (S.Si m) 011 centers, that cantileyered beyond the completed portion of the structure. Initially the cantileyered beams were Fir,11 day: Travelillg forms moved, hottOlll flallge fOrilled, reillforced. alld cast. In the parallel span there was a olle-dav lag such that cre\\'s could shih back alId forth between adjacent structures, S('(ond dO)': top /lange. Reinforcement placed for wehs and Concrete placed for webs alld top lIallge. cure hegun. Third d(l\': Fllurlh do)': TendOlls placed ,llld prest ressi llg jacks positiollcd while COlJcrete was ctlring. FijI" doy: Prest ressin g aCCOlll pi is lIed. Forms stripped: preparatiolls lllade 10 repeat ndc. rile ncle begaq Oil :-tolJday. Since there was a lag of ()ne day 011 the parallel structure. a six-!!;!\' work week was required. U pOll completioll of the ele\'en t h seglllellt ill each ca I1tih:\'Cr the cont raet or installed telllporan' blsework to support the abutlllent end amI then cast the closure segment at midspall. Counterweights were imtalled at the abutmellt cnd to balallce the weight of thc closure forms alld seglllent weight. After installation and stressing of the contilluity tcmlons. ai>utmelll seg­ ments were cast and expallsioll joillts installed." 2.4 Bouguen Bridge in Brest and Lacroix Falgarde Bridge, France The Bouguen Bridge in Brittany, West Province in France, is the lirst rigid-frame continuous struc­ ture built in balanced calltilever (1962 to 19(3). The finished bridge is shown in Figure 2.6, while dimensions are given in Figure 2.19. It carries a three-lane highway over a valley 145 ft (44 m) deep-Le Vallon du Moulin Poudre-and pro­ \'ides a link between the heart of Brest city and Le Bouguen, a new urban development. The total length of bridge is 684 It (208 Ill). The main structure is a three-span rigid frame with a FIGURE 2.17. Ste. Adele Bridge, view of form travel­ ers c<lntile\'(:ring from completed port ion of the st rtle­ tllre, from ref. 5 (courtesy of Enginl'fring A'('u·s-Rf(Ord). Sf 39 Bouguen Bridge in Brest and Lacroix Falgarde Bridge, France FIGURE 2.18. Ste. Adele Bridge. schematic of construction sequence. from ref. ;) (courtesy of EngiW'Pring News-Record). box girder is 10 ft (3 Ill); web thickness also is CO[l­ stant throughout the deck and is equal to g~ in. (0.24 111). Piers consist of two square box COIUllllIS I() ft by 10ft (3 x 3 m) with wall thickness of 91 ill. (0.24 m) located under each deck girder. Two walls 8~ in. (0.22 111) thick with a slight recess used for ;11'­ chitectural purposes connect the two COIUIIIIlS. Both piers are of conventional reinforced concrete construction, sli p-formed at a speed reaching 14 ft (4.25 m) per day in (JIle continllolls operation, piers elasticall\' built-in on rock foundations with span lengths of 147, 268, and 147 ft (45, 82, and 45 m). At one end the deck rests on an existing masonry wall properh strengthened; at the other end a shorter rigid frall1e with a clear deck span of 87 ft (26.5 111) p1'Ovides tire approach to the main bridge. 'The deck cOllsists of two box girders with vertical webs of variable height, varving frolll 15 ft 1 in. (4.6 m) at the support to 6.5 ft (2 m) at midspan and the far ends of the side sp,~ns. vVidth of each (a) 1 ~ I ~\ . , Midspan section ! ~ ~ (\ " '.00 Pier section J i ; J-I"I~ ~ II ---r p,; '_00 .00 Plan section at pier (b) FIGURE 2.19. Bouguen Bridge. France, general dimensions. (a) Longitudinal section. Cross sections. (Ii) 100 40 Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges FIGURE 2.20. Bouguen Bridge. construction of east cantilever. The superstructure box girders are connected to the pier shaft bv transverse diaphragms made in­ tegral with both elements to insure a rigid connec­ tion between deck and main piers. Construction of the deck proceeded in balanced cantilever with 1() ft (:1 m) long segments cast in place in form travel­ ers with a one-week cycle, Figures 2.20 and 2.21. High-early-strength concrete was used and no steam curing was I·equired. Concrete was allowed to harden for 60 hours before application of pre­ stress. The following cube strengths were obtained througboUl the project: 60 hours (time of pre­ stress) i days 28 days 90 days 3700 psi (25.5 I\fPa) 5500 psi (37.9 MPa) 7000 psi (48.3 MPa) 8200 psi (56.5 MPa) Only one pair of form tra\'elers was used for the entire project, but each traveler could accommo­ date the construction of both girders at the same time. , ,/ .i!i~ . ...~ FIGURE 2.21. Bouguen Bridge, view of the traveler. During construction of the deck, much attention was given to the control of vertical deflections. Adequate camber was gi"en to the travelers to fully compensate for short- and long-term cOllcrete deflections. The cumulative deflection at midspan of the first cantilever arm was H in. (40 mm) at time of completion. Concrete creep caused this deflection to reach 3 in. (75 mm) at the time the second cantilever arm reached the midspan sec­ tion. Proper adjustment of the travelers allowed both cantilever arms to meet within i in. (3 mm) at the time continuity was achieved. flat jacks were provided over the outer supports to allow for am' further desired adjustment. The structure is prestressed longitudinally b, tendons of eight 12 111m strands: 76 tendons over the top of the pier segment, 32 tencions at (he bottom of the crown section, 20 tendons in the side spans, and transversely bv tendons of seven 12 111m strands. The Lacroix Falgarde Bridge over Ariege River in France, built in 1961 and 1962, is similar to the Bouguen Bridge and represents (he first continuous deck built in balanced cantilever (see (he photograph of the finished bridge, Figure 2.22). It consists of three continuous spans 100, 200, and 100 ft (30.5, 61, and 30.5 111). The single box girder has a depth varying between 4 ft 5 in. and 10 ft 6 in. (1.35 to 3.2 111). Dimensions are given in Figure 2.23. The superstructure rests on both piers and abutments through laminated bearing pads. The deck was cantilevered and the construction started simultaneously from the two piers with four travelers working symmetrically. During COI1­ FIGURE 2.22. Lacroix-Falgarde Bridge, view of the structure during construction. Saint Jean Bridge Over the Gardonne River at Bordeaux, France 41 ~L~~-~I _ 30 25 j 60.00 I 30 2 ~ [ 2.50 FIGURE 2.23. I l.;[croix-Fal~arde structioll. the deck was telllpOLlri!v fixed to the piers b\' vertical prestress. rhe structure is pre­ stressed longitlldinalh h\' tendolls of tweln~ H IllIll strands alld tLlIlS\er'iel\ 1)\ tendons of tweh'e 7 mill strallds. 2.5 Saint Jean Bridge over the Garonne River at Bordeaux, France Completed ill .\pril l~l!j:i. the Saint Jean Bridge ill Bordeaux is a remarkable application of the new concepts deH'loped at that time in cast-in-place cantilever cOllstructioll. l'he main structure has all over~ililellglh or !5!i() t't (47:') Ill) and is continuous with expallsionjoilll'i ollh on:r the ahutments. The deck is free to expand on neoprene hearings lo­ cated Oil all ri\'('r piers. Figl1l'e 2.2·1. .'\ very efficient method of pier and fOllndatioll constl'llC­ lioll was also (h~\'l'loped, which will he described in more detail ill ChaplCl' 5. The bridge was built in the heart of the cit\' of Bordeaux O\'er the Caroline Ri\'er between a 175­ year-old multiple-arch stone structure and a 120­ year-old railwav bridge designed by Eiflel, the en­ gineer who designed the EifTel Tower. The main structure includes six continuous spans. The central spans are :253 h (77 111) long and allow a navigation clearance of 38 ft (11.60 m) abm'e the lowest water level, while the end spans are only :2:22 ft (67.80 111) long. Short spans at both ends. 50ft (15.40 m) long, provide end restraint of the side spans over the abutments. The overall width of the bridge is RR ft (26.RO m), consisting of six traffic lanes, twO walkways, and two evde lanes. Super'structure dimensions are shown in Figure 2.25, Bridge. e\e\;ttion and cross seniol1. The deck consists of three box girders. The COIl­ stant depth of 10.R ft (3.30 m) has been increased to 13 ft (3.90 lll) over a length of 50 It (15 111) on each side of the piers to illlprme the bending capacit\' of the pier section and reduce the amollnt of cantilever prestress. :\0 di~lphragms were used except O\'er the supports. '['he results of a detailed a 11 a lysis performed to <fetermi ne the transverse hehavior of the deck con firmed this choice (see detailed description ill Chapter 4). Longitudillal prestressing consists of tendons with t we!ve H 111111 and twehe } ill. st rands. Trans­ verse prestressillg consists tendons with twelve R nllll strands at 2.5 ft (0.75 m) illtervais. Vertical prestressing is also provided ill the wel)s near the supports. As indicated in Figure 2.26. three separate pier colulllns support the three deck girders. 'They are capped with large prestressed transverse dia­ phragms. The piers are founded in a gravel bed lo­ cated at a depth 0[,15 ft (14 Ill) below the river level bv means of' a reinforced concrete circular caisson or FIGURE 2.24. Saint Jean completed structure. at Bordeaux, view of the : :: COUPE LONGITUOINALE (a) FIGURE 2.25. Saini Jean al Bordeaux. (a) Longitudi1lal and ~t t--. 1 1\(DI / (,. ':0 ., If • (/I) (TOSS seniollS. J 1 f\ i I t'3ali ! i II ¢1 29'(>' FIGURE 2.26. 42 's' , 29'(>' Saint Jean Bridge at Bordeaux, typical section at river piers. Siegtal and Kochertal Bridges, Germany FIGURE 2.27. Saint Jean Bridge at Bordeaux, work progress on piers and deck. 18.5 ft (5.60 1l1) in diameter and 10ft (3 m) high, tloated and sunk to the river bed and then open­ dredged to the gravel bed. Precast circular match­ cast segments prestressed vertically make up the permanent walls of caissons, while additional seg­ ments are used temporarily as cofferdams and support for the deck during cantilever construc­ tioll. A lower rrel11ie seal allows (It:w~terillg alld placi llg of plain concrete fill inside the caisson .. reinforced concrete fOOling and pier shaft are finally cast ill one ([;\\'. The superstructure box girders were cast in place in 10 ft C3.05 Ill) long segments using twelve form travelers, allowing simultaneous work on the three parallcl cantilevers at. two different piers. The 20 fl (0.1 111) long pier segment was cast on the temporary supports provided bv the pier caissons. allowing the form travelers to be installed and can­ tilever construction to proceed. Six working days were necessarv for a complete cycle of operations Oil each traveler. Work prog-ress is shown ill Fig­ lues 2.27 and 2.28. Total construction tillle for the entire 130,000 sq It (12,000 m 2 ) was approximatelv n.e FIGURE 2.28. Saint Jean Bridge at Bordeaux. can­ tilever construction on tvpical pier. 43 one year, as shown on the actual program of work summarized in graphic form in Figure 2.29. To meet the very strict construction deadline or the contract, it was necessary to bring to the project site another set of three travelers to cast the last can­ tilever on the left bank and achieve continuity with the southern river pier cantilever. Altogether. meeting the two-year construction schedule was recognized as an engineering achievement. Exactly one hundred years earlier, Gustave Eif­ fel had built the neighboring railway bridge in exactly two years-food for thought and a some­ what humbling reHection for the present genera­ tion. 2.6 Siegtal and Kochertal Bridges, Germany The Siegtal Bridge near the town of Sieger, north of Frankfort, Germany, represents the first indus­ trial application of cast-in-place cantilever con­ struction with an auxiliary overhead truss. This method was initially developed by Hans Wittfoht and the firm of Polensky-und-Zollner amI sub­ sequently used for several large structures in Ger­ many and other countries. One of the 1110St recent and rcmarkablc examples of this technique is the Kochenal Bridge between Nuremberg and Heil­ bron, Germany. Both structures will be briefly de­ scribed in this section, while a similar application ill Denmark is covered in another section of this chapter. Siegtal Bridge is a twelve-span strllctUl'e 3450 rt (1050 m) long resting on piers up to 330 it (lOO Ill) high, with maximum span lengths of 344 ft (105 m). Figure 2.30. Two separate box girders carr" the three lraflic lanes in each direction for a total width of 100 ft (~~O.5 m). Figure 2.:31. Structural height of the constant-depth box girder is 19 ft (5,8 Ill), corresponding to a span-to-depth ratio of 18. The deck is continuous throughout its entire length, with fixed bearings provided at the three highest center piers and roiler bearings of high­ grade steel for all other piers and end abutments. Piers have slip-formed reinforced concrete hollow box shafts with a constant transverse width of 68 ft (20.7 m) and a variable width in elevation with a slope of 40 to 1 on both faces. The superstructure was cast in place in balanced cantilever from all piers in 33 ft (10 m) long seg­ ments with an auxiliary overhead truss supporting the two symmetrical travelers, and a cycle of one week was obtained without difficulty for the con­ struction of two symmetrical 33 ft (10 m) long seg­ ,I PONT OESCHAMPS I~ l\! ~ z .~ i 'MAl ! ! ~~IN l I?',AOUT 1PlEUXO , jPIEU t=:h .,.-.i DEC BfT~ JANV I ~~ BETON [t:1AR5 : AVRIL ~ JUIL 'AovT • I NOV I 1 DEC IJ') -c; g: "-­ FEV ~.-, MARS I­ / L ~illl -"'.1 ~~ ~4 ~ AM<»lCE / / \ 1i !:! \. --­ ~ ~~ i il!:~ -' L...J - !\ 1_\ A "­ L :=::::::::::::­ iBE11lN P'PHASE 'ij i!i ~ -I. CL ~~ ~~ !l ICLAVAGf ---­ I BArTAGE 1PlfUX lil ~~ :7::--" r- ~ ~ ":'" ! ;; ~ '" E,,­ A. --- ~U\'ES.2.M!lJJ. FIGURE 2.29. :: ~I~ ~I--~£:---~ ~~ ~jij ~ -~ JIf2 \ •. .!Q ~l~ illl:' .J~ "'\. BETON • .J~l~. .W1iL ~~ J!~ B. ..L ,.\ I OCT ~1i5 .1.1 L \ 1 _\. J \ :,)EPT .~ ~ ~ i!i i:i~ ~~~~ 1'1,. ~IJUIN ~oo.~ .. j ~ i« t-l~,'f,t '" .~ ,;U !;l ~ j IMAI JANV ~ .", ~ d 7~ w ~tTI ~ ;t ·f 17.00 ~: BATTAGf i l- ~ j .L.:...! NOV. ~ I ! I JVIL 'OCT. g 83.16 ' L :6:---­ ~T ~ L , I '" 1 93.21 IAVRIL 1 ~ .L fl' !'­ ~ tTl' 1 J ! 7' / 1965 to "­ ( L --==-­ FINn. Sailll Jean Bridge at Bordeaux. actual program / .. 1 \ I '\ ~.i \ - -­ i~i1i~SE or \\ork. Elevation Cross section 1 Longitudinal section Cross section 2 Top view Horizontal section FIGURE 2.30. 44 SiegtaI Bridge, general dimensions. Siegtal and Kochertal Bridges, Germany JI ! 00 375 '00 FIGURE 2.31. Sicgtal Bridge. tvpical cross section. mellls. The auxilian truss was also first used to cast the pier segment abo\e each pier, Figure 2.32, be­ fore cantilever const ruct ion could pnx:eed, Figu re 2.33. Because the pier shafts are lIexible and have limited bellding capacil:', il was inadvisable to sub­ ject thelll to ullsnnlllelrical loading conditiolls during deck cOllStruction. rims, the merhead truss also served the purpose of stabilizillg the GIll­ tilever arms beli)j'C conlillllit\, was achieved with the previolls cantilever. The auxilian steeitruss is made of high-strength steel (50 ksi vieid strength). Prestressing is applied to the upper chord, which is subjected to high tell­ sill' stresses in order to reduce t he weight of the equipment. 'I 'he overall lellgt h of the truss is 440 n (135 !Il) long to ;tCCOllllllodate the maximulll span length of 3,H ft (105 lll). rhe total weight of' the truss and of tile two sllspended travelers, allowillg castillg of two :$:$ (\ (I() Ill) long .'leglllCrtlS, was 6{)() t (600 lilt). DeckcOllCl'ete was pUlIlped to the \'ariolls segments through pipes carried from thc finished deck bv tlte allxiliarv truss, Figures 2.~~4 alld ~,:.\5. \Vork cOllllllelKcd on the superstructure in l\larch 1966, The first box girder was completed ill FIGURE 2.32. 45 Siegtal Bridgc, pier segment casting. April 1968. The truss and travelers were illl­ lllcdiateh transferred to the second box girder, which was completed ill Septelllber 1969. Thus, the average rate of casting was as follows: 3450 ft (1050 1l1) in '25 months, or 140 per momh First bridgl': ft (4 ~ Ill) Sl'(olld bridgr': ;H50 It (l050 m) in 17 mOllths, or ~()() rr ({)2 111) pCI' mOllt h Both bridges: G900 It ('2100 111) in 42 months, or 100 ft (50 m) per mont h An otIlstanding contemporary example of the sanle technique is lhe KochertaI Bridge in Ger­ Illany, shown ill fill a I progress ill Figure '2.36. Gen­ eral dilllellsions of the project arc givcn in Figure ~.:)7, Total length is 3700 ft (1128 Ill) with typical spam of 453 fl (138 Ill) supported on piers up to f)OO ft (183 Ill) ill height. The single box girder superstructure with precast outriggers canies six t raJ'fic lanes for a lotal widt h of 101 ft (30.7G Ill). Box [Jiers wcre cast ill climbing forms with 14.~ ft (~Ls3 1II) high lilts. The top sectioll is COllstant for all piers with olltside dimensions or 16.4 by 2H.'2 1't FIGURE 2.33. Siegtal Bridge, cantilever construction. 46 Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges \ FIGURE 2.34. Sicgtal Bridgc. elcvation (5 hv 8.6 m). The f6ur faces are sloped to increase the dimensions at foundation level to a maximum of 31.2 by 49.2 It (9.5 by 15 m) for the highest piers. Wall thickness varies progressiveh' from top to bottom, to follow the load stresses, from 20 in. (0.5 m) to 36 in. (0.9 01). The constant-depth superstructure is cast in two stages, Figure 2.38: (l) the single center box with a width of 43 ft (13.1 111) and a depth of 23 ft (7 m), and (2) the two outside cantilevers resting on a se­ ries of precast struts. To meet the very tight con­ struction schedule of22 months it was necessary to llse two sets of casting equipment. working simul­ taneously from both abutments toward the center. Each apparatus was made of an overhead truss FIGURE 2.35. and travelers. Siegtal Bridge. typical section of truss or O\'Crhead truss and travelers. equipped with a launching nose to move from pier to pier and two suspended travelers working in balanced cantilevers, casting segments on a one­ week cycle. Figure 2.39. 2.7 Pine Valle), Creek Bridge, U.S.A. The first prestressed concrete cast-in-place seg­ mental bridge built in the United States was the Pine Valley Creek Bridge on Interstate 1-8 between San Diego and El Centro, Calif6rnia. Figures 1.66 and 2.7, opened to traffic late in 1974. This struc­ t tire is located approximately 40 miles (64 km) east of San Diego and 3 miles (4.8 km) west of the FIGURE 2.36. project. Kochertal Bridge, general vIew of Pine Valley Creek Bridge, U.S.A. o I 5 -~; ft ,""" ."'"..,, -'~ ~"tI",r ~u"h'l ••lk ----~ --'- .' -jJ~: .---- , II ,! 'II ---~~U,I'h('l ..... Kocher 47 I l, - "._.-_ ~_ _._---_.-------_ .. --.--.-----------------~---~-- Unl'''' Musch.lk.lk Obtrfr Buntsands t ~tn /~~ Herlbronn Nurnb"g c.--:C> '\'" - 81,00 IliaD l38GG [J6,00 1]3,00 1128.00 Il8,00 Il8.00 ~~ I ,I FIGURE 2.37. ero,s sect iOIl. 1l8,OO - 61,00 U" ' Kochenal Bridge. e\nation. plan and commutlit\ of Pine Valle\ and within the Cle\e­ land :'\ation,Il Forest. Interstate 1-8 crosses over a sell1i,lrid l-cgion that is highly erodible when the ground c()\'Cr is disturbed; consequenth' strillgent controls were imposed on access roads and ground-c()\'cr disturbances. Structure type was influenced 1)\ the following factors: site restric­ tions. ecollomics. ecological considerations. and Forest Sel'\ice limitatiolls. After com paring \arious possible schemes sllch as steel arch, deck truss, or steel. box girder. the California Department of Transport,ltion selected a concrete box girder bridge predicated on the use of cantilever seg­ ­ (1/) 58J JO,7& 13.10 8.83 (b) FIGURE 2.38. Kochertal Bridge. typical cross sec­ lions. (Il) First stage casting. (b) Final stage. 48 Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges ... • FIGURE 2.39. lion. Kocherral Bridge, cantilever construc­ mental construction, particularly well suited to the site because the depth and steep slopes of the "allev made the use of falsework impractical. Also, the cantilever method minimized scarring of the natural em'ironment, which was a major consider­ ation [or a prC!iect located in a :\:ational Forest. The bridge has an average length of 1716 ft (523 m) ane! consists of twin two-lane single-cell, trapezoidal box girders each 42 ft (12.8 m) out-to­ out. The deck is 450 it (137 m) above the creek bed. The superstructure consis~s of five spans of prestressed box girders 19 ft (5.8 m) deep. The center span is 450 ft (137 Ill) in length, Ranked by side spans of340 fl (103.6 lll) and 380 ft (115.8111), with end spans averaging 270 ft (82.3 Ill) and 276 ft (84.1 11l). The bridge was constructed with four cantilevers. Pier 2 has cantilevers 115 ft (35.1 m) in length. piers 3 and 4 have 225 ft (69.6 m) cantile­ vers, and pier 5 has 155 ft (47.2 m) cantile­ vers,6.7.R Figure 2.40. Provisions were made in the design 10 permit the portions of spans I and 5 ad­ jacent to the abutments to be constructed segmen­ tally or un falsework at the contractors' option. The later option was exercised by the contractor. !I. 10 CANTu.evtR ABUT. 6 ,.,. PIER Z PitR ~ PltR 3 PIER" ELEVATION TYPICAL SECTION FIGURE 2.40. Pine Valley Creek Bridge, ele\'ation and typical senion, from ref. 8. I Pine Valley Creek Bridge, V.SA. Hinges were prodded in spans 2 and 4 at the end of the main cantilevers. In the preliminarv de­ sign, consideration was given 10 the concept of a continuous structure for abutment to abutment without any intermediate joints. Continuity has mallV advantages insohlr as t his particular struc­ ture is concerned. Howner, it has the significant dis<I(hantage of large displacements uncler seismic loading conditions. Because of the extreme dif­ ference in height and stiffness between piers, it was determined that all the horizontal load was being trallsmillecl to the shoner piers, which were not capable of accepting it. H The pier foundations posed sOllle interesting cOllStruniOll problems. The top ~() ft (f) tll) of the rock material at the ~tructure ;;ite 'was badlv fissured, with sOllJe tissuring as deep as 40 ft (12 m). :\'arrow footings onlv 1 ft (0.3 Ill) wider than the pier shafts, tied dowII wit h rock anchors, were preferred to the conv(:,lHional spread footings to minimize the amount of eXGl\·;lIion. Although the piers are ~pectaclilar because or their sizc, thc\ are no! ulliqllc in concept. The two main piers, :1 and ..t:, are approximatelv 370 It (I U Ill) in height and are made up or two vertical cellll­ lar sectiol1s intercollnected with horizontal tics. III a trallsVerse directioll the piers h,l\e a constant width to ElCilita!e slip-form cOllstructioll. while in the IOllgituciin;d directioll the sectioll varies parabolicalh. with a llIinimul11 width or 16 1'1 (4.9 m) approximateh olle-third down h'olll the top. At this point the\ flare out 10 ~:\ n In 24 ft (7 In 7.3 m) at the soffil. The pier wall t hicklless is a cotlstan! 2 ft (0.6 m).6.!) Earthqllake cOllsiderations produce the critical design load Ii)!' the piers. rile 1940 EI Centro earth­ quake was used as the forcing function in the de­ sign anahsis. Design criteri;l re<luired that the c.omplcted strllctural fLlIne withstand this force level \\'ithmll exceeding stress levels of 75c;{ of yield. The picr struts arc all important clement in the seisIlIic design of rhe piers. They provide duc­ tility to the piers h\' pmviding energy-absorbing joints alld an increased stabilit\" against buckling for the PI'illcipal shaft elements. Because of the size of the struts in relation to the pier legs, the major­ ity of the rotatioll in the 5t rut-Iegjoint occurs in the strut. Thus, ;t yelT high percentage of tranS\'erse confinillg reinforcemellt was required in the strut to insure the ductility at this location. 6 •9 Although preliminan design anticipated the slip-forming technique for construction of the piers, the contractor tinalh elected to use a self­ climbing forllJ system. Steel forms permitted 22 ft 49 (6.7 m) high lifts, and they were given a teflol1 coating to facilitate stripping while producing a high-guality finished concrete surface. COllstruction of the pier caps was especially challenging. The pier caps, Figure 2.41, consist of two arms 60 ft (18.3 m) in height, which pntiect outward at an approximate angle of 60 0 from each stem of the pier shafts. These arms are constructed in four lifts in such a manner that the forms for each lift are tied into the previous lift. Upon com­ pletion of the pier cap arIllS they are tied together and the top strut is formed, reinforcement placed, and cast.. The pier cap is prestressed tra!lsversely in order to overcome side thrust from the super~ structure. The superstructure consists of two parallel trapezoidal box girders 42 ft( 12.8 m) wideand 19 It (5.R 1l1) deep with a 38 ft (11.6 111) space between the boxes, sllch that all additional box girder may be cOllStructed for future widening, Figures 2.40 and 2.4~. The boxes. in addition to being post­ tensioned longitudinalh-, have transverse prestress­ ing in the deck slab, together with sufficient mild st eel rei n forcemcllt to l'esist nom ina I construct.lOll loads, allowing the transverse prestressing opera­ tions to be relllO\'cd fmIll the critical path. The 'NCUNED COL...... !~ ! 110' 280' PIER SfiAFT 280' lCct.......1 &CI tJ-"---'-"-': !'l-J:~ION =-~-±i' FOOTING OF PIER SECT. X:L {e'ER s_n FIGURE 2.41. Pine Vallev Creek Bridge, elevation. side vie\\". and cross section of pier. from ref. 7 (courtesy of the Portland Cement :\ssociation). 50 Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges STEEL TAUSS USED FOR ACCESS TO CANTILEVER CONSTRUCTION AB.6 ?'STEfL TOWERS FOR LAUNCHING AUXIUARY BRIDGE BARRIER RAILING PIER 5 AUXIUARy BRIDGE SUPPORTEO AT PIE.R CAP COlJNTERltltiGHT FIGURE 2.42. Pille Valle\ Creek Bridge, t\'jlical hox girder cross section, from reI". 7 (courtesy of the Ponland Cement Association), sloping webs and large deck ()\'Crhallgs \,'ere lIsed to minimize the slab spans and the number of gi!'der webs and to accentuate a longitudinal shad­ ow line. thus redllcin~ the apparet1l depth. The web thickness of 16 in. (406 mm) was selected to permit side-by-side placement of the largest tendon I hell being used ill bridge construction alld to keep the shear reinforcement to a reasonable size and spacing, Figure 2.42. The bottom slah al lllidspan is 10 in. (254 mm) thick and flares out to 6.5 ft (1.98 111) at the pier. 6,7.9 Construction of the superstruc­ ture proceeded in a balanced cantilever fashion. Figures 2,i and 2.43. As shown in Figure 2.44. the erectioll scheme proposed by the contractor allowed all super­ structure work to be performed in a continuous sequence, essentially from the top. Four forlll travelers were used for the cantilever construction of t his project, one at each end of each cantile\'er arm. Basically, one tni\'eler consisted of an o,'el'­ head steel truss used to support the £'onnwork for the typical 16.5 It (5111) long segments. The truss is anchored, af the rear. to the previoush' cast seg­ ment, while the front end is equipped with hr­ draulic jacks used for grade adjustment. High­ dellsit y plywood was used for all formed surfaces. A total of 1i2 cast-ill-place segments ,,"ere required for the entire structure. Falsework was required close to abutments 1 and 6 to complete the side spans beyond the balanced cantilever arms, Fonnwork used in that portion of the structure could be reused above each intermediate pier cap to construct the 35 ft (l 0.7 Ill) long pier segl1lent before the actual cantilever construction pro­ ceeded. The cross section of the superstructure allowed STEEL SAODLE AUXILIARY BRIOGE SUPPORTED BY SUPERSTRUCTURE FIGURE 2.43. Pillc Valin Crcck Brid~('.allxilial'\ bridge. froJl] rd. 7 ((Jurtes\ of the Portland Ccment As­ sociatioll). an auxiliar\' truss 10 he located between the t\\'() concrete box girders, Figut'e 2.43, This auxiliary bridge consisted of a st rucIU ral steel t russ I() It (3.05111) square in cross section and :120 ft (97.5 m) in length. In a stationan positioll it was supported at the leading end on the pier cap strut and at the rear end of a steel saddle between the two concrete boxes, I twas desiglled such that the frollt end could be cantilevered out 225 It (68.6111), \,'hich is one-half the main span, Electric winches allowed longitudinal launching between the concrete box girders. When pier 5 was completed, the auxiliary bridge was erected in spall 5-6, utilizing tempo­ rary Sll ppon towers near abutlllent 6. Subsequent 30 ft (9. I m) lengths of auxiliary truss were attached at the abutment amI incrementallv launched to­ ward pier 5, umil its frotH end was supported on the pier cap. The pier table was thell constructed and cantilever construction commenced until the structural hinge in span 4-5 was reached. Upon completion of the closurejoint in span 5-6 the aux­ iliary truss was launched forward until the front end reached pier 4. The form travelers were dis­ mantled from the tip of the cantilever and reerected on the pier table at pier 4. and cantilever FIGURE 2.44. (Opposite) Pine Vallev Creek Bridge, erection scheme proposed by the contractor. from ref. 10. c ~ construction on conventional falsework Cantilever Construction from pier 5 4 auxiliary " @ bridge / G) 3 I" 0 0 auxiliary bridge (i) Stage 4 from pier 2 I CD Stage 5 completion n G) CD 51 52 Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges construction was started again. This cycle was re­ peated until closure was achie"ed in span 1-2. The use of the auxiliary truss had the following advantages 1o: 1. 2. 3. Men and materials for the superstructure could reach the location of construction from abutment 6 over the auxiliary bridge and the already completed portion of the superstruc­ ture without interfering with the valley below. The construction equipment (tower cranes and hoists) at the piers was required only for the actual construction of the piers and could be relocated from pier to pier without waiting for completion of the superstructure. Except for construction of abutment 1 and pier 2, site installation for the entire project was located at one location, near abutment 6. Concrete was supplied from a batching plant lo­ cated approximately.2 miles (3.2 km) from the site. Ready-mix trucks delivered the concrete at abut­ ment 6. The concrete was then pumped through 6 in. (152 mm) pipes down the slope to the foot of piers 5 and 4. The concrete for the superstructure was pumped through a pipeline installed in the auxiliary truss right into the forms. A second pump with a similar installation was located at abutment 1 to supply concrete for abutment 1 and pier 2.10 A 5000 psi (35 MPa) concrete was specified for the superstructure, presenting no unusual prob­ lems. However, to maintain a short cycle for the construction of the individual segments it was nec­ essary to have sufficient strength for prestressing 30 hours after concrete placement. This was difficult to achieve, since the specifications did not allow type III cement and certain additives. A so­ lution was to prestress the individual tendons nec­ essary to support the following segment to 50 per­ cent of their final force. The form carrier could then be advanced and the remainder of the pre­ stressing force applied after the concrete reached sufficient strength and before casting the next segment. to Prestressing was achieved using It in. (32 mm) diameter Dywidag bars. Longitudinal tendons were provided in 33 ft (10 m) lengths and coupled as the work progressed. Temporary corrosion protection of the bars was obtained by blowing "VPI" powder into the ducts and coating each bar with vinyl wash or "Rust-Van 3 10."8 2.8 Gennevilliers Bridge, France The Gennevilliers Bridge, Figures 2.45 and 2.46, is a five-span structure with a total length of 2090 ft (636 m). At its southern end it is supported on a common pier with the approach "iaduct from the port of Gennevilliers. It crosses successively an en­ trance channel to the port, a peninsula situated between the channel, and the Seine River itself, Figure 2.47. It is part of the Al5 Motorway, which traverses from the Paris Beltwav through Gen­ nevilliers, Argenteuil, the valley d'Oise, and on to the city of Cergy-PonlOise. The present structure provides a four-lane divided highway with provi­ sion for a future twin structure. The superstructure is a variable-depth two-cell box girder with spans of 345, 564, 243, 564 and 371 it (l05, 172,74, 172 and 113111). Depth varies from 29.5 ft (9 m) at intermediate piers to 11.5 It (3.5 m) at midspan of the 564 ft (172 m) spans and its extremities, with a depth of 23 ft (7 m) at midspan of the short center span, Figure 2.46. Depth-Io-span ralios of the 564 ft (172 m) spans al midspan and at the piers are respectiveh' 1/49 and 1119. The curved portion of the structure has a radius, in plan, of 2130 ft (650 m). The longitudI­ nal grade is a constant 1.5 percent within the zone of cUrYature. Because the short center span is sub­ jected to negative bending moment over its entire length, the structure behaves much as a continuous three-span beam. In cross section, Figure 2.48, the two-cell box girder has a bottom Range \'aning in width from 42.2 It (12.86 !TI) at midspan to 30.5 ft (9.3 m) at the pier, for the 564 ft (172 m) span. Thickness of the bottom Range varies from 47 in. (1.2 m) at the pier to 8 in. (20 cm) at midspan. The top Range has FIGURE 2.45. Gennevilliers Bridge, view of curved five-span structure. = == 53 Gennevilliers Bridge, France .,;~" "lfz .. $ o FIGURE 2.46. Cenm:vil!iels Bridge. plan and dev'ation, from ref. II. an overall width of 50.!) ft (18.48 111) with a 6 ft (Ut~ Ill) overhang 011 one side and 1),2 ft (l.88 111) on the olher. Thickness of the top flange is a con­ stant 8 ill. (20 cm). The center web has a constant thicKness of It) in. (400 mll1). Exterior webs, which are inclined tHO to the venical, varv in thickness FIGURE 2.47. from 16 in. (400 !TIm) at the pier to 12 in. (300 mm) at midspan. Diaphragms, Figure 2.49, are located at the su pports. The superstructure is prestressed in three directions, with strand tendons being utilized longitudinally and transversely and bar tendons utilized for the webs. I nterior anchorage Gennevilliers Bridge, aerial view of the completed bridge. 54 Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges At Support FIGURE 2.48. At Mid Span Genne\'ilIiers Bridge. cross section, from rei. II. blocks for the longit udinal prestressing are located at t(,P slab level. FIGURE 2.49. Genne\'illicrs Bridge. interior vie\\' showing diaphragm. The superstructure is fully continuous over its total length of 2090 ft (636 Ill) between the nonb­ ern abutment alld the southern transition pier \\'ith the approach viaduct. The deck rests upon the four main piers supported Iw large elastollleric pads. The superstructure was cast in place using the balanced cantilever method according to the step-by-step scheme shown in Figure 2.50, Seg­ ments over the piers (pier segments) were COII­ structed first on formwork, in a traditional man­ ner, except for their unusual length [26 ft (1.9m)] and weight [850 t (770 mt)]. Four travelers were used for casting the t\piGd 11 ft (3.35 m) long segments varying in weight from 242 t (220 mt) near the piers to 110 t (100 mt) at midspan. ll The travelers were specially designed to achieve maximum rigidity and prevent the usual tendency to crack a newly cast segment under the deflectiolls of the supporting trusses of COI1\'ell­ tional travelers. The framework used for this pur­ pose was made of self-supporting forming panels assembled into a monolith weighing 120 t (110 Illt) and prestressed to the preceding part of the superstructure to make the unit substantially deflection free, Figure 2.51. Stability, especially uncleI' wind loads or in the event of an accidental failure of the travelers during the construction pc­ riml, was maintained by a pair of cables on each Grand'mere Bridge, Canada 55 ~ L Jr K ~ ~ ···········0 82 t 81 ~-LL --- A1 A2 :-f A; M - ~ "" :if 9 I B' !l I E FIGURE 2.50. t 82 0 t • t r S2 B2 to Grand'lV1ere Bridge, Canada I ~0 B A2 I I I I i ; 1_ & (;ennl'villicrs Bridge, erectioll seqlll'l1Ce, This three-lane ClSI-ill-p!;Ke segmelltal bridge is located Oil Quebec .\Uloroule ;,)5 and crosses the SI. .\Lmrice Ri\er ;1J)proxil11;ueh :) miles (4,8 kill) llorth of Grand'.\lere, Quebec. Figure 2,52. Water depth at the bridge site is (Her Ito ft (35.5 lll), with all additional 150 rt (ri,15 111) depth of sand, sill, \ Al B2 r side of the pier cOllllening the superstructure pier base, 2.9 ~ A281 ~ II l 8' t Al gO-- I 1 - g I- Ii A~ ," t----­ B2 81 ------r JL I it 1-- Bl ! a fWIll iiIi[ 0 A2 ~ ML 0 42 Lti:mL ~ r L 0 CD CD @ reI. II. and debris above bedrock. The river liow at the bl'idge site is 3,6 ftlsee ([, I rn/sec), During the preliminary design stage ill 1973 and 1974, several structural solutiolls were considered, The use of short spans of precast concrete A:\SI-ITO sectiolls or structural steel girders re­ quiring a number of piers was il11l11edi;nely aban­ doned because of river depth and cnrrent velocity at the site. Site conditions required the develop­ ment of all economical long clear span with as few piers as possible in .(he river. Options available "'. -, FIGURE 2.51. Gellnevilliers Bridge, supersrructure under const ructioll, FIGURE 2.52. Grand'Mere Bridge. general view showing' parabolic soffit of center span, (courtesy of the Portland Cement Association), Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 56 were structural steel, post-tensioned precast seg­ mental, and several options of cast-in-place pre­ stressed concrete, varying in span, cross section, and pier requirements. The design finally selected for preparing the bid documents was a concrete cantilever single-cell box with a center span of 540 ft (165 rn), a 245 ft (75 m) western land span, and a 150 ft (46 rn) eastern land span for a IOtal length of 935 ft (285 m). The design actually used for con­ struction, Figure 2.53, for the same total length, has a main span increased to 595 ft (181 m) and two equal 170 ft (52 m) long side spans. The corre­ sponding slight increase in cost of the superstruc­ ture was far more than offset by eliminating the need to build a caisson in 48 ft (15 m) of water 98 ft (30 111) above bedrock for the west pier. This rede­ sign, developed in cooperation with the contractor, allowed an overall saving of approximately 20~ of the project cost. The two identical 170 ft (51.9 m) long land spans cantilever from the main piers and act as counter­ weights for the main span. From a depth of 32 ft (9.8111) at the main piers they taper to a depth of 28 It (3.5 m) at a point 130 ft (39.6 m) from the maill FIGURE 2.53. Grand'Mere Bridge, center span parabolic arch soffit (courtesy of the Portland Cement Association). piers, where they are supported b~' a secondary pair of 4 It by 4 It (1.2 by 1.2 m) bearing capped pier~. The 40 It (12.2111) wedge-shaped shore ends of the land spans taper from t.he secondary piers to grade at the top of the abutment. The abutments, which are just 16 ill. (406 mill) thick, are designed to support the approach slab onl\', Figure 2.54. - I ELEVATIOti \ ! TY PICA L 7( SECT 10M OETIlIL OF ABUTMENT FIGURE 2.54. Grand'Mere Bridge, general arrangemem, (11) Typical section. (c) Detail of abutment. (a) Elevation. Grand'mere Bridge, Canada Modular, confined rubber expansion joints are provided in the roadway above the abutments. The wedge portions of the land spans are solid con­ crete, helping counterhalance the weight of the main span under service conditions as well as dur­ ing the construction stage. The land spans have a web thickness of 2 ft (0.6 111), a 3 ft (0.9 m) thick bottom slab, and a 15 in. (381 mrn) thick top flange. A 2 h (0.6 m) thick diaphragm is located 78 ft (23.8 57 m) outboard of the secondary piers to form a chamber between the solid wedge end and the diaphragms. This chamber was incrementally hlled with gravel in three stages to counterbalance the main span as it was progressively constructed. The bottom soffit of the west land span was supported on temporary steel scaffolding. However, because of the terrain slope, the east land-span bottom soffit was plywood-formed on a bed of sand spread ----~ ....---~------------------------------------' Plan (a) - - - - .... ---~-------------------, '{ =' ~. -""""--~. Elevation (b) FIGURE 2.55. Arnhern Bridge. (II) Plan. (b) Ebation. Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 58 over the mck. l:pon completion of concreting and curing, the sand was hosed out from under the formwork, allowing it to be stripped. 12 2.10 Arnhem Bridge, Holland The Arnhem Bridge, Figure 2.55, is a cast-in­ place. lightweight concrete, segmental bridge cross­ ing the Rhine River with a center span of 448 ft (136 m), a south end span of 234 ft (71 Ill), and a north end span of 238 ft (72 m) connecting to ap­ proach ramps. It is a dual structure composed of two-cell box girders. Figure 2.56a. The western structure has two 30 ft (9.1 111) roaclw<J\"s for au­ tomobile traffic. The eastern structure has a 23 ft (7 m) roadw<l\ reserved [or bus traffic, a 17 ft (5.3 m) roadway for bicycles and motorcycles, and a 7 ft (2.1 111) pedestrian walkwa\. Ramp structures are of prestressed flat slab construction, Figure 2.56b. The main three-span ri\"er cmssing with an overall width of 122.7 ft (37.4 111) consists of two double-cell box girders that vary in depth from 6.5 ft (2.0 m) at midspan to 17 ft (5.3 m) at the piers. The western rectangular box girder has a width of 49 ft (14.8 m) with] 0 ft (3 m) top flange canrilevers for an overall width of 68.4 ft (20.84 m). The east­ ern rectangular box girder has a width of 35.4 ft (l0.8 111) with top flange cantilevers of 8.6 1't (2.62 m) for a total width of 52.6 ft (16.04 111), Figure 2.56a. Construction of the main spans is bv the conven­ tional cast-in-place segmental balanced cantilever method with form travelers. The form travelers are owned by the Dutch Government and leased to the contractors. Strand tendons were used for post-tensioning, and the lightweight concrete had a weight of about 110 Ib/ft 3 (1780 kg/m 3 ), Figure 2.57. Temporary supports at the pier were used for unbalanced loading during constructioll, Figure 2.58. Precast exposed aggregate facia units were used for the entire length of the structure and its approaches, Figures 2.59 and 2.60. 2110 auto's 1630 auto's openbaar vervoer r t f'etsers ~l 0' 050 0)3 +:. 050 050 302 (a) Q13 (b) FIGURE 2.56. Arnhcm Bridge, typical cross sections of main bridge and Rat-slab ramp. (Il) Main structure. (b) Prestressed flat-slab ramp. VOf!tgangers ij ] ,d Napa River Bridge, U.S.A. 59 -----.~ FIGURE 2.57. erg, Arnhem Bridge, center-span canli!c\'­ FIGURE 2.59. Arnhem Bridge. vIew of prestressed f1at-slah ramp structure, --=--' FIGURE 2.58. Arnhem Slidge, temporal'v pier sup­ ports for unbalanced !1l0!Tle I l!:, , 2.11 FIGURE 2.60. Arnhem aggregate facia units, Bridge, precast exposed Napa River Bridge, U.S.A. The ~apa River Bridge, Figure ~,61, is located Oil Highwav 29 just south 01 the city of :\apa. Califor­ nia, and pr{)\'ides a four-lane. 66 ft (20 111) wide roadway over the :\apa River to bypass an existing two-lane lift span and several miles of city streets, The 68 ft (20,7 111) wide, 2230 ft (679,7 111) long bridge consists of 1:~ spam varying in length from 120 to 250 ft (36,58 to 76,2 111) and a two-cell trapezoidal box girder van'illg from 7 ft 9 ill, (2,36 m) to 12 ft (3,66 m) in depth, Figure 2,62, Three hinged joints were provided at midspan in spans 2, 6, and 10. These joints involved elaborate connec· tions incorporating e1astomeric bearing pads and hard-rubber bumper pads to withstand severe movement and shock during an earthquake, Fig­ ure 2,63, All other joints between the cantilevers were normal cast-in-place closure joints,13 The superstructure is fixed to the piers, primaril~' for seismic resistance, The Structures Division of the California De­ partment of Transportation (CALTRA::--IS) de­ veloped plans and specifications for three alterna- :,. FIGURE 2.61. Napa River Bridge, aerial view, tive types ot construction, Figure 2.62. as follows: A. B, C. A conventional continuous cast-in-place pre­ stressed box girder bridge of lightweight con­ crete. A continuous structural-steel trapezoidal box girder composite with a lightweight concrete deck. A cantilever prestressed segmental concrete box girder bridge allowing either cast-in-place Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 60 PROFILE GRADE 6<3150'-0" ..... ~ .. 120'-0" -~- Abul Pier 2 ELEVATION Conlde-,er Segmenlol PIS LHJh!welqht Cone 80x Glrder Welded ALTERNATIVE B A FIGURE 2.62. ALTERNATIVE C l\apa River Bridge. profile grade, elevation, and alternate sections. or precast segments. Erection was allowed on faJsework or bv the free cantilever method. Rubber Bumper - + - - - - - ' Bump_.e:r_-I----. Rom ­ lfii¥zq--- FIGURE 2.63. Nap<l River Bridge, mid-span hinge joint wid1 seismic bumbers. Because of poor foundations and a readily avail­ able aggregate supph. all alternatives utilized lightweight concrete in the superstructure. Alter­ nati\'e C utilized trans\-erse prestressing in the deck to reduce the number of webs to three. as com­ pared to seven webs required in alternative A. Of seven bids received and opened on :-\()\'ember 6, 1974, six were for alternati\'e C and the seventh and highest was for alternati\'e B. :-\0 bids were submitted for altemative A. Design of the superstructure required light­ weight concrete with ,1 com pressive strength of 4500 psi (316 kg/clll 2 ) at 28 days and 3500 psi (246 kg/cm 2 ) prior to prestressing. The three-web win­ ning alternative required a minimum of formed surfaces and forced the majority of longitudinal prestressing into the flanges, resulting JI1 maximum prestress eccentricity, and therefore an economical solution. Contract plans showed the minimum prestress force required at each section and permitted the use of either 270 ksi (1862 MPa) strand or )50 ksi (1034 MPa) bar tendons. Prestressing force dia­ grams were provided for both materials. The con­ tractor had the option of balancing segment length against prestress force to achieve the most eco­ nomical structure. In addition, the plans provided the contractor with the option of a combination of diagonal prestressing and conventional reinforce­ Koror-Babelthuap, U.S. Pacific Trust Territory ment in the wehs for shear reinforcement or the utilization of conventional stirrup reinforcement only. The design was based upon a 40,000 psi (276 MPa) prestress loss for the 270 ksi (1862 MPa) strand and 28,000 psi (193 ~fPa) loss for the 150 ksi (1034 MPa) bars. Because the loss of prestress is a function of the type of lightweight aggregate used, the contractor was required to submit test values for approval concerning the materials to be used and relevant calculations.14 The contractor elected to use the cantilever cast-in-place alternative supported on falsework until each segment was stressed, Figure 2.64. Falsework bents with ten 70 ft (21.3 m) long, 36 in. (914 111m) deep, wide-Mange girders support each balanced cantilever. The falsework was then moved to the next pier, leaving the cantilever free-standing, Figure 2.65. The entire formwork, steel girders, and timher forms were lowered by winches from the cantilever girder after all nega­ tive post-tensioning was completed. Positive post­ tensioning followed midspan closure pours. 13 The 250 ft (76.2 m) long navigation span was constructed with a complicated segment sequence because of a U.S. Coast Guard requirement that a 70 ft (21.3 m) wide by 70 ft (21.3 m) high naviga­ tion channel be maintained. Approximately 60 ft (18.3 m) of span 4, over the navigable channel, was constructed in three segments on suspended falsework by the conventional cast-in-place seg­ mental method. 13 All transverse and longitudinal post-tension­ ing tendons consist of tin. (12.7 mm) diameter strands. Longitudinal tendons are twelve! in. (12.7 mm) diameter strand, with anchorages located in the top and bottom flanges such that all stressing was done from inside the box girder. Loops are used for economy and efficiency, as shown in Fig­ ure 2.66. The longest span over the navigation channel is prestressed by 50 (twelve ~ in. strand) tendons. Transverse prestress in the top flange al­ lowed a 10 ft (3 m) cantilever on each side of the two-cell box girder. Transverse tendons consist of four ~ in. diameter strands encased in nat dUGS 2.251>y 0.75 in. (57 by 19 mm) with proper splay at both ends to accommodate a Rat bearing at the edge of the deck slab. 2.12 :\"apa River Bridge, free-standing can­ tilever and supporting bents for false work ~apa River Bridge, falsework bents (courtesy of Phil Hale, CALTR.~:-.JS). 61 Koror-Babelthuap, U.S. Pacific Trust Territory This structure currently represents (1979) the longest concrete cantilever girder span in the world. It connects the islands of Koror and Babel­ thuap, which are part of the Palau Island chain of the Caroline Islands located in the United States Trust Territory some 1500 miles (2414 km) east of the Philippines, Figure 2.67. FIGURE 2.66. tendons. Napa River Bridge, longitudinal loop 62 'a: ; .... ..' PHlliPPINES~ j " 'if .ucu II" !>:~1I { 'ill. ~ Cast-in-Place Balallced Calltilever Girder Bridges t, . PI'tlLlPPINE SEA .·~"'l""'H ~ --.~'I~'~ _ ~(;.::.t.!,,~u~ .... 13;~'~ (j!JSa "'~ ,,;(,y/ "~ ... lttt>IHLI>W ' I l t fiE" !.f A •• ~, CAQOUNE l'SlAI'oIOS ~ f !I'oIOOf>lfSIA FIGURE 2.67. Koror-Babelthuap Bridge, location map, from ref. L'i. In elevation this structure has a center span of 790 ft (241 111) with sicie spans of 176 ft (53.6 m) that cantilever another 61 ft (18.6 111) to the abut­ ments, Figure 1.30. Depth of this single-cell box girder superstructure varies parabolica'Uy from 46 it (14 m) at the pier to 12 ft (3.66 m) at midspan of the main span, Figure 2.68. The side span de­ creases linearly from the main pier to 33 ft 8 in. (10.26 m) at I he end piers ancithen to 9 ft (2.74 Ill) at the abutments. The structure has a symmetrical vertical curve of 800 ft (243.8 m) r~dius from abutment to abutment with the approach roadways at a 69t grade. I5 Superstructure cross section, Figure 1.30, is a sillgle-cell box 24 ft (7.3 m) in width with the top flange cantilevering 3 ft 9~ in. (1.16 m) for a total top flange width of 31 ft 7 in. (9.63 m), providing two traffic lanes and a pedestrian path. The webs have a constant thickness of 14 in. (0.36 m). Bot­ tom Bange thickness varies from 7 in. (0.18 m) at midspan of the center span to 46 in. (1.17 m) at the FIGURE 2.68. Koror-Babdthuap Bridge, parabolic soffit of main span (courtesy of Dr. Man-Chung Tang, DRC Consultants, Inc.). main pier and then to 21 in. (0.53 01) at an inter­ diaphragm located in the end span. This diaphragm and the one at the end pier form a bal­ last compartment. Another ballast compartment is located between the end-pier diaphragm and the abutment. The bottom flange under the ballast compartments is 3 ft (0.9 m) thick in order to sup­ port the additional load of ballast material. Top flange thickness varies from 11 in. (0.28 m) at midspan of the main span to 17 in. (0.43 m) at the main pier and has a constant thickness of 17 in. (0.43 m) in the end spans. 15 The superstructure is monolithic with the main piers, with a permanent hinge at midspan to ac­ commodate concrete shrinkage, creep, and ther­ mal movements. The hinge can only transfer verti­ cal and lateral shear forces between the two cantilevers and has no moment-transfer capacitv. 15 T~le superstructure was constructed in segme;1ts ~,ltb the end spans on falsework and the main span 111 the convenLional segmental cantilever manner, using form travelers. Aftcr foundations were com­ pleted, a 46 ft (14 m) deep by 37 ft (11.3 m) pier segr:lent was constructed, Figure 2.69, in three op­ erallons; first the bottom Bange, then thc webs and diaphragm, and finally the top Bange. Upon com­ pletion of the pier segment, form travelers were installed and segmental construction begun. Two form travelers were used to simultalleously ad- rr~ediate " FIGURE 2.69. Koror-Babelthuap Bridge, pier seg­ ment (courtesy of Dyckerhoff & Widmann). Vejle Fjord Bridge, Denmark FIGURE 2.70. Koror-Babelthuap Bridge, main-span c<lntile\ers adyancing (counesy of Dvckerhoff & Wid­ mann). vance the main-sp;1l1 c<lll1ilc\'ers, Figure 2.70. Seg­ ments ror this project were 15 ft (4.57 111) ill length. ls On this project. each segment took slightly more than olle week to construct. .-\ tvpical cn:le was as 10110\\'s: I.; l. \Vhen the cOllcrete strength in the last segment cast reached 2500 psi (l7.2 MPa), a specihed llumber of tendo!]s, ranging frOI11 six to 12, were stressed to :j() percent or their final force, thus enabling the form traveler to advance in preparation t()l' the following segment. Advancin,Li the form tr;l\c!er also brought for­ ward the Olllside forms or the box. The forms were cleaned while rough adjustments of ele­ \'<ltion were made. 3. 4, 5. 6. I. Reinforcement and prestressing tendons were placed ill the bottom llange and webs. The in­ ,.,ide forllls were advanced and top flange reill­ I'on:ell1ellt alld tendons placed. .\fter the prc\iou, segment COlKrete had reached;! ,trength of 3500 psi (24.1 \IPa), the remaining- tendons were stTessed. The previ­ ous segment had to be fully prestressed before concrete for the subsequent segment could be placed. Fine adjustment of the forms for camber and ml~' required correction was made. :"Jew segment concrete was placed and cured, \Vhen the new segment reached a concrete st rength of 2500 psi (I i.2 MPa), the cycle was repeated. The stmcture was prestressed longitudinallv, transversely. and verticallv. Three hundred and 63 two longitudinal tendons were required at the pier segment. As the cantilever progressed, 12 10 16 tendons were anchored otT at each segment, with eight longitudinal tendons remaining for the last segment in a cantilever at midspan. As the stnK­ ture has a hinge at midspan, there were 110 con­ tinuity tendons in the bottom flange. Transverse tendons in the top flange were spaced at 22 in. (0.56111) centers. Vertical tendons were used in the webs to accommodate shear. Spacing for the verti­ cal web tendons was 30 in. (0.76 111) in the center span and 15 in. (0.38 111) in the end spans. All ten­ dOllS were l:'r in. (32 mm) diamcter bars.ls Side spans were constructed on falsework resting on compacted hi!. The sequcnce of segmental con­ struction in the side spans was coordinated with that in the lllain~pan. so that the unbalanced mo­ ment at the main pier was maintained within pre­ scribed limits. 2.13 Vejle Fjord Bridge, Denmark This structure crosses the Vejle Fjord about 0.6 mile (I kl11) cast of thc V cjle Harbor. I t is part of the East Jutland \lowrway, which will provide a In'pass around the city of Vejle, Denmark. A total lenglh of 56 II ft (1710 m) makes it the second longest bridge in Denmark. Bid documents indicated two alt.ernative designs, on(' in steel and one in concrete. The steel alterna­ tive called for a superstructure composed of a central box girder with cantilevered outriggers slIpporting an orthotropic deck and Ijonl spans of 413 It (126111). The second alternative required a prestressed concrete superstructure with a central box girder to be constructed by the balanced can­ tilever method utilizing either precast or cast-in­ place segmelHs, with Ijord spans of 361 ft (110 111), The successful alternative was the cast-in-place segmental prestressed concrete box girder. The bridge, in plan, is straight without any hori­ zontal curvature. It does have a constant grade of 0.5% falling toward the north. :"Javigation re­ quirements were a minimum 131 ft (40 m) vertical and 246 ft (75 111) horizontal clearance. Water depth in the fjord is generally 8 to 11.5 ft (2.5 to 3,5 m) except at the navigation channel, where the depth increases to 23 ft (7 m). Under the fjord bed are !avers of ver\, soft foundation mat.erials, vary­ ing in depth From 26 to 39 ft (8 to 12 m). There­ fore, the piers in the tJord are founded on 8 in. (0.2 m) square driven reinforced concrete piles varying in length from 100 to 130 ft (30 to 40 m), Figure 2.7 L Piers on the sOllth bank are founded on 64 Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges s;.OIllCR[TE 90X-G1RDER TOP or c:ASTlt·., VIER fiXED FORM WORK r;====,~ ~' ~pYr" Tl-iICKN£SSES $"1OWN Co><'l{$PONC TO AvtRAGl SITUATION AT PIEFl.S to-U Mue lA-E:'~"'C1A~ GRAVl:llV SAND FIGURE 2.71. Vejle Fjord Bridge, ~j()rd founded on driven reinforced concrete piles. piers bored reinforced concrete piles, 59 in. (1500 mm) in diameter, Figure 2.72. On the north bank one pier is founded on driven reinforced concrete piles and one is supported directly on a spread footing. The cross section of the bridge, Figure 2.73, which carries four traffic lanes with a median bar­ rier, is a variable-depth single box with a vertical web and prestressed transverse ribs. Total width between edge guard rails is 87 ft (26.6 m). Box girder width is 39.4 ft (12 m), with a depth vary­ ing from 19.7 ft (6 m) at the pier to 9.8 ft (3 m) at midspan. Each segment is cast with a length of 11.3 ft (3.44 m). Transverse top flange ribs are spaced at 22.6 ft (6.88 m) centers-that is, every other segment joint. The total bridge length is divided into four sepa­ rate sections by three expansion joints located at t he center of spans 4-5, 8-9, and 12-13. Lon­ gitudinal prestress is achieved by Dywidag (twelve ---'-- .----........... FIGURE 2.72, on bored piles. V~ile Fjord Bridge, land piers founded 0.6 in. diameter strand) tendons, as are the trans­ verse prestress in the top slab and the continuity prestress in the bottom slab. A 492 ft (150 m) long steel launching girder and two special form travelers were used for casting in place the full width of the 11.3 ft (3.4 m) long seg­ ments in balanced cantilever. Insulating forms followed the form travelers in order to prevent the formation of fissures due to adverse temperature gradients. I n addition, the steel girder stabilized the concrete structure during construction and was used for the transportation of materials, equip­ ment, and working crew. The total weight of the girder including the two travelers was approxi­ mately 660 t (600 mt). A typical longitudinal sec­ tion of a cantilever is shown in Figure 2.74, along with the structure erection procedure. Work on the bridge started in the summer of 1975 and was scheduled for completion in 1980. ,.j "". j ~ ' 0: UJ 0 0 CL 0: ::: W .:: N ..­ > ::: o :..;;: Z ;:; 0 I­ U W 0 .Q .Q N lfl(Jlr1C>{S (j) (j) (j) dlM1S 3aln!) iiS 0 ~ o U 0 1.1) '" ~a: ~ tI S3Nvl ::u -JvMl l I- «:..; 1"­ .N ~ "::2 ;:l "'"lS 30 In") gI .... ]N\l1 ' " ~3!)~3Vl] iiSt~1noHS z j 11. 65 C'> C'> or SPAN J o{l.tl\..lt'l CAST ON SCMfCt-O'NG [N;) FIGURE 2.74. SUPERSTRUCTURE, PRINCIPLE OF EXECUTION C[NTR[ lIN( LONGITUDINAL SECTION Fjord Bridge. @ © ® ACCESS fOR l,.,'OR1UN(~ CRrH F:QUlr~'f'ENT _1 or !'IER ~lli\FTS. @ ® ® CD CD s('(t ion a lid erect ion seq!!!' 11('. --.~ COS'CRFTI~:G SLIP FORti PIERS. CA~TIl.F.VF;:':EP :;CAFfOUHNG FOR CA.STl~G OF SUPERSTRUCTURE srCTION ON Tor Of? CARRIAGFS FOR CONCRETlNG, WEICHT 1 SO ~1p PER CARRIAGE I.fITH rORM FOR CI\STl~G Of SUI'F:RHRUC­ SECTroN5 Of ),U H [~ FULL h'1])T1I or THf RRIDGr TllE GIRDER Ll\lmcm:n SLlCCr::SS1Vf:LY AccOROINr; TO PROGRF;SS FRO}! PIER TO PIER. - - TRANSPORTING OF HATFRlfiLS AND llIO-Sf'AN. SECTIONS OF' ].44 H LENGTH cAST TIlE SIlPFRSTf{UCT1!RE lS lwnn SHftn,TA­ !IF CONCRrTk 5TRl1CTIlRE AS OESCR Iltt:U CANTU.EVER SFCTWN, AtONG TIlE LAlfNClllll:G 1'HP EDGE REMIS OF TilE BRIIlGE nECK ARE FWAI.LY t•..(JN­ CRf'Tr::D TN A ~EPARAn: HORKTNC OP!~RATI0N. THE N()RTIlERN ANn THF: SOUTllERN nm OF nY W::ANl1 or InFNTlCAL EQU1N!F.NT Mm THF SAltF: CilNSTRllCTHlN PRfNC1PLF:S. l,At'NClll t~C SUd\ A}lll Im[pm~ DF:eK {CPNfJ~U11Y-TENDONS) 1'(1 l'RFlnntlSLY ESTAl\U SHED f.lR IDCE SECTION flY OF CF.NTRt: $1',(;'1"1(1;1 iN tHD-SPAN AND PRE­ STfWSS1Nf. AflDTTIONAL TENI'ONS IN ClRDF.R BOTT()H~ C(')~lCRETTN(; TENDONS. REHOVAL INC, SECTION. t)ORK lNG cYeLl]S PER TO ALTERNATE CASTTNG Of tn ANIl UNSti PPORTU)_ TO~,;ARu~ C()NCRETING OF $Yl'lHETRICAL SECTIONS FRm{ rrr:R Q) THE liAS THE F0LLOmNG FUNCTIONS: - :;TARlt,TZTNG THE CONCRErr STl{!.lCTt1RE Dt!lUNr. cor:rGIRUeT toN )00 LAUNCIIING GrRnER. LENGTH 105 ~1, 'r.'F.rCHT APr. @ ,,-CHHRE UNE Of SPAN TE N DON S CONSTRUCTION PRINCIPLES POSI TlON Of PRESTRESSING AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT ETC. BOX-TYPE GIRDER Vejle Fjord Bridge, Denmark FIGURE 2.75. Vejlc Fjord Bridge. launching girder. FIGURE 2.77. diaphragm. 67 Vejlc Fjord Bridge. pier segment \\itll FIGURE 2.78. \'ejlc Fjord Bridge. «)Il\truction \ic\\. spring 197H (courtes\ of H. A, Lindberg). ~7.:· '~~".J . FIGURE 2.76. .( .~ \'ejlc Fjord Bridge. tranS\'erse ribs. Construction progress ill the spring of 1978 is il­ lustrated in Figures 2.75 through 2.78. Figure 2.79 is an aerial view showing the structure nearing completion. To keep within the construction schedule, it was hnalh necessan' to use two com­ plete sets of launching girders and twill travelers working simultaneousl \ frol11 both ends of the bridge. FIGURE 2.79. the north\\·est. Vejle Fjord Bridge. aerial vIew from 68 Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 2.14 Houston Ship Channel Bridge, U.S.A. shrinkage, superimposed dead loads, and !i\'e loads). They are, therefore, heavil\' reinforced; their dimensions are: This bridge, a rendering of which is shown in Fig­ ure 1.67, includes a main structure over the Ship Channel ill HOllston, Texas, and two approach viaducts. The main structure is a three-span con­ tinuous box girder, cast in place in balanced can­ tile\·er. Span lengths are 375,750, and 375 ft (114, 229, and 114 111). The navigation channel is 700 ft (213 111) wide at elevation 95 ft (29 m) and 500 it (752 Ill) wide at elevation 175ft (53.4 m), Figu re 2.80. The three-web box girder carries four traffic lanes separated hy a 2 ft 3 in. (0.7 111) central bar­ rier and has two 3 It 9 in. (1.14 111) parapets. The box girder is fixed to the top of the main piers to make the structllre a three-span rigid frame. Sup­ port for the box girder is prm'ided by ebstomeric bearings on top of the transition piers, where it is separated frolll the approach \'iaducts 1n expan­ sion joints. Total heigh I (from top of footing to bottom of pier segments): 160 ft 10 in. (49 m) Length (parallel to centerline of highwav): 20 ft constant (6.1 m) Width: variable from 38 ft at the bottom to 2i ft i in. at the top (11.6 to 8.4 111) Pier cross section: rectangular box, with 2 ft (0.6 m) constant wall thickness The transition piers support the last segment of the main structure side span and the last span of the approaches. The pier shaft is a rectangular box with I ft 4 in. (0.4 111) thick walls. Their heights are 152 ft (46 m) at olle end and 164ft (50 111) at the other end of the bridge. The length, parallel to the centerline of the highway, varies from 18 to 8 ft (5.5 102.4 m); the width is 38 ft (11.6 m) constant. Atop the pier, a 6 ft 8 in. (2 111) cap carrics the per­ manent elastomeric hearings and all the temporary jacks and concrete blocks t hat will be used at the time of the side-span closure pour. All four piers are slip-formed. Box Girder SUjJers/ruc/ure Dimensions of the variable-depth box girder were dictated by \'ery stringent geometry requirements. Vertical align­ ment of the roadway was determined by the maximum allowable grade of the approach via­ ducts and the connection thereof with the roadway system on both banks. The clearance required f'or the ship channel left, therefore, only a structural depth of 21.8 ft (6.6 m) at the two points located 250 ft (76 m) on either side of the midspan section. The soffit is given a third-degree parabolic shape to increase the structural depth near the piers in order to compensate for the very limited height of FOUlidfi/iol/,\ The two center piers and two tran­ sition piers rest Oil 24 in. (610 111m) diametel' dri\'cn steel pipe piles. The center piers each rest upon 255 piles with a unit pile capacity of 140 t (127mt). Foolingsare 81 ft (24.i m)wide, 85 ft (26 Ill) long, aud 15 h(4.6 m) deep. These footings are surrounded by a sheet pile coilerdam and are poured Oil a 4 ft (1.2 m) thick sub/'ooting seal con­ crete. The transition pier footings are 50 ft (15.2 m) wide, 35 ft (10.7 111) long, and 5.5 it (1.7 m) thick and rest on iO piles each of lOO t (90 111t) bearing capacil\. Pins The main piers prmide for the stability of the cantilevers during construction (unbalanced constructioll loads and wind loads) and participate in the capacil\' and behavior of the structure under service loads (long-term loads due to creep and "<u C:, 'j ;/ ) .5.00'/. FIGURE 2.80. ) Houston Ship Channel Bridge, longiludinal section. Houston Ship Channel Bridge, U.S.A. the center portion of the main span. Maximum depth at the pier is 47.8 ft (14.6 m), with a span­ to-depth ratio of 15.3. Minimum depth at midspan is 15 ft (4.6 m), with a span-to-depth ratio of 49. O\'er the 500 ft ( 152 m) center portion of the main span the span-to-depth ratio is 23, compared to a usual value between 17 and 20. Typical dimensions of the box section are shown in Figure 2.81. Post­ tensioning is applied to the box section in three dimensions: 69 Longitudinal prestress is provided by straight­ strand tendons (twelve 0.6 in. diameter or nineteen 0.6 in. diameter strands), as shown schematically in Figure 2.82. Transversely, the top slab is post-tensioned by ten­ dons (four 0.6 in. diameter strands) in flat ducts placed at 2 ft (0.6 m) centers. Vertically, the three webs are also post-tensioned as prescribed in the specifications to a minimum 1-0 to I-I, '" '11 I ~ Bndg~ I i II I I \ rransv~rs~ I I I \ 0/ I - I I I I I ~' \.. __ -;:~ ___J !L________ J ---'~~~ I~___­ III FIGURE 2.81. n I : I I~I,'! IT II I I I \ III\ I I Houston Ship ChanIlel Bridge. box section. Canti/~ver teodons I,xO.6'/J prestress over main pl~S / / T } \, t1 • • ~.-.nnroT' \ [ \ I V~rtjcal \ \ r \ --"---r~ndons (I2x O·6·dia.and (I9xO·6"dia. ) FIGURE 2.82. Continuity prestress at mid· span Houston Ship Channel Bridge. longitudinal prestress. 70 Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges FIGURE 2.83. Houston Ship Channel Bridge. details of tr;l\clcrs. cOlllpressi\e stress equal to 3f~; that is, 230 psi (1.6 MPa) for a concrete strengthf~ = 6000 psi (41.4 \fPa). Details of the form traveler are shown in Figure 2.H3. Pier segments over the main piers are of unusual size alld posed a \'ery interesting design problem, arising from the transfer of the superstructure Ull- balanced moments into the pier shafts. Additional vertical post-tensioning tendons are provided in the two 2 ft (0.6 Ill) thick pier diaphragms lar this purpose. End segments over the transition piers were designed to allow either the approaches or the main structure to be completed first, as these are two separate contracts. It is possible to make an adjustment at the end piers to compensate either for differential settle­ 71 Other Notable Structures (a) 2,15,1 JHEDWAY BRIDGE, UK One of the first very long-span calltilever bridges was the :\Iedway Bridge, This structure used a se­ ries of temporary falsework bents to provide sta­ bilit\ during construction, Figure 2.84. 2./5.2 ',' RIO TOCL\TINS BRIDG};. BRAZIL This structure h<Js a center span of 460 ft (140 m) and two side spans of only 174ft (53 m), Figures 2,85 and 2,86, -.,,,; . " , . ")!, . (hi .f'" "". , • 2,15.3 tiiI.;i!· FIGURE 2.84. :-"led\\;tv BridgT. LK, «(I) [\-pical con­ struction ;,cqHl'ml', (b) Vic\\' of f1nishcd bridge, Illems 01' for al1\ deviation of the deflectiolls from (lie asslll1led call1ber diagram llsed for construc­ tion, Provisions ha\"c been lIlade for unexpected ad­ ditiollal concrete shrinkage and creep problems; empn' ducts have been placed in the pier segment diaphragms and at midspan to allow for future possible installation of additional tendons located inside the box girder but outside the concrete sec­ tion, should the need for such tendons arise. This bridge is located very high over a deep canyon of the Rio Si!. Cantilever cast-in-place was the ideal answer to allow construction with a minimal con­ tact with the environment, Figures 2,87 and 2.88, 2.1 H SCflL'BEX.1CADIE BRIDGE. C.'1.VADA This three-span bridge with a center span of 700 ft (213 111) crosses the Schubenacadie River, near Truro, :\ova Scotia, High tidal range. swift cur­ rents, ice, and adverse climatic conditions made the construction of this structure very challenging, Figures 2.89 and 2,90. 2./5.5 2.15 PCEXTE DEL AZUFRE, SPAI,V /,VCIEXSO BRIDGE, GUATEA-lALA Other Notable Structures There are so mam' outstanding and interesting cast-in-place cantilever bridges in the world today that it is impossible to discuss the subject ade­ quately in the space available here. :'vlention should be made, however, of several notable structures not vet covered by a detailed description. The main three-span rigid frame structure with a center span of 400 ft (122 m) is of cast-in-place bal­ anced cantilever construction, and the approach spans are of precast girders, Figures 2.91 and 2.92. The very severe 1977 earthquake left the center structure completely undamaged, while the usual damage took place in the approach spans. ... 72 Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridge'S ~~ II~ ~·~II +'-1-'-"-+"-''-+'''''-if-'''''+'''''-1..~-~5:,-3-____T_ ..._ _~._1.l!!""'-0_ _ _-+1_-"5:,,c3_-..-""'4~_~~-+'~~~~ +-__._--""'Q2'--_ _+-_..~.~_. ___. 256 . ..::5::::32::.;•.:...:70::....-_ _ .. _ _ _.. FIGURE 2.85. Rio Tocantins Bridge. Brazil, tvpical elevation and cross section. 2.15.6 SETL'BAL BRlJJGE, ARGENTINA This three-span structure with a main span of 460 It (140 111) rests on two main river piers with [win \'ertical ......alls and piles, with a transition footing at water elevation, Figures 2.93 and 2,94. 2.15.7 KIPAPA STREAM BRIDGE, U.S.A. This bridge is located in the Island of Oahu in the State of Hawaii, The dual structure has an overall width of 118 It (36 m) to accommodate six traffic lanes, three in each direction, and consists of two double-cell box girders of constant depth with interior spans of 250 ft (76.2 m), Figures 2.95 and 2.96. Construction was by cast-in-place cantilever with segments 15 ft 3 in. (4.65 m) long. The bridge has pleasant lines, which blend aestheticall\' with the rugged deep-valley site. 2,15.8 PARROTS FERR}, BRIDGE, U.S.A, This structure, built in California for the Corps of Engineers, represents a major application of light­ weight concrete for cast-in-place cantilever con­ struction, Figure 2.97. 2.15.9 FIGURE 2.86. Rio Tocantins Bridge, Brazil, view of the finished bridge. MAGNAN VIADUCT, FRANCE Located just off the French Riviera in Southern France, this four-span continuous structure rests on 300 ft (92 m) high twin piers of an I-shaped section. Superstructure was cast in place in two stages (first the bottom slab and webs and then the top slab) to reduce the weight and cost of travelers. Figures 2.98 and 2.99 show the principal dimen­ sions and views of one cantilever and the finished structure, Figure 2.100 . Other Notable Structures 6500 73 13000 RIO '500 SIL 13.70 .-h-f=t I 310 ~ "I"'!i :I I I I L J-: 9' I I ---------- I I I I ~ -1--4 :-----+­ J[ --,,,- j -----.J-50---t--12iL-~ FIGURE 2.87. 2.1 ill) PUl'lltl' dd Al.ufre. Spain. tvpical dc\ation and sections. 1'( Tr:. /IX liIUf)C/:". FR./SCE These ;lre t\\in bridges <Tossillg Ihe Seine River Ile;!r Paris. Bcc;tllse of \Tn' stril1gent clearance and gconletn rcqllirements. the ayaibble structural de]>1 h \\,;IS ollh 5.~) It (I.S m) for Ihe cle;n' 275 l't (S:l.S 111) sp;ln ;lIHI4.S It (1.-+7111) for the clear 21-+ fI (G5.3 111) span. ll1aking both structures very slen­ der. Figures 't.l0l alld 2.102. StitT "V" piers in both structures help reduce the flexibility of the deck. 2.15.11 TRIC/SnV RRII)(;E, FR. LVCt: This structure spam the Rhone River with no piers in the river, which necessitates a long center span and two yerv short side spans anchored at bOlh ends against uplift. The center portion of the main span is of lightweight concrete, while the two zones over the piers where stresses are high are of con­ ventional concrete, Figures 2.103 and 2.104. 2.15.12 FIGURE 2.88. Puente del Azufre. Spain. ESCH-ICHTAL BRlDGE, GERMANY This bridge is located near Stuttgart, Germam'. The superstructure consists of a large single-cell box girder with large top flange cantilevers sup­ ported by precast struts. Because of the weight in­ volved, the central box was cast in one operation; struts were installed and flanges cast subsequently, Figures 2.105 and 2.106. .. TO WINDSOR TO TRURO "EST --­ ----------------­ --' 'I EXISTING RIVER SOTTOM Elevation It. I I 1 I~ , I 11:5 Section at Midspan Section over Piers FIGURE 2.89. Shubcllacadic Brid~e, FIGURE 2.90. Shubenacadie Bddge, support system for unbalanced cantilever moment at pier (courtesy of the Portland Cement Association), 74 de\<ltioll and seC! ions, hom leI. I (j, FIGURE 2.91. the structure, Incienso Bridge. Guatemala, view of 390.00 ,25.00 6.00 I 122.00 64.00 ELEVATION MAIN 111 FIGURE 2.92. 79.00 SECTION ON SUPPORT BRIDGE 1/2 SECTION ON SPAN IIKiel1'o Bridge. Guatemala. dimensions. ..Z.Q.. ~{L .•.___ DIC~CI ~---FIGURE 2.93. lr -~'\ Setubal Bridge. Argentina, dimensions. 75 ... FIGURE 2.94. bridge, 205' 250' .. T 250' ~~++-.-------r--- i I : ; 1,1, ~:::::J Abut 1 : Setubal Bridge. Argentina, \'ie\, of the " Ir r I~ r_:::::r==i .--~--. 3 2 --I 5 4 Elevation . ~. . Abut 2 7 6 '" 14" 12" ., >, '" ~ 14" ';:: 12" Cross Section FIGURE 2.95. Kipapa Stream Bridge. elevatioll and cross section. FIGURE 2.96. Kipapa Stream Bridge, construction view (courtesy of Dyckerhoff & Widmann). 5 FIGURE 2.97. Ferry Bridge, ref. 17, Parrots dimensions, COUPE (!) LONGITUDINALE 0) FIGURE 2.98. (!J I..f AAllLOH :-­ ~Iagnan Viaduct, \Ol1giludill,d ;,enioll. FIGURE 2.99. :\[agnan ViaduC[, view of a cantilever. FIGURE 2.100. :-"Iagnan Viaduct, aerial view of [he completed bridge. ii ... FIGURE 2.101. Putcaux Bridge, aerial "iew of the completed bridge. COUPE LONGITUDIIILE P2 Ct C4 P3 i ---~.-- i ---------_.--­ .'Ul'--_ _ _ __ J. -----~ --------~-- II... ! ,a.II.tJ ~-' IJU.." ". /_1 / " !­ ." 2 . . . , US ........... nu FIGURE 2.102. 78 Puteaux Bridge. longitudinal section. PlRIII - PIll '1111 n r \ I I i 203 DO 30.25 25.25 "~ <', "­ ~ - -~I 3025 142.50 Silon I .~~~.: /. . ... ., ~ Ii qtr ,250. .' -- - 2525 1 .. ,750 ~-:,I\/' ,,~~"*"" I~ ~ o U"l (\J 2 60 240 FIGURE 2.103. 2 60 5.20 240 fricastin Bridge, dimensions, 79 FIGURE 2.104. FIGURE 2.105. cantilevers. 80 Eschachtal Tricastin Bridge, view of finished bridge. Bridge, casting flange FIGURE 2.106. struts, Eschachtal Bridge, view of outrigger References 2.16 Conclusion The man\' structures described above show the versatilitv of cast-in-place babnced cantilever COIl­ struction, particularly in the held of very-long-spall bridges with few repetitive spans. The design as­ pect of these structures will be discussed in Chap­ ter 4 and construction problems in Chapter 11. References L H. ThuL "Briickenbau," Bf'/otl- 111111 S/ablhf/ollbau, 61 Jahrgang, Hetl 5, :-'lai 19i16. :!.. ell'jeh Fills!erwalder, "Prestre,sed COlltTele Bridge ConSI ruction." JOlin/III oj IiiI' .i ltil'nmll COllal'l/' 11I.,li­ 1111,'. Vol. ():?, :-':0.9. Seplember 1965. :1. Llrich Finsterwalder, ":-':ew Developments ill Pre­ stressing \'lethods and Concrete Bridge Construc­ t i( HI," [)w ,idtlg-Bpnch/r , ·t-I <)0 i, September 19t;i, Ihl kerholl &: Widlll,lnll KG, 'dUlliLil, Cel'lllam. 4. Llrich FillSlen,',ddel', "Free CalltileH'I' COIlSII'uctioll 01' Prest !'cssed COllcrete Bridges and \Iush roolll­ Sh;lped Bridges," Fir.lIIIl/!·l'IIflllllllll! SHII/JIi.'/llIIl, CI)II­ ITI'II' Bodg!' D".,igll. AC1 Publication SP-2:L Paper SP2:~-2t), American COllcrete Institute, Detroit. 196~J. 5. "Brid),ic Built :\top the SCCIlCI\ With CtlltileYCI'ed l'I'an'ler"" FII,~illl'l'Iil/g Snl'.l-Rt'((}rrl, JUllC IH, 19(i4. t). Dale F. Downing, "Cantiit'\'Cr Segmcnt~:l Prestressed i. Clst-ill-l'lan' Construction 0(' the Pine Valle\' Creck Bridge." presentcd to thc .\ASHO Anllu;ti \'lecting, Los ,\ngeles. California, :-':o\elllber II I;"), IlJi3, "Pine \';dle\ Crcek Bridgc, California:' Bridgc Re­ (101'1 SR It)!.lll E, Portland Ccment Association, Skokie, 111., 19i4, 81 8, Richard A. Dokken, "CALTRA:-':S ExpericlH.:e in Segmental Bridge Design," Bridgf' Noles, Division or Structures, Department of Transportation. State or California, Vol. XVII, :-':0. I, March IY75. 9. A. P. Bezzonl:', "Pine Valley Creek Brid).!;e­ Designing for Segmental Construction," ;vleeting Preprim 1944. ASCE National Structural En­ gineering \1eeting. A pdl 9-13, 1973, San Francisco. 10. Richard Heinen, "Pine Valley Creek Bridge: Use 01 Canrilever Construction," \teeting i'reprint 19H I, ASCE :-':;ltional Srruclllral Engineering Meeting, April Y-I3, 19i3, San Francisco. II. ".'1..15 et A.H6 raccorde!l1ent aurorOllticr dans Ie nord <lu departetllcllt des hams-de-seine," \iinisrerc de \.'Equipc1l1ent DireClioll Departcmelltal dc L'Equipement des Hauts-de-Seine, Paris, September 1976. 12. "Bridge Has 595 l't Post-tensioned Span," HNI!'Y COlls/ruc/ioll ,Vews, August:!, 1976. I:), ":-':apa River Bridgc, :-':apa, California," Portland Cement Associatioll, Bridge Report, SR 194.01 E, 19i7. H. ".\lternale Bidding for California's :\apa River Bridge WOI1 bv C~tst-il1-Place Prestressed COl1crete Segmental Construction," Prestressed Concrete in­ s! itll! e. Post-Tensioning Division, Special Brid ge Report, 15, \lau-Chung Llllg, "Koror-Babelthuap Bridge-A World Record Span," Preprint Paper 3441, ASCE COIl\Tntion, Chicago, October 16-20, 1978. 16. D. W, MacIntosh and R, A. Whitman, "The SlllIht'llacadie Bridge, ~laitlal1d, :\ova Scotia," All­ Illlal Conl'erence Prcpl'ints, Roads and Trallsporta­ tioll Association or Canada, Olla\\'a, 1978. 17. "Concrete Alternate Wins Competitive Bidding Comest [I)r Long SP,Hl Califo1'l1i~l Bridge," Bridge Rcport, Post-Tensioning Institute. A.pri I 1977. 3 Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder BTidges 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 1l\.'TRODUCfION CHOISY-LE-ROI BRIDGE AND OTHER STRUC­ TURES IN GREATER PARIS. FRANCE PIERRE BENlTE BRIDGES NEAR LYON. FRA1':CE OTHER PRECAST SEGMENTAL BRIDGES IN PARIS 3,14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.4.1 Paris Belt (Downstream) 3.4.2 Paris Belt (Upstream) 3.4.3 Juvisy Bridge 3.4.4 Twin Bridges at Conflans 3.18.1 3.18.2 3.1S.3 3.18.4 3.18.5 3.18.6 3.1S.7 3.lS.8 3.18.9 3.18.10 3.18.11 :~.5 OLERON VIADUCT. FRANCE CHILLON VIADUCT. SWITZERLAND 3.6 3.7 HARTEL BRIDGE, HOLLAND 3.8 RIO-NlTEROI BRIDGE. BRAZIL BEAR RIVER BRIDGE. CANADA 3.9 3.10 JFK MEMORIAL CAUSEWAY, U.S.A. 3.II SAINT ANDRE DE CUBZAC BRIDGES, FRANCE 3.12 SAINT CLOUD BRIDGE, FRANCE 3.13 SALLlNGSUND BRIDGE, DENMARK 3.1 Introduction ;\s indicated ill Chapter I. precast sq..; mental coJ)­ stnluioll had its origins (in the cOl1temporalT sense) in France in 1962 as a logical ahernati\'e to the cast -in-plac~ met hod of const ruction. To the advantagc oj' segmental cantile\cr cOllstructioll. primarily the elimination of (ol1\'cl1tional false­ \\'ork. thc technique adds the rcfinel1lellts im­ plicit in t he use of precasling. The characteristics or precast segmental con­ struction arc: I. 2. 82 Fabrication of the segments can be accom­ plished while the substructure is ullder con­ st ructioll, thus enhancing erection speed of the superst rU(ture. lh virtue of precasting and therefore mawritv of the cOllcrete at the time of erection. the lime required for strength gain of the concrete is H'IIl()\'cd from the construction critical path. B·3 SOUTH VIADUCfS. FRANCE ALPINE MOTORWAY STRUCTCRES. FRANCE BRIDGE OVER THE EASTER]\; SCHELDT. HOLLAND CAPTAIN COOK BRIDGE, AUSTRALIA OTHER NOTABLE STRUCTURES Calix Bridge, France Vail Pass Bridges, U.S.A. Trent Viaduct. U.K. L-32 Tauernautobahn Bridge. Austria Kishwaukee River Bridge. U.S.A. Kentucky River Bridge. U.S.A. 1-205 Columbia River Bridge. U.S.A. Zilwaukee Bridge. U.S.A. Ottmarsheim Bridge. France Overstreet Bridge, Florida, U.S.A. F-~ Freeway, Melbourne, Australia REFERENCES 3. 4. :\.S a result of the maturit\, of the concrete at the time of erection. the effects of concrete shrinkage and (Teep arc Illinil1lizecl. Superior qualin' cOl1trol call be achie\'ed for factory-produced precast concrete. i-Jom,'\cr, geometric cOlltrol during fahrication of segments is es~ell!ial. and corrections during erec­ tion are more difficult than f()r cast-in-place seg­ mental construction. In addition, the connection of longitudinal ducts for post-tensioning tendons and the COlltillUit\ of reinforcing steel. if the\' are required in the de~ign. are less easilv achieved III precast than in cast-in-place methods. Although precast segmental had been used as early as 1944 for the Luzanc\ Bridge O\'er the \1arne Ri\'er, Figure 1.'27, \\'ide acceptance began when match-casting techniques \,'ere developed. Basicallv, the principle of fabrication of precast segments is to cast them in a series one against the other in the order in which they are to be assem­ Choisy-le-Roi Bridge and Other Structures in Greater Paris, France hied in the structure. The front face of a segment, thus. seryes as a bulkhead for casting the rear face of the subsequent segment. Methods of fabrication of precast segments will be discussed in Chapter 11. Seglllents are erected in balanced cantilever starting from a segment over the pier, which is the first to be placed. \-Ioditications to the initial prin­ ciple have further increased the fiexibility of erec­ tion procedures. Two major modifications are (1) temporarv prestress ties to secure two or more suc­ cessive segments and thus free the erection equip­ ment, and (2) cantilever prestressing tendons an­ chored illside the box sections instead of at the segment face as on early structures. These refi ne­ lIlents mean that the placing of segments and the threading and stressing of tendons becollle illde­ pelldem operations. Efficient application of this method has resulted in the use of cantilever construction in moderate­ to small-span strnctures where it had preyiollslv been considered utleconomical. Examples are the 15-;) South \'iaduet (Sectioll 3.14) composed of spans ranging from 9H ft (30 111) to 164 ft (50 Ill) and the .-\Ipine \Iotorwav Bridges (Sectioll ;).15) where the spans range between 60 ft ( I H Ill) to 100 ft CW Ill). It is interestillg to note a constant evolution to­ \\anl increased transverse dimensions alld weight of precast seglllellts. Problems in precasting, transportillg, and placing segments that are COIl­ stallll\' becoll1ing heavier and wider are being progressively resolved. Chapter 4 will deal with this progressive e\'ollltiOI1 as applied to some French precast segmental bridges and will discllss typical cross sect iOlls of sOllie precast segmental bridges constrllcted or ill the design stage ill the Cllited States.1.2 In cont inuous structures expansioll joilHs mav be spaced verv far apart. Continuous bridges lip to ;3:)00 ft (I (jOO 111) in length hale been constructed \\'ithollt intermediate joints: however. this may not be an upper limit, provided that the design of bearings and piers is correctly integrated into the total design of the structure. Free longitudinal movement of the bridge due to creep and temper­ ature change is allowed for by placing the structure on eiastomeric or sliding (teflon) bearings. We can also use pier Hexibi!ity to accommodate these movements by fixing the superstructure to the piers. In this case, flexibility can be obtained either bv pier height or by the use of single or double thin-slab walls, thus reducing the piers flexural re­ sistance. 83 The first precast segmental bridge to be built on the North American Continent was the Lievre River Bridge on Highway 35, 8 miles (13 km) north of Notre Dame du Laus, Quebec. with a center span of 260 ft (79 m) and end spans of 130 ft (40 m), built in 1967. It was followed in 1972 by the Bear River Bridge, Digby, Nova Scotia (Section 3.9), with six interior spans of 265 ft (81 m) and end spans of 204 ft (62 m). The JFK Memorial Causeway, Corpus Christi, Texas (Section 3.10), opened to traffic in 1973, was the first precast seg­ mental bridge to be constructed in the United States. In the United States, as of this writing, the authors are aware of more than 30 precast seg­ mental bridge projects that are either completed, uncler construction, or in the design stage. Some are listed in Table 3. I." 3.2 Choisy-le-Roi Bridge and Other Structures in Greater Paris, France The first bridge to lise the precast segmental cal1­ tilever technique with epoxied match-cast joillts was built at Choisv-Ie-Roi near Paris between 1962 and 1964. It carries \iational Highway 186. a part of the Paris Great Belt system, over the Seine River just east of Orly Airport, Figu re 3.1. This structure is a three-span continuous bridge of constant dept II with end spans of 12:1 ft (37.5 m) and ;1 center span of 180 ft (55 m). Figures 3.2 and 3.3. This bridg-e replaced one constructed in 187(), which had a superstructure of six steel girders with five spans of approximately 75 ft (23 111). This structure, determined to be no longer adequate as earlvas 1939, was se\erely damaged during World \Var II. It in turn had replaced an ancient bridge of five 66 !"t (20 m) oak a1"ch spans designed by the famolls mathematician Claude-Louis-Marie ~avier" In 1961, a stud, bv the Administration of Bridges and Roads allowed two options, one in prestressed concrete and the other in steel, each having three continuous spans of 123 ft (37.5 mi. 180.1 ft (55 m), and 123 ft (37.5 m). Four pre­ stressed concrete solutions were considered. The successful solution is illustrated in Figure 3.2. The overall width of the superstructure for this dual bridge is 93.2 ft (28.4 m), Figure 3.3. Each bridge consists of two single-cell rectangular box girders. Tlte superstructure accommodates dual two-lane roadways of 23 ft (7 m), two 13 ft (4 m) sidewalks, and a 10 ft (3 m) median.4.3 Individual box girders have a constant depth of 8.2 ft (2.5 m), 84 Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges· TABLE 3.1. Name and Location Lievre River, NOire Dame du Laus, Quebec Bear River, Digby, Nova Scotia JFK Memorial Causeway, Corpus Christi, Texas Muscaluck River, U.S. 50, North Vernon, Indiana Sugar Creek, State Route 1620, Parke County. Indiana Vail Pass, 1-70 V,est of Denver, Colorado (4 bridges) Penn DOT Test Track Bridge, Penn Sate C niversity, State College, Pa. Turkey Run State Park Parke County, Indiana Pasco-Kennewick. Columbia River between Pasco and Kennewick, Washington (cable-stay spans) Wabash River, U.S. 136, Covington, Ind. Kishwaukee River, Winnebago Co. near Rockford. III. (dual structure) Islington Ave. Ext., Torollto, Ontario Kentucky River, Frankfort, Ky. (d ual structure) Long Key, Florida (contract let late 197H) Linn Cove, Blue Ridge Parkway, N.C. (contract let late 197H) Zilwaukee, Michigan (dual structure) (bids opened late 1978) Precast Segmental Concrete'Bridges in North America Date of Construction Method of Construction" Span Lengths. It (m) 1967 B.C. 1972 B.C. 1973 B.C. 1975 B.C. 1976 B.C. 1977 B.C. 1977 O.F. 130 260 130 (39.6 - 79.2- 39.6) 203.75 ­ 5 @ 265 203.75 (62.1 - 6 @ HO.77 - 62.1) 100 200 ­ 100 (30.5 - 61 30.5) 95 190 95 (29- 5H ­ 29) 90.5 ­ 180.5 90.5 (27.6 55 27.6) 134 - 200 ­ 200 ­ 134 (40.8 51-61-40.H) 134 - 2()() 200 ­ 145 (40.H - 51 - 61 - 44) 151-155210-210-154 (46 47.2-64-6cJ 47) 1;)3 210 210- 154 (46.6 64 64 47) 124 (37.H) 1977 B.C. 1978 B.L 19/H 1.L. 1979 H.C. 1979 B,C, 1979 B.C. S.S. P.P. B.C. 180 - IHO (:)4.9 - 54.9) 406.5 981 - 406.5 (124 - 299 ­ 124) 93.5 4 We I Hi - 93.5 (28.5 - 4 @ 57 28.5) 170 :-1 ((1 250 ­ 170 (51.8 3 ((1 76.2 - 51.8) 2 ((I 16 I 2()0 - S (ii 272 (2@49-61-50 H3) 22H.5 - 320 22H.5 (69.6 97.5 ­ 69.6) 113 - 101 ((i 1 18 - 113 (34,4 101(~36-34,4) 98.5 ­ 163 - 4 @ 180 163 - 98.5 (30-49.7 4 @ 54.9-49.7 30) 26 :-.; .B. spans total length 8,087.5 (2,465) 25 S.B. spans total length 8,057.5 (2,456) maximum span 392 (119.5) ------------------------------------------------------------"Method-or-construction notation; B.C.-balanced cantilever, LL-incrementallaunching, OJ,'.-on falsework, P.P.-progressive placement, S.S.-span-by-span. top Range width of 21.65 ft (6.6 m), and a bottom flange width of 12 ft (3.66 m). Webs have a con­ stant thickness of 10i in. (0.26 m), and the top flange is of constant section throughout its length with a minimum thickness of 7 in, (0.] 8 m) at its crown, Figure 3.3. The bottom Range thickness is 6 in. (0,15 m), except near the river piers where the thickness increases to 15.75 in. (0.4 m) to ac­ commodate cantilever bending stresses. The downstream half of the bridge (consisting of two ~---. Choisy-le-Roi Bridge and Other Structures in Greater Paris, France 85 Precast Segmental Bridges 1 Choisy-le-Roi 2 Courbevoie 3 4 5 6 7 @J 8 9 113 A4 ,.\'''." 10 II 12 Ring Motorway Ring Motorway St Cloud Juvisy Conflans St Maurice Interchange B-3 South Viaduct Marne la Vallee Torey RR Clichy RR 1962-64 65-66 66-68 67-68 72-74 66-68 70-72 78 71 72 75-77 78 78 Cast-in-Place Segmental Bridges 13 14 15 16 • 17 18 19 20 FIGURE 3.1. Location map of segmental bridges in greater Paris. FI'ancc. box girders) was constructed first, alongside the existing bridge. :\fter removal of the existing bridge. the second or upstream half was con­ structed. Each dual structure was constructed by the balanced cantilever method utilizing Freyssinet tendons for the longitudinal prestressing. Box girder segments were 8.2 ft (2.5 m) in length and weighed 22 tons (20 mt), except the pier segments FIGURE 3.2. Gennevilliers 1974-76 North West A-86 Interchange 78 Clichv High\"ay 73-75 Puteaux Bridges 75-77 71 7·1 Issy les :'vloulineaux Cravelle H-75 74-76 Joinville Neuilly sur \'-Iarne h6-68 Choisv-Ie-Roi Bridge. which were 16.4 ft (5 m) in length and weighed 60.6 tons (55 1m), The pier segments also con­ tained two diaphragms which provided continuity with the inclined wall piers, Figure 3.3, The segments were fabricated in a precasting vard on the left bank of the Seine approximatelv a mile (1.6 km) upstream of the project site, Figure 3.4. Although this bridge might be considered of moderate importance with respect to span lengths, its importance lies in the method of fabrication. It was the first to use segments precast by the match­ casting technique. Segments were cast in the pre­ casting yard as a series of 8.2 ft (2.5 m) long units, one against the other, on a continuous soffit form which had been carefully adjusted to the intrados profile of the bridge with allowance for camber. This came to be known as the "long-line" method (see Chapter 11). Two sets of steel forms riding the soffit form and overnight steam curing allowed the production of two segments per working day. To prevent bonding of the segments to each other in the casting form, a special peel-off bond breaker was sprayed over the end of the segment before the adjacent segment was cast. The segments were 86 Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges Elevation 2lHO 7J.)O 120 ;(0' • .. :\0 ~ ; ~! Fm -,- _F~-- I :. lL ..... _ ' ) ! «(" • , . L •• • j 1HI2 """ Elevation and cross section of river piers Cross SEction of superstructure FIGURE 3.3. Choi~y-le-Roi Bridge. dimensions: ele­ vatioll. elevatioll and (TOSS section of River piers, cross section of superstructure. suhsequently stripped from the soffit form at their match-cas! joints and reassembled at the bridge site in balanced cantilever on each side of the river piers. 4 A floating crane handled the segments at the casting yard. After the u nits were loaded on barges and transported to the project site, the same crane placed the segments over a retractable jig rolling inside the box girder in the completed portion of the bridge and was thus freed for another segment placing operation. A platform mounted on jacks on the jig, Figure 3.5, allowed for adjustment of the segment at the desired position. 4 A I ft (0.3 m) wide gap was temporarily maintained between the faces of the segments to allow workmen to apply Choisy-le-Roi Bridge and Other Structures in Greater Paris, France FIGURE 3.4. FIGURE 3.5. 87 Choisv-Ie-Roi Bridge, view of the precasting yard. Choisv-Ic-Roi BI'idge, retractable erection jig. the epoxvjoinl material. Thejig \Vas then retracted and prestressing tendons were placed and stressed to connect the two sym metrical segments on each side of the previousl\' completed portion of the cantilevers on either side of the pier." Placing of the precast segments in a call1ilever fashion OIl each side of the pier progressed step by step. as indicated in Figure 3.6. Tendon layout is illustrated in Figure 3.7. Cpon completion of the two twin cantilevers from the river piers. a cast-in­ place closure pour was consummated at midspan and a second series of prestressing tendons were placed in the bottom flange to achieve continuity between the two center-span cantilevers. These tendons were given a draped profile to allow the locati<,>Tl of tendon anchorages in the top flange of the box girder. Both series of tendons, cantilever and coIllinuity, overlap each other and cOIllribute FIGURE 3.6. Choisy-Ie-Roi Bridge. segment placing ,dth floating crane. .... 88 Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges FIGURE 3.7. Choisy-le-Roi Bridge, tendon lavout. to a substantial reduction in the shear forces in the webs as a result of the vertical component of the prestress. The side spans were constructed in a similar manner. The three precast segments adja­ cenl to the abutments were assembled on falsework. After a closure pour between these segments and the cantilever from the river pier, positive-moment tendons were placed and stressed in the end span to achieve continuity. Because the midspan area of the center span had little capacity to withstand moment reversal under ultimate load, additional short tendons were located m the top flange to achieve full reinforcement continuity with the longest cantilever tendons. 5 The same construction technique used for the Choisy-le-Roi Bridge was used for the Courbevoie Bridge, built bet ween 1965 and 1967, which also crosses the Seine in the northwest suburb of Paris, Figure 3.1. The bridge has three symmetrical spans of 130, 200, and 130 ft (40, 60, and 40 m) for a tOlallcnglh of 460 ft (140 m), Figure 3.8. Four box girders of constant depth carry the 115 ft (35 4.o(1Q. _ _ .. _~ NEUILLY 35.70 I NIVEAU NORMAL DE LA SEINE 23.50 FIGURE 3.8. Courbevoie Bridge, elevation. I Pierre Benite Bridges near Lyon, France m) wide deck, Figure 3.9. The available depth of only 7.5 ft (2.28 m) made necessary a very slender structure; depth-to-span ratio for the main span is 1126. 5 •6 Each river pier is an assembly of two half-piers, Figures 3.9 and3.10, which are fixed at the level of the foundation. Each half-pier consists of a rectan­ gular shaft 9 by 26 ft (2.8 by 8 m), which supports two pairs of prestressed concrete walls, above the normal water level, in the form of a parallelogram of 18 in. (0.45 m) thickness and 10.5 ft (3.2 m) width. The walls are arranged in a "V" in the transverse direction of the bridge and have a di­ mension of 6.7 ft (2.05 m) out-to-out of walls in the longitudinal direction. 6 The girders are fixed at the piers and supported on elastomeric bearings at the abutments. A total of 148 precast segments of 12.5 ft (3.8 m) length were required for the super­ structure. They were fabricated in four months at the rate of two segments per day, in two sets of steel forms, electrically heated and insulated with polyurethane lining:' Erection at the site was accomplished by a float­ iug crane. After careful (lcljustment of the pier segments, they were erected at the rate of four per day. The temporary jig used at Choisy-le-Roi for adjustment of the segments was replaced in this project by two temporarv steel beams bolted to the top of each segment and connected to the com­ plett:d section of the cantilever bv prestressing bars:; The girder was prestressed longitudinally and tra nsversely. th rough three longitudinal cast-in­ place strips between the top flange cantilevers of the box girders. The completed structure is shown in Figure 3.10. 3.3 89 FIGURE 3.9. Courbe\oie Bridge, cross section at river pier and abutment. ~:;"'i> \.".. .. ::­, . --~ \ 0::::: ' .... \ '!o. ~\ FIGURE 3.10. bridge. Courbevoie Bridge. view of completed Pierre Benite Bridges Near Lyon, France These two large bridges carry the rnotorway from Paris to the Riviera south of Lyon near the Pierre Benite hydroelectric plant, Figure 3.11. There are two separate bridges, one over the draft channel of the power plant and the other over the Rhone River. Both structures are twin bridges, each bridge consisting of two single-cell box girders. Typical dimensions in longitudinal and cross sec­ tions are shown in Figures 3.12 and 3.13. The same constant depth of 11.8 ft (3.6 m) is used for all spaf}S of the two bridges. However, a haunch under the intracios of the box girders increases the , FIGURE 3.11. Pierre Benite Bridge, view of the finished bridge. Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges. 90 ~ ___ ~_~ ____ . ._~_________ ,~L~ __·________ i--~-------------~~!~n=,o=o~(~~~IQ~x~.~)__________ ~,~2· Bridge over draft channel «(1 ) (hJ FIGURE 3.12. l'icrn' lknil{, Bridge. longitudinal s('((iollS. (({) Bridg(, ()\er draft Hel. (h) Bridge owr Rhone Rin'r. '. 1 16.92 , . 3,26.~ +. 1 'n (han~ , ,t -l--~0;.~~=~~~=:::rr=9=::::::V~ ~ FIGURE 3.13. Pierre Benile Bridge, t\'Pica] structural depth over the piers to a maximum of 14 ft (4.28 m) for the 276 ft (84 m) span. All piers rest on com pressed-air caissons and are made of solid cylindrical columns 6.5 ft (2 m) in diameter which support the cast-in-place pier segment, including skew diaphragms between the two individual box girders of each bridge. This pier segment served as the starting base for precast segment placing in balanced cantilever for the superstructure. The 528 segments were precast near the southern hank of the draft channel. This application of pre­ cast segmelltaJ construction was the occasion to conceive and develop for the first time the short­ ClOSS section. linc precasting Illethod, whereby the segments are cast in a formwork located in a stationary position. Each segrnent is cast between a fixed bulkhead and the preceding segment, in order to obtain a perfect match. After a learning curve of a few weeks, each of the two short-line-method casting machines was used to cast one segment every day. Details and specific problems of the short-line method will be described in Chapter II. Figure 3.14 shows the precast segments as they were fabricated, tem­ porarily stored, loaded on barges by a very simple portal structure equipped with winches, and finally transported to the construction site. I I I ~- Other Precast Segmental Bridges in Paris 91 construction site with segment placing in progress is shown in Figure 3.16. Both precasting and placing operations were carried out successfully. All the segments were placed in the structures in 13 months. The only re­ gret was that this erection system did not provide for precast pier segments. The geometry of the cast-in-place pier segments was further compli­ cated by the skew of the bridges, such that the contractor expended as much labor on this aspect of construction as in precasting and positioning all the precast segments. 3.4 Other Precast Segmental Bridges in Paris The first two match-cast bridges, Choisy-le-Roi and Courbevoie, were followed by a series of other crossings over the Seine River. All contracts for de­ sign and construction were obtained on a competi­ tive basis with other types of materials or construc­ tion methods. The next two structures were for the construc­ tion of the Paris Belt :'lotorway which crosses the Seine at two locations, one downstream of the city and one upstream; see the location map, Figure 3.1. They were followed by several others, which are briefly described in this section. 3.4.1 PARIS BELT (DOIV.\STllE,1!H) These twin bridges, Figure 3.17, carry four traffiC FIGURE 3.14. Pierre Benile Bridge. precasting yard and loading portal. ((Ii {'recasting vanL (h) Loading portal. lanes. Dimensions are shown in Figures 3.18 and Placing of all segments in the two twin structures . was achieved in balanced cantilever. using the cast-in-place pier segments as a starting base. This project used the newlv developed "beam-and­ winch" erection system, illustrated in Figure 3.15 together with J close-up view of a typical seg­ ment-placing operation. Electric winches are sup­ ported in a cantilever position from the com­ pleted part of the deck to allow each segment to be lifted oFf the barge and placed in its final position. Because of high-velocity river currents on one structure, it was considered advisable to transfer the segments from the barge to the winch system close to the piers to allow temporary anchorage of the barge. Therefore, segments had to be moved longitudinally from the barge position to their final 10GJ.tion. A special trolley carried the winches and the suspended segment while riding along rails fixed to the finished deck. A general view of the 3.19. Ylaximul1l span length is 302 ft (92 m) and the structural depth of the four box girders is 11 ft (3.4 m), increased toward the piers to a maximum of 21.3 ft (5.5 m) bv straight haunches. Because of the skew between the axis of the bridge and the How of the Seine. the pier shafts were given a spe­ ciallozenge shape. which proved very efficient for the hydraulic flo\\' and is of pleasant appearance. The limited bending capacity of the shafts called for temporary supports during cantilever COIl­ struction operations. Precast segments were manufactured on the bank of the Seine with two casting machines (short-line method). For the part of the bridge superstructure located over the river, segments were placed with a floating crane, Figure 3.20. In fact, almost half the bridge length was placed over land au t of reach of the floating crane. The beam­ and-winch equipment used at Pierre Benite Bridge was substituted for the crane to place these seg­ ments. There was also need of additional falsework on one bank to compensate for the unusually long -" 1f ' FIGURE 3.16. FIGURE 3.15. Pierre Benite Bridge, segment placing scheme (hft and tllP right). 92 Pierre Benite Bridge, under construction. FIGURE 3.17. Paris finished bridge. Belt (Downstream), view of 1.10 1..0 90 CRA" 67...,7 P'~ P>LE 1 d5,~J! J ~:.-. l. :: 35Q J 1'1AHt.rs '" __2%_ ~~ AU.~~ 312,506 _L!J ~~--~ __ 81.<46 __"-:::- .._~. ... ~ 1~OO FIGURE 3.19. 'e ' MOO 900 Paris Belr (Dowllstrealll), • .oJ l ~I , =~ .J cross sect iOIl. 'FI' I "'2,.D.1 'N 7'1,65 t r.53 800 _<t'*>o.- l. 3lo J 90 , ~ ~ ] . Lb CtA.£E RO. " , ,~, sectioll. CRAtE PILE} "r,," ,,'~"N_ Al:;,..SLAi "~<',,,;_ l\'pi(alloll~illldillal !t1,(.(I' '1<20' <i1q6 I'ari, Bell (Dowmlrc;tlll), 92,00 H N \2<l-3'! FIGURE 3.18. 11Q,SO' ! I ': ~Q zeD . I " . r.3~1? CVLE£ RD Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 94 FIGURE 3.20. placing. segment FIGURE 3.21. Paris Belt (Upstream), vIew of the finished bridge. end span, which could not be changed because of stringent pier location requirements. direction, Figure 3.21. The twin bridges have di­ mensions similar to those of the downstream bridge, and each structure has two parallel bo;-: girders connected by transverse prestress. Dimen­ sions are shown in Figures 3.22 and 3.23. A circu­ lar intrados profile was used in lieu of the straight haunches. All segments were precast on the river bank in the immediate vicinity of the bridge, using 3.4.2 Paris Belt (Downstream), P,4RIS BELT (UPSTREAM) On the other side of Paris another segmental structure, also carrying the Beit Motor-way over the Seine, was designed for five traffic lanes in either 65.m 56,62 d ~ut,.uil FIGURE 3.22. Paris Belt (L'pstrcam), longitudinal section. E o N o ... 3.50 m 3.50m 3.50m 3.50 m FIGURE 3.23. _--_._--_. . 3.50m 3.50 m 3.50 m 3.50m Paris Belt (Upstream), typical cross section. 3.5Om 3.50m Other Precast Segmental Bridges in Paris PHASES D'EXECUTION DU T AllllER SEQtll!NCES OF 95 nu: Dl!'.CK COIISTRUCTlctI Right Bank Quay of Bercy FIGURE 3.24. P;ll'is Bell (l'pstream), typical segment placing scheme. the sallie two casting machines lIsed previously for the downs! ream bridge. Placing segments in the struClure posed some interesting problems, as shown in the sequence diagrams of Figure 3.2-!-. Pier segments were too heavv to be handled as one unit and were sub­ divided into two segments, assembled upon the pier shaft before cantilner placing could start. A crane, either on crawlers or on a barge, together with the beam-and-winch equipment handled all segment placing, 3.4.3 JUVISY BRIDGE This bridge, Figure 3.25, is also on the Seine just somh of Choisy-Ie-Roi; see the location map. Fig­ ure 3,1. Dimensions are shown in Figure 3.26. Segments were cast by the short-line method near the site and placed with a floating crane, An aux­ iliary falsework on both banks allowed segment placing and assemblv beyond the reach of the floating crane, 3.4.4 FIGURE 3.25. Juvisv Bridge. completed structur:. nnv BRIDGES AT CONFL4NS These twin bridges, Figure 3.27, placed about 320 ft (100 m) apart to allow for interchange ramps on both banks, are upstream of Paris where the Seine and Marne Rivers merge; see the location map, . Figure 3.1. Dimensions and construction methods were similar to those of the Courbevoie Bridge al­ ready described. Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges' 96 t I 24-3 EL 133 , ., 24-3 " V I I /1\ I I IO~6" I I I 1 i 1~133 EL 133 i : I 10' ~ ~65 =t== .,.. I / f--.I I EL.122 • l ! I. j : 7 I I EL.69 • FIGURE 3.26. Ju\'isy Bridge, cross seclion. Balanced cantilever construction was accom­ plished utilizing a launching gantry for erection. In the approach spans the superstructure has a constant depth of 8.2 ft (2.5 m). Depth of the center spans varies from 14.9 ft (4.5 m) at the piers to 8.2 ft (2.5 m) at midspan, Figure 3.29. The rec­ tangular box segment has a bottom flange width of 18 ft (5.5 m) and a top flange width of 34.8 ft (10.6 m). Webs ha,'e a constant thickness of 12 in. (0.3 m), while the top and bottom flanges are 8 in. (0.2 m) and 7 in. (0.18 m) thick, respectively, Fig­ ure 3.30. Typical segment length is 10.8 ft (3.3 m). Expansion of the deck is provided in every fourth span by a special stepped (ship-lap) joint with horizontal elastomeric bearing pads, Figure FIGURE 3.27. hridge. 3.5 Twin Bridges at Conflans, finished Oieron Viaduct, France The Oleron Viaduct provides a link between the mainland of France and the resort island of Oleron off the Atlantic West Coast 80 miles (128 km) north of Bordeaux, This structure has a total length be­ tween abutments of 9390 ft (2862 m). In the navi­ gable central part of the structure are 26 spans of 260 ft (79 m), Figure 3.28. Approach spans consist of two at 194 ft (59 m), sixteen at 130 ft (39.5 m), and two at 94 ft (29 m). The superstructure is sup­ ported by 45 piers and was assembled by pre­ stressing match-cast segments, using epoxy joints. FIGURE 3.28. OJeron Viaduct, cQmpleted structure. 97 Oleron Viaduct, France 1 i I I I '1 • ~. "~ \r _./ 18' FIGURE 3.29. Olcron Viaduct. typical cross section. from ref. :> (courtesy of American Concrete l!lStitute). I he 3,30. Throughout the total length of structure there are ten expansion joints: one at each abut­ ment and eight intermediate ones. The latter are located at points or cOlltraftexure in a tvpical interior span subjected to a continuous uniform load.~ The segments with the expansion joint have the same length as typical segments and are in fact two hair-segments that are temporarily preassem­ bled with bolts. with a special lavout of temporary and permanent prestressing tendons. It is then possible to maintain the balanced cantilever erec­ tion procedure beyond the expansion joint to midspan. Later on, when continuity has been achieved in the adjacent spans, the expansion­ joint segment is "unlocked" to perform in the in­ . tended manner. I-;:V'" " I The precasting plant was located in the vicinity of the mainland abutment. Production in this plant was scheduled so that the 24 segments required for a typical 260 ft (79 m) central span could be fabri­ cated in nine working days. Segments were pro­ duced by the long-line method, described in Chapter 11. Four sets of steel forms rode a bench that was carefully aligned to the longitudinal profile of the roadway and the variable-depth soffit with due provision for camber. Segments were match-cast in the same relative order in which they were subsequentlv assembled at the site.;; An aerial view of the casting yard is shown in Figure 3.31. Handling of segments in the casting and storage yard was accomplished by a special railwav­ mounted gantry capable of handling loads varying r: I ! 1 I !Il.JI!L '2­ I I FIGt:RE 3.30. Oleron Viaduct, typical center span elevation, from ref. 5 (cour­ tesy of the American Concrete Institute). 98 FIGURE 3.31. \·ard. Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges' Olemn Viaduct. aerial "iew of casting from 45 tons (42 I11t) for the center-span segment to HO tons (i3 111t) for the pier segment. A lowboy dolly riding on rails or the finished bridge and pmhed by a farm tractor transported the segments from stor:tge to their 10catiol1 for assembly. Cantilever erection at the site was accomplished by a launching gantry, Figure 3.32. This gantry was the key to the successful operation of this proj­ ect. Although the structure is erected oyer water, the use of floating equipment would have been difficult, expensive, and subject to uncertainty be­ cause of the great tidal range and the shallowness of water in most of the area traversed by the structure. Floating equipment would have been able to reach the approach piers only at high tide. During low tide the marsh area, which is the loca­ ti011 of France's famed Marennes oyster beds, could not accept any tire-mounted or crawler­ mounted equipment. Consequently, it was decided to work entirely from above with a launching gantry. This new technique was developed for the first time for this structure and was later refined for other structures. For the typical central spans the erection cycle required between eight and ten working days.f' Construction began in May 1964, three months after design work had started. The first segment was cast in July and placed in August 1964. Side spans laid on a cu I've were completed in December and the launching gantry was then modified for construction of the center spans. The last of the 8iO precast segments was in place in March 1966, alld the bridge opened to traffic in May, after an overall construction time of two years~; see the summary of the work program in Figure 3.33. A FIGURE 3.32. OleHln \'iarluct. cOllStruClioll yic\\ showing camilcHT span. from ref. :> (counes\, or lhe American COf1cr('lC InslillHc). view of the final structure is shown in Figurcs 3.28 and 3.34. The Olcron Viaduct was thc first applicJtiolJ of the launching-gantry concept for placing segments in cantilever. Se\'craJ structures were later de­ siglled and huilt \\'ith the same construction method. \iention should be lIlade here of three special bridges: I. Blois Bridp,f min tlt(, Loir(' Hit'('r The princi­ pal dimensiolls are given in Figure 3.35. The superstructure box girders rest on the pier shafts through twin elastomeric bearings, which allow thermal expansion while prm'iding partial re­ straint for bcnding-moment transfer between deck and piers. Consequently, sa\'illgs are ohtained both in the deck and in the foundations. All segments were placed in the bridge wit h an improved ver­ sion of the launching gantry first designed for the Oleron Viad uct. High-strength steel and stays were used to provide minimum weight with a sat­ isfactory stillness during operations, Figure 3.36. High-strength bolt connections were used throughout to make the gantTv completely capable of dismantling and easily transportable to other construction sites. 2. Aramon Bridge over the Rhone River This was the next structure where the same gantry could be used, Figure 3.37. 3. Seudre Viaduct Located just a few miles south of Oleron over the Seudre River, this 3300 ft (1000 m) long viaduct was also of precast segmen­ tal construction and used the same launching gan­ Chillon Viaduct, Switzerland 99 CONTiNENT OLERON PIERS ON FOOTINGS PIERS ON FOOTINGS FIGURE 3.33. Olcl'OlI Viaduct, program of work, tn. The linished structure is shown in Figure 3.:HL Foundations foJ' the cellter spalls were built Illside sheet pile cofferdams in spite of verv swift tidal currents. 3.6 Twin rectangular slip-formed shafts were used for the piers. varying in height from 10 to 150 ft (3 to 45 m). Stability during construction was excel· lent and required little temporary bracing except between the slender walls to prevent elastic insta· bility.! With the exception of three piers in each Chillon Viaduct, Switzerland The 7251 ft (2210 111) long dual structures of the Chillon Viaduct are part of European Highwav E-2 and are located at the eastern end of Lake Geneva passing through an environmentallv sensitive area and very close to the famed Castle of Chillon, Fig­ ure 3.39. In addition, the structures have verv difficult geometrical constraints consisting of 3% grades, 6% superelevation, and tight-radius curves as low as 2500 ft (760 m). Each structure has 23 spans of 302 ft (92 m), 322 ft (98 m), or 341 ft (104 m). The variable spans allowed the viaduct to be fitted to the geology and topography, providing minimum impact on the scenic forest. The viaducts are divided bv expansion joints into five sections of an approximate length of 1500 ft (457 m), FIGURE 3.34. bridge. Oleron Viaduct, aerial view of finished Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 100 CD ELEVATIOn - ELEVATION 9.100 9\00 PI 91,00 P? P 3 61,50 p, CI) (DUPE TfiAnSVERSALr CROSS SECTION to 4~ 79 m at midspan FIGURE 3.35. Blois Bridge. elevation and t\'pical cross section, \'iaduct, all piers are hinged at the top. The piers that are less than 72 ft (22 m) high are hinged at the base; taller piers are fixed at their base, being sufficiently flexible to absorb longitudinal move- FIGURE 3.36. Blois Bridge, operating on the superstructure. launching ment of the superstructure. The superstructure consists of a single-cell rec­ tangular box with a cellular cantilever top flange, Figure 3.40, and with a depth varying from 18.5 ft gantry FIGURE 3.37. Aramon Bridge, launching gantry. Chillon Viaduct, Switzerland FIGURE 3.38. FIGURE 3.39. Seudre Bridge, finished structure. (5.64 m) at the longer-span piers to 7.2 ft (2.2 m) at midspan. Widths of top and bottom flange are re­ spectively 42.7 ft (13 m) and 16.4 ft (5 m). Dimen­ sions of the two typical cantilevers are noted in Figure g.41. :\laximum segmem weight was 88 tons (80 mIl. :\ cellular cantilever top Bange was used because the overall width of the top flange ex- 101 Chillon Viaduct, aerial vie\\'. ceeded 40 ft (approx. 12 m) and the cantilever length was 13.15 ft (4 Ill). An altemative would have been to provide stiffening ribs as used in the Saint Andre de Cubzac Viaducts (Section 3.11) and the Sallingsund Bridge (Section 3.13). Segments were precast in a yard at one end of the structure with five casting machines, allowing Over supports (a) 1300 1300 5.00 At mid-span (b) FIGURE 3.40. Chilion Viaduct, cross sections. (a) Over supports. (b) At midspan, = III 102 91 Hartel Bridge, Holland 103 Sections I, II, and V, conventional cast-in-place prestressed concrete box girders Sections III and IV, precast prestressed concrete segmental box girders Two steel bascule bridges. FIGURE 3.42. Chillon Viaduct, precasting yard. an average production of 22 to 24 segments per week (see aerial view, Figure 3.42). Erection was by the conventional balanced can­ tilever method with a launching gantry designed to accommodate the bridge-deck geometry in terms of curve and variable superelevation. The overall length of the gantry was 400 ft (122 m) and the total weight 2,50 tons (230 mt). Special features of this gantry will be discussed in Chapter 11. Can­ tilever placing of precast segments is shown in Fig­ ure 3.43. This structure is truly an achievement of mod­ ern technology with emphasis upon the aesthetic and ecological aspects of design. 3.7 Hartel Bridge, Holland The 1917 ft (584.5 m) long Hartel Bridge crosses a .canal in Rotterdam, Figllre 3.44, and consists of the following elements: FIGURE 3.43. Chillon Viaduct, cantilever construc­ tion with launching gantry. The original design contemplated that the total structure would be constructed as conventional cast-in-place box girders on falsework. Substitution at the contractor's request of cast-in-place seg­ mental construction by precast segmental con­ struction for sections III and IV saved the exten­ sive temporary pile foundation system necessary to avoid uneven settlement of false work because of initial soil conditions. The redesign proposed two single-cell rectangular box girders as opposed to one three-cell box girder, Figure 3.44, omitting the center portion of the bottom flange and providing thinner webs and a thicker bottom flange. In the segmental box girder design the climen­ sions of the deck slab are constant over the entire length, girder depth varies from 4.92 ft (1.5 m) to 17 ft (5.18 m), the webs have a constant thickness of 13.8 in. (0.35 m), and the bottom flange thickness varies from 10 in. (0.26 m) to 33 in. (0.85 m). Up to a depth of 9.35 ft (2.85 m) the segments have a length of 15.8 ft (4.8 m); over 9.3 ft (2.85 m) the length decreases to 12.3 ft (3.75 m). The vertical curvature of the bridge was made constant for the full length of sections III and IV by increasing the radius from 9842.,5 ft (3000 111) to J9,029 ft (,5800 m), which resulted in a repetition of eight times half the center span. This repetition justified precast segments. A long-line casting bed (see Chapter 11) was con­ structed on the centerline of the bridge box girders at ground level, Figure 3.45. Thus, a portal crane was able to transport the cast segments to the stor­ age area and also erect them in the superstructure, Figure 3.46. The end spans have three more seg­ ments than half the center span; these were sup­ ported on temporary falsework until all the pre­ stressing tendons were placed and stressed, Figure 3.46. The first segment cast was the pier segment; each of the remaining segments was then match­ cast against the precedi.ng segment. The pier seg­ ment was positioned on bearings on top of the pier, Figure 3.47, and the two adjoining segments were positioned (one after the other) and the joints glued with epoxy resin. Temporary high-tensile bars located on the top of the deck slab and in the bottom flange were stressed to prestress the three Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 104 ._v ~ 84.1 117.4 Elevation I I r~ F "• no '" I I I 0 I - A HALF CROSS SleTtON _ B '" ~, l....-­ HALF CROSS SECTION ­ ~ Cross sections of the redesign ~--- .---. Cross section of the original design FIGURE 3.44. Hartd Bridge. typical dimensions: c!('yatioll, cross sections of the origi­ nal design. noss sections of the redesign (coune,\" or Brice Bender, BV:\ISTS). segments together. After the epoxy had hardened, the permanent tendons were placed and stressed. The two segments adjoining the pier segment were supported during erection on Hat jacks on the top of the outside struts of a steel scaffolding bearing on the pier foundation. Thus, the flat jacks were used for adjustment of the segments to achieve proper geometry control. The remaining segments were FIGURE 3.45. Hanel Bridge. method of casting segments (courtesy of Brice Bender, BVN/STS. Hartel Bridge, Holland FIGURE 3.48. FIGURE 3.46. dling segments. 105 Hartel Bridge, completed structure. Hartel Bridge, portal crane for han­ erccted in thc cOT1\'enlional balanced Glnlilever met hod. Thc cOl11pleted struclurc is shown in Fig­ ure 3.4H. Othcr slructures using prccast scgmental con­ strllction wcre suhscquentl\' designcd and built in the \iclhcrlands. Shown in Figurc 3.49 is the Ilridgc o\'cr the ljssel at Deventcr, where segments in thc 2·n It (74 111) SP;Il1S were placed with a launching gallln. The overall Icngth of the gantry was S2() ft (i:')ti 111), allowing the legs to bear on the permanent concrete piers and impose no loading on the deck during construction. Figure 3.50 . FIGURE 3.49. Dnenler Bridge, \\'ith the launching gantry. . . . . --f--..--._-.. ---f .___._____._%_n__ n_______ :~~[ FIGURE 3.47. Hartel Bridge, erection sequence and detail of tempo­ ran- pier bracing (courtesy of Brice Bender, BVN/STS). placing segments 106 Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 156 m (520 It) 74 m ttl Max bridge span 74 m (247 ttl FIGURE 3.50. Deventer Bridge. elevation of gantry. 3.8 Rio·Niteroi Bridge, Brazil The Rio-Niteroi Bridge crosses the Guanabara Bay connecting the cities of Rio de Janeiro and Niteroi, thereby avoiding a detour of 37 miles (60 km). This structure also closes the gap in the new 2485 mile (4()OO km) highway that interconnects north and south Brazil and links the towns and cities on the eastern seaboard, Figure 3.51. Although the route taken by the bridge across the Bay seems somewhat indirect, it was selected because it avoids very deep water and is clear of the flight path from Santos Dumont Airport. Total project length is approximately 10.5 miles (17 km). of which about 5.65 miles (9. I km) is {)\"er water. The alignment begins at the Rio side with a 3940 ft (1200 m) radius curve, then a straight sec: tioll. \\·itl1in which are located steel box girder na\'igation spans totaling 2872 ft (848 m) in length. This is followed by an island, where the viaduct is interrupted by a road section of604 ft (184 ml. and finally <lIlother 3940 ft (1200 m) radius curve ar­ riving at Niteroi. The precast ~egmental concrete viaduct sections have a lOlal length of 27,034 ft (8240 m) repre­ senting a total deck area of 2,260,000 sq ft (210,000 -"-\---+--~ JoooPeuaa ___ 7'1Reci~ Cuiobo F'-~- ~ iteroi Paulo ,u"uno pol' " FIGURE 3.51. . •. The Rio·Niteroi Bridge Rio Nileroi Bridge. site location map. Rio-Niteroi Bridge, Brazil m 2 )", making this bridge the largest structure of its type. An aerial view of the crossing under traffic is shown in Figure 3.52. The superstructure has 262 ft (80 m) continuous spans with an expansion joint at every sixth span, Figure 3.53. It consists of two rectangular box girders for a total width of 86.6 ft (26.4 m) and a constant depth of 15.4 ft (4.7 m). A 2 ft (0.6 m) cast-in-place longitudinal closure joint between the top Range cantilevers provides con­ tinuity between the two box girder segments. Typi­ cal segments have a length of 15.75 ft (4.8 m) and weigh up to 120 tons (110 mt). The pier segments are 9.2 ft (2.8 m) in length. Special segments are used for expansion joints. Longitudinal prestressing tendons consist of twelve! in. (13 mm) diameter strands in the top and bottom Ranges with a straight profile, while the resistance to shear stresses is obtained by verti­ cal web prestress, Figure 3.54. All segments were manufactured in a large pre­ casting yard on a nearby island. Ten casting machines (eight for the typical segments and two for the pier and hinge segments) were laid in two independent parallel lines, each equipped with a portal crane for carrying the segments to the stor­ age area and the loading dock. More than 3000 segments were subsequently barged to their loca­ tion in the structure and erected by four launching gantries working simultaneously on each of the two parallel box girders and on either side of the bay, Figures 3.55 and 3.56. The rate of segment placing was remarkable. A typical span was assembled and completed in five working days. Between the months of February and July 1973, an average of FIGURE 3.52. Rio-Nileroi Bridge, view of the com­ pleted ;,lrurture. Cross section i IJQaJ Elevation (h) FIGURE 3.53. Elevation. 107 Rio-Nileroi Bridge, cross section and elevation. (a) Cross section. (b) 108 Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges' t .. t 80 7 8 (I 8 ELEVATION BARRE5 MACALLOY 0 25~ . I PLAN CABLAGE SUPERIEUR PLAN CABLAGE . - INFER'EUR lij I 1:JJl~~~L-"1:J---:I1 FIGURE 3.54. Rio-Niteroi Bridge, typical span dimensions and tendon layout. 278 precast segments per month were installed in the structure by the four launching gantries, rep­ resenting an area of 180,000 sq ft (17,000 m 2 ) of finished bridge per month. At the same speed, OIeron Viaduct could have been built in two months. Such is the measure of the determination and enthusiasm of engineers and constructors of the New World. 3.9 Bear River Bridge, Canada The Bear River Bridge is about 6 miles (9,7 km) east of Digby, Nova Scotia, on trunk route 101 between Halifax and Yarmouth, near the An­ napolis Basin; it replaces an 85-year-old structure, Preliminary studies showed, and construction bid prices verified, that precast segmental was more economical than sted construction by nearly 7%.7.8 JFK Memorial Causeway, U.S.A. FIGURE 3.55. Ri()-~ilcroi Bridge. cantilever con­ struction. rotal structure length is 1998 ft (609 m) with six interior spans of 265 ft (80.8 m) and end spans of 204 ft (62.1 111), Figure 3.57. The layout has very severe geo1llctrv constraints. In plan, the east end of t he bridge has two sharp horizontal curves con­ l1(~cted to each other ami to the west end tangent bv two spiral curves; minilllum radius is 1150 ft (350 III). In elevation, the bridge has a 2044 ft (623 m) vertical curve with tangents of 5.5 and 6.0 percent. Two sets of short-line forms employed by the con­ tractor to Gist the segments met the variable geoll!etry requirements admirably. The accuracv of casting was stIch that only nominal elevation adjustlllents were required at the abutments and the center-span closure pours. R The single-cell box girder su perstructure is con­ tinuous for the total length of the bridge. Typical (Toss-section dimensions are indicated in Figure :>.58. Prestressing tendon layout is illustrated ill . Figure 3.59 for a tvpical luterior span. Fiftv-hve tendons were required for negative moments and 22 for positive-moments. The majority of nega- FIGURE 3.56. Rio-\iiteroi Bridge, launching gan­ tries. 109 tive-moment tendons were inclined in the web and anchored at the face of the segments. Anchor­ age of six tendons at the face of the first segment acUacent to the pier segment (three in each web) produced a large upward shear force at the face of the pier segment, which was not overcome until therrection of several additional segments. The midspan positive-moment tendons are continuous through the cast-in-place closure joint at midspan. These tendons, indicated by capital letters in Fig­ ure 3.59, were placed in preformed ducts upon completion of erection of the segments in a span and the closure pour consummated. All positive­ moment tendons were anchored in the top flange. The precast segments are typically 14 ft 2 in. (4.;> m) in length and the closure pour at midspan is 4­ ft 4 in. (1.3 m) long. 7 •H The precast segments are reinforced with pre­ fabricated mild steel reinforcement cages, in addi­ tion to the primarv longitudinal prestressing ten­ dons, Figure 3.60, and transverse prestressing in the top Hange. Web shear reinforcement varies depending on the location of the segment. The 145 precast segments were cast in a plant located Ilear the bridge. This plant was equipped with two cast­ ing molds, each producing one segment per day. A 12-hour steam curing perioe! was used and a con­ crete strength at 28 clays of 5000 psi (34.5 MPa) was achievecJ.7 Because of the curved layout of the bridge and its relative shortness, the use of a launching gantry would have been uneconomical. Segments were placed by a 200 ton (180 Illt) mobile crane on land, or on a barge over water, Figure 3.61. Construc­ tion of this bridge started in Mav of 1971. and it was opened to trafflc on December 18, 1972 . 3.10 JFK Memorial Causeway, U.S.A. A portion of the JFK :\fellloriai Causeway repre­ sents the first precast. prestressed, segmental box girder completed in the United States. Opened to traffic in 1973, this 3280 ft (1000 m) long structure spans the Gulf Intercoastal Waterway in Texas to connect Corpus Christi and Padre Island. It was designed by the Bridge Division of the Texas Highway Department under the supervision of v'layne Henneberger. The Center for Highway Research, University of Texas at Austin, under the supervision of Prof. John E. Breen, assisted in the design and also built and tested a one-sixth scale mode! of the bridge to check design requirements and construction techniques. 9 , o 7> f4C<t«",,.r»»>hv »p .... «V? >p> M.w. L, EL. 00.0 ft .,~ ,.,,"" P'ER 2 ELEVATION ~ 127 CONC, PARAPET WALL ._----­265"0" EXISTING RIvER BED PIER 3 PIER 1 UNITS NO.7, 21,47,67, B1.107, 121 AND 147 ARE CAST IN PLACE (DECK CLOSING UNITS) Ii:. ,,,,'.)l'Ol71 )12175)1<)10 m"o" '. .C;.'$O'.' ("'ne..,•• ,.., I .I"' Ii:. FIGURE 3.57. He,ll RivCl' Brid~c, elcvation, from reI'. H (courlesv of the Prestressed COllcrete Institute). c«::;;O"",,(tt< i'"~''''' '·'·'"l''~l''''' ''''''1''1'' ~o~ 265"0" ~ BRGS. I .I iPIER4 '--<l. ROADWAY 39' -6" 2-6" b. 16'-0" 15'-0' I'_~_" I I l : o ~ r<l. PRECAST UNIT I la" 10" -­ - - / ( 4'-3" 4'-6" 6'-0" I'-a~ I'-a" 4'-6" 3'-10 3'-10' 4'-6" ~ I a" ~ , l' 1'-0" ./" 6'-a" 1'-4'~ ~ 6'-a" 1'-0" '-- r.-I'- 4" la'-o" , FIGURE 3.58. Bear Riyer Bridge, typical cross section, from ref. 8 (courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute). HALF INTERIOR SPAN TENDON ELEVATION £ACH TENOON UT'LiZES , 12~!/2IN 270 K DIAMETER STRANDS ______ '\ . ." - " I t!f~ UIl' uu~~ 14 IS!III, /,. \\'1.. . 11 • _01 l1,iW • 77 .:~,: ., 13 11 i I II T£NOONS , 1~" HA~F 9tH" SECTION AT MIDSPAN /' .I, HA~F . SECTION AT PIER TENDON DISTRlaUTION FIGURE 3.59. Bear Ri\'er Bridge, typical center-span tendon elevation and distribution. from ref. 8 (courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute). 111 112 Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridge; , '. balanced , FIGURE 3.62. JFK Memorial Cause\\'av, cantileH'i' construction (courtesy of J. E. Breen). FIGURE 3.60. Bear River Bridge, longitudinal pre­ stress ducts in forms (courtesy of thc Pl'csll'essecl COll­ <Tele I nstitllle). FIGURE 3.61. Bear River Bridge, erection by barge-mounted crane (counesy of the Prestressed Con­ crete I IIstitu Ie). The structure consists of thirty-six 80 ft (24.4 m) long approach spans of precast, prestressed bridge beams and the 400 ft (122 m) total length segmen­ tal bridge spanning the Intercoastal Waterway. The segmental portion of this structure has a center span of 200 ft (61 m) with end spans of 100 ft (30.5 m). The segments were precast, trans­ ported to the site, and erected by the balanced cantilever method of construction using epoxy joints, Figure 3.62. The precast, segmental super­ structure consists of constant-depth twin box girders with a 2 ft (0.61 m) cast-in-place longitu­ "'" dinal closure strip, Figure 3.63. Segments are 10 ft (3.05 m) in length and in cross section, are 8 (t (2.44 m) in depth, and have a nominal top flange width of 28 ft (8.53 m). The top Range or deck is of constant dimension longitudinally but of variable thickness in a transverse direction. The bottom flange is of constant dimension transversely but varies longitudinally from lOin. (254 mm) at the pier to 6 in. (152 mm) at 25 fl (7.62 m) from the pier center. Segments were cast with male and female align­ ment keys in both the top and bottom flanges as well as large shear keys in the webs, Figure 3.64. I ntegral diaphragms were cast with the pier seg­ ments, Figure 3.65. Both matching faces of the segments were coated with epoxv, and temporary erection stressing at both top and bottom of the segments precompressed the joint before installa­ tion of the permanent post-tensioning tendons. The segments were erected by a barge-mounted crane. As each segment was erected. it was tilted 21 degrees from the in-place segment. so that a pair of hooks in the top of the segment being erected en­ gaged pins in the segment previously erected. The new segment was then pivoted down by the sling until its shear key slipped into the mating shear key of the previously erected segment. 9 Figure 3.66 shows a permanent tendon being tensioned and the temporary working platform. The design concept on this project utilized pre­ stressing tendons in the top flange for dead-load cantilever stresses; after closure at midspan, con­ tinuity tendons were installed for the positive mo­ ment, Figure 3.67. Research on the model testing of the bridge is documented in references 10 through 15 with particular emphasis in reference 14 on lessons learned during construction that might facilitate or improve similar projects. Saint Andre de Cubzac Bridges, France Sym. 28 ft. (8.53 m) E 6fl.(1.83ml @<tl 6'-8" (2.03 E E 113 m)1 1=0, E M . 0 • N 00_ " ,I," 2ft. (0.6.1 m) pour striP I , • 12" (305 mm) 00 i____ L;.....;....~~~:.:.=~~ 17ft . (2.13 m) : • 'E 1 J !t 13ft. (3.96 m) I' )I. '( i I I i 7'-10" (2.39 ml :.r! ~lemoriaJ Causeway. typical cross section. Bottom slab thickness varies from 10 in. (254 111m) at pier to 6 in. (152 mill) at 25 ft (7.62 Ill) from pier center. FIGURE 3.63. JFK FIGURE 3.66. JFK Memorial Causeway. prestressing permanent tendon (courtesy of J. E. Breen). FIGURE 3.64. JFK Memorial Causeway. precast seg· ment in casting vanl (courtesv ofJ. E. Breen). .:.;.~ FIGURE 3.65. JFK :YlemOl'ial Causeway. construction \iew showing pier segments with diaphragms (courtesy ofJ. E. Breenl. 3.11 Saint Andre de Cubzac Bridges, France Opened to traffic in December 1974 after a con­ struction period of 29 months, this important structure crosses the Dordogne River north of Bordeaux on the South Atlantic Coast. A view of the finished bridge is shown in Figure 3.68. The main river crossing has a total length of 3800 ft (1162 m) with approach land spans of 190 ft (59 m) and main river spans of 312 ft (95.3 m), Figure 3.69. Two intermediate expansion joints located at the point of contraAexure in the transition spans sepa­ rate the deck into three sections for concrete vol­ ume changes. The center section has a length of 1920 ft (585 m). The main piers have rectangular hollow box shafts supported by circular open­ dredged caissons 30 ft (9 m) in diameter. Ap­ proach piers have an I section. Another structure, constructed under the same contract, consisted of twin bridges 1000 ft (307 m) in length with typical 162 ft (49.5 m) spans in an 114 Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges \ Centr~pan Main pier FIGURE 3.67. JFK '\lelllOlial Call~l'\\a". slstell) .. -. FIGURE 3.68. Saint Andre de Cubzac Bridge. "iew of the finished bridge over the Dordogne Riler. area north of the main crossing where poor soil conditions did not permit stability of an embank­ ment. Altogether the deck area is 97,000 sq ft (29,500 m 2 ), entirely of precast segmental COI1­ struction. The typical cross section is a single box 54.4 ft (16.6 m) wide with transverse ribs both in the side cantilevers and between webs, Figure 3.69, to provide structural capacity to the deck slab under traffic loads. A casting yard located along the bank of the Dordogne River produced the 456 segments for both bridges (main crossing and north viaducts) in three casting machines (two for the typical segments and one for the special seg­ ments such as pier, hinge, or end segments). Mod­ erate steam curing at 86°F (30°C) for 12 hours in a movable kiln enclosing the newly cast segment and its match-cast counterpart allowed a one-day cycle and proved very efficient in avoiding any geomet­ ric corrections. of I)l'{'stlTssing tendolls. Segments were placed in the structure by the heam-and-winch method either on land (for the northern viaducts or the approach spans or the lI1ain river crossing) as shown in Figure 3.70 or over water for the main spans as shown in Figure 3.71. This prc~ject was the occasion for a further improvement in the placing scheme by beam and winch, whereby the pier segments could he precast and placed with the same type of equipment as shown in principle in Figure 3.72. A provisonal tower prestressed against the pier side face allowed the pier segment to be installed upon the pier cap, with the beam and winch later used for cantilever placing. To keep the segmellt weight to a maximum of 110 t (100 I11t) the pier segment, rep­ resenting the starting base of each cantilever, had been divided into two halves placed successively, Figure 3.73. Figure 3.74 shows the lifting of the last closure segment. 3.12 Saint Cloud Bridge, France A connection between the peripheral Paris Ring Road and the Western Motorway (A-I3) required the construction of a bridge over the Seine ex­ tended by a viaduct along the left bank leading to the Saint Cloud Tunnel, Figures 3.75 and 3.76. This structure has two traffic lanes in each direc­ tion. It will be duplicated later by a similar adjoin­ ing structure when the congested Saint Cloud Tunnel is duplicated. Original design of this bridge contemplated a steel structure. However, an alternative design utilizing precast segments and .... at ANDRE BORDEAUX "~~ ______" _ _',",,6,,",::::6C,,-_ FIGURE 3.69. DE CUBZAC -+ -, Saint Andre de Cubzac l)ridge, elevation and cross section. FIGURE 3.71. Saint Andre de Cubzac Bridge, beam­ and-winch segment placing over water. -. --4 FIGURE 3.70. Saint Andre de Cubzac Bridge, beam­ and-winch segment placing over land. 115 PROVISIONAL TOWER CD i , .. FIGURE 3.72. ! REMOVE TOWER Saint Andre de Cubzac Bridge. placillg precast pier segments. I I I I I FIGURE 3.73. Saint Andre Cubzac Bridge, lifting second half pier segment. 116 FIGURE 3.74. Saint Andre de Cubzac Bridge, placing closure segment in last span. Saint Cloud Bridge, France FIGURE 3.75. 117 Saint Cloud Bridge, overall view. the balanced cantilever met bod of construction. submitted by the contractor, permitted substantial sa\'in~s and was accepted bv the authorities. The brid~e has a total length of 3618 ft (1103 m) with a constant-depth superstructure. It includes two sectiolls: the bridge over the Seine. which is a 1736 ft (529 111) long cuned structure; and a 1883 ft (57.t Ill) lon~ viaduct. which follows a straight lavout along the bank of the Seine and then crosses the Place Clemenceau. on a 2260 ft (690 Ill) radius curve, by an access ramp to the Saint Cloud Tun­ nel. It includes 16 spans divided as follows (refer to }'igure 3.76): Seine Bridge: 160.8.288.7.333.8,296.0, 150.9, and two 219.5 ft spans (49,88, 101.75,90.25, .t6, and two 66.9m) Common area: 66A ft (20.2.t m) up to the ex pansion joint, and then 153.1 ft (4.t.66 m), total 219.5 ft (66.9 m) Viaduct: five 219.5: 285.4, 210.0. and 137.8 ftspans (five 66.9; 87, and 42 m) Architectural considerations led to the choice of a 11.8 ft (3.6 m) constant-depth three-cell box girder with sloping external webs with no overhangs, Figure 3.77. Segments are 7.4 ft (2.25 111) in length with,a record width of 67 ft (20A m), their average weight varying from 84 to 143 tons (76 to 130 mt). Since the superstructure has a constant depth, the bending capacity is adjusted to the moment dis­ tribution bv varying the bottom fbnge thickness. which decreases from 31.5 in. (800 mm) at the ri\'(~r piers to 7 in. (180 mm) at midspan. To accommo­ date the curvature of the bridge the segments in this area are cast, in plan, in a trapezoidal shape. "'\ 4.5~:f superelevation is obtained bv placing the units over the piers in an inclined position. Three-dimensional prestressing was used in the superstructure: the main longitudinal prestress. transverse prestress in the cleck, and a vertical pre­ stress in the webs to accommodate shear. .-\fter the closlIre joint at midspan was cast. additional IOll­ gitudinal prestress tendons were installed to pro­ \'ide continuitv. Superstructure segments were precast in a plant on the right bank of the Seine. Two casting molds were used for fabrication of the se~ments. Each mold had an external forrnwork and an internal retractable formwork. The adjacent, previoush' cast segment was used as a bulkhead to achieve a match-cast joint. For erection, segments were transported on a trolley to a cable-stayed launching gantry of un­ usual size and capacity. It was of high-vield steel construction, 402 ft (122.5 m) in length and weighing 250 tons (235 mt), with a maximum load capacity of 143 tOilS (130 mt). The constant-depth gantry truss was supported on central and rear legs, which were runnel shaped to allow passage of the precast segments endwise. At the central sup­ port, a 52.5 ft (16 m) high tubular tower topped 118 1, 7_"\. ,,1.{$ , '.f.lI.I:::::=_ L• . I, 119 120 ,[ Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges with a saddle provided a large eccentricity to the three pairs of cable stays, which improved the negative-moment capacity at this support location. At the forward end of the gantry an additional leg was used as a third support poillt dllring launching and pier segment placing. Figure 3.78. The Iaullching girder was moved forward on rails mounted on the completed superstructure. by sliding on pads placed at the central and rear legs. The launching girder, in cross section, was trian­ gular in shape. The base of this triangle incI~ded two structural steel I sections, which served as tracks for the segment transportation trolley. The diagonal bracing of the launching girder consisted of tubular steel members. The girder was fabri­ cated in ten sections, approximately 39 ft (12 m) ' i FIGURE 3.78. Saint Cloud Bridge, segment placing. MISE EN PLACE DES VOU550IRS SUR P1L£,J..L_ _ _ _ _ _---''--'-''--_ _ _ _,_ _ _ _J..O-_''_ _ _ , _ _ _- ' - '_ _ .~_ __ PLACING OF PILE UNITS , 820 AVANCEMENT DU .,PORTIQUE DE fL_______ __ L l L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _U -_ _ _ _ _ _ _-LJ._ _ _ __ LANCEMENT. MOVING THE MISE TRUSS EN PLACE ~VO~Uf2S§:;:;Jl!!~~UlC00:U~RAN~TS~,-~-:-.::-:::--_ _ _ PLACING THE UNITS -.l..L_ _ _ _ ~ I]_____-....I.l. . .- - - ­ _ ,.... IN CANTELIVER FIGURE 3.79. Saint Cloud Bridge. sequence of operations in moving launching girder. ! 1 I I Saint Cloud Bridge, France in length, so as to be transportable over the highways. These units were assembled at the job she by prestressing bars. The sequence of operatiom in moving the launching girder forward is illustrated in Figure 3.79 and included the following operations: Placing pier segment: The gantry was supported on three points: the rear leg, the central leg placed­ near the end of the completed cantilever, and the 121 temporary front leg supported just in front of the pier. Launching of the gantry: The gantry slid on rails at the rear leg and rolled over an auxiliary support placed atop the pier segment. The central leg, during this travel, crossed the gap between the cantilever end and the pier unit. Placing typical segments in cantilevl'r: In this phase the gantry was supported at two points: the central leg placed over the pier and the rear leg anchored A B PRECONTRAINiE 'l'ERTICAU ----- ." c o FIGURE 3.80. the ri\er. Saint Cloud Bridge. sequence of operations of launching gantry over 122 Precast Balanced FICURE 3.81. Canti~ver Girder Bridges . Angfu Bridge, longitudinal section. at the end of the last completed cantilever. The segments were lifted by the trolley at the rear end of the girder, moved forward, after a rotation of a quarter turn, and then placed alternatively at each end of the cantilevers under construction. As a rf''>ult of the horizontal curvature 01 the structure, the transverse positioning of a segment was accomplished both by moving the segment transportation trolley sideways relative to the girder [possible side travel of 3 ft (0.9 m) on ei­ ther side] and by moving the launching gantry it­ self sideways relative to its bearing support on the bridge. Thus, the construction of a cantilever re­ quired one, two, or three different positions of the gantry, according to the curvature radius and length of span, as shown in Figure 3.80. Work started in October 1971 and was completed in De­ cember 1973. Placing the 527 precast segments in the 3600 ft (1097 m) long superstructure took exactly one year. In terms of erection speed, a more interesting project was successfully carried out on a precast segmental bridge awarded to Campenon Bernard. A unique set of circumstances arose where a bridge over the Loire River at Angers could be fitted to use simultaneously the dimensions and casting machines of Saint Andre de Cubzac Bridge, which had recently been completed, and the gantry of Saint Cloud Bridge. The 2577 ft (786 m) long structure rests on 10 piers and has 280 ft (85.1 m) typical spans, Figures 3.81 and 3.82, using a single box girder with ribbed deck slab units identical to the sections used at Saint Andre de Cubzac. The construction contract was signed in August 1974 and the superstructure was completed in May 1975. All segments were placed between January and Mar 1975, in a little less than five months, corresponding to an aver­ age erection speed of 26 ft (8 m) per day of fin­ ished deck. 3.13 Sallingsund Bridge, Denmark Sallingsund in Northern Jutland between Arrhus and Thisted is a site of great natural beauty. Con­ struction of a bridge in such an environment was the object of careful study, which concluded, after an international competition, in the selection of a precast segmental structure, Figure 3.83, resting on piers of a unique design. This structure has two end spans of 167 ft (51 m) and 17 interior spans of 305 ft (93 m). '[here are 18 piers between the two abutments. The level of the roadway reaches 100 ft (30.5 m) above the water at the center span and 82 ft (25 m) at the abutments. The two center spans are navigation spans requiring 85 ft (26 m) vertical clearance over a width of 197 ft (60 m). The bridge deck accom­ modates two traffic lanes, approximately 13 ft (4 m) each, two cycle paths, and two sidewalks for a total width of 52.5 ft (16 m), Figure 3.84. The po:> FIGURE 3.82. Angers Bridge, view of the completed structure. FIGURE 3.83. Sallingsund Bridge, view of the com­ pleted structure. ~ 1." .­:: ~ \ :.\\ ag-., Ogog ~tn'l\ !lg 123 124 Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges su perstructure consists of precast concrete box girder segments 11.7 ft (3.57 Ill) in length, with epoxy match-cast joints, which are prestressed to­ gether. Segment depth varies from 8.2 ft (2.5 m) at midspan to 18 ft (5.5 m) at the pier. The precast superstructure segments were match-cast by the short-line method (see Chapter 11). There are altogether 453 segments varying in weight from 86 t (78 mt) to 118 t (107 mt). The typical segment shown in FigUl'e 3.85 has web cor­ rugated shear keys together with top and bottom flange keys. Hinge segments equipped with a roadway expansion joint for thermal movement of the superstructure are placed every other span near the point of contraAexure. A hinge segment with its diaphragm is shown in Figure 3.86.,seg­ ments are placed in the structure in cantilever with a cable-stayed launching gantry. Transfer from the casting area and the storage yard to the construc­ tion site and the launching gantry is achieved by a low-bed dolly pushed by a tractor, Figure 3.87. The gantry shown in Figure 3.88 should look familiar to the reader, as it was previously used at the Saint Cloud and Angers Bridges. Each pier in the v,ater consists of the followjng, ~s shown in Figure 3.89: FIGURE 3.85. Sallingsund Bridge. "iew of a typical segment. FIGURE 3.87. Sallingsund Bridge, segment trans­ Twenty-four pipe piles filled with reinforced con­ crete after driving A guiding template and a tremie concrete seal A precast substructure block and precast ICe breaker A cast-in-place hollow box shaft with cap for re­ ceiving the superstructure Chapter 5 gives a detailed description of the foun­ dation principles in design and construction. 3.14 -. • B-3 South Viaducts, France The South Viaducts or the B-3 Motorway, Figure 3.90, east of Paris, are 1.25 miles (2 km) in length port. " .1'''''''' /-. FIGURE 3.86. Sallingsund Bridge, hinge segment with diaphragm. .• FIGURE 3.88. Sallingsund Bridge, launching gantry. ; 8-3 South Viaducts, France 125 Figure 3.91 presents a plan of this pf(~iecl and shows a subdivision in accordance with the type of cross sections used. It includes the following main subdivisions: 1. 2. 3. 4. FIGURE 3.8iJ. Sallingsund Bridge, elevation of main piers in water. and have 860,000 sq ft (80,000 m 2 ) of bridge deck. The project is in a congested area that required the crossing of railway tracks, canals, and more than 20 roads; its diverse structural geometry contains curves, superelevation ranging from 2.5 to 6% and grades up to 5%. FIGURE 3.90. B-3 South Viaduct, overall view. The main viaduct VP I-A through VP I-J. The main viaduct VP 2-A and VP 2-B. The viaducts VI and V2, which are access ramps to the main viaduct VP 2. The viaducts V3 and V4, which are access ramps to the \iational Road R:\3. The original design for this project, prepared by the French authorities, was based on conventional cast-in-place construction of the superstructure in complete spans using movable formwork. The contractor proposed a more economical design based on the use of precast segmellts. The alterna­ tive design had advantages in erectioll, wherein parts were erected by a launching truss and parts by a mobile crane in conjunction with an auxiliary truss and winch. The use of precast units allowed a deeper and thus a more economical superstruc­ ture, because the space required for formwork did not have to be deducted in the clearance require­ ments over existing roads and other facilities. The superstructure has a constant depth of 6.5 ft (2 m), consisting of three different cross sections, Figure 3.91. Different width and transitions were accommodated bv varying the width of the east­ in-place median slab connecting the top Aanges of the precast segments. Only the V3 and V 4 access ramps were of conventional cast-in-place construc­ tion. The webs of the precast segments have a con­ stant thickness of 12 in. (310 mm), increased in some cases to 2'0 in. (500 mm) near a pier. Webs are stiffened by an interior rib, which also serves to an­ chor the longitudinal prestressing inside the box rather than in the web at the end of a segment. Where the webs are not thickened near a support, they are prestressed vertically by bars to accommo­ date shear forces. The top Aanges of the segments are cantilevered 10 ft (3 m). In the case of segment types 2 and 3, Figure 3.91, the top flange cantilever between box sections is 9 ft (2.75 rn). The top Aange follows the superelevation of the roadway. The thickness of the cast-in-place longitudinal slab between box girders varies from 7.9 to 13.8 in. (200 to 350 mm), depending upon its width. The total superstructure is supported on neo­ prene or sliding bearings. Expansion joints are spaced at distances up to 1970 ft (600 m) and are Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 126 I 200Ct I, 9,50 18.75 200~ • 1 ,I 22.00 1 795 V0U5S0IRS L.1,50 ou 2,50m TYPE 2 1014 VOUS50lRS L. 2,50 ou 3,.mm TYPE 3 m '-1 J ! t:l :;.;;;r . T YP E L.--UW m 2.00[ 31:::'£ ., 1 15mrw N:JRD N:JRTH '" \.'4 SUD SOUTH .... A1 RN3 t FIGURE 3.91. B-3 South Viaducl, plan showing segment type location. located in special hinge joints near a pier. Superstructure spans vary from 89.6 to 174 ft (27 to 53 m), with 90% of them being in the range of III to 125 ft (34 to 38 m). This project required 2225 precast segments, all manufactured by the short-line method (see Chapter 11), which involved the following opera­ tions: I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Subassembly of mild steel reinforcing on a template. Storage of subassembly units. Assembly of complete reinforcement cages in­ cluding tendon ducts. Placing of the cages in the forms. Concreting and curing of the segments. After concreting and curing, transportation of the segment by a dolly to a position where one end would act as a bulkhead for the casting of the next segment. At the same time its position was adjusted to conform to the proper geometric configuration of the superstructure. Transfer of the segment that had previously acted as the bulkhead to temporary storage for further curing. 8. 9. Transfer of the segment, eight hours after curing, to a more permanent storage until re­ quired for erection. Return of the mold bottom, after temporary storage, to the casting area for reuse. Curing of the segments was accomplished with low-pressure steam in the following 44-hour cycle: I. 2. 3. An initial 14-hour curing period at 35°C. A two-hour temperature rise reaching 65"C. A one-hour curing period at a level of 65"C. The short curing cycle can be accomplished if the following conditions are satisfied: use of a proper cement, preheating of the materials to 35"C, rigid forms, and proper supervision. Casting of a seg­ ment required nine hours, allowing two segments per day per form; the four forms used produced a total of eight segments per day. Erection of precast segments by the launching gantry shown in Figure 3.92 is schematically illus­ trated in Figure 3.93. After being rotated 90", segments V2 and V'2 were placed at the same time by means of two trolleys suspended from the bot­ tom chord of the launching girder, Figure 3.94. B·] South Viaducts, France FIGURE 3.92. in operation. 127 V2 and V' 2 were then attached to the previously erected segments by temporary prestressing. During the erection operation of V2 and V'2 a transport dolly delivered segment V' 3, then V3, and so on. In this manner the erection of segments could be carried out without being delayed by transportation of the segrIJents from the storage area. In addition, the tfueading and stressing of the permanent prestressing tendons were inde· pendent of the erection cycle. since the tendons were anchored in the internal ribs and could be prestressed inside the box girder. Where the span length was less than 125 ft (38 m), the pier segments were placed by the gantry in its normal working position. The pier segment po· sition was adjusted from a platform fixed to the top of the pier to avoid delaying the placement or can­ tilever segments at the preceding pier. For the few B-3 SOllth Viaduct. launching gantry The matching faces of the segments being erected and the previouslv erected segments, V 1 and V' 1, were coated with epoxy joint material. Segments (a) PI P2 FIGURE 3.93. B-3 South Viaduct. erection sequence. (a) Placin.g the units: The two trolleys bring the units V2 and V'2 which will be placed, after rotation at 90°, against the units VI and V' 1. During this time, the lorry carries the units V'3. then V3, and so on. (b) Laullching the truss: The rear and the central are lifted abo\'e the piers PO and PI. the tmss is supported by trestles and trolleys ill 1 alld P2 and moves forward by the action of the trolley motors until the legs reach PI and P2. Thus the truss has advanced along one span length and can place the pile-unit in P3 and the cantilevers from P2. 128 Precast Balanced CantiLever Girder Bridges _.... FIGURE 3.94. B-3 South Viaduct, placing two seg­ ments in balanced cantilever. larger spans, the pier segment was placed after clo­ sure of the preceding completed spans and ad­ vancement of the launching gantry. The center leg was advanced out onto the last completed half­ span cantilever, but it remained in the proximity of tlte pier. Launching of the gantry to the next span was achieved b\· using the two segment transporta­ tion dollies temporarily fixed on the completed superstructure by two auxiliary steel trusses. The high degree of mechanization of the gantry to­ gether with the repetitive nature of the project al­ lowed speedy erection. A typical 130 ft (39 m) span was erected and completed in two working days. To maintain the construction schedule and minimize required erection equipment, the super­ structure segments wel'e placed simultaneously by two different methods. The launching gantry previously described placed 57% of the seg­ ments and a mobile crane in conjunction with a movable winch frame erected the remaining ones. The latter method was used where access was available for a truck-mounted crane and the seg­ ment transportation dolly. The truck-mml11ted crane could easily be used along the centerline of the structure to place segments at outboard can­ tileyer ends. However, its use became complicated in the midspan area, particularly when it was used to place the closure segments. To solve this prob­ lem, an auxiliary truss equipped with a winch was used in conjunction with the mobile crane. This truss was supported at one end over the pier where cantilever construction proceeded and at the other end over the last completed cantilever arm, which might or might not require a temporary support. pier, Figure 3.95. The segments were lifted by a trolley-mounted winch traveling along the truss. This truss was also used to stabilize the cantilevers during erection, since it was fixed to the pier and the completed ponion of the superstructure. After the pier segment was positioned by the m()bile crane, the frame was launched with the trolley in a counterweight position at the rear of the frame. \Vhen the span exceeded 65 ft (20 m), the front of the frame was held by the crane~ This structure exemplifies an innovative appli­ cation of precast balanced cantilever segmental construction to a difficult urban site and shows its adaptability to almost any site conditions. FIGURE 3.95. B-3 South Viaduct, auxiliary truss for segment assembly (crane placing). (1) Auxiliary truss, (2) winch for segment lifting, (3) precast segment, (4) possible tempo­ rary support (as required), and (5) concrete cantilever stability device. Alpine Motorway Structures, France 3.15 Alpine Motorway Structures, France The new Rhone-Alps Motorway system in South East France includes 220 miles (350 km) of toll­ ways, of which 60 miles (100 km) are an optional section, between the cities of Lyons, Grenoble, Geneva, and Valence in order to improve com­ munications between Germany and Switzerland on one hand and South France and Spain on the other. The motorway is situated among the beauti­ ful western slopes of the Alpine mountain range (see the location map, Figure 3.96). The first 160 miles (250 km) include the following structures: Ten viaducts varving in length between 500 and 1300 ft (150 to 400 m) Two hundred overpass bridges Fifty underpasses Such a project afforded an exceptional occasion to 129 optimize the structures in terms of initial invest­ ment and low maintenance costs. The underpasses had to accommodate a variable and often considerable depth of fill to reduce the constraints of the longitudinal profile in this mountainous region. The ideal answer was found in the use of reinforced concrete arch structures, which proved extremely well adapted and had a cost approximately half that of conventional girder bridges. Apart from the first section of the motorway (East of Lyons), which had to be built immediately and therefore called for conventional solutions (cast-in-place prestressed concrete slab), and ex­ cept for certain special situations (excessive skew, railroad crossing, and so on), a careful study showed that the remaining 150 overpass bridges should be of precast concrete segmental construc­ tion, which were 20% more economical than other methods and practically maintenance free. The study further showed that segmental construction - " Alpine Motorway, location map. 130 Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges should be extended to viaduct structures and that all segments for both overpasses and viaducts could be economically built in a single factory lo­ cated near the center of gravity of the motorway network. The maximum carrying distance was 110 more than 75 miles (120 km) and the average was 40 miles (60 km). Figures 3.97 and 3.98 are views of a typical viaduct and a typical overpass in the motorway network. The two-span and th ree-span overpass bridges have spans ranging from 59 to 98 ft (18 to 30 m). A variety of standardized precast cross sections were developed for this project, depending upon span and width requirements. The first structures used single and double-cell trapezoidal box sections, al­ though later on voided slab sections were pre­ ferred, as illustrated in Figure 3.99a. This solution proved aesthetically pleasing and very simple to manufacture and assemble. The viaducts had to satisfy a wide range of environmental require­ ments. It was found that span lengths could be limited at all sites to a maximum of 200 ft (60 m), ~oo~ o (a) f'4vr b~ttusn ptll.'1.lIlrH gi ~, I '00 FIGURE 3.99. Alpine \10torll'<I). t'pied ~e((i()ns or overpass and Yiaducts. (a) Chcrpass segments. (b) Via­ duct segments. FIGURE 3.97. FIGURE 3.98. Alpine Motorway. view of a viaduct. Alpine Motorway, view of an overpass. which allowed a constant-depth superstructure with precast segments, Figure 3.99b. Segment manufacture was carried out in a fac­ tory close to the new motorway with eas), access to the existing highway system, which was used to haul all segments to their respective sites. The fac­ tory had two parallel bays, Figures 3.100 and 3.101, one for the overpass segments and one for the viaduct segments. Segments for the overpasses, Figure 3.100, were match-cast by the short-line method with their longitudinal axis in a vertical position. The bottom segment was a previously cast unit. The segment at the top was then match-cast against the segment on the bottom. After the unit being cast had reached the required strength, the bottom unit was removed for storage, and the en­ ;; : . !i :~ ~ I (bi (e) FIGURE 3.100. Alpine Motorway, precasting faew)'\,. 131 132 Precast Balanced Can!ilever Girder Bridges FIGURE 3.101. Alpine Motor\;'ay, general view of precast factory and segment storage. tire process repeated. Figure 3.102 is a view of a segment in a vertical match-casting position. Erection procedure for a typical three-span overpass struclUre was as follows: I. After the foundations and pier columns had been constructed, precast concrete slabs were placed on sand beds adjacent to the piers to form foundations for the steel falsework towers. The precast slabs and towers were reusable for sub­ sequent bridges. The erection commenced with placement of the first segment on top of four par­ tially extended 25-ton jacks, Figure 3.1 03a. 2. The second and third segments were placed and prestressed to the first segment, Figure 3.J 03h. The joints between the segments were epoxy coaled as the segments were erected. The prestressing of the second and third segments to the first segment consisted of temporary bars above the top surface of the segments, and other temporary tendons within the segments near the bottom of the segments. The four 25-ton hydraulic jacks under the first segment were then replaced by four partially extended 100-ton hydraulic jacks positioned under segments two and three. The jacks were supported on teAon sliding bearings. 3. The remaining segments were then erected, forming cantilevers on each side of the falsework towers, Figure 3. I 03e. The prestressing of the segments consisted of temporary tendons posi­ tioned above the segments, as indicated in Figure 3.103. 4. The erection of the segments could take place simultaneously at both piers, or one could precede the other, Figure 3.103d. Observe that at this stage of erection each assembly of segments was independently supported on four large hy­ draulic jacks and hence could be raised, lowered, -~ FIGURE 3.102. Alpine casting of segments. ~ : Motorway. T.O - .. venical ~ match or rotated if required to adjust its position with re­ spect to its pier or to its counterpart at the opposite pier. This method eliminated the need for a east­ in-place closure joint at midspan of the central span. Through the adjustment of the hydraulic jacks, perfect mating of the two centermost match-cast segments could be achieved when the assemblies of segments were slid together as indi­ cated. The time required to erect the superstruc­ ture was significantly reduced by avoiding the use of a cast-in-place closure joint. 5. At this point in the erection, the first group of permanent prestressing tendons were inserted in preformed holes through the segments, after which they were stressed and grouted, Figure 3.103e. 6. The process proceeded with the erection of the remaining segments, Figure 3.103f. 7. After installation of precast match-cast abutments, a second group of permanent tendons was installed, and finally the temporary falsework and temporary prestressing was removed, Figure 3.103g. Alpine Motorway Structures, France 133 (oJ 'b) (e) (dJ (f! (g) FIGURE 3.103. Alpine ~!otor\\"ay Bridges, erection scheme for typical three-span overpasses. (a) Placing the first and second segments. (b) Transfer to IOO-tonjacks. (c) First half completed. (d) Joining precast assemblies bv sliding. (e) Threading and stressing cables. (f) Placing the end segments. (g) Threading and stressing last ca­ bles. Overpass structures of two spans could be erected using the technique illustrated above for three-span structures, Figure 3.104. As would be expected, the longer spans required the use of ad­ ditional blsework towers. An overpass bridge, foundations plus piers and superstructure, could be co~structed in less than two weeks. Figure 3.105 shows a typical segment being placed in the over­ pass bridge with a mobile crane. Temporary pre­ stress over the deck slab is shown in Figure 3.106. The viaducts required the manufacture of larger segments in the same precasting factory used for the overpass segments, but with casting proceeding in the usual short-line horizontal fashion. Three casting machines were used simultaneously to pro­ duce all viaduct segments. 134 Precast Balanced Ca1J,tile7.Jer Girder Bridges SLIDE. .. .. 5L1DE !I , il :1, FIGURE 3.104. Illidges. .\lpillc :>.Iotol'\\<!\ Bridges. erectioll Erccting sCglllcllIs in thc \ <lrious structures re­ quired tile usc or a laullching gal1lr\' of an exccp­ tiollalh light alld elaborate design. all()\\'ing easy tl;lnsporLllioll ami erection from site to site. Figure :U ()7 ..\ t\pied 200 It (60 Ill) long calltilever in­ ,': ! /' ,<11('11](' for two-spall mcrpass eluding 25 segments. one pier segmcnt weighing 48 t (44 lilt), and 24 tYpicd segments weighing 36 t (33 nlt) could be accol1lplished ill six to eight working days, including launching the gantry to the following pier and achie\'ing continuity wit.h the precedillg cantileYer. The l1laximum rate of segment placillg \\'as 12 units in a single day. This pn~ject is another interestiilg application of mass-production techniques and the standardiza­ tion or segment a I const ructioll. 3.16 Bridge over the Eastern Scheidt, Holland The bridge over the Eastern ScheIdt, otherwise known as the Oosterschelde Bridge, Figure 3.108, II FIGURE 3.105. Alpinc Motorway, segment placing in o\"{'l'pass ",jib crane. FIGURE 3.106. Alpine stress o\'cr deck slab. ~otor\\ay, pro\'isional pre­ Bridge Over the Eastern Scheidt, Holland FIGURE 3.107. Alpine ",-!otorwav, segment placing ill viaducts with launching gantry. 135 time restraints for construction, and scarcily of labor, prefabrication was required to a very high degree. Since the precast pile elements would be large and heavy, it was decided that the pier and superstructure segments should be equally large and heavy. in the range of 400 to 600 tons.16 A casting yard. Figure 3.110, capable of pro­ ducing all the various precast elements for the structure was constructed near one end of the bridge. This facility provided all the advantages of yard production techniques and the potential for high quality control. The 14ft (4.27 m) diameter cylinder piles have 14 in. (0.35 m) thick walls and were cast vertically in 20 It (6 m) lengths. They were then rotated into a horizontal position where they were aligned. joints concreted, and the pile post-tensioned. In this malll1er piles were produced in required lellgths up to 165 ft (50 m). The assembled pile was then transported hy barge to the site, where a derrick picked it up at one end and rotated it into its verti­ 190 Ions 39.5fl 60010n5 56ft 8 A r ~~~~:J . 410-100 reversed I/unit ~ FIGURE 3.108. Bridge over the Eastern Scheidt. overall view or the struclUre. ~~ -ti,.l:::i. k4..~'. ,,', . is part of a project known as the Delta Works, which closed the mouths of many rivers and streams southwest of Rotterdam to protect the €oastline from flooding. The bridge consists of fifty-five :300 It (91.4 Ill) spans, a roadway width of 35 ft (10.7 01), and a vertical navigation clearance of 50 ft (15,2 m). Parameters considered in the choice of structural type and span were economics, foundation restraints, and ice loads, Substructure consists of three cylinder piles with a caisson cap and an inverted V pier, Figure 3.109. The superstructure was assembled from seven precast elements, one pier segment, and two each of three progressively smaller segments to produce one double cantilever span of 300 ft (91.4 m). The bridge design, therefore. consists of very large pre­ stressed cylinder piles, precast pier elements post­ tensioned together, and precast superstructure elements erected and post-tensioned together to form'a double cantilever system with ajoint at each midspan location. Because of open-sea conditions. 400· Ion caisson Cylindrical hollow pries . ';\ . ~ FIGURE 3.109. Bridge mer the Eastern Scheidt, schematic of preca~t clements in Ihe .,trllnure (courtew of Ihe Portland Cement Associatioll). FIGURE 3.110. Bridge over the Eastern Scheidt, view of precasting plant (courtesy of the Portland Cement As­ sociation). Preca.~t 136 Balanced CanJilever Girder Bridges c<l1 position. CYlinder piles weighted from 300 to 550 tons (270 to 500 mt). The pier cap was also precast at the same yard, where it was post-ten­ sioned circumferentially and vertically. The in­ verted V portion of the pier was also precast with provision for on-site post-tensioning to achieve final assembly.16 Figure 3.111 shows the bridge under construc­ tion. The temporary enclosures between each sec­ tion are to protect tbe cast-in-place joint concrete against cold weather. Cast-in-place joints 16 in. (0.4 m) wide were used, with faces of the precast ele­ lIIents serraTed to act as shear keys. The superstrucTure segments were all set from a traveling steel gamr)" Figure 3.111, that extended over two and one-half spans at a time. Segments were barged to their hnallocation, then hoisted in s\'l11lnetrical order about each pier. The joints were concreted and the primarY stressing completed be- FIGURE 3.111. Bridgc mer the Eastern Scheidt, view of launchillg trus~ alld enclosure for cast-in-place joints (COUrIesy of the Portland Ccment Association). .. ... --...I -----_I .....- L,.U -- ........ I 11 ,1..... .... I ... !! I ___...... -ll.. __....ll n· I .i. I -­ ... . ...­ • I I I ......... I •n -- .... --............ -- ..........-­ • I I I I 1: -- ....•----- ...,--I I -- ... ., .. ------_ ... I ... I IT ..... 71 3.17 Captain Cook Bridge, Australia This structure carries a six-lane highway over the Brisbane River in Brisbane, Australia, as part of the Riverside Expressway and South-West Freeway designed to relieve the city'S overloaded traffic system. The nm'igatioll requirements were for a 300 ft (91.4 m) wide horizontal clearance with a venicql clearance of 4S ft (13.7 m) across 200 fl (61 m) and 40 ft (12 m) at either extremity. However, a 600 ft (183 m) span became necessary because of the skew crossing. Adequate bearing rock, at a reason­ able depth, was found at the south bank such that the pier could be founded on a spread footing. At the north end, because of the steeply rising bank, the anchor span was limited to a span of 140 fl (42.7 m) and the abutment was designed as a counterweight connected to the superstructure by a prestressed tie-down wall, Figure 3.114,17 Once the navigation span requirements had heen met, tile remaining span lengths were se­ lected to meet design requirements, while the super~tructure depth boundaries had to fall within a maximum allowahle grade requirement of 3% and the flood level. The superstructure is a dual I ­ I •I - -.. .!! fore the next series of segments were hoisted into position. Erection sequence is depicted in Figure 3.112. An aerial view of various stages of con.struc­ tion is shown in Figure 3.113. A typical cycle for two spans of superstructure, not including the pier segment, involving the raising, concreting, and stressing of 12 segments, was three weeks. I I rr .. .. I FIGURE 3.112. Bridge oyer the Eastern ScheIdt, schc1llatic of erection sequence (courtesy of the Portland Cement Association). FIGURE 3.113. Bridge over the Eastern Scheidt, ae­ rial view of construction showing various phases (cour­ tesy of the Portland Cement Association). to>:> -l - VIADUCT APPROACH I f ~ BEAR,'NGS ABUI '" IIIl:tFoo-..eA'I.·:-"'OO f ABUl, '''' :"RIN:~~~~·· ___ ·Ii'C~.G o· ! 110'- 0' FIGURE 3.114. ~] ~..,..,->B ~~~ ~.~~~/ ~,,-t.~ / RY~-i' TSUOING ·'-Tp;ER 2 I HINGE ri·~ u~ HINGE ~-"-- J~_~ I -T~l-TF;;Eo-- lO$~ ~,~t~ O"_J:n % GR~_~~ __ 9' EASTSOUND ......",.. ...A. ~ .,4'''> ~'" ~.,. ",'" I I / 110'· 0' r HINGE 'FIXED " . 1'$;'-0· ~' .-r;,;~~.- -",,-~ J 1 ___~L.._ _ _..J. tr ·-1 ---1 __ ~~(f!•.::~.~9 % G~~O(., uo'-o" I :..~~,~~7"~.':::-:::::: so'-o· HINGE 'T5~;OING ~-~--.- 1'.s:.:J!..._. -"-L__.,..:.______________r ~ ,-" ~_. ----rPIER___3 1 tAH£S WESTSO ..u_N_o_ _ _ _ _ 1 !...AitES ELEVATION tojATURAl _~~o': _ ! lo~'-9· ¥ Capt. Cook Bridge, plan and cielation, frolll reI. 17. ¢:J ... I~i! 10'- o~_ EMiJAHM:I1£Hl TlEWAll ABUI,'a' TlEWALL ABUl ir ..:.I 138 Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges structure of prestressed concrete segmental two­ cell boxes, Figures 3.115 and 3.116.17 Steel rocker bearings were llsed to support the superstructure at piers 1, 3, and 4, and large­ diameter single steel roller bearings were used at pier 2. Lubricated bronze bearings sliding on stainless steel were used at the north abutment and for the movable bearings at the suspended spans. Steel finger joints, allowing a lOin. (250 mm) maxirnum movement, were provided at each slid- FIGURE 3.115. Capt. Cook Bridge, cross section at pier :~. from ref. J 7. FIGURE 3.116. Capt. Cook Bridge, two-cell box gir­ der segment being erected (courtesy of G. Bcloff. Main Roads Department). ing bearing location and rubber and steel finger joints at the remaining locations." The box girder segments have a maximum depth of 32 ft (9.75 m) and a minimum depth of 6 ft (1.83 111). Segment length is 8 ft 8 in. (2.64 m). A 16 in. (0.4 m) cast-in-place, fully reinforced joint was used between segments. Maximum segment weight is 126 tons (114 mt). A total of 364 precast segments were required in the superstructure with the two segments over the tie-wall in the south abutment being cast in place. 17 The contractor chose to locate the precasting operation on the river bank near the south abut­ ment. This casting yard consisted of a concrete mixing plant, steam-curing plant, three adjustable steel forms, segment tilting frame, and a gantry crane to transport the segments to a storage area along the river bank. Segments were designed so that the top flange and upper portion of the webs had a cOllstant thickness. The depth and lower portion accolllmodated all variations. allowing the contractor to cast in two sets of adjustable forms. Segments were cast with their longitudinal axis in a vertical position for ease of concrete placement around the prestressing ducts. Separate interior forms were constructed for each box to permit variations in the bottom flange alld web thickness and size of fillets. Aher casting and curing, seg­ ments were lifted into a tilting frame {() realign the segment into its normal position ready for han­ dling and storage.]; _A floating crane, designed and built bv the con­ tractor, was used for erection of the segmen ts. I twas essentially a rectangular pontoon with mounted A-frame lifting legs rising to 120 ft (36.6 m) with adequate clearance to service the finished deck level, while the stability was sufficient to transport the segments to the erection position, Figure 3.117. An extended reach was required to position seg­ ments on the first two spans in the shallow water near the bank. 17 Segments on each side of the pier were sup­ ported on falsework anchored to the pier shafts, Figure 3.118. From this point additional segments, as they were erected, were supported on a can­ tilever falsework from the completed portion of the structure. This falsework was fixed under the completed girder and supported from deck level, Figure 3.119. When the capacity of the pier to carry the segment unbalanced load was reached, a temporary prop support on driven piles was con­ structed before cantilever erection could continue. Segment erection then proceeded on each side until either the joint position of the suspended Other Notable Structures 139 FIGURE 3.119. Capt. Cook Bridge, cradle support trusses and temporary support tower (courtesy of G. Beloff, Main Roads Department). FIGURE 3.117. Cap. Cook Bridge, ~egment being transported by barge derrick to 6nal position (courtesy of G. Beloff, l\Iain Roads Department). span was attained or the closure gap in span 3 was reached. The completed st.ructure was opened to traffic in 1971, Figure 3.120. 3.18 Other Notable Structures In Sections 3.2 through 3.15 the historical de­ velopment of precast segmental bridges with match-cast joints has been illustrated by examples, FIGU~E 3.118. Capt. Cook Bridge, support for seg­ ments on each side of pier (courtesy of G. Beloff, Main Roads Department). ranging from the first structure at Choisy-le-Roi to the largest applications such as the Rio Niteroi and Saint Cloud bridges. Emphasis has been placed on North American experience as well as on the advantages of precast segmental construction for urban structures (B-3 Viaducts) or repetitive ap­ plications (Alpine Motorways). Two particularly outstanding structures, deserving special mention because of their size and characteristics where pre­ cast serrmental was used with conventional joints (not m~tch-cast) were the Oosterschelde and Cap­ tain Cook Bridges (Sections 3,16 and 3.17). Before closing this important chapter, let us briefly give due credit to several other contemporary match­ cast segmental bridges. 3./8.1 CALIX BRIDGE, FRANCE This Itl-span superstructure has a maximum span length of 512 ft (156 m) over the maritime FIGURE 3.120. Capt. Cook Bridge. completed structure (courtesy of G. Beloff, :vIain Roads Depart­ ment). . Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 140 ...... , ® , . "\ o ® ® ® Longitudinal closure joint FIGURE 3.121. Calix Vi,l<!url. Ilcar Cacll, Francc gellcral dilll(·nsiolls. waterway and typical 230 ft (70111) spalls in the ap­ proaches on both hanks. Dimellsiolls are shown in Figure 3.121. The deck consists of two parallel box girders connected by a precast prestressed slab strip. All segments, \\'ith a maximum weight of 49 t (43 mt), were cast in a long bench and placed with a tower crane tra\'eling between the box girders in the approaches. Segments were barged in for the main span, and a beam and winch system was used for hoisting them into place, Figure 3.122. 3.18.2 FIGURE 3.122. Calix Viaduct, placing precast seg­ meIlts ill superstructure. 24'-0" g'-o" VAIL PASS BRIDGES, L'.S.A. These bridges are located on Interstate 1-70 over Vail Pass near Vail, Colorado, in a beautiful set­ ting at an altitude between 9000 and 10,000 ft (2700 and 3000 m) above sea level where winter conditions are critical and the construction period is very short. Dimensions are shown in Figure 3.123, and a view of one finished bridge appears in Figure 3.124, 3.183 20'-0" in cx:i Section near midspan FIGURE 3.123. Vail Pass Bridge, cross-scction gen­ eral dimensions. TRE,\'T VIADUCT, U.K. This structure carries the M-180 South Humber­ side motorway over the River Trent and consists of dual roadways of three lanes each, with a central median. Precast segmental construction was se­ lected against a steel plate girder design with a reinforced concrete deck slab. The bridge is sym­ Other Notable Structures 141 FIGURE 3.124. Vail Pass Bridge, a completed precast segmental structure (courtesy of International En­ gineering Company, Inc.). metrical with four spans of 159, 279, 279, and 159 ft (48.5, 85, 85, and 48.5 m). Each roadway is supported by an independent superstructure of twin concrete box girders vary­ ing in depth from 16 ft (4.9 m) at the piers to 7 ft (2.1 111) at midspan of the center spans. Principal dimensions are shown in Figure 3.125. Each box girder is made up of 91 precast segments 10 ft (3 m) long, varying in weight between 38 t (35 mt) to 82 t (75 mt). All segments were placed in balanced cantilever with a launching gantry shown in opera­ tion in Figure 3.126, with precast units being deliv­ ered on the finished deck. 3./8.-1 L-n. TiLER.\'.1L'TOB.iH.V BRIDGE, .1L'STRI.l This structure is located between Salzburg and Villach, Austria. as part of a new motorwav COI1­ necting Germany and Yugoslavia. The 22-span twin bridge has a total length of 3820 ft (1167 m) distributed as follows: 110, twenty at 180, and 110 FIGURE 3.126. Trent finishing the deck. Bridge, 3.18.5 KfSHWAUKEE RIVER BRIDGE, U.S.A. This dual structure carries U.S. Route 51 over tlte Kishw<lukee River near the city of Rockford, il­ lillois. Dimensions are shown in Figure 3.129. Pre­ stressing is achieved in the transverse and 1011­ gitudinal directions bv bar tendons. All segments were placed in the structure by a launching gantry. shown in Figure 3.130, which represents the first application of this method in the Cnited States. MOTORWAY CENTRAL RESERVE I I • ~~ =======:::::=:::::=====IN=S::!1"U~J~0!i:INr:T:::::~:==:~==::::::::::=::::::;::=r:~ I __ O INSITU PARAPET VARIES APPROX, a.ooo TO 3.000 I' 4.000 FIGURE 3.125. gantry ft (33.5, twenty at 55, and 33.5 m). Box piers have a maximum height of 330 ft (100 m). The constant­ depth superstructure of 12.5 ft (3.8 111) is made LIp of 722 segments match-cast in a job-site factory equipped with four casting machines, Figure 3.127. A launching gantry was used to place all segments in the two bridges in balanced calltilever, Figure 3.128. 1""----_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _l1_.4_00_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _----+l.1 --,-_ _ launching 0 V ARIES 250 TO Typical. 400 t soo frent Bridge. typical dimensions. I Cross section Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 142 FIGURE 3.127. L-32 TallernaulObahn Bridge, cast­ FIGURE 3.128. ing machine. 'J.IH.6 L-32 'rallern<lU tobahn Bridge, launching gantrv. I\.E.\TUCl\.f Rf1!£R [mIDGE, U.S.A. '.IH.! This large project represents olle of the m~jor ap­ plications of precast segmental construction in the United States, The 5770 ft (1759 m) long structure carries Interstate 1-205 from Vancouver, Wash­ ington, across the :-';orth Channel of the Columbia River to Government Island near Portland, Ore­ gon. Twin structures carry two 68 ft. (20.7 rn) wide roadways with span lengths varying between 600 ft (183 m) and 242 ft (74 m). Typical dimensions of This structure crossing the Kentucky River is 10­ ciled in Franklin County just south of Frankfort, Kentucky. It is a three-span structure with a 323 ft (98.5 111) center span and 228.5 ft (70 m) side spans. In cross section the superstructure consists or two rectangular boxes. It is the hrs! precast segmclltal bridge to he constructed in the United States using the long-bed casting method, Figure 3.131. A view during construction is shown in Figure 3.132. 2eiO'-O' 1-205 COLU,\1Bf.4 IUl'EH ImmGE. U.S.A. 170~O' 250'-0' , 250'-0' POST-TENS'!?NEO SEGMENTAL CONCRETE 80X GIRDER EX? HIGH WATER [LEV 711,0 AVERAGE WATER £lEV 694.0 (aJ . TRANSVERSE POST - TENSIONING I ~L_.J9'-1\'j'e· (b) (e) FIGURE 3.129. Kishwaukee River Bridge, superstructure elevation and cross sections. Elevation. (b) Section at midspan. (c) Section at pier. (From ref. 18.) (0) Other Notable Structures FIGURE 3.131. cast ing bed. FIGURE 3.130. Kisim;tukec Ri\er Bridge, \'iew dur­ ing cOllStruction sh()\\ing launching truss. Kentllcb Rin'r Bridge. long.lillt' Rin'r Bridge. dll1ing FIGURE 3.132. COIl- stnH tic)!l. the tllain spam on~r the river are shown ill Figure :\.13:L Dimensiolls of the cross sectioll. as designed, are shown in Figure 3.134. However, the contrac­ tor, under a value engineering option in the COll­ tract documents (see Chapter 12), elect.ed to re­ d~sign the cross section to a n\o-cell box sectioll, Figure 3. US. The colltractor exercised the op- tion allowed in the bidding docllmellts t.o select his own c()mtrllUion method and proceeded with casting in place in cOllventional travelers the two cantilevers adjacent to the main navigation chan­ nel (piers 12 and I:S). \\'hile all other spans are or precast seglllental COtlslrll(tiol1. FigtllT :s.1 :\6 shows a rendering or the strncture. 19.(';'rr _ _ _ _ _ FIGVRE 3.133. 1-203 Columbia Rivcr Bridge. ~\ \ \ \ ~, \ cll:\'<ll ion and plan. \ ... Precast Balanced Cantilever Girder Bridges 144 11'-10" 67'-10" t I I I t 67'-11" I ' :=ODDr~ FIGURE 3.134. 1-205 Columbia River Bridge, cross sections. 70'·10' 11J -ls-'_-9.-I CROSS SECTION OF PRECAST SEGMENTS FIGURE 3.135. 1··205 Columbia River Bridge, revised cross section. J. J8.8 ZILl1'A U I\.EE BRIDGE, U.S.A, This bridge is another important example of pre­ cast segmental construction in the lJ nited States. Located in central Michigan, this 8080 ft (2463 Ill) long structure carries dual four-lane roadways over the Saginaw River near Zilwaukee, Michigan. Principal dimensions are shO\m in Figure 3.137. FIGURE 3.137. Zil\\'aukce Bridge, typical dimensions. FIGURE 3.136. 1-205 Columbia River Bridge, ren­ dering of the structure . The 51 spans vary in length from 155 ft to 392 ft (47 to 119 m). An additional three-span ramp car­ ries some traffic onto the southbound high-level bridge, Navigation clearance is 125 ft (38 m) above the Saginaw River. For a total deck area of 1, ISO,OOO sq ft (110,000 145 Other Notable Structures Ii--'iM9.+--.___ 429:5 7 !..!.17..!cl.8!!.l.7_ _ _ _•...,1~21Zl~I. I I I I I ,. FIGURE 3.138. ()TT.H,IRSllJ~I,H BRIDGE, FR.-lNCE . This bridge in East France dose to Germany and the Rhille Ri\'er at the Ottmarsheim hydroelectric plant is todav the longest clear span of precast segmental construction and the first major appli­ cation of liglHweight concrete to this type of structure. Principal dimensions are shown in Fig­ ure 3.138..-\5 shown in the longitudinal section, lightweight concrete was used only in the center portion of the two main spans over the navigable waterway and over the outlet channel of the power pl~nt. Figure 3.139 is a view of the completed structure. 3.18.10 ~..-~~-J;. ~;-l I. ~ 1 11.70 --I Ottmarsheim Bridge, general dimensions. m2 ) there are 1590 large segments varying In length from 8 to 12 ft (2.4 to 3.65 m) with a maximum weight of 160 t (144 mt). Segments were produced in a production-line operation with short-line casting and placed in the· structure in balanced cantilever with a large launching gantry accommodating two slIccessive spans. 3.18.9 ·········14197 ---........... weighing a maximum of 50 t (45 mt) are designed to be placed in balanced cantilever with an aux­ iliary overhead truss (and winch system) in the approach spans to stabilize the deck over the flexi­ ble piers during construction. 3.18.11 1"·9 FREEIVAr, .HELBOUR.v/~, :H/STRAL/.I This very important project is a recent application of precast segmental construction to urban ele­ vated structures. The constraints relating to loca­ tion of piers and construction over highway and railway traffic are comparable to the conditions en­ countered at the B-3 South Viaducts in Paris, France. The principal project dimensions are shown in Figure 3.142. All segments will be placed in the twin bridge using two launching gantries, which incorporate the latest technological developments in safety and eHlciencv. OVERSTREET BRIDGE, FLORIDA, U.S.A. This structure crosses the Intracoastal vVaterway near Panama Cit\' in Western Florida. Dimensions are shown in Figures 3.140 and 3.141. The main navigation span is 290 ft (88 mm) long between piers to avoid anv construction in the water fender system during operation. Approach spans are 125 ft (38 m) long and rest on I-shaped piers bearing on precast piles. The main piers consist of twin I piers of the same design. The total length of structure is 2650 ft (808 m) divided as follows: 95, seven at 125,207.5,290, 207.5, seven at 125, and 95ft (29. seven at 38,63,88,63, seven at 38, and 29 m). Precast segments 10ft (3 m) long and FIGURE 3.139. Ottmarsheim Bridge, view of the completed structure. Begin Bridge Sand Cement Riprap, (Typ-) " 'I -~--t~~-~ 11' a;, -r­ 'I .1\ ..... II ... If! ~ ~ 207'·6" II " II , 290'-0" " (helstrcet J I II Florida. cross sections. 20'-0" dn;llitl1l. ~ ., Hl ~ 25'Bnrm End of Sla, 320 + g " ., gag n~ .,...J..t,...Lot 125'-0" 125'-0" 125'-0" 125'-0" 125'-0" 125-0" 125-0" 95'-0~ 2'-6" Fi<)rida. 201'-6" g q g (herSlrtTI ,..w 2650' -0" Overall Length of Bridge FIGURE 3.140. - FIGURE 3.141. ~ 2'-6"195'0"125;-0"125'-0" 125'-0" 125'-0" 125'-0" 125'·0" 125'-0" Sta, 293 + 59 'La II -", ,-, I .... Q'l I ! /il! ! " <-</.. , .... ' F';JUR LANE CROSS 3.ECT:QN FIGURE 3.142. F-\1 F 147 References References I. Jean :'Iuller, "Ten Years of Experience in Precast Segll1ental Construction," journal of the Prestressed Concrete Institllte, Vol. 20, I, January-February 1975. "0. 2. C. A. Ballinger, W Podolny, Jr., and M. J. Ab­ rahams, ";\ Report on the Design and Construction of Segmental Prestressed Concrete Bridges in West­ em Europe-1977," International Road Federa­ tion, Washington, D.C., June 1978. (Also available from Federal Highwav Administratioll, Office of Research and Development, Washington, D.C., Re­ port FH WA-RD-78-44.) 3. Walter PodolllY, Jr., "An Overview of Precast Pre­ stressed Segmemal Bridges,"Jliumal of the Prestressed CO/l(:rt'le lllsti/ue, Vol. :H, I, Januarv-February 1979. "0. "0. 4. :.l. 6. i, 8. 9. 10. J. :.tllhiY<lt, "Reconstruction du Pont de Choisy-le­ Roi," Till l'rl wc, Janvier 1966, 372. Jean Muller, "Long-Span Precast Prestressed Con­ crete Bridges guilt ill Cantilever," Firs/ III/fllla/jullal SymposiulII, COIINe/1' Bridgl' DI!sign, Paper SP 2,~-40, ACI PubliGuiotl SP-~3, American Concrete Imli­ wte, Detroit, 1969. Andre Bouchel, "Les POllts.en Beton Precontraint de Conrbevoic et de b Grande-Jatte (HaUls-de­ Seine):' La Tn:hlliljul' des Tmvaux, Juillet-Aout 1968, "Bear River Hridge ," STU P Bulletin of I tlforlllation, :">iovelllher-Decclllber 197~. ":-Jova Scotia's Bear River Bridge-Precast Seg­ mental Constructiotl Costs Less and the \Ionev Swvs at Home," BridlV Bllllelill, Third Quarter EJ7:!, PresllTssed Concrete I nstitule, Chicago. "John F, Kennedy \lemorial Causeway, Corpus Christi, Texas," Bridge Report SR 162.0 I E, Port­ land Cement Association, Skokie, III., 19i-1. G, C. Lace\", and J. E. Breen, "Long Span Pre­ "0. stressed Concrete Bridges of Segmental Construc­ tion State of the Art," Research Report 1:.1 I I, Center for Highway Research, The University of' Texas at Austin, :'1ay 1969. II. S. Kashima and J. E. Breen, "Epoxy Resins for Jointing Segmentally Constructed Prestressed Con­ ~rete Bridges," Research Report 121-2, Center for Highway Research, The University of Texas at Aus­ tin, August 1974, 12, G, C. Lacey and J. E. Breen, "The Design and Op­ timization of Segmentally Precast Prestressed Box Girder Bridges," Research Report 121-3, Center for Highway Research, The University of Texas at Aus­ tin, August 1975. 13. R. C. Brown, Jr., ". H. Burns, and J. E, Breell, "Computer Analysis of Segmentallv Erected Precast Prestressed Box Girder Bridges," Research Report 121-4, Center for Highway Research, The Univer­ sity of Texas at Austin, November 19i4. 14. S, Kashima and.J. E. Breen, "Construction and Load Tests of a Segmental Precast Box Girder Bridge :'Iodel," Research Report 121-5, Center for High­ way Research, The Cniversit.y of Texas at Au,lin, February 1975, J. E. Breen, R. L. Cooper, and T. :'1. Gallaway, ":VIinimizing Construction Problems in Segmelllaliv Precast Hox Girder Bridges," Research Report 121-6F, Center for Highway Research, The Univer­ sitv of Texas at Austin, August 1975. 16, BCll C. Gerwick, Jr., "Bridge over the Eastel"1l Scheidt," jou1"I1id of the Prestressed Concrete Ins/i/l/fR, Vol. II, I, February 1966, 17,":\ Proud Achievement-The Captain Cook Bridge," Issued bv the Commissioner of \laill Roads-1972, \1ain Roads Department, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. 15. "0. 18, "Prestressed Concrete Segmental Bridges on FA ·H~ over the Kishwaukee River," Bridge Bulle/in, No. I. 1976, Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, 4 Design 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 if Seg1nental Bridges INTRODUCTION liVE LOAD REQUIREME;\;TS SPAN ARRANGEMEl'.T AND RELATED PRINQPLF..5 OF CONSTRUCTION DECK EXPANSION, HINGES AND CONTINUITY 4.4.1 Hinges at Midspan 4.4.2 Continuous Superstructures 4.4.3 Expansion of Long Bridges TYPE, SHAPE AND DIMENSIONS OF THE SUPER­ STRUCTURE 4.5.1 Box Sections 4.5.2 Shape of Superstructure in Elevation 4.5.3 Choice of Typical Cross Section 4.5.4 Dimensions of the Typical Cross Section TRANSVERSE DISTRIBUTION OF WADS BETWEEN BOX GIRDERS IN MULTIBOX GIRDERS EFFECT OF TEMPERATI:RE GRADIENTS IN BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCT1JRFS DESIGN OF WNGITUDINAL MEMBERS FOR FLE­ XlJRE AND TENDON PROFILES 4.8.1 Principle of Prestress Layout 4.8.2 Draped Tendons 4.8.3 Straight Tendons 4.8.4 Summary of Tendon ProfIles and Anchor Locations 4.8.5 Special Problems of Continuity Prestress and An­ chorage Thereof 4.8.6 Layout of Prestress in Structures with Hinges and Expansion Joints 4.8.7 Redistribution of Momellts and Stresses Through Concrete Creep 4.1 Introduction Desi~n of concrete hj~hway bridges in the Cllitcd States conforms to the provisions of The American Association for Slate Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) "Standard Specifications [or Highway Bridges," For railway structures, specifications or the American Railway Engineers Association (AREA) should be consulted. For the 148 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.8.8 Prediction of Prestress Losses ULTIMATE BEI\'DING CAPACITY OF LONGITUDI· NALMEMBERS SHEAR Al\'D DESIG]\; OF CROSS SECTION 4.10.1 Introduction 4.10.2 Shear Tests of Reinforced Concrete Beams 4.10.3 Difficulties in Actual Structures 4.10.4 Design of Lon"titudinal Members for Shear JOINTS BETWEEN MATCH·CAST SEGMENTS DESIGN OF SUPERSTRlJCTURE CROSS SECTION SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN 4.13.1 Diaphragms 4.13.2 Superstructure over Piers 4.13.3 End Abutments 4.13.4 Expansion Joint and Hinge Segment DEFLECTIONS OF CA;\;lILEVER BRIDGES AND CAMBER DESIGN ­ FATIGUE IN SEGMENTAL BRIDGES PROVISIONS FOR FLllJRE PRF..5TRESSING DESIGN EXAMPLE 4.17.1 Longitudinal Bending 4.17.2 Redistribution of Moments 4.17.3 Stresses at Midspan 4.17.4 Shear 4.17.5 Design of the Cross·Section Frame QUANTITIES OF MATERIAI..5 POTENTIAL PROBLEM AREAS REFERENCES most pan, the proviSIOns in these specifications were written before segmental construction was considered feasible or practical in the United States. Before discussing design considerations, the authors wish to emphasize that no preference for either cast-in-place or precast methods of con­ struction is implied here. The intent is simply to present conditions that the designer should be Span Arrangement and Related Principles of Construction aware of to produce a satisfactory design. Both concepts are viable ones, and both have been used to produce successful structures. In general, the segmental technique is closely related to the method of construction and the structural system employed. This is why segmental construction, either cast in place or precast, has been often identitied with the cantilever construc­ tion used in so many applications. It is logical to take bridge structures built in cantilever as a basis for the design considerations developed in this chapter. \Vhere other methods, such as incremen­ tal launching or progressive placement, require special design considerations, such problems are discussed in the appropriate chapters. 4.2 Live-Load Requirements In comparing practices ill other countries to those in the United States. an important parameter to keep in mind is that of live-load requirements. Fig­ ure 4.1 illustrates the considerable differences among code requirelllents in variolls countries. l For a simple span of 164 ft (50 m) and width of 24.6 ft (7.5 m). rhe German specification requires a live-load design moment 186% greater and the French requires one 290Sk greater than that of AASHTO. Some Canadian provinces use the AASHTO specifications but arbitrarilv increase the live load bv 25(,}. 149 The depth-to-span and width-to-depth ratios for segmental construction presently advocated in the United States have been adopted from European practice. The lighter live loads used in the United States should permit further refinements in our design approach. 4.3 Span Arrangement and Related Principles of Construction I n the balanced cantilever type of construction, segments are placed in a symmetrical fashion about a pier. The designer must always remember that construction proceeds with symmetrical cantilever deck sections centered about the piers and not with completed spans between successive piers. 2 For a typical three-span structure, the side spans should preferably be 65 percent of the main center span instead of 80 percent in conventional east­ in-place structures. This is done to reduce to a minimum the length of the deck portion next to the abutment, which cannot be conveniently built in balanced cantilever, Figure 4.2a. Where span lengths must varv, as between a main span and an approach span, it is best to intro­ duce an intermediate span whose length will aver­ age the two flanking spans, Figure 4.2h. In this manner the cantilever concept is optimized. Individual cantilever sections are generally made continuous by insertion of positive-moment ten- M(tm) 5000 ....!'.~ ~ 'i'::::::::::=2 1~IMax. ,mimi 4000 M France CPC India ~ c: "0 E ::IE 3000 IRC Germany DIN 1072 2000 1000 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Q(ml Span FIGURE 4.1. Maximum live-load moment (simple span) (F. Leonhardt. NeU' Practice in ConcrelR Stmctures, IABSE, New York. 1968). i I Design of Segmental Bridges 150 I '" ~ '" I ~ ~ / . I ! i G.G5-070L· //$0 . L (a) A (b) Section A-A FIGURE 4.4. End restraint at abutment. (c) FIGURE 4.2. Call1ilcH.T (On,tluClioll sll(ming choice oj" ')lan Iellgth" and locatioll expansion joints. or upon closure. I t is preferred not to have any permanent hinges at midspan. Continuous decks without joints have been repeatedly constructed to Icngths in exccss of 2000 ft (600 m) and have pro\'cd satisfactory from the standpoint of mainte· !laIJCC and riding quality For very long viaducHype structures, inter· mediate expansion joints are inevitable to accom­ llIodate volume changes. 'rhesejoints should be lo­ cated ncar points of contrafiexure, Figure 4.2c. to avoid objectionable slope changes that occur if the joint is located at midspan. This consideration will he discussed in more detail in Scction 4.4. 111 many cases it may not be possible to provide the desirable optimum span arrangement. Thus, the end span may be greater or less than the op­ timum span length desired. 2 In the case of a long cnd span, the superstructure might be extended over the abutment wall to provide a short addi­ tional span. As shown in Figure 4.3, a conventional dOllS FIGURE 4.3. bearing (I) is prm'ided over the frollt abutment wall. A rear prestressed tie (2) opposes uplift and permits cantilever construction to proceed out­ ward from the abutment 10 the joint U1), where a connection Gill he effectcd with the cantilever from the first intermediate pier. Figure 4.4 shows an al­ ternative scheme with a constant-depth section. as opposed to a haunched sectioll. where the deck has been encased within the abutment \ring walls for architectural purposes. For the normal end span. a special segment is temporarily cantile\'cred out so as to reach the first balanced cantilever constructed from the next pier, Figure 4.5. Alternatively this portion could be cast in place 011 falsework, if site conditions permit. 1n a short-end-span sit uation, cantilever COI1­ struction starts from the first pier and reaches the abutment on one side well before the midspan sec­ tion of the adjacent span, Figure 4.6. An uplift reaction must be transferred to the abutment during construction and in the completed struc­ ture. Consequently, the webs of the main box girder deck are cantilevered over the expansion End restraint in abutment. Deck Expansion, Hinges and Continuity 151 FIGURE 4.5. Conventional bearing on abutment. FIGURE 4.6. ,\nchorage joint into slots provided in the main abutment wall, Figure 4.7. The neoprene bearings are placed above the web cantilever rather than below to transfer the uplift force while allowing the deck to expand freely. Interesting examples of sllch concepts are given in the three following bridges: GiYors Bridge over the Rhone River, France. shown in Figure 4.8. The main dimensions are given with the typical construction stages of the su perstructu re. Tricastin Bridge over the Rhone River, France (Section 2.13.11). :-.Jo river piers were desired for the structure. which dictated a main span of 467 ft (142.30 m~, and there was no room on the banks to increase the side spans so as to avoid the end uplift. Two very short side spans of onlv 83 fl (23.20 m) provide the end restraint of the river span. The uplift is transferred to the abutments, which are earth filled to provide a counterweight, Figure 4.9. The magnitude of the uplift force has been re- ror uplift in abutment. cluced by the use of lightweight concrete in the center of the main span. Puteaux Bridges O\'er the Seine River, near Paris (Section 2.13.10). A few bridges have even been built in cantilever entirely from the abutments. The RealJon Bridge in France is one such structure, Figure 4.10, where verv special site conditions with regard to bridge profile and shape of the valley were best met with this concept. Another set of circumstances may be encoull­ tered when it is not possible to select the desired span lengths to optimize the lise of cantilever con­ struction. Such was the situation of the bridge over the Seine River for the Paris Ring Road, where a side span on the left bank could not be less than 88 percent of the main river span over the river, while very stringent traffic requirements governed the placement pattern of precast segments on the right bank, Figure 4.11. 4.4 Deck Expansion, Hinges and Continuity J 4.4.1 Web cantilever FIGURE 4.7. Longitudinal section. HISGES AT :vIJDSP.·tV Historically, the first prestressed concrete bridges built in cantilever were provided with a hinge at the center of the various spans. Such hinges were designed to transfer vertical shear between the tips of two adjacent cantilever arms (which could de­ velop under the live loading applied over one arm only in half the span length) while enduring a free expansion of the concrete deck under volume changes (concrete creep and seasonal variations of temperature). Continuity of the deflection curve ~=?~:t~Al'~C~-~: ,... ® RIVE GAUCHE 6 152 ",(0) J.. [~OO) - ~-_~ .'K""",,_ ...... •. 5 FIGURE 4.8. Givors Bridge over the Rhone River, France, span dimensions and typical construction stages. (I) Construction of left bank river pier segment. The eight segments either side of the pier are erected, and pier stability is assured by temporary props. (2) The connection between deck and abutments is made. Temporary props are removed and the seven remaining segments are placed in cantilever. (3) The above operation is repeated on the right bank. The central pier segments are poured. Two segments are erected on either side of each pier, supported by scaffolding. (4) The last segment is placed in the central span, continuity is achieved between the two cantilevers, and the ~cafTolding is removed. (5) The remaining 16 segments on either side of the central piers are placed. (6) The 110m spans are completed by pouring the closure segments and ten~ionillg the continuity prestress. The superstructure is now complete. ~ __________________________ ~2~O~J.OO _________________ __ 1:.1~ HMO 10.25 L,ghtweight concrete ~ " 25 Elow,;O" Section A-A .-.++-. _ _ !J Plan FIGURE 4.9. Tricastin Bridge over lhc Rhone River. France. +--­ ------------­ -­ 4­ FIGURE 4.10. I 15.00 ! j3~ Reallon Bridge, France. 153 3 PHASE 1 construction of central cantilever PHASE 2 construction of right bank cAntilever 1 PHASE 3 closure of central and right bank cantilever PHASE 4 joining of right bank cantilever with abutment PHASE 5 construction of left bank cantilever PHASE 6 closure of left bank and c.:ntral cantilever PHASE 7 joining of left bank cantilever with abutment --------- _.-­ :::. ~-:::-::...--:::.::.::.::::::---- ~~-'~--~-"". ._C".~----._"., ~8- _A .... 154 '.v. ( rr ""~"( --,. -.-~-.---~"~--- r ~["~ Deck Expansion, Hinges and Continuity -~ ~ 155 --c~-c----, ~ __ ___ , . I FIGURE 4.11. Paris Belt (Downslream). (a) Typical constrllction stages. (Ii) Segment assembly-right bank. (I) Segment assel1lbly-lert bank. was thus obtai lied in terms of vertical displacement but not insofar as rotation at the hinge point was concerned. Remember that in this tvpe of structure the deck is necessarilv fixed at the various piers, which must be designed to carrv the unbalanced moments due to unsnlll11etrical li\'c-Ioad patterns over the deck. On the other hand, these structures are simple to design because thn are statically determinate for all dead loads and prestressing, and the effect of live load is simple to compute. Because there are no moment reversals in the deck, the prestressing tendon lavout is simple. Some disa(l\'antages were accepted as the price of simplicity of design: The cleck has a lower ultimate capacity as com­ pared with a continuous structure, because there is no possible redistribution of moments. Hinges are difficult to design, install, and operate satisfactorily. There are manv expansion joints, and regardless of precautions taken in design, construction, and operation they are always a source of difficulty and high maintenance cost. The major disad\'antage, revealed only by experi­ ence, related to the exceeding sensitivity of such structures to steel relaxation and concrete creep. Because of the various hinges at midpoints of the spans, there is no restraint to the vertical and an­ gular displacements of the cantilever due to the ef­ fect of creep. Steel relaxation and the corre­ sponding prestress losses tend to make matters worse, while concrete creep is responsible for a progressive lowering of the center of each span. With time, there is an increasing angle break in the deck profile at the hinge. The magnitude of the deflection has been reported to be in excess of one foot (0.03 m). The difficulties experienced with this type of construction are such that most governlI1ent offi­ cials in Western Europe will no longer permit its use.:l ·/.-1.2 CO.VTI.VCOCS SL'PERSTRCCTURES ~. \. Further research concerning the exact properties and behavior of lI1aterials for such structures hav­ ing a midspan hinge would enable more accurate prediction of the expected deflection and thus better control. A far more positive approach is to eliminate the fundamental cause of the phenome­ non by avoiding all permanent hinges and achiev­ ing full continuity whenever possible. To show the relative behavior of a continuous structure and one with hinges at midspan, a nu­ merical application was made for the center span of the Choisy-le-Roi Bridge in two extreme cases: 156 Design of SegtJ;lental Bridges TABLE 4.1. Comparison of Crown Deflections (Hinged versus Continuous Structure) Casl-in-Place Hinged Structure v (in.) w E y (10 6 psi) (in. x 103/in.) (l 0 6 psi) (in.) 4.3 4.3 4.3 1.80 1.50 0.30 2.4 2.0 0.4 5.1 1.50 0.90 0.60 E '\0. Load Stage Precast Continuous Structure. Girder weight I nitial prestress 3 eu mulati\'e 1 5% Deviation of prestress [) Continuity prestress 6 Superimposed load 7 Finished structure (initial) R Concrete creep and losses !:J Finished structure (final)~ !O Li\'e loads 2 5.1 5.1 23<;( 6.4 2.1 6.4 w (in. X J0 3/in.) 2.0 1.2 0.8 7(/( 0.30 0.60 1.10 1.70 0.4 0.8 (l.9O 1.1 1.4 6.4 6.4 ~().30 2.1 2.2 6.4 0.10 0 0 0.40 OS ~O.IO O.3() 0 O.R 0.30 () Explication of symbols: E = modulus of elasticity for each particular loading stage l w verlieal deflection at crown allfiulal' hreak at crown (expre,sed in thousandths 01 inch per illch) = total Derivation of results: (I) ... (2) girder weight and initial prestress (i) = ('\).,- (5) "- (6) hnished strucrul'e (initial stage) (9) = (7) ... (HI fillished 5t ruelme (fillal slagel n) Cast-in-place cantilever with a hinge at midspan, and Precast segmental continuous construction. Results comparing the two structures are shown in Table 4.1 and in Figures 4.12 through 4.14. The study shows 110 significant difference be­ tween the two tvpes of structures with respect to tbe theoretical behavior of the cantilever method under combined dead load and initial prestress, Figure 4.12. I n fact, the angle change at midspan is even slightly less for the hinged structure, because the prestress offsets a greater percentage of dead-load moments, 83 percent instead of SR per­ cent. = '" RIDged Siruciure DEAD LOAD Clnlllmr premUSlng o nt, PRESTRESSING Culilmr Preslressing : FIGURE 4.13. Comparison of deflection caused by creep (hinged versus continuous structure). CIDtloU!!! PreslresSlng 0.4%0.6%. . Caslin Piace CIDlimus Hlnaed SlruefUre precul lliruciure FIGURE 4.12. Comparison of defieClion under dead load and prestressing (hinged versus continuous struc­ tUf(~). Conllnms PreclIS! SlruC!Ure !:: CIS! In PlBet HlnDed S!ruelure PrlCHS! Stmlure FIGURE 4.14. Comparison of' deflections caused by live load (hinged versus continuous structure). 157 Deck Expansion, Hinges and Continuity When the effect of concrete creep is considered. however, there is a signiflcant difference between the two types of structures, Figure 4.13. The hinged structure has a vertical deflection of I. I in. (28 mm) and a corresponding total angle break of 0.0028 in./inch. This value is twice that shown in Table 4.1 and Figure 4.13 for the angle change of one cantilever, the value of 2.8 being the total angle break of the two abutting cantilevers. The continue ous structure indicates a camber of 0.1 in. (3 mm). and no angle break will ever appear because of full continuitv. Further, the effect of deviation of actual pre­ stress load from the design prestress load points out an important difference in the sensitivity of the twO systems. Assuming the actual prestress in the structure to differ from the design assumption by 5%. the corresponding maximum deflection is in­ creased by 2;)o/c in the hinged structure but only 7% in the continuous structure. Therefore, the continuous structure is three times less sensitive to possible deviations from the assumed material properties. Live-load deflections of the continuous structure are three times more rigid than the hinged struc­ ture, Figure 4.14. The deflection of a typical span of the Oleron Viaduct in France is compared with a continuous span and with a crown hinged ~pan in Figure 4.15. From these data it is obvious that the fullest use of continuity and the elimination of hinges at midspan whenever possible is beneficial to the structural behavior of the bridge, to saf<:ty and comfort of traffic, and to the structure's ac:sthetic appearance. I n practice, the continuity of the individual can­ tilever arms at midspan is obtained by another set of prestressing tendons, usually called continuitv z rt BI if) l.JJ 0 et: W a... 2: a... et: c en ~.J 9 ~l ~, l,\ "'. i ~~:-l " .iI~-\t, 25 I· l- U 1.>.1 -' 1\\ "­ 2 .~ \ \ \ .. r'" . 4 FIGURE 4.15. Comparisons between live-load deflections for continuous or hinged structures. Design oj Segmental Bridges 158 prestressing. which is installed along the span in a continuous structure. Details of the design aspects or this prestress will be discussed in Section 4.8. 4.4.3 Maximum deflection under live load is reduced in the ratio of 2.2 to 1. Maximum angle break under live load is reduced in the ratio of 3.0 to 1. EXPANSiON OF LONG BRIDGES When the continuity of the superstructure is se~. lected as optimum for the behavior of the strllC­ Illre. one must keep in mind that proper measures should be concurrently taken to allow for expan­ sion due either to short-IeI'm and cyclic volume changes or to long-term concrete creep. The piers may be made flexible enough to allow for such expansion or ma\' be provided with elas­ toll1eric bearings to reduce the magnitude of hori­ zontal loads to acceptable levels when applied to the substructure. This important aspect of the ()\'erall bridge design concept is considered in Chaptel' 5. Several structures are currently made continu­ OliS ill lengths of lOOO to 2000 ft (300 to 600 III) and in exceptional cases even 3000 ft (900 Ill). For IOllger structures, full continuity between end aiJutmellts is not possible because of the excessive magnitude of the horizontal movements between superstructure and piers and related problems. Therefore. intermediate expansion joints lIlust be provided. For long spans they should not be placed at the center of the span, as in the early cantilever hridges, but closer to the contraftexure point to llIillimize the effect of a long-term deflection. Such a concept was developed initially for the Ole ron Viaduct and is currently used on large structures such as the Saint Cloud Bridge in Paris, Sal­ lingsund Bridge in Denmark, and the Columhia Riyer and Zilwaukee Bridges in the United States. Detailed computations were made in the case of the Oleroll Viaduct to optimize the location of the expansion joint in a typical 260 fl (80 m) span, Fig­ ure 4.15 shows the shape of the deflection curve for a uniform live loading with the three following assu m ptions: For dead-load deflections the difference is even more significant, such that there is no substantial difference between the actual structure and a fully continuous one. The yariation of the angle break at the hinge point versus the hinge location along the span length is shown in Figure 4.16. There seems to be little doubt that the structure is imprm'ed by selec­ tion of a proper location for the hinge and the ex­ pansion joint. Theoretically, the ideal hinge position is between points "1 and B, which are the contraflexure points for dead and live loads. From a construction standpoint, such a location for the binge compli­ cates the erection process, for the hinge must be temporarily blocked and subsequently released when the span is complete and continuity is achieved. We will collsider this subject in detail after examining the layout of longitudinal pre­ stress in cantilever bridges (Section 4.8.6). It was recently discovered, in the designing of the Sallingsund Bridge. that the optimum location ::,,;; <l Uj Fully continuous span Span with a ce11ler hinge Span with an intermediate hinge located at 29 per­ cent of the span length from the adjacent pier (ac­ tual case) The advantages of having moved the hinge away from the center toward the quarter-span point are obvious: c: 1 'J. co w -' "2 'I. <.5 Z <l LOCATIQIL-QLJjlNGE~TWEEN MID- SPAN-----.!l.t;JD~~ FIGURE 4.16. Variatioll of angle break at the hinge with hinge location along the span. Type, Shape, and Dimensions of the Superstructure of the hinge to control the deflections under service-load conditions does not simultaneously permit achievement of the overall maximum capacity under ultimate conditions. This question will be discussed later in this chapter. The preceding discussion of hinge location applies particularly for very long spans or for slen­ der structures. For moderate spans with sufficient girder depth it has been found that careftil detail­ ing of the prestress in the hinged span can allow the hinge to be maintained at the centerpoint for simplicity (spans less than 200 ft with a depth to span ratio of approximatelv 20). Such was the case for the cantilever alternatives of the Long Key and Seven Mile Bridges in Florida. 4.5 Type, Shape, and Dimensions of the Superstructure -1.5.1 BOX SECTlO.\'S The tvpical section best suited for cantilever con­ struction is the box section. for the following rea­ son s: I. Because of the consCruction lllethod, dead­ load moments produce compression stresses at the bottom flher along the entire span length. and maximull1 nlOTIlents OCCllr near the piers. The typical section therefore l11ust he provided with a large bottOlI1 Hange. particularlv near the pIers. and this is achieved best with a box section. The efficiencY' of the box section is very good. and for a given amount or concrete provides the 159 least amount of prestressing steel. The efficiency of a section is usually measured by the following di­ mensionless coefficient: with the notations as given in Figures 4.17 and 4.18, where some basic formulas are presented. The efficiency would be p = I if the concrete were concentrated in thin flanges with webs of negligible thickness. On the other hand, a rectan­ gular section has an efficiency of only 1/3. The usual box section efficiency is p = 0.60, which is significantly better than that of an [ girder. 2. Another advantage of the large bottom flange is that the concrete area is sufficiently large at ultimate load to balance the full capacity of I he prestressing tendons without loss in the magnitude of the lever arm. 3. The elastic stabilitv of the structu re is excel­ lent both during construction and llnder service conditions, becallse the closed box section has a large torsional rigidity. 4. In wide bridge decks where several girders must be used side by side, the large torsional still­ ness of the individual box girders allows a very satisfactory transverse distribution of live loads without intermediate diaphragms between piers. 5. Because of their torsional rigidity, box girders lend themselves to the construction of curved bridge S11 perstruct llres a nd provide maximum Hexibilitv tor complicated tendon trajec­ tories. --\-7",.",- . ­ . , C.G. --+­ (a) (b) Longitudinal section Typical transverse section FIGURE 4.17. Typical characteristics of a box section: Total section height: It; cross­ section area: A; mOI\lent of inertia: I; position of centroid; (,. (2; radius of gyration: )" given hv )"2 = 1/.1; efficiencv ratio: p = r21c ,(2; limits of central core: r21c2 = pc,; r 21(, = p [2; for the llsllal box girder: p = 0.60. Design of Segmfntal Bridges 160 n~ d, <: F e = c, - d, ~. ph h I I (a) (c) FIGURE 4.18. Typical preslress requirements or a box girder. (0) For maximulll llegatin' mOlllent over the pier (J)L + LL): tOlallllOlllellt = 1\1; required prcsllTss F = 1'v11z with:: = (\ - d l + (2; usually o\'er the pierz 0.75 Ii. (h) For maximum positive moment at midspan (DL + LL): tolalll1olllcnl = M; required prestress = F = MIz wilh::. (2 - <i2 + ( I ; usually al midspan z. = O.701l. «() (b) The optimum selection of the proportions of the box section is generally a matter of experience. A careful review of existing bridges provides an ex­ cellent basis for preliminary design. The various parameters that should be considered at the start of a design are: For \'ariable 1ll0lJHcllls (LL): tola) moment \'arialion = 6./\1 (sum of positive and negati\'e LL moments); re­ quired prestress F 6.M/ph (p 0.60). All these factors are closely related to each other, and they also depend largely upon the construc­ tion requirements-for example, the size of the pr(~ject that will 'require a large investment in sophisticated casting equipment. 4.5.2 Constant versus variable depth Span-to-depth ratio Number of parallel box girders Shape and dimensions of each box girder, includ­ ing number of webs, vertical or inclined webs, thickness of webs, top and bottom flanges SHAPE OF SUPERSTRUCTURE IN ELEVATION Constant depth is the easiest choice and affords the best solution for short and moderate spans, up to 200 ft (60 m). However, constant depths have been used for aesthetic reasons for spans to 450 ft (140 m), such as the Saint Cloud Bridge in Paris and the Type, Shape, and Dimensions of the Superstructure Pine Valley and Columbia River Bridges in the United States. Figure 4.19a. When the span increases, the magnitude of dead-load moments near the piers normaJiy re­ quires a variation of structural height and a curved intrados. When clearance requirements allow, a circular intrados is the easier and more aestheti­ cally pleasing choice, although in some cases (such as the Houston Ship Channel Bridge) a more com­ plex profile must adjust to the critical corners of the clearance diagram. Between the constant­ depth and the curved-intrados solutions, Figure 4.19, intermediate options may be used, such as: The semiconstant depth, where the concrete rc­ quired in the bottom flange near the piers is placed outside the typical section rather than inside thc box (constant dimension for the interior cell). This solution has been used on two bridges in France and is aesthetically satisfactory, Figure 4.19b. Straight haunches (bridge for the Ring Road in Paris). In this case caution must be exercised to in­ sure compatibility of the local stresses induced by the abrupt angle change of the bottom soffit at the start of the haunch, where a full diaphragm is usu­ ally needed inside the box, Figure 4.19c. 1/15 < h Increase thickness at pier < 1/30 optimum 1/18 to 1/20 L (a) Constant inside shape I h 1/16 <h,/L < 1/20 (h) optimum 1/18 1/22 <haiL < 1128 optimum ~ 1124 Diaphragm (e) < 1/20· optimum 1/18 1/16 <h, It 1130 <haiL < 1/50 I h, Circular intrados or third-degree parabola (d) FIGURE 4.19 Longitudinal profile for segmental bridges. (a) Constant depth. Semiconstant depth. (c) Straight haunches. (d) Variable depth. (b) 161 Design of SegmeJ)tal Bridges 162 4.53 CHOICE OF TYPICAL CROSS SECTJOiV \Veb spacing is usually selected between 15 and 25 ft (4.5 and 7.5 m) to reduce the number of webs to a minimum, simplifying construction problems while keeping transverse bending moment in the top and bott(;m flanges within reasonable limits. A superstructure up to 40 ft (12 m) in width is thus normally made up of a single cell box g.ird~r with two lateral cantilevers, the span of whICh IS slightly less than one-fourth the total width (7 to 8 It for a 40 ft width). For wiele bridges, rnulticell box girders may be used: Three webs, two cells: as in the B-3 South Viaduct and the De\,enter Bridge Four webs, three cells: as in the Saint Cloud Bridge and the Columbia River Bridge Alternatively. large lateral cantilevers and a large span length hetween webs are accepted with special pl'Ovisions to carry the cleck live loads transversely: Transverse flange stiffeners as in the Saint Andre de Cuhzac, Ve:jle Fjord, and Zilwaukee Bridges 10 in. (250 mm) when small ducts for either verti­ calor longitudinal post-tensioning tendons occur in the web 12 in. (300 mm) when ducts for tendons \lwelve in. diameter strands) occur in the web ~ 14 in. (350 mm) when an anchor for a tendon (twelve ~ in. diarneter strands) is anchored in the web proper Most codes underestimate the capacity of Iwo­ way slabs. such as the roadway slab or top flange of a box girder bridge. whether prestressed trans­ versely or mild-steel reinforced. There is a great reserv'e of strength due to the frame action be­ tween slahs and webs in the transverse direction. The minimum slab thickness to prevent punch­ ing shear under a concent raled wheel load is ap­ proximately () ill. (150 n1ln). However. it is recom­ mended that a slab thickness of not less than 7 in: (l75 mm) he L1sed to allow enough flexibility in the layout of the reinforcing steel and prestressing ducts and obtain an adequate concrete cover over the steel and ducts. Recommended minilllum top flange thickness versus the actual span length het ween webs should he: Side boxes as in the Chillon Viaduct Alternatively several boxes may be used side by side to mak'e up the superstructure. Figures 4.20 through 4.24 givc the dimensions of a few struc­ tures selected at random from various countries throughout the world. 4.5.4 DIM,ENSJONS OF THE TFPICAL CROSS SECTION Three conditions must be considered mining the web thickness: III deter­ Shear stresses due to shear load and torsional mo­ ments must be kept within allowable limits Concrete must be properly placed, particularly where draped tendons occur in the web Tendon anchors, when located in the web, must distribute properly the high prestress load con­ celli rated at the anchorages Following are some guidelines for minimum web thicknesses: 8 in. (200 mm) when no prestress ducts are located in the web Span less than 10 fl (3 m) Span between 10 and 15 ft 7 in. (175 riml) 8 in. (200 mm) (3 \() 4.5 Ill) Span between 15 and 25 ft 10 ill. (250 mm) (4.5 to 7.5 m) n Over 25 0.5 111), it is usually more ecollomical to substitute a system 01 ribs o~ a voided slab for a solid slab. Early bridges used very thin bottom flanges in ordcr to reduce critical weight and dead-load mo­ ments. A 5 in. (125 111m) thickness was used in bridges, such as the Koblenz Bridge in Germany. It is very difficult to prevent cracking of such thin slabs due to the combined effect of dead load car­ ried between webs and longitudinal shear between web and boltom flange. For this reason, it is now recommended that a minimum thickness of 7 in. FIGURE 4.20. Typical dimensions of some cast-in­ place segmental cantilever bridges in France. Year of construction and maximum span length (ft): (a) Moulin a Poudre (1963), 269. (b) Morlaix (1973), 269. (e) Bor­ deaux Sl. Jean (J965), 253. (d) Givors (J967). 360. (e) Oissel (1970), 328 (a) 2.60 L: 235 .-.::6:.:.::_0:.::.0_-+. 600 (b) --'---­ H1GO I j ~ID '" '00 900._ .. _ _ _ ~_ (<') liOO -------- (d) (e) 163 Design of Segmental Bridges 164 2570 -7--·. .'!i il_"iM'_?'~:JiJ"_iW- -+·"1 --~-~~~~:_,iiiiio ~.,~iIIiiO~ '1'I;iIi'iiiiiiifr'iiiiil' •.jIIIiiiIi-<t; ,~ I if) 840- , , ' .. j - \:.. E·· 7s:~ -~t ~l ,-­ +1-,.. -1 (g) 1'355 r --4.­ I ~: g: ~I (II) .'S'I. ~. __ FIGURE 4.20 (Colltinued) (j) Viosne (1972), 197. Gennevilliers (1976), 564, (1 i5 mm) be used, regardless of the stress re­ quirements. Where longitudinal ducts for prestress are distributed in the bottom flange, a minimum thickness of 8 to lOin. (200 to 250 mm) is usually necessary, depending on the duct size. Near the piers, the bottom slab thickness is pro­ gressively increased to resist the compressive stresses due to longitudinal bending. In the Ben­ dorf Bridge, 680 ft (20i m) span, the bottom flange thickness is 8 ft (2.4 m) at the main piers and is heavily reinforced to keep the compressive stresses within allowable limits. After this brief review of the various conceptual choices for dimensioning the deck members, con­ Joirwille (twin deck) (1976), 354. (Ii) sideration should be given to the design of such members with particular emphasis on the follow­ ing points: Distribution of load between box girders in mul­ tibox girder bridges Effect of temperature gradients in the structure 4.6 Transverse Distribution of Loads Between Box Girders in Multibox Girders We noted earlier that wide decks can conveniently consist of two or even three separate boxes trans­ , -=-=~~f----==-=---+---=3jW~:s.=66~-+! i ,, 26 ~1 I; ~2~0'7:. . -.!_~3.6~6=- - - 4l~-=-3.:.!. :14:!.-i- - -,3= .:.6~6~-+1 -"'!.41-7 1~20 -""2:",,,074-1 ~so t Jr-m -kT 30 1 3.029 1 < HJ 28.40 I 17.50 17.50 10.50 t 5.$0 .I 10.50 t 14 T& ~. 7 "( Ii ! P.1·/. ~. 1 - 3.~_.4.U~~5 I 5.458 17.30 P.11­ : I 3.55 I 4.5°1 1 J30 4.442 J 3.55 ~ 1 ~ l3.029 17.30 1 3~.60 10.92 T96 1 01 1"11 , --+ i 01 30 ~I ! 01 "'<tl J -+ ,961 9.00 19 9.00 1 10.92 ~! I 30 - col .... i 1 s~o 0: 11'\ N t­ I 5.50 10.60 FIGURE 4.21. Typical dimensions of some precast segmental cantilever bridges in France. Year of construction and maximum span length (ft): (a) Choisy-le-Roi (1965). 180: (b) Courbevoie (1967), 197; (c) 01eron Viaduct (1966),260; (d) Seudre (1971), 260; (e) B-3 South Viaduct (1973). 157; if) St. Andre de Cubzac (1974), 312; (g) St. Cloud (1974:),334; (h) Ottmarsheim (1976), 564. 165 .~__~9=.~~_~ , ! J I i : ! (d) (I' ) if) _ _~ ~__""!..~ -~--- ~ --~ -­ (g) , +--­ 1) on (h) 166 Figure 4.21 (Continued) " --t­ (a) ---r (e) -.! "". (d) (e) FIGURE 4.22. Typical dimensions of some segmental camilever bridges in Europe. Year of construction and maximum span length (ft): (a) Koblenz, Germany (1954), cast in place, 374; (Ii) Bendorf, Germany (1964), cast ill place, 682; (e) ehillon, Switzerland (1970), pre­ cast, 341; (Ii) Sallingsund, Denmark (1978), . precast, 305; (e) Vejle Fjord, Denmark (1979), cast in place, 361. 167 ~- ~---~----- - >Ii 2. -------~---~- .. (!I) .. ~--- .. ~--- (c) FIGURE 4.23. Typical dimensions of some segmental cantilever bridges in Europe. Year of construction and maximum span length (ft): (aj Felsenau, Switzerland (1978), cast in place, 512; (b) Tarento, Italy (1977), cast in place, 500; (c) Kochertal, Germany (1979), cast in place, 453. 168 Transverse Distribution of Loads Between Box Girders in Multibox Girders Typical Cross Section 87'-3" (a) LJ 0 122'-6~ (h) 122' -6"1 126 ' -cr---'-. I 1 ., .r ­ U ,-_ •• 1 14~ 59' (c) t :1]' t "\ J 20' -8" 38'-6" (I' ) \ U) J I 39 ' I (d) --+-tJ-4' T 17'-5" 38'-6" j-- \ t 7 ]3' -ll" I fiZ'-lO" (,,0 \I r7 50'-10" t (i) I 1~'-5" (h) ~ + '~, -I j 36' 59'-3" I ~ ] 38' FIGURE 4.24. Typical dimensions of some segmental cantilever bridges in the Americas. Year of construction and maximum span length (1'1): (a) Rio Niteroi, Brazil (1971), precast, 262; (h) Pine Valley, U.S.A. (1974), cast in place, 450: (c) Kipapa. U.S.A. (1977), cast in place, 250; (d) Kishwaukee, U.S.A., precast, 250; (e) Long Key, U.S.A., precast, 118;(/) Seven ~lile, lJ.S.A., precast, 135; (g) Columbia River, C.S.A., cast in place and precast, 600;' (h) Zilw<lukee, U.S.A .. precast, 375; (i) Houston Ship Channel. C.S ..-\., cast in place, 750. verselv connected by the top flange. A detailed analysis was made of such decks with regard to the distribution of live load between the various boxes. It was. found that in normal structures of this type, the combined effect of the flexural rigidity of the roadway slab acting transversely as a rigid frame with the webs and bottom slab of the various box 169 girders, on one hand, and the torsional rigidity of such box girders on the other hand, would result in a very satisfactory transverse distribution of live loads between box girders. There is no need for diaphragms between girders as normally provided for I-girder bridgers. Comprehensive programs of load testing of sev­ eral bridges, including accurate measurements of deflections for eccentric loading, fully confirmed the results of theoretical analysis. This analysis has been reported in various technical documents, and only- selected results will be presented in this sec­ tion. The first bridge analyzed in this respect was the Choisy-le-Roi Bridge. A knife-edge load P is con­ sidered with a uniform longitudinal distribution along the span, Figure 4.25. When this load travels crosswise from curb to curb, each position may be analyzed with respect to the proportion of vertical load carried by each box girder, together with the corresponding torsional moment and transverse moment in the deck slab. These analyses have made it possible to draw transverse influence lines for each effect considered, such as longitudinal bending moments (over the support or at midspan), torsional moments, or transverse mo­ ments. For longitudinal moments it is convenient to use a dimensionless coefficient, Figure 4.25c, which represents the increase or decrease of the load car­ ried by one box girder in comparison with the average load, assuming an even distribution be­ tween both girders. Numerical results show that the transverse distribution of a knife-edge load placed on one side (next to the curb) of a twin box girder produces bending moments in each box that are 1.4 and 0.6 times the average bending moment. For the same configuration, a typical deck with [ girders would have an eccentricity coefficient of approximately 4 compared with 1.4 for the box girders. There are, however, two side effects to such an encouraging behavior, which relate to tor­ sion stresses and transverse bending of the deck slab. Torsional Moments in the Box Girder An unsym­ metrical distribution of live loads in the transverse direction tends to warp the box girders and cause shear stresses. It is their high torsional rigidity which produces a favorable distribution of loads between girders. However, the maximum torsional moments usually occur when only one-half the structure (in cross section) is loaded, and the re­ sulting stresses do not cumulate with the shear stresses produced by the full live-load shear force. 170 Design of Segmental Bridges Span length, L 1 ct. [I ho (at midspan) Center of span i h, (over support) i ct. P 1 l q I (A) ct. q I. ,!i J 2d' I- i " (aJ (b) !.6 I , 1. ~ :.0 C,6 (e) ~-- ----" (d) FIGURE 4.25. Principle of transverse distribution of loads bctweell box girders. (a) Dimensions. (b) Influence line of the shear in the connccting slab. (c) Transverse illfluence line of longitudinal mOlTlcnt. (d) Trans\ crsc bend­ ing inHuence line at section A. Transv('r IHornen!s in the Deck Slab The deck slab cannot be considered as a continuous beam 011 fixed supports because of the relative displace­ ments on the two boxes due to unsymmetrical loading. Figure 4.25d shows the consequence. If the slab were resting on fixed supports, the influence line for the moment in a section such as (A) would be the typical line (l). Because the box girders undergo certain deflections and rotations, the effect is to superimpose the ordinates of an­ other line such as (2). Numerically, the difference is not as great as may be expected at first sight, because line (1) per­ tains to the effect of local concentrated truck loads while line (2), being the result of differential movements between box girders, pertains to the effect of uniformly distributed loads. In summary, deck moments are increased by only 20 to 30% over their normal values if flexibility of the box girders is ignored. As a matter of practical interest, actual numerical values for several bridges in France with either two or three box girders that have all shmA'n excellent performance for more than 10 years are presented in Figures 4.26 and 4.27. 4.7 Effect of Temperature Gradients in Bridge Superstructures Experience has shown the sensitivity of long-span cantilever bridges to concrete creep. This resulted in the preference for continuous rather than hinged cantilevers. However, two more problems arose from this significant change in design ap­ proach, both being the immediate result of con­ tinuity. These problems are (I) effect of tempera­ ture gradient in bridge decks and (2jTectiSiriDUtiOn Effect of Temperature Gradients in Bridge Superstructures ~ ! I CD (?) 2d' 2d Bridge Spans Givars T I Vt DIS Paris Ring Park- 1 360' I 300' T -­ 29.5 15.7 (110m)P .---­ i I (92m) + ~ •.. Eccen. Caeff . ho/hl ( ft) -- -.-.-.. (ft) 171 -~--". .. r " " ­ 6.6/18.0 1.14 - .. 13.1 26.2 11.1/18.0 1. 10 15.4 33.9 9.2/15.7 1. 21 14.1 23.3 5.9/14.7 way CD I U/S Paris d Ring Park- waY I I (79mi!' Carde I ®I Sf i i Juvisy 295' (90m) ~ ~ ~ 260' 220 ' ® Chai 5y·1 eRai Q I 180' ,. ­ I .....•. ! 1.22 : I _._- _. t ~ + (66~) , f­ \ T ­ ­ i 24.9 14.6 I 1. 23 ! : 22.3 11.1 (SSm) 5.2/10.7 8.2 cons tant I I _.. 1. 28 I I 1.4 ~~=t~~-T--~~--T--j--I 0~==t=~~~~ 2d T t FIGURE 4.26. rransverse distribution of loads between box girders. numerical values for se\'eral two-box girders. of internal stresses du.!~()_Long-term effects (steel relaxation and concrete creep). The importance of these two new problems was discovered experi­ mentally. All structures are designed, according to the provisions of the various codes, for changes of temperature that are assumed to apply to the en· tire section. Significant bending moments in the superstructure occur only as a result of the frame actio;1 with the piers wh'ere a rigid connection is achieved between sub- and superstructure. Actual measurements on existing structures confirm this assumption. The average concrete section under­ goes a progressive shortening due to shrinkage and concrete creep superimposed naturally with the usual seasonal temperature variations, Figure 4.28b. The total concrete strain of 120 x 10-6 in./i11. was very moderate for a period of four years. Daily readings, on the same bridge, of strains and magnitude of reactions over the abutment Design of Segmt:Jlta/ Bridges 172 .t 395 Tim I ! ~r'Wf o I I 2 ! I 1 i Calculated deflection ,I I -- - 3 ~ 6 7 -' ,....­ ! ."..,..­ IE -:::-­ --2"" -~ I ~~ J" J 6.4 X 106 psi) Measured deflection , "..., I - Measured deflection I ....:;. f::.::::.-­ ~-- I I r-< ~- &­ Calculated deflection (E 6.9 X 10 6 psi) I l I i \®r I --­ 3.90 Tim I --...... I 1 FIGURE 4.27. I I ...... .L r­ - I I ~ Measured deflection --­ , -­ ----­ ....... ------::- Calculated deflection IE = 7.4 X 106 psi) Transverse distribution of loads between box girders. brought to light a factor that had previously been ignored. This was the differential exposure of the bridge deck to the sun on warm summer d;ws. This ·situation is aggravated for bridges crossing a river, where the bottom flange is kept cool by the water and the usual black pavement placed over the top flange concentrates the sun's radiation. Within a 24-hour period the reaction over the abutment could vary as much as 26%, Figure 4.28c. The equivalent temperature difference between top and bottom flanges reached 18°F (lO°C). The maximum stress at the bottom flange level, due Design of Longitudinal Members for Flexure and Tendon Profile ---u; ~ 115' J. 11 t (a) C"n1t Iitr;lln J: 10- 6 In 115' + a II i 33' 6" LJ ~ .fter adjustment (or seasonal 100 -+---+----=--+-­ liO~--+-----+-~--4--~--,r-~~­ (b) 120 ---I---+-I--I\r--+--~-+-+ 1 10 --+----1+---+----'I+--\-------\'----t- 10.) SGM OF REACJ10NS T--,---r-+'~--t--f--+--+­ .I",,' 19''' ~ June J. 19,0 ::ifti7f( 173 The effect is usually computed by assuming the gradient to be constant throughout the bridge superstructure length, which is not necessarily the case. Figure 4.29 shows the result for the case of a typical span built-in at both ends (this is the case of a long structure with many identical spans). The stress at the bottom fiber depends only upon the following two factors: Variation of height between span center and sup­ port (ratio hJ!h o) Position of the center of gravity within the section (ratio c2 !h o) The lowest stress is obtained for a symmetrical sec­ tion and a constant-depth girder. The stress increases rapidly when the variation in depth is more pronounced. For normal propor­ tions the effect of gradient is increased by 50% in variable-depth girders compared to constant­ depth girders (240 psi versus 160 psi for a 9°F gra­ dient and a modulus of 5 x 10 6 psi). DIFFERENCE OF REACTIONS 4.8 Design of Longitudinal Members for Flexure and Tendon Profile (e) FIGURE 4.28. Champigm Bridge. observed values of concrete sirains and deck reactions. (a) Typical dimen­ sions. (b) Long-IeI'm shortening of bridge deck due to concrete creep superimposed with temperature varia­ tions. (r) Dailv lemperatLtre variations as exemplified bv change in rl'aCiions mer al)llt111l'nts. onlv to this tel1lperature gradient. reached 560 psi .C3.9 :vIPa), a value completely ignored in the design assu mptions. Various countries of vVestern Europe have now incorporated special provisions on temperature gradients as a result of this knowledge. In France, the following assumptions are required: 4.8.1 Toe longitudinal prestress of a cantilever bridge. whether cast iII place or precast, consists of two families of tendons: 1. 2. l. Add the effect of a 18°F (lO°C) temperature gradient to the effect of dead loads and normal volume changes (such as shrinkage, creep. and maximal temperature differences). The effect of gradient is computed with an instantaneous modulus of elasticity (usually 5 million psi). 2. Add the effect of a 9°F (5°C) temperature gra­ dient to the combined effect of all loads (in­ <;luding live load and impact) and volume changes. again using an instantaneous mod­ ulus of elasticity. PRI.VCIPLE OF PRESTRESS LAYOUT As construction in cantilever proceeds. the in­ creasing dead-load moments are resisted at each step of construction by tendons located in the top flange of the girder and symmetrically placed on either side of the pier. Figures 4.30 and 4.3Ia. These are known as cantilever ten­ dons. Upon completion of individual cantilevers. continuity is achieved by a second family of tendons essentially placed at the center of the various spans. Figure 4.31 b. Because girder load moments are small. except through ~ermredlStribution, because of the con­ struction procedure. the continuity prestress is designed to resist essentially the effect of: a. Superimposed loads (pavement, curbs, and the like). b. c. Live loads. Temperature gradient. Design of Segmgntai Bridges 174 u,uo! ~ ro ngf h• =06') .2. =060 h. ~ 220-2')0 :- d'plh ,on,lonl ~nd .ntell. J2 = \ ex / 160 p,i E,(o.:l:.9) Ctltfrrcltnt or Lb.rrmol npons.lon 6& It'rr.prroturr srod;pnl ,on,lonl d'plh NOiE I For olh," modul;, or tl01lic;ty mu!t.ply st rfH b E Y 5pOO.OOO h, h. 30 SEeilClN Ai CENifR ELEVAi lOt; OF ,PAN FIGURE 4.29. d. Effect of thermal gradicnl Subsequent redistribution of girder load alld cantilever prestress. Tensile. stresses are large at the bottom Range level, but seldom will continuity prestress gain the full advalJlage of the available eccentricity because of the stress conditions at the top flange level. Usu­ aIlyihis prestress is divided into tendons, B 1 or B2, located in the bottom flange, and a few tendons such as B3 which overlap the longer cantilever tendons, Figure 4.3Ib. For the best selection of prestressing methods, it is essential 1.0 use prestressing units of a capacity large enough to reduce the number of tendons in the concrete section, particularly in very long spans. On the other hand, there must be a sufficient number of tendons to match with the number of segments in the cantilever arms. Also, units with an excessive unit capacity will pose seri­ ous problems for the transfer of concentrated high loads, particularly for cast-in-place structures, where concrete strength at the time of prestress is always a critical factor within the construction cycle. In practical terms, prestress bars are as well adapted to short and medium spans as strand ten­ Oil box girder decks. dons (such as twelve i in. diameter strands). For very long spans (at)(~ve 500 ft) large-capacity ten­ dons (such as nineteen 0.6 in. diameter strands) with a final prestress force of about 700 kips afford a very practical solution for cantilever prestress. For continuity prestress the size of tendons is go\'­ erned by the possibility of locating the tendon an­ chors in such areas and with such provisions as to allow a proper distribution of the concentrated load to the surrounding concrete section. Units such as twelve i in. diameter or twelve 0.6 in. diameter are usually well adapted with careful de­ tailing for this purpose. 4.8.2 DRAPED TENDONS I n early applications, both families of prestress were given a draped profile in the web of the box section to take advantage of the vertical component of prestress to reduce the shear stresses. In such a configuration there is a considerable overlapping of tendons in the web, because the cantilever pre­ stress is anchored in the lower part of the web and the continuity prestress is anchored at the top Range level; see the layout in Figure 4.31c. For a constant-depth section and for segments of equal Design of Longitudinal Members for Flexure and Tendon Profile 175 c ~ 8..2 0.­ I I 20,000 I­ rl~ 10,000 ~ ~t=t I I I m=~~~ ,:J / I '\ I V / ~ ~ :di ~ I I. // / W~rr '\ '\ i"\ V ,,;X: "" V )i( V ~ ~ '­ '" I I .-I ­ PI I X /0 ~ V "< lX.i"'. ["-.. l"'. II V/~ ~ ffi V "~ \j.. V v:: :"- l.S7L VY./§ ~ " :::::::: ~ --:: :::..::: ~ f:=:::: ~ ::--.. ~ :z;,: :;:;::; ~ I :-.. ::::::: --:: ::--: ~ r'-.. c: 0 ;:; u ~ c: :;;. "' 10 :E Diagrams of moments in a cantilever l I I [I ITTmr I I] I I I I I I I I , I I I I I FIGURE 4.30. Typical cantilever moments and pre,tress. When placing unit H, the increa,e of bending moment is represented by the hatched area ancl the resultant curve is transferred from position 7 to position 8. Addi­ tional sets of cantilever prestressing tendons are placed each time a pair of segments is erected. This procedure allows the magnitude of prestress to follow verv closely the various steps of construction. length, it is eas\! to completely standardize the lay­ out of prestress in various segments. :vlechanization of the casting operations is a very desirable feature. all prefabricated reinforcing cages being identical. with ducts always at the same locations. A substantial amount of repetition may still be obtained in variable-depth members as seen in Figure 4.32. which represents ~ typical span of the Oleron Viaduct. The two disadvantages of such a prestress layout are: Cantilever tendon anchors are located in the web and it is difficult to prevent web cracking, particu­ larly in cast-in-place structures, except through the use of thicker webs and smaller tendons. Contin'uity tendons extend above deck level at both ends. The installation of the anchor with the block-out for stressing is difficult in the casting form, and good protection against water seepage to the tendons in the finished structure is a critical factor. 4.8.3 STRAIGHT TENDONS Tendons are in tbis configuration located in the upper and lower flange of the box girder and an­ chored near the web in their respective flanges. There is no draped profile for the tendons within the web and consequently no reduction of shear stresses due to a vertical component of prestress. This is a disadvantage of this scheme, which may often require vertical prestress to maintain shear stresses within allowable limits. On the other hand, the two advantages are: Simplicity in both design and construction Design of Segmental Bridges 176 span L Average length of cantilever tendons 0,52 (a) Avprage Ie!;,L~th of continuity tendons ; 0, 35 ~ 0.50 L (b) A : cantilever tendons D : continui t.y tendons -­ -­ (c) FIGURE 4.31. Tvpical layout of longitudinal prestress. (0) Cantilever tendons, (b) Comlnutty tendons. (r) Standardized layout of tendons for constant-depth segments, Significant reduction in friction losses of the pre­ stress tendons for both curvature and wobble ef­ fects, and consequent savings on the weight and cost of the longitudinal prestress of at least 10%, all else being equal The Rio Niteroi Bridge (described in Section 3.8) used straight tendons, Figure 4.33. Typical characteristics of the deck are as follows: Span length Width of a box Two webs at Longitudinal cantilever prestress Longitudinal continuity prestress Vertical prestress 262 ft 42 ft 14.2 in. each 42 (12 tin. diam. strands) 14 (12 tin. diam. strands) 1 in. diameter bars -...J -...J - I I A 1~"--- I ' , 10 9' • , " ,,' $ 28 _411 .• ! I r--;---]' Okron Viaduct, longitudillal prestress. Longitudinal prestress..! ' ....." " --?«",-". 'i' 6 7:1 20 16 27 ... ,- _ If > T ra nsverse pre~,t!/es\s :--"~3-~ " 10 i2 '21 2) 10 1.; 25 17 .. _,.'"'!_ ,,-. ~-.",., ~ _.., ~ " ~ FIGURE 4.32. Continuity prestress 14-(12 x 112" ¢) + 4-(12 x .315" ¢) J '..5 19 28 .:--:--:::-~ :!'~-. ~ , .,: -·::'f "--: -:--- ' 16 2~ 17 Detail B U + 8-(12 x .315" ¢) 30-(12 xU" ¢) Cantilever prestress -,t.; 1J Zt ,1 Steel distribution 12" 1~ 19 19 i t\ Design of Segmental Bridges 178 V.rtical bars 25 mm ¢ (tyP. ) TOP PRESTRESS strand 12.7 mm tI cables BOTTOM PRESTRESS FIGURE 4.33. Rio-;\;ircroi Bridge, [\picaJ prestress layout. Critical stresses near the pier are: Longitudinal compression Vertical compression Maximum shear stress Diagonal stresses 850 psi 400 psi 580 psi -110 psi (tensile), and 1360 psi (compressive) Typical details of tendon profiles and anchor­ ages are portrayed for Linn Cove Viaduct in North Carolina, U.S.A., in Figures 4.34, 4.35, and 4.36. 4.8.4 Su/I1MARY OF TENDON PROFILES A.VD ANCHOR LOCA71.0l'/S In the two preceding configurations, tendons were anchored in the following manner: I. 2. For cantilever prestress: a. On the face of the segment In the fillet between top flange and web. b. On the face of the segment along the web. c. In a block-out near the fillet between top flange and web, but inside the bo~. For the continuity prestress: a. At the top flange level. b. In a block-out near the fillet between web and bottom flange. c. 1n a block-out in the bottom flange proper away from the webs. Configurations Ic, 2b, and 2c all permit pre­ stressing operations to be performed safe"" and efficiently inside the box. Figure 4.37. permitting such operations to be remo\'ed from the critical path of actual placement or construction of the segments. Only those tendons required for balancing the self-weight of the segments need to be installed at each step of construction. The bal­ ance of the required prestressing may thus be in­ stalled later, even after continuity is achieved be­ tween several cantilever arms. Tendons for the additional prestress may then be given a profile comparable to that used in cast-in-place bridges with a length extending over several spans. The practical limit to this procedure is excessive so­ phistication and related high friction losses in the tendons. 4.8.5 SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF COSTINUITY PRESTRESS AND ANCHORAGE THEREOF Tendons for continuity prestress may not, or even should not, always be located in the fillet between web and bottom flange. They may be located in the bottom flange proper. When a variable-depth member is used, the bottom Aange has a curvature in the vertical plane, which must be followed by the prestress tendons. Cnless careful consideration is i1 ! Design of Longitudinal Members for Flexure and Tendon Profile 179 /1 Ie; '2" . J" " , $1 FIGURE 4.34. Linn C()n~ Viaduct, typical cross section sll<ming prestress given to that fact at the cOl1cept and detailed design stages, difficulties are likelv to develop; \\'e mav see this bv looking at Figures -LHI and 4.39. which show the free-body diagrams of stresses in the bottom flange due to the cu]'\'att~re, together with a f I' numerical example. Curvature of a tendon induces l..v a di)\\'I1ward radial load. which must be resisted by transverse bending ()riIlc-bZ)(u)nl flange bet~ tTie\\:ebs, !'ll Longitudinal compressive stresses in the bottom \v) flange similad\ induce an upward radial reaction .in the flange, counteracting at least in part the ef­ fect of the tendons. Unfortunatelv. when the full live l()ad and variable effects. such as thermal gra­ dients. are applied to the ,superstructure. the lon­ dllelS, gitudinal stresses vanish and consequently the par­ tial negation of the effect of tendon curvature is lost. Therefore. the effect of tendon curvature adds full", to the dead-load stresses of the concrete Range. '{'he corresponding flexural stresses are four to five times greater than the effect due to dead load only. and if sufficient reinforcement is not provided for this effect, heavv cracking is to be expected and possibly failure. Practically. the situ­ ation may be aggravated by deviations in the IOGl­ tion of the tendon ducts in the segments compared to the theoretical profile indicated OIl the drawings . At the point between segments, ducts are usually placed at their proper position; but if flexible tub­ ing is used with an insufficient numher of sup­ 7 7 I' I. 7 7 \ 9' .. 7 . ! ~i-e ~ I \..V I B L!'l I I e 7 7 . I :,,1 Li:::L W- \..Y ~.: I ~'''i-$ ~. " . . \ , , ",I I -,---'~-~ FOR TEMPORARY PRESTRE SSING ,3{fJ BARS '\;:6 " I. ---.---- - - - - .---­ ,_'-_--2-J-O~_~__'_·,-·_ _­ ANCHORAGE A ( Along 't I const ruclton ) 1 1 I ~i '-:., _ _ .1.,.' I I iii' j'IO\" I z' 0" I _ I 4"~: 10J.. " , I "i .;~ ~~I-~I~~~~---t- ~~~~':':::-----==-=--I---~ ~~~~.' 7.5~ i '[\.' ~tfll 1\ ) .zd 1 0" I ___ ' : r I,:," -:..----i=-----.::I 2' /f2" 'zt":-.::..r ., ,I ., I . __________ L I FIGURE 4.35. 180 Linn Cove Viaduct, top flange prestress details. .1::" FIGURE 4.36. Linn Cove Viaduct, bottom flange prestress details. 181 182 Design of Segmental Bridges FIGURE 4.37. B-3 South Viaduct. prestressing oper­ ations in box girder. porting chairs or ties, the duct profile will have an angle break at each joint. In addition 10 the in­ creased friction losses, t here is a potent ial danger of local spalling and bursting of the iJJtrados of the bottom Bange, Figure 4.40, Rigid dUCIS properly secured to the reinforcement cage and placed at the proper level over the soffit of the casting machine or traveler will avoid this danger. Another item concerning potential difficulties in continuity prestress relate to the pn~iecti()n of the anchor block-out in the bottom flange and where anchor blocks are not close to the fillet bet ween web and bottom flange, \;\Then this method is used in conjunction with a ven thin bottom flange (a UNIT LOA:; R R fREE BODY DiAGRilM FIGURE 4.38. Secondary in 1he bOllOll1 11<111gc, 10" Typ. stn>s~e, due flange as thin as 5 or 6 in, has been used in early bridges), it is almost irnpossible to distribute the concentrated load of I he anchor block in the slab without subsequent cracking. For a 7 or 8 in. Bange il is recommended'that no more than two anchor 1,000' x 1/2", tendons) Typ, FIGURE 4.39. Secondary stresses due to cun'ed prestressing tendons, nu­ merical example, Assumed longitudinal radius = 1000 ft. Weight of bottom slab 2000 psi, com­ 100 psf. Effect of compressive stresses: unloaded bridge.}, (2000 x 8 x 12)/1000 200psf; loaded bridge, 0 pressive radial Joad:f,.tIR psi. Effect of prestressing tendons: stranded tendons (twelve! in. dia strands) at 10 in. interval with a 280 kip capacity, mrresponding l-adial load: FIR = 280,000/[(10112) 1000J = 336, say 340 psL Total loads on bottom slab: (1) during construction, load = 100 psf; (2) unloaded bridge, load = 100 - 200 + 340 240 psi; (3) loaded bridge, load 100 + 340 = 440 psC moment = wet /12 = 9 (9000 x 12)/[( 12 x 64)/6] 840 psi. kips ftlft, stress in bottom slab:} MIS /3 :o:()-f{LI) ! ,-.....,', l -I' yj "I f'!l/, / f or" '.) ""j - .:.J":.(; 10 C\ll'ycd 1t'1l­ dOll, Assumed Longi tudi ria 1 Radi us 1-----1 N / QJJ.¥;I vr I ­ Design of Longitudinal Membr.?rs for Flexure and Tendon Profile 183 tendons may be made continuous through the expansion joint or equipped with couplers. d. e. Partial elevation f. FIGURE 4.40. 1Fcstrcss, Ellen of misaligllIllclH 0[' continuity blocks for (I ~ } ilL diameter strands) tendOllS be placed ill the sallle transverse sectioll ill conjullc­ tion with additional reinforcing to resist burstillg stresses. Wherever possible. the anchor blocks for cOlltinuitv telldollS should f)e placed ill the fillet between the web alld flallge where the lrallsverse sect iOll has t he largest rigidity. LIH)!'T OF PRl;;SrR/~'SS I.V STf?L'CrCR/,'S JrrJlI 11/\ (;J,'S I.\'/) fY,I'I\',<i/()SJ{)/.\'/S 4.8.6 Sectioll 4.-1:.3 explained how the expallsiolljoints ill the Sll perstructu re should be located preferablv ncar the cOlltrallexure poillt of a span rather than . at midspan as ill previous structures. However. there is a resultant lOIn plication ill the lOIlSt ru(tion proless, beclllsc cllltilever erenio" must proceed through the special hinge segment. A t\pical con­ struction procedure and the related preso'ess Iav­ OUt are presented in Figure 4.-1: I. For the geollletry of the structure in this figure. the construction proceeds as follows: a. h. c. Place the hrst bve segments ill balanced can­ tilever and install cantilever prestress for re­ sistance against dead load. Place the lower half of the special segment and the corresponding tendons. Install the upper half of the special hinge seg­ .ment with permallent. or provisional bearings, and provisional blocking to permit transfer of longitudinal compressive stresses. Cantilever Resume normal cantilever segment placing and prestressing to the center of the span, with tendons crossing the joint. Achieve continuity with previous cantilever by pouring closure joint and stressing continuity tendons. Layout of these tendons includes an­ chors in the special hinge segment to transfer the shear forces in the completed structure. Remove temporary blocking at hinge. Release tension in cantilever tendons holding segments 7. 8, and 9 or cut tendons across t he hinge after grouting. 4.8.7 REIJISTRlBU[/O,v OF .\IO.HENTS lLV/) STRESSES THROUGH CONCRETE CREEP In a staticallv indeterminate structure the internal stresses induced lw the external IO(lds depend upon the deformation of the structure. In pre­ st res sed COllcrete structures such deformations IllLlst include not only short-term but also long­ term deformation due to relaxation of prestressing steel and concrete creep. In conventional struc­ tures sllch as cast-in-place continuous superstruc­ tures, the effect is not signihcallt if all loads and prestress forces are applied to the statical design of the completed structure, which is the common case of construction on sC(lffolding. The behavior of cantilever bridges, particularlv cast-in-place stnlC­ tures, is <Juite different, because the major part of the load (the girder load often represents 8W;f, of the total load in long spans) is applied to a statical concept that is different from the completed de­ sign. /\s soon as continuity is achieved, the struc­ ture tends to resist the new Situation in which it has been placed; this is one aspect of a very general law ill mechal1ics whereby consequences always oppose their cause. A very simple example is presented in Figure 4.42, which will provide the basis for a better ap­ preciation of the problem. Assume two identical adjacent cantilever anns built-in at both ends and free to deflect at the center. The self-weight pro­ duces a moment: --8­ at both ends with a corresponding deAection and rotation at the center of y and w. Design of Segrr;ental Bridges 184 Cantilever~ tendons I 11 i:-1 (a) I "."'"'~ Temporary-t> blockmg I ~ (b) Iii T I ' I -LI-L I I I Coupler T'"""~ _ ! ! 7~III L~ (e) Cantilever tendor1s I ___, ~__L -__~_ _ L-__~____~__~____~__~__-,~-L,-~__ __ I (f) FIGURE 4.41. COllstructioll procniure alld prestress ill a span \\'ith all expansion joint. If the load is applied for a short time, the value of E to take into account is E; (instantaneous mod­ ulus). Assuming that continuity is achieved be­ tween the cantilevers as shown in Figure 4.42c, there cannot he an angle break at the center, but only a progressive deformation of the completed span. After a long time the concrete modulus has changed from its initial value E; to a final value E f , which may be approximately 2.5 times less than E;. Because the external loads are unchanged and the structure is symmetrical, the only change in \he state of the structure is an additional cons.tant mo­ ment M] developing along the entire span and in­ creasing progressively with time until the concrete creep has stabilized. At all times the magnitude of this moment acljusts in the structure to maintain th~__~~~u_me~_~on~~~~.~__at_!~~__~:.n_t.~~ The additional deflection at midspan, ),2' takes place in a beam with fixed ends under the effect of ltSO\\'n weight and only because of the progressive change of the concrete modulus from the value E; to the value E f . Considering the concrete strain at any point of the structure, the total strain Ef is the sum of two terms: where E] = E2 strain hefore continuity is achieved, = strain after continuity is achieved. Hooke's law relating stress and strain at a particu­ lar point in time states: E ] = iL E· I Design of Longitudinal Members for Flexure and Tendon Profile Er 1=11 E; 185 I +1:1:\1 In other words. the effect of concrete creep is to place the final stresses in the structure in an inter­ fiaI"state (either of moments, shear forces, deAec­ tions, or stresses) intermediate between: -+­ I Th~~~tialstatical design with free cantilevers, and The completed design with continuity. Assume, for example, EriE; 1 = 0040. Thus: 004011 + 0.60[2 The relationship is equally true for moments, shear forces, or deflections. Moments over the support are: In the free cantilevers, IV! = Mo O M -Mlt Mlf III the continuous structure. i'vl (d) ~MH The hnal moment is therefore: and ?vI I = O.20]W o' FIGURE 4.42. crele creep. RedistrilJlltioll or stresses through COIl­ At midspan, moments are: In the free cantilevers. 1W Similarly there is a relatiollShip between the addi­ tional strain €z and the corresponding stressj~ pro­ duced at the same location bv the same loads applied in the continuous structure. One mav .write: / .. €.,=-­ - E,. where E( .• the creep modulus. is given by: or ... (­ 1 ./ - E f Thus: 1 .. E; ) The corresponding totalslress in the structure then becomes: = () In the continuous structure, AI and the actual final momeI1l: /v1\ = 0.60 A'~H 0.201'.10 The above derivation applies not ollly to exter­ nal loads but also to the effect of prestressing. Continuity prestress applied to a continuous structure gives little iI1lernal redistribution of mo­ meI1lS except in multispan structures, where the spans react with one another according to the ac­ tual construction procedure. Cantilever prestress, which acts to offset an appreciable part of the dead-load moments, tends to reduce the distribu­ tion of moments due to external loads, Figure 4.43. Up to now the concrete modulus has been as­ sumed to take only the two values E i and E f (short-term and long-term values). In fact, because construction of a cantilever takes several weeks (or even several months in the case of cast-in-place structures), account must be taken of the concrete strains versus the age and the duration of loading. 186 Design of Segmental Bridges V1 +' '" <11 E 0 ::;: V1 V1 ...,'" \.. V1 (!J \.. ~ ""­ '­ 0 "''"" 0 ...J Span "0 '"'" 0 a fa Mo LIZ MGL Girder Load Cantilever It,oment Pe Cantilever Prestress Moment 11 dx ~- MGL - Pe Moment Inducing Redistribution fa dx o I Moment at ~ under M in continuous beam" Moment of :nertia (variable) FIGURE 4.43. Computation of moment redistribution due to' dead load and cantilever prestress. Such relationships are presented for normal­ weight prestressed concrete and average climate in Figure 4.44. Concrete strains are presented for convenience as a dimensionless ratio between the actual strain and the reference strain of a 28-day-old concrete subjected to a short-term load. We see that short-term strains vary little with the age of the concrete at the time of loading except at a very early age. However, long-term strains are significantly affected by the age of the concrete. For example, a three-day-old concrete will show a final strain 2.5 times greater than a three-month­ old concrete. This is particularly important for cast-in-place structures with short cycles of con­ struction (two pairs of segments cast and pre­ stressed every week, which has now become com­ mon practice). Two other factors play an important role in the redistribution of stresses in continuous cantilever bridges: 1. Relaxation of prestressing steel and prestress losses. Because the stress in the prestressing steel yaries with time (a part of that yariation being due precisely to the concrete creep), the internal moments that produce the deforma­ tion of the structure and therefore originate the redistribution of stresses "ary continually. This factor is important because the resultant moments in the cantilever arms (dead load and prestress) are given by the difference of two large numbers, and a variation on one usually has an important effect upon the result, Figure 4.43. 2. Change of the mechanical properties of concrete section. For the sake of simplicity gross concrete section is usually adopted computation of bending stresses. In fact, section to be used should be: a. the the for the The net section (ducts for longitudinal prestress deducted from the concrete sec­ Design of Longitudinal Members for Flexure and Tendon Profile I 35 I ~s=~===7~=!=E=E~~ I I OAYS YEARS MONTflS 187 Because it is difficult for some engineers to de­ pend fully upon computer solutions in approach­ ing a design problem, it is desirable to have orders of magnitude of the moment redistribution for preliminary proportioning and dimensioning of the structure. The following guidelines are based on experience and judgment. 1. Consider the case of a symmetrical span made up of two equal cantilevers fixed at the ends and built symmetrically. Compute girder load llloments of the typical cantilever and prestress moments using the final prestress forces and the tmmformed concrete sections with n 10 (average). 2. Compute the moment at midspan due to the difference of the above two loading cases (Figurc 4.43). \Iore generally, comput.e in the final stnlC­ ture the moments in the variolls spans due to the difference between cantilever girder load and momcnts and final prestress momcms, including the restraint due to piers if applicable. :t Reference is made now to the formula given previously and repeated here for convenience: FIGURE 4.44. COllcretc strai\ols versus age and dura­ tion of loading. :\otc that stI'ain is gin:n as a dimcnsioll­ less rat.io helll'eell lhe antlal slrain alld t.he refercllce strain of a 2H-da~'-old connete subjected 10 slron-Iuin load. h. tion) for effect of girder load and prestress up to lhe lill1e of tendon grouting. The transformed section (with incorpora­ tion of the prestress steel area with a suit­ able coefficient of transformation) after grouting, where the coefficient of equiva­ lence iI = EjE,., ratio of the modulus of steel and concrete, should be taken as a variable with time, from 5 to 12 or even 15. The abm'e disclIssion indicates the cOlllplexin' of the problem with respect to the material properties and indicates the unreliable results of the earlv de­ Sl"ns. ~ where I = final stress (or moment or shear load in the structure at allY point), It stress at the same point obtained bv adding all partial stresses for each construction step using the corre­ sponding statical scheme of the structure, I~ = stress at the same point assuming all loads and prestress forces to be applied on the llllal structure with the final statical scheme, Ei = initial or intermediate modulus of elasticity (short-term or for the dura­ tion of loading before continuity), Er = final modulus (long-term). . The onl\' acceptable solution is the global ap­ pro'ach. wherebv a comprehensive electronic com­ pu ter program analyzes step by step the state of stresses in the structure at different time intervals alld whenever any significant change occurs, thus following the complete history of construction. SlIch programs are lIOW available and have pro\'t;n invaluable in helping us understand the behavior of segmental bridges. Thev provide efficient tools for the final design of the structure. Using different assumptions on the constructioll sequence of bridge decks and the corresponding strains as given by Figure 4.44, we find that the average value of ErlEi would vary from 0.50 to O.6i. It is recommended that the conservative value of 0.67 be used in this approximate method. Thus the actual moment due to redistribution should be 0.67, the value computed under para­ graph 2. This moment must be added to the effect of live load and thermal gradient at midspan. • Design of Sel{mentai Bridges 188 tween cantilevers of different ages, and the redis­ tribution of support moment may thus vary in wide proportions, Figure 4.45. To keep on the safe side, it is not recommended that the reduction 'in sup­ port moment be taken into account in designing the prestress forces. It is interesting at this stage to give some orders of magnitude of moment redistribution by consid­ ering some fundamental formulas given as refer­ ence in Figure 4.46. . It has been assumed: ~ANT ·250 That the secondary moment due to the stressing of continuity tendons is 6<;;: of the total moment (wer the support, YOUNGER CANTILEVER OLJER ILEVER That the distance, rI, hetween the ccnter of gra\'itv of the cantilever tendons and the top slab is equal to 0.0511. 'WMENT 5 DuE TO .320 RrDlS TRIBUTICN That the center of gradt~" depending upon the section dimensions, mil\ van between ((jlli 0.4 alld (21h = O.G) and ((l/h 0.6 and (2111 = 0.4), ft-kips + 1250 (i) BOTH CANTILEVERS OF SAME AGE CD CANT(I) BUILT 0-100 DAYS CANT(2) BUILT 100-200 DAYS G) CANT (2) ONE '(EllR OLDER (BUILT IN 100 From the data indicated above and in Figure 4.46, the percentage of prestressing steel.!), may he determined as 1'01l0\"s: THAI-i 4. Correspondingly, the support moment (over the piers) is decreased bv the same amount. In fact, the construction of cantilevers in successive stages is such that continuity is achieved in each span be- 74««<& . h " • I P = A JCUWg) = 20(JO 1irr,it of the centra 1 core r2/C2 T(gross . section) t /»»> »9» inertia assuming a maximum compressive stress in the bottom /lange of :WOO psi: _}: e. I CG area assuming a final Sl1'ess in the tendons of J 60 ksi o r~ P~=0'05h A J O.GO. DAYS) FIGURE 4,45. Variation of redistribution moment in cantilevcr cOllstructioll with the cOllstruction procedure. I That the e/licienn factor is p efficiency factor r2/c] Cl average stress ~ 2000 ~ >; > ,--~------" 2000 ps i FIGURE 4.46. Approximate moment redistribution (moments over stIppon). Total moment: M T == M GL + l\1.~L + M UA where l'vl w. girder load moment, I\1.~I. = superim­ posed load moment, M u == live-load momeTll (including impact). Assumed secondary moment due to continuity prestress: 0.06 AI T' Final prestress force: P = O.94M r/(e + (r 2/rl)] = 0.94MT/(e + pcz). Prestress moment (1): Pe = O.94AfT/[1 + (pc2/e)]. Moment­ inducing redistribution: 1\;1(;1, - PI', given by (2): (Mm. Pe)/Mr M(:fjM r - 0.94/[1 + (pc)e)] . Design of Longitudinal Members for Flexure and Tendon Profile sections is plotted versus the posItion of the cen­ troid with or without transformed area. It is interesting to study the effect of an acci­ dental variation in the prestress load due to exces­ sive friction in the ducts. Assume, for example, a reduction of 5% in the prestress load for the case ci/h 0.5 (symmetrical section over the support) and lW(lL/M r = 0.80. The intial values of (MOL - Pel/My are changed as follows: For a symmetrical section, C 1 O.5h, and p would, thus, be equal to 0.63%, a reasonable and common value. The transformed percentage area of the steel with n = lOis equal to: 0.125 ~I np 189 lOOl( All mechanical properties of the section change to make the denominator of equation (2) in Figure 4.46 increase and, consequently, the moment­ inducing redistribution increase also. This fact, which W<:lS completelv overlooked for many years, is clearly seen in Figure 4.47, where the percentage of moment-inducing redistribution in the various Gross area Transformed area Prestress 95% Prestress Percent Variation 0.236 0.265 0.264 0.292 1.10 T'he combined effect of tendon grouting and of added friction losses increases the redistribution of moments by 25%. 0.600 Gross Area - - - - - Transformed Area 0.500 ~ 0.400 71~ --:~ .., ..:;;', 0.300 0.200 0.100 C,/ h 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 c2 1h 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 ,\.1 (;/. - PI' ,\;IT Figure 4.47. Gross 1.12 Transf Gross .rransf 0.383 10.500 1 0.474 0.257 0.136 0.165 0.357 0.236 0.265 0.457 0.336 0.365 Moment redistribution, numerical values over support. Design of Segmental Bridges 190 -I.B.8 PREDICTION OF PRESTRESS LOSSES The prediction of losses in prestressed concrete has always been subject to uncertainty. This is due to the high stress levels used for the prestressing slee!, the variable nature of concrete, and its pro­ pensity to creep and shrink. As recently as 1975, AASHTO made a major revision to its code to pro­ vide improved methods for predicting prestress losses. The Structural Engineers Association of California has an excellent report on creep and shrinkage control for concrete in general. The re­ port concludes thaI special attention should be given to material selection and proportioning. For creep and shrinkage calculations many European engineers recommend the guidelines of the Feder­ ation 111lernationale de la Precontrainte, Comite Europeen du Beton (FIP-CEB). The design computations for segmental pre­ stressed concrete bridges are very involved for the construction phase. Every time a segment is added or a tendon is tensioned, the structure changes, and it must be reanalyzed. As the segment ages, the concrete and prestressing steel creep, shrink, and relax. Thus, each segment has its own life history and an elastic modulus that depends upon the age and composition. To accurately compute all of these effects hv hand, throughout the life of the structure, would be very difficult, part.icularly during the constrllction phase. Comprehensive computer programs such as "BC" (Bridge Con­ struction) and others have been recently developed and are now available to aid the design engineer. In addition to construction analysis, these pro­ grams will check the completed bridge in accor­ dance with AASHTO specifications. I t is possible to revise them to satisfy other codes or loadings, such as AREA. :\ot only are all prestress losses properly evalu­ ated and taken into account, hut redistributions of moments due to concrete creep and steel relaxa­ tion are automatically incorporated in the design analysis. 4.9 Ultimate Bending Capacity of Longitudinal Members Basically, the design approach of segmental bridges is one of service load. I t is important, how­ ever, not to lose sight of the ultimate behavior of the structure to ensure that safety is obtained throughout. In simply supported structures, the ultimate capacity is very simply analyzed by comparing in the section of maximum moment: The total design load moment including girder load and superimposed load (DL) and live load (LL) The ultimate bending moment of the prestressed section AI" Depending on the governing codes and the usual practice in various 'countries, this comparison may be done in various ways: Apply a load factor on DL and LL and a reduction factor for materials 011 Ivl" Applv a single factor K on (DL + LL) and com pare with M" Applya single factor K on LL only and compare DL' + KLL \\'ith M Ii I n all cases, the designer must first compute the ultimate capacity of the section considering the concrete dimellsions alld characteristics of pre­ stressing tendons (and possible conventional rein­ fOI'Cement). From previous studies it may be shown that the ultimate moment of a prestressed section is cornputed very simph' bv considering a dimen­ sionless factor called the weight percentage of pre­ stressing steel, q (see Figure 4.48). To accoullt for the fact that the concrete char­ acteristics are less reliable than those of the pre­ stressing steel, which are well known and very con­ stant,'/; is usually taken equal to the guaranteed minimum tensile strength, whereasj;. is assumed to be only SOCX of the 28-day cylinder strength. Considering now the case of segmental super­ stl'uctures, which are most generally continuous structures, one Illay take the conventional ap­ proach of considering the various sections of the member (for example, support section and midspan sections in the various spans) as inde­ pendent from one another in much the same wav as for simple members. Such simplification over­ looks the capacity of the redundant structure to redistribute, internally, the applied loads, which seems to be a conservative assumption. In fact, it is not always as conservative and safe as it looks, as will be shown by an example computed numerically for a typical span of the Rio Niteroi Bridge. For such a span the design moments are as follows (in foot-kips X 1000): Ultimate Bending Capacity of Longitudinal Members 191 3.6 b t 1000 d ...J,.. strain diagram L­_ _ _ T FIGURE 4.48. Cltimate moment of a prestressed section. (1) Dimensionless coefficient, area of prestressing steel, b = width of section, d = effective depth of section (distance between centroid of prestress and extreme compression fiber), I; ultimate tensile strength of prestressing steel,f;. = ultimate compressive strength of concrete. (2) Value of ultimate moment: for q' < 0.07,lVI u 0.96AJ:d; for 0.07 < q' < 0.50, AJ u (1 - 0.6q')AJ'/d. q' = (A j bd) (f~Ij:.), whereA, Girder load Superimposed load Support Midspan 116 to 5 0 l26 29 Total dead load (DL) Total live load (LL) 5 2~ Total (DL + LLl l55 Live-load moment in simple span: :37 27 The ultimate moments have been computed for all sections for both positive and negative bending. The envelopes of ultimate moments are shown in Figure 4.49. , Neglecting any moment redistribution, the situ­ ation would be the following over the support and at midspan: Section Moment Support y[idspan ,¥Ill 256 126 79 Dl. LL ;¥Iu or:I-[" = 29 L6:5(DL + LL) DL + 4.5 LL :5 22 2.93(DL + LL) DL + 3.4LL The picture is substantially different when looking at redistribution due to plastic hinges. Assuming an overall increase of both dead and live load simultaneously (loading arrangement A), we ob­ tain the overall safetv factor by comparing the sum of ultimate moments over the support and at midspan: 256 + 79 = 335 and the sum of simple span moment due LL: DL: 126 LL +5 to DL and = 131 37 168 Total The overall safety factor is thus: K = 335 168 20 . approximately 20% higher than for the support section considered alone. In fact. it is more impor­ tant and more realistic to consider only an increase of the live load, which is the only variable factor in the structure. Proceeding as before, the safety factor On LL only would be: K = _3_3_5=_1_3_1 = 5.5 However, this is not the actual safety factor of the structure, because there exists a more aggressive loading arrangement than that where all spans are live loaded. In the case where the live load is applied to only every second span [arrangement Design of Segmental Bridges 192 I 1 T I. ~.1. 260' i . I I 260' Elevation FIGURE 4.49. . 1 . Support L'ltimale bending capacity of a continuous deck. L'Itimate negative moment at midspan: 131 I n such structures a \'ery important characteristic must be emphasized. At the time of ultimate load failure, due either to negative moment in the un­ loaded spans or positive moments in the loaded spans, the maximum moment over the support has only slightly increased above the value at design load (169 against 155) and is far below the ultimate moment of the section (256). Three interesting consequences may be derived from this fact: 169 I. 38 Actual dead-load moment in simple span: 126+5 This value of 169 is substantially lower than the ul­ timate moment at that support section considered by itself (Mu = 256). The failure appears when the second plastic hinge appears at the center of the loaded span under positive moment (tension at the bottom fiber). The limiting value of the safety factor K is such that: and .~II i (b) in Figure 4.49], the first plastic hinge will ap­ pear at the center of the unloaded spans with a negative moment (tension at the top fiber) and the su pport moment reaches the following limiting value: 131 + K . 37 260' ILive-load arrangement (A)I Support = ~,I. i LL. LL 169 + 79 I K = 3.2 2. Because the overall safety of the structure is not dependent upon the ultimate moment near the su pports, it is not necessary to dimen­ sion the bottom flange of the concrete section in this area to balance the ultimate capacity of the prestressing tendons. The global safety factor of the structure de­ pends directly on the capacity of the sections near midspan for both positive and negative moments. The capacity for positive moments is given by the continuity tendons placed in the Shear and Design of Cross Section bottom flange for service-load conditions. The capacity for negative moments depends upon the tendons placed at the top flange level to overlap the cantilever tendons of the two indi­ vidual cantilever arms. The magnitude of this overlap prestress does not appear as a critical factor when designing the structure for service loads, yet it plays an important role in the ulti­ mate behavior of the structure. 3. At ultimate load, it was shown that the areas of the members close to the supports are sub­ jected to moments only slightly in excess of de­ sign load moments and in most cases below cracking moments. No early failure due to combined shear and bending is anticipated. In long structures where hinges and expansion joints are provided in certain spans, the same de­ sign principles may be applied to analyze the ulti­ mate capacity. Hinges represent singular points through which the moment diagrams must go re­ gardless of the loading arrangement under consid­ eration. It was found that the optimum location of the hinge with regard to ultimate safety is some­ what different from the location allowing the best control of long-term deflections. It may be of interest therefore to move the hinge slightly to­ ward the center of the span, which has a further advantage of simplifying construction. 4.10 Shear and Design of Cross Section -1.10,1 I,VTRODUCTION Designing prestressed concrete members for shear represents a challenging task for the engineer, be­ cause there are many differences of opinion and large variations in the requirements of the various codes. In particular the ACI code and the AASHTO specifications differ in several ways from the FIP-CEB and other European codes. It is common practice in many countries to de­ sI(Tn reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete /') . members for shear by allowing the concrete to carry a proportion of the shear loads while stirrups (formerly in conjunction with inclined bars) carry the rest. A complete agreement has not yet been reached on this aspect of design for shear: The French ('odes (CCBA, for example) allow nothing to be taken by the concrete and the total shear to be carried by the transverse steel, which is certainly an overconservative approach. Obviously, 193 the beneficial effect of longitudinal compression (either in columns subject to axial load or in pre­ stressed members) is taken into account. The recent FIP-CEB code allows some proportion of the shear to be carried by the concrete. ACI code allows a larger proportion of shear to be carried by the concrete with a consequent sav­ ings in stirrup requirements. 4.10.2 SHEAR TESTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS Tests were recently carried out in France in order to increase the knowledge of this phenomenon, both on simply reinforced concrete and on pre­ stressed members. 4 Static tests on reinforced con­ crete I beams showed that the steel stress in stir­ rups increases linearly with the load and is three times smaller than it would be if the concrete car­ ried no shear, Figure 4.50. In this respect, all codes are fully justified in taking the concrete into ac­ count as a shear-carrying component. However, dynamic testing on the same beams showed a very different behavior. A cyclic load was applied between one-third and two-thirds of the ultimate static load for one million cycles, where­ upon the beam was statically tested to failure, Fig­ ure 4.51. Before cracking, the elastic behavior of the homogeneous member kept the steel stress in the stirrups very low. However, before 10,000 cy­ cles, a crack pattern had appeared that remained to the end of the test and became more and more pronounced with a continuous increase of the in­ clined crack width. Crack opening reached in. (1.5 mm) at the end of the dynamic test. l\lost probably stirrup rupture took place about 600,000 cycles, although the ultimate static capacity of the n- Ii. P (tonn!;oS) J I 20 1 10 o FIGURE 4.50. Stade test of reinforced concrete I­ beam steel stress in stirrups. 194 Design of Segmental Bridges .\ FIGURE 4.51. Dynamic test of reinforced concrete I-beam web cracking and yariation of steel stress in stir­ rups. beam after dynamic testing was substantially the same as for the other beams, which were tested only under static loads. Such tests show that the conventional approach of designing web rein­ forcement for static loading with a large part of the shear carried by the concrete may not provide ade­ guate safety in the actual structures as soon as web cracking is allowed to develop. 4.10.3 DIFFICUL71ES IN ACTUAL STRUCTURES Another source of information is afforded by the behavior of existing structures. Fortunately, examples of difficulties imputable to shear in can­ tilever box girder bridges are scarce. The authors are aware of only two such contemporary exam­ ples, which are summarized here for the benefit of the design engineer. The first example relates to a box girder bridge dcck constructed by incremental launching and shown in Figure 4.52. Permanent prestress was achieved by straight tendons placed in the top and boltom flanges, as required by the distribution of moments. During launching an additional uniform prestress was applied to the constant-depth single box section, which produced an average compres­ sive stress of 520 psi (3.60 MPa). l'\ear each pier there was a vertical prestress designed to reduce web diagonal stresses to allowable values. During launching a diagonal crack appeared through both webs between the blisters provided in the box for anchorage of top and bottom prestress. The corresponding shear stress was 380 psi (2.67 :\1Pa), and there was no vertical prestress in that zone. The principal tensile stress at the centroid of the section was 200 psi (1.40 MPa), which is far below the cracking strength of plain concrete. In fact, the webs of the box section were subjected to additional tensile stresses due to the distribution of the large concentrated forces of the top and bot: tom prestress. Tbe truss analogy shown in Figure 4.52 indicates clearly that such tensile stresses are superimposed on the normal shear and diagonal stresses due to the applied dead load and may therefore produce cracking. This could have been prevented by extending the vertical prestress in the webs further out toward midspan. The second example concerns a cast-in-place variable-depth double box girder bridge with maximum span lengths of 400 1'1. Because the bridge was subsequently intended to carry monorail pylons, two intermediate diaphragms were provided at the one-third and two-thirds points of each span, as shown in Figure 4.53. Pre­ stress was applied by straight tendons in the top and bottom Hanges and vertical prestress in the webs to control shear stresses. Diagonal cracking was observed in the center web only near the in­ termediate diaphragms with a maximum crack opening of 0.02 in. (0.6 mm). Repair was easily ac­ complished by adding vertical prestress after grouting the cracks. A complete investigation of the problems en­ countered revealed that cracking was the result of the superposition of several adverse effects, any one of which was almost harmless if considered separately: (1) The computation of shear stresses failed to take into account the adverse effect (usu­ ally neglected) of the vertical component of con­ tinuity prestress in the bottom flange of a girder with variable height. (2) The distribution of shear stresses between the center and side webs was made under the assumption that shear stresses were equal in all three webs. In fact the center web Shear and Design of Cross Section l~ll,.t LOAD lSO'.,.. I.... "n'on \' A NO VERTICAL AVERAGE COMPRESS:ON . . 520 p.l1 PRESTRESS 1 HROUliH ,. B01H 195 IN THAT ZONE CRACK WEBS PARIIAL LOMGITUDIMAL SEOIOM OIAGONAl TEHSIOH OUE 10 PRES I RESS (OISIRIBU1l0" '" WEB TRUSS TYPiCAl FIGURE 4.52. ~ALf (ROSS SECTIOM ANALOGY A- A Example of web cracking under application of high prestress forces. ( ct) ( .6) FIGURE 4.53. Example of web cracking in a 400 ft span. (a) Typical cross section. (b) Partial longitudinal section. carries a larger proportion of the load, and shear stresses were underestimated for this web. (3) The vertical web prestress was partially lost into the in­ tenllediate diaphragms, and the actual vertical compressive stress was lower than assumed. (4) Present design codes do not provide a consistent margin of safety against web cracking when verti­ cal prestress is used. This margin decreases significantly when the amount of vertical prestress increases. In the present French code, the safety Design of Segmental Bridges 196 factor against web cracking is 2 when no vertical prestress is used and only 1.3 for a vertical pre­ stress of 400 psi. (5) At present. vertical prestress is usually applied with short threaded bars, and even when equipped with a fine thread they are not completely reliable unless· special precautions are taken under close supervision. Even a small anchor sel significantlv reduces the prestress load, and il is nOI unlikely that the actual prestress load is only three-fourths or even two-thirds of the theoretical prestress. It should, however, be emphasized that the difficulties mentioned above have led to progress in this field, and the increase ill knowledge has en­ sured that these examples remain rare exceptions. Practically all existing box girder bridges have per­ formed exceptionally well under the effects of shear loads and torsional moments. 4.10.4 DESIGN OF LONGITUDINAL MEMBERS FOR SHEAR Tlte essential aspects of this important prohlem are: Dimensioning of the concrete section particulady in terms of web thickness Design of transverse and/or vertical prestress <llId of conventional reinforcement The two m,~jor considerations are: (s) Lt1HfIT/J.oINAl Jr/ussu ~ I" ___ ...._~B (.6) FIGURE 4.54. Computation of nel applied shear (a) \'enical component of prestre~s. (Ii) Effect or inclined hOllom flange (Resal effect). (r) !'\et she"r f01C(,. She"r force due to applied loads /': deduct vcrtic:!I compollent of draped tendolls = ~ P sin 0'1: add yeni· cal compollent of cOlltinuity tendons + 1 P sin 0: 2 : de­ duel Resal effeci = ·B tan f3; total is net applied shear force = V,.. load. are obtained by cOllsidering stresses on sections perpendicular 10 the top flange (which is usually the orientation of joints between segments) and projecting the loads 011 the section for determining shear stresses. The total net shear force is the sum of the following terms: Shear force due to applied loads. At the design stage (or, in modern code language, serviceability limit state) prevent or control crack­ ing so as to avoid corrosion and fatigue of rein­ forcement. Reduction due to \'enical component of draped tendons where used. At the ultimate stage (or load factor design concept state or ultimate limit state) provide adequate safety. Reduction due to the inclined principal compres­ sive stresses in the bottom flange (usually called the Resal effect after the engineer who first studied members of variable depth). Because the direction of the principal stresses in the web is not fully de­ termined, it is usual to neglect the added reduction of shear force derived from web stresses. For the box sections used in cantilever bridges the behavior under shear must be investigated: Increase due to indination ofcolltinuity tendons in the bottom flange for variable-depth girders. In the webs. At the connections between web and top flange (in­ cluding the outside cantilevers) and web and bot­ tom flange. Figures 4.54 and 4.55 show a suggested method to compute shear loads and shear stresses. Modern computer programs analyze the box girder cross sections perpendicular to the neutral axis and take into account all loads projected on the neutral axis and the section. Equivalent results Shear stresses may further be computed' from shear force and torsion moment using the conven­ tional elastic methoas. Tests have shown that the presence of draped tendon ducts in the webs, even if grouted after ten­ sioning, changes the distribution of shear stresses. To take this effect into account, it is suggested to compute all shear stresses using a net web thickness that is the actual thickness minus one-half the duct Shear and Design of Cross Section 197 b' b' Gross web thickness d diameter of duct (a) FIGURE 4.55. Computation of shear stress. Typical box section: net web thickness b = &' - ~d; shear stress due to shear force Va net applied ,hear load = v V" . Qi[(Il;) 'f], where Q = statical moment at centroid, b = net web thickness, f = gross moment of inertia, V" net applied shear load; shear stress due to the LOrsion moment = v C/(2·b·5), where C = torsion moment, & = net web thickness, 5 = area of the middle closed box. Note: check the shear stress at centroid level. diameter. Ducts for vertical prestress need not be taken into account because they are smaller and parallel to the vertical stirrups, which compensates for the possible small effect of the prestress ducts. Web-thickness dimensioning depends upon the magnitude of shear stress in relation to the state of compressive stress. In the case of monoaxial com­ pression (only longitudinal prestress and no verti­ cal prestress) the diagonal principal tensile stress must be below a certain limit to insure a proper and homogeneous margin of safety against web cracking with its resulting long-term damaging ef­ fects. Figure 4..56 suggests numerical values based '0£1 the latest state of the art that are believed to be realistic and safe. Numerical values for allowable shear stresses under design loads are given in Fig­ ures 4.57 and 4.58 for 5000 and 6000 psi concrete. Web thickness must therefore be selected in the various sections along the span to keep shear stresses within such allowable values. It may be that construction requirements or other factors make it desirable to accept higher shear stresses. It is necessary in this case to use vertical prestress to create a state of biaxial compression. Figure 4.56h indicates the corresponding procedure. The vertical compressive stress must be at least 2.5 times the excess of shear stress above the value for monoaxial compression. When vertical prestress is used, the beneficial ef­ fect of increasing the length of the horizontal com­ ponent of the potential crack in the web created by the horizontal compression due to prestress is par­ tially lost. In fact, if both horizontal and vertical compressive stresses are equal,j~ j~, the direc­ tion of the principal stress is given by (3 = 45 0 as in (a) (b) FIGURE 4.56. Allowable shear stress for mono- and biaxial compression in box girders. (0) Monoaxial com­ pression: allowable shear stress v = 0.05J;. + 0.20/~: corresponding diagonal tension = Jp given by v 2 = Jp(f,r + Jp). (&) Biaxial compression: allowable shear stress = v = 0.05 J:. + 0.20J,r + OAOJu; corresponding diagonal ten­ VI + Jp) (jIJ + Jp). sion = j~ given by v:! Design of Segmental Bridges 198 ,r,:; I~yf&, l------1,--­ ~~~~~~~~~~~9f~~~(l~O~'l) ~~---+-- V/ndX k'O/,?I1!<7A'TAL In monoaxial state wilblr C17/fI"/'?ESSIY£ STrlESS /" if"') FIGURE 4.57. IN. AII()wable shear stresses f()} ,j; stresses higher than a limiting \'alue of 1OV'];, be accepted prior to careful investigation based Oil ' I researc h , speC!'fi c expenmenta In this respect, a very interesting case arose for the construction of the Brotonne Viaduct in France (described in Chapter 9), where an excep­ tionally long span called for minimum weight and consequently high concrete stresses. The most critical condition for shear stresses developed in the 8 in. (0.20 m) webs near the piers of the ap­ proach spans, where a maximum shear stress of 640 psi (4.5 MPa)'was accepted together with an unusuall\' low longitudinal compression stress of 500 psi (3.45 J\.lPa). Vertical prestress was used in this case. The chan for a 6000 psi concrete, Figure 4.58, would give: = :)000 500 psi, V = 400 psi. In biaxial state with./ u = 550 psi, V 620 psi, \\'bich is suhstantially equal to the actual shear stress of' 640 psi. A test was conducted to stud"; the behavior of the precast prestressed web panels in the normal de­ ~;ign load stage and up to failure, Fi~ure 4.59. Re· suits are shown in Figure 4.60. The ultimate capacity of the web was very large and probably far in excess of the needs. I t is believed that web FIGURE 4.58. psi. AlIO\\'ablc shear stresses forr: 6000 ordinary reinforced concrete. If a higher vertical stress is used, a crack with f3 > 45° could develop, with a consequent reduction of the horizontal length over which concrete and reinforcement must carry the total shear. To prevent such a situa­ tion, it is deemed preferable to use a vertical com­ pressive stress not greater than the longitudinal compressive stress,I!J < Ix. Finally, considering present knowledge on the behavior of prestressed concrete beams under high shear stresses, it is not recommended that shear PLAN VIEW lRANSVERSE 5EClION FIGURE 4.59. Brotonne Viaduct, test set-up for pre­ cast web panels. Joints Between Match-Cast Segments Slr!',\SfS al dPlign Ilage (approach viaducl): 500 psi 550 psi 640 psi Horizontal compressive stress Vertical compressive stress Shear stress RfSlI/l.\ or lell at rupturi': \iormal Load 630 I H4:0 I Clrimale ,hear Horizontal compressive stress Vertical compressive Slrcss Shear sln~ss (elastic theorv) uniform 840 1.3 1650 p,i . 580 psi ,33()O psi 2200 psi JOilll dC'ilron:d and multiple kc\'s shcarcd 011. Panels illlaCI. FIGURE 4.60. web Brotolll1e Viaduct, results of precast P;lIlCI test~. cracking control can be obtained on Iv bv proper stress limits at the design load level. Whcn designing longitudinal bridge members for shear. another important factor remains to be considered, which has sometimes heen meriooked by inexperienced designers. It concerllS longitudi­ llal shear stresses developillg between the webs and the top and bottom flanges as. shown in Figure 4.61. When web stress<.:s ha\'e been verified at the level of the celltroid, it is not necessan to make a detailed stud\' at other points of the web lsuch as levels (d) and (e)l, although the principal tensile stress Ilear the pier may be slightly higher at point (d) than at the cel1ler of gravity. 011 the other hand. to keep the integrity of the box girder, it is very important to \'erifv that shear and diagonal stresses ill sections (a), (b), and (c) are within the /" FIGURE 4.61. (bnges. /" L[)ngitudinal silear between web and 199 same allowable values as set forth previously for the webs and that a proper amount of reinforcing steel crosses each section. This leads to the design of transverse reinforce­ ment ill the cross section to resist shear stresses. According to the provisions of the ACI Code and the AASHTO specifications, the web shear steel requirements are controlled by the ultimate stage. The net ultimate shear force is given by the fol­ lowing formula, based on the current partial load factors: where = net shear force at ultimate stage, actual shear force due to the effect of all dead loads, including the re­ duction due to \'ariable depth where applicable, V u , = shear force due to live loads in­ cluding impact. V f> = unfactored vertical component o! prestress where applicable. Vu V D/, Effects of temperature gradients' and volume changes are usually small ill terms of shear load and may be neglected except in rigid frames. On the contrary, shear due to moment redistribution and secondary effects of continuity prestress must be illcluded. A partial safety factor on material properties is applied to the ultimate load state. 4.11 Joints Between Match-Cast Segments Joints between match-cast segments are usually tilled with a thin la\er of epoxy to carry normal and shear stresses across the joint. In the earlv strllcwres, a single key was provided in each web of the box girder to obtain the same relative positioll between segments in the casting yard and in the structure after transportation and placing. This kev was also used to transfer the shear stresses across the joint before polvmerization of the epoxy, which has substantially no shear strength before hardening. Figure 4.62 summarizes rhe force system in relation to a typical segment both Juring erection and in the completed structure. Provisional assemblv of a new segment to the previously completed part of the structure is usu­ ally achieved by stressing top (and sometimes bot­ tom) longitudinal tendons, which inducc forces FI (and F2)' The resultant F of FI + F2 resolves with the segment weight W into a resultant R. The verti­ cal component ofR can be balanced only by a reac­ Design of Segm~ental Bridges 200 F1 Fl I ~ p 2 ,w (a) D lAIL \ . (b) FIGURE 4.62. Typical scgment in relation to the forcc system. of segment(s). (iJ) Segmcllt(s) ill the fini~hed structure. tion such as R I given by the inclined face of the key, while the balance of the normal force is R z which produces a distribution of longitudinal compres­ sive stresses. In the finished structure, all normal and. shear stresses are naturally carried through the joints by the epoxy material, which has com­ pressive and shear strengths in excess of the seg­ melll concrete. A series of interesting tests were performed for the construction of the Rio- Niteroi Bridge in Brazil to verify the structural behavior of epoxy joints bet ween match-cast segments. A I -to-6 scale model was built and tested to represent a typical deck span near the support and the corresponding seven segments as shown in Figure 4.63. ELEVATION (0) Provisional assembly A crack pattern developed in the web when the test load was increased above design load, as shown in Figure 4.64. The epoxy joints had no influence on the continuity of- the web cracks, and the be­ havior of the segmental structure up to ultimate was exactly the same as that of a monolithic struc­ ture. Failure occurred for concrete web crushing when the steel stress in the stirrups reached the yield point. The corresponding shear stress was 970 psi (6.8 MPa) for a mean concrete cylinder strength of 4200 psi (29.5 MPa). The first bending crack had previously occurred for a load equal to 93 percent of the computed cracking load, assuming a tensile bending strength of 550 psi (3.9 MPa). Otber tests \vere performed DETAIL or JOINT f - - - ­ .... 40.00 ~4,1lQj FIGURE 4.63. Rio-Niteroi Bridge, partial e1evatioll and joint detail. Joints Between Match-Cast Segments 201 !, . r- I i' " , \'~ .. ,' . .... - ......... -... . s:}J}:'~~~Y2if~:~:;· •. :'" ' .. -~ ~ ~'~:' ":-:-: -0 FIGURE 4.64. Rio-Niteroi Bridge, web crack pattern at ultimate in model test. in order to study the transfer of diagonal principal compressive stresses across tpe segment joints as shown in Figure 4,65, Prismatic test specimens / or /3 Efficiency (,,) PRISMATIC were prepared, some with and some without shear keys across the joint, and tested for variolls values of/3. the angle between the principal stress and the neutral axis the girder. In the case of the Rio ~iteroi Bridge the value of /3 is between 30 and 35°, For a reinforced concrete structure /3 = 45°. A preliminary test showed that the epoxy joint had an efficiency of 0.92 as compared to a IIlonolithic specimen with no joint (ratio between the ultimate load P on the prismatic specimen with an epoxv joint and with a monolith specimen). For various directions of the joint the results are as follows: PRISMATIC WITH KEYS (b) FIGURE 4.65. Rio-Niteroi Bridge. test specimens for web, (a) Crack panel'll in web and related test specimen. (b) Actual test specimens. 0° 30" 60° 0.94 0.98 0.70 It can be seen that for values of /3 smaller than 45° (which covers the entire field of prestressed con­ crete members) the compressive strength is hardly affected by the presence of the inclined joint. All these tests confirmed earlier experimental studies to show that epoxy joints are safe provided that proper material quality together with proper mix­ ing and application procedures are constantly ob­ tained. Several early incidents in France, and some more recently in the United States, have shown that these conditions are not always achieved. The logi­ cal step in the development and improvement of epoxy joints was therefore to relieve the epoxv of Design of Segmental Bridges 202 any structural function. The multiple-key (or castellated-joint) design embodies this concept and provides for simplicity, safety, and cost savings. Webs and flanges of the box section are provided with a large number of small interlocking keys de­ signed to carryall stresses across the joint with no structural assistance from the resin. Figure 4.66 shows the comparison between the structural be­ havior of an early joint with a single web key and a joint with multiple keys, assuming that the epoxy resin has improperly set and hardened. It is nmN recommended that multiple keys be used in all pre­ cast segmental projects, as shown in Figure 4.67. \Vith the current dimensions used for depth and height of multiple keys, the overall capacity of the joint is far in excess of the required minimum to transfer diagonal stresses safely up to the ultimate load state. i Potential ~ fajlure~,plane, I J It= '- / Fo I '­ 4.12 Design of Superstructure Cross Section The typical cross section of a box girder deck is a closed frame subjected to the following loads; Fig­ ure 4.68: Girder weight of the various components (top and bottom flanges, webs) Superimposed loads essentially applied to the top flange (barrier, curbs and pavement) and some­ times to the bottom flange, as when utilities are in­ stalled in the box girder Live loads applied on the deck slab A tvpical box girder element limited by two parallel cross sections, Figure 4.68b, is in equilibrium be­ cause the applied loads are balanced by the dif­ ference between shear stresses at the two limiting sections. To design the typical cross section the as-. sumption is usually made t.hat the shape of tbe sec­ tion remains unchanged and that the closed frame may be designed as resting on immovable supports such as A and B. Bending moments are created in the various sections of the frame due to the applied loads. Maximum moments occur in the deck slab due to live loads in sections such as (a), (1)), and (0. ,,(/) " '- : (aJ (b) FIGURE 4.66. Joint between match-cast segments, comparison between single- and multiple-key concepts. (d) (.6) FIGURE 4.67. Precast segment \"ith multiple keys. FIGURE 4.68. Design of deck cross section. (a) Typi­ cal loading on cross section. (b) Free-body diagram. Special Problems in Superstructure Design Because the wehs are usually· much stiffer than the flanges and the side-deck slab cantilevers and the center-deck slab between wehs are huilt into the webs, most of the deck-slah moments are trans­ ferred to the weh, with a maximum value in section (d) at the connection between web and top flange. In bridges where transverse or vertical prestress or both are used, the design of the deck cross section is not greatlv affected by the f~lct that moments and normal forces computed in the frame superimpose their effects on the shear stresses due to longitudi­ nal bending mentioned in Section 4.lO. The case is more critical when only conventional transverse reinforcing steel is used in both flanges and webs. A common method, based on experi­ ence, is to compute the steel area required on either face at critical sections such as (a) through (e), showl! in Figure 4.68, for the following: 1. 2. Shear stresses ill the longitudinal members. TLlllsverse bending of the frame. The minilllulll amollnt of steel should Ilot be less thall the larger of the followiilg: item I pillS olle-hal r of Item 2, item 2 plus one-hair of item 1, or 0.7 limes the slim of item I and item 2. 4.13 Special Problems in Superstructure Design All design aspects covered ill the preceding sec­ tions pertain to the design of deck members for bending and shear regardless of the local problems encountered O\·er the piers or abutments and at intermediate expansion joints when required. This section will now deal with such local problems, which are of great practical importance. .f./3./ DI'IPHR.-JGMS It \V,IS mentioned in Section 4.6 that the combined capacities of the deck slab in bending and the box girder in torsion allow a verv satisfactory trans­ verse distribution of live loads between girders in the case of multiple box girder decks. It has there­ fore been common practice to eliminate all trans­ vel'se diaphragms between box girders except over the ab'ulments. Diaphragms inside the box section are slill required over the intermediate piers in most projects. 4.132 203 SUPERSTRUCTURE OVER PIERS The simplest case is exemplified in Figure 4.69, where a deck of constant depth rests upon the pier cap with bearings located under the web of the box girder. The reaction is transferred directly from the web to the bearings, and there is need only for a simple inside diaphragm designed to transfer the shear stresses, due to possible torsion moments, to the substructure. A more complicated situation arises when the bearings are offset with regard to the webs, Figure 4.70. Reinforcing and possibly prestressing must be provided ill the cross section immediately above the pier to fullfill the following I'll nctions: Suspend all sheal' stresses carried by the web under point A, where a 45° line starting at the bearing edge illtersects the web centerline (hatched area in the shear diagralll). Balance the moment (R . d) induced by the bear­ ing offset. Looking at other schemes, we find that decks of variable depth pose several challenging prohlems. Figure 4.71 shows an elevation of a box girder resting on twin bearings designed to improve the rigidity of the pier-to-deck connection and con­ sequently reduce the bending llloments in the deck, which will be described in greater detail in Chapter 5. When the loading arrangement is symmetrical in the two <1(~jacent spans, the transfer of the deck reaction into the piers through the four bearings is just as simple as for the case shown in Figure 4.69. :\[atters look very difficult for an unsymmetrical loading condition either in the completed struc­ ture, Figure 4.71. or during construction, Figure 4.72. Let us assume that the total deck reaction is transferred to the pier through one line of bearings only (for example, HI in Figure 4.7 I, for an excess of load in the left span). The compression C2 car­ ried by the bottom flange at the right is no longer balanced by the corresponding reaction R 2 , and an abrupt change in the system of internal forces re­ sults in a large vertical tensile force T 2 , which has to be suspended on the total width of the box section by special reinforcement or prestress. In long-span structures, these local effects are of no small mag­ nitude. Taking the example of a 40 ft (12 m) wide box with a 20 ft (6 m) wide hottom flange and a span of 300 ft (90 Ill), the load carried by the bot­ tom flange will probably be around 3000 t (2720 mt) and the angle change above the right bearing Design of SegmeJ}tal Bridges 204 t 4,65 ________.. _'_.'_ j. o o '" ---i­ ben rlngs ~j.4],-_+-,,"-7=-8 -+-___---..:3:..:.,00 2.25 SECTlO.'\ FIGURE 4.69. A-A SECTION Picr segment for deck of constant ckpt h and simple .JJISTA/EtlTJIJN OF ,fNEAP. J"TAESSES IN WELlS FIGURE 4.70. _*'e Deck over piers \\'ith offset bearings. ahout 10 percent. The corresponding unbalanced load is therefore 300 t (272 mt), and this is more than enough to split the pier segment along the section between the web and the bottom flange if proper consideration has not been given to the problem with respect to design and detailing. Tbe situation may be even more critical during cOllstruction, Figure 4.72, if the unbalanced mo­ C -C SllppOlI. ment induces uplift in one of the two bearings. The load of the anchor rods (2) has to be added 10 the unbalanced load resulting from the angle change of tbe bottom Hange. The diaphragm systems shown in Figures 4.71 and 4.72 are of the fl type where botb inclined diapbragm walls intersect at the top flange level. Any unsymmetrical moment that produces a ten­ sion force in the top Hange T and a compressioll force in the bottom flange may tbus he balanced by l1ormalloads sucb as F) and C j , Figure 4.71, witb no secondary bending. In tbis respect, tben, it is a satisfactory scheme. Detailing may, however, be difficult because of the concentration of rein­ forcement or prestress tendon ancbors in the top flange area, whicb usually is already overcrowded witb longitudinal tendon ducts. A simple and more practical design, although less satisfactory from a tbeoretical point of view, is to provide vertical diaphragms above tbe bearings. This is the logical choice wben the deck is rigidly connected with a Deflections of Cantilever Bridges and Camber Design 4.13.4 205 EXPANSION 10l,VT AND fllNGE Sr:GMHNT The expansion joints required at intermediate points in very long structures need a special se~­ ment to transfer the reaction between the two sides of the deck, When the expansion joint is located close to the point of contraflexure there is no pro­ vision for any uplift force, even with a load factor on the live loading. The hinge segment is therefore made up of two half-segments, as shown in Figure 4.75: The bearing half (reference A), which is connected by prestress to the shorter part of the span The carried half (reference B), connected by pre­ stress to the longer part of the span Measures are taken to continue cantilever con­ struction through the hinge segment until closure is achieved at midspan: see Section 4.S.6. Inclined diaphragms provide an efficient way to suspend or transfer the reaction through the bearings into the flanges and webs on both sides 0\ the box section, Figure 4.75. One of the largest structures incorporating a hinge segment of this type is the Saint Cloud Bridge, de­ scribed in Section 3.12. A typical detail of this seg­ ment is shown in Figure 4.76. Neoprene bearings FIGURE 4.71. Deck of variable (/t:pth, permanent deck-to-pier bearing arrangemenl. box pier and where the pier walls are continued in the deck, as showll in Figure 4.7:~. Here again the transfer of all svmmetricalloads hetween deck and pier is simple, and design difficulties arise for un­ symmetrical loading. At the connecting points :l and 8, Figure -1.73. between the top flange and the vertical diaphragms, the part of the top flange ten­ sion load T such as Tl induces into the diaphragm another tension load T~, and both loads result in an unbalanced diagonal component T: l , which must be resisted both bv the webs and bv special provisions such· as stiffening beams. C/.1 J.3 EXD (1BLTJIE.VTS A special segment will be provided at both ends of the bridge deck with a solid diaphragm to transfer torsional stresses to the bearings. as shown in Fig­ ure 4.74. The expansion joint is, therefore. ade­ quately supported by the end diaphragm on one side and the abutment wall on the other side. 4.14 Deflections of Cantilever Bridges and Camber Design Each cantilever arm consists of several segments. fabricated, installed. and loaded at differem poims in time. It is important therefore to predict accll­ ratelv the deflection curves of the val'iolls cantile­ vers so as to provide adequate camber either in the· fabrication plant for precast segmcmal construc­ tion or for a<ie(lu<lte adjustment of the form travel­ ers for cast-in-place construction. When the structure is staticallv determinate, the cantilever arm deflections are due to: The concrete girder weight The weight of the travelers or the segmel1l placing equipment The cantilever prestress After continuity between individual cantilevers is achieved, the structure becomes statically indeter­ minate and continues to undergo additional deflections for the following reasons: 206 Design Qf Seg11Jental Bridges 2r--+--~. @ I ~olo~ \_ _ ... '-. FIGURE 4.72. .. _-­ Tcmporan' pier and deck conllection. Continuity prestress Removal of travelers or segment placing eqUIp­ ment Removal of provisional supports and release of deck to pier connections Placing of superimposed loads Subsequent long-term deflections due to con­ crete creep and prestress losses will also take place. Compensation for the following three types of deflections must be provided for by adequate camber or adjustment: I. 2. 3. Cantilever arms. Short-term continuous deck. Long-term continuous deck. It has already been mentioned that the concrete modulus of elasticity varies both with [he age at the time of first loading and with the duration of the load (see Section 4.8.7). Deflections of types 2 and 3 above are easily accommodated by chant,ring the theoretical longitudinal profile by the corre­ sponding amount in each section to offset exactly all future deflections. A more delicate problem is to Deflections of Cantilever Bridges and Camber Design 207 accurately predict and adequatelv follow the deHections of the individual cantilever arms durin~ construction. It is necessary to analyze each con­ struction stage and to determine the deflection curve of the successive cantilever arms as construc­ tion proceeds, step by step. A simple case with a five-segment cantilever is shown in Fi~ure 4.77. The broken line represents the envelope of the various cleHection curves or the space trajectory followed by the cantilever tip at each construction ~tage. FIGURE 4.73. By changing the relative angular positions of the various segments bv small angles, such as 0'" -0'2, and so on, the cantilever should be assembled to its final length with a satisfactorv longitudinal profile as shown in Figure 4.78, for the simple case considered. The practicalities of this important problem are covered in Sections IIA and 11.6. Pier sl')-\"Illl'111 I"il h \lTtical diaphragms. ~ 2.00 A ~----.:=-=---_Lf 2.25 ~ T Sl::CTlO\" A-A SECTlONC-C O! ." N! i I --t SECTION B-B FIGURE 4.74. ment. Outline of end segment over abut­ 208 Design of Segmental Bridges 1.50 A-A SECTlO:-< S.ECTIOl' C-C B- 8 S,~CTI(l0: FIGURE 4.75. 1-1 illge segml'llt wilh l'xpansiolljoilli. COUPE B.B COUPE A.A ELEVATION 4.oof .~ _ r- .. r- . \ibussoir porleu r r' ~0 F Ii _ ~~ FIGURE 4.76. ,..; '" .. 2.55 '-r Saint Cloud Bridge, hinge segment with expansion joint. It is interesting to compare the relative impor­ tance of deflections and camber for cast-in-place and precast construction. Figure 4.79 shows values for an actual structure, where computations have been made for the two different methods. The cal- culational assumptions given in Figure 4.79 indi­ cate that in most cases the difference would be even more significant if a cast-in-place cycle of less than one week were employed and if precast seg­ ments wel'e stored for more than two weeks. How­ 5EGMENTS Segments N" N" 4 .... tr 21 g 4 3 2 --- '" 4.4 '\, ENVELOPE OF 3 "- ::> S CURVES. "" \ '" \ (5 a. a. \ \ ::> V> , \ \ ,­, , FIGURE 4.78. Choice and control of camber. \ \ \ \ \ \! \ I FIGURE 4.77. Deflections of a typical cantilever. CROWN 1.1.1 .... « o LI d ~r d ..10 d ... 26 d+6 d+24 d -2 d -22 d+11 d .. 27 d+ 12 id+27 ~1·r-~--~---+--~----~--+---~---+----~--+---4-------~ "-I 01 STRUCTURE 1.1.11 « ... 1 01 A SSUJI,IPTIO::-;S PRECAST Casting one segment per day Placing two segments par day Segments at least 2 weeks old for placing <::'-_~'E:~~:~~~E : , one segment per week Prestressing: 30 days after casting FIGURE 4.79. -+---1--------=--d----,---1-4- Comparison of deAections between precast and cast in place structures. 209 Design of Segmental Bridges 210 ever, one would normally expect a cast-in-place cantilever arm to resist deflections two or three times greater than the precast equivalent. 4.15 Fatigue in Segmental Bridges Basically, prestressed concrete resists dvnamic and cyclic loadings very well. Eugene Frevssinet dem­ onstrated this fact tift" years ago. He tested two identical telegraph poles under dynamic loading. Olle was of reinforced concrete and the other of prestressed concrete; both were designed for the same loading conditions. The reinforced concrete member failed after a few thousand cycles. while the prest ressed concrete memher sllstained the d\'l1<llllic load indefinitely (sc\'eral million cycles). Fatigue in concrete itself has never been a prob­ lem in ;111\ known structure. hecause a variation of compressive stress in concrete may be supported indefinitel\'. When reference is made to fatigue in prestressed concrete, it is alwa\'s inferred that f~lIiglle problel11s arise in t he prest ressing steel or convelltional reinforcing steel as a result of crack­ ing due either to bending or to shear. If cracking could be avoicled in prestressed concrete struc­ tures. the fatigue problem would he completely eliminated. Figure 4.80 shows the resistance to fatigue of prestressing strands currently used in prestressed concrete structures. The diagram shows tl}e limit of stress variation causing fatigue failure versus the mean stress in the prestressing steel. For come­ nience. both values are expressed as a ratio with respect to the ultimate tensile strength. For a steel stress of 60% of the ultimate the acceptable range of variation is :±:8~ of the ultimate for a number of ncles between 1()6 and 107 • Lsing. for example, 270 ksi qualit\' ~trand. this variation is therefore 22,000 psi or a total range of 44.000 psi. Because dvo<ul.lic loading on a bridge is of a short-term nat ure, the concrete lI10dulus is high and the ratio hetweell steel and concrete moduli is of the order of 5. Consequentlv, the maximum concrete stress ill an lIncnlcked section that would cause a fatigue failure would he 44,000/5 1-\1-\00 psi, a \'alue which is probablv tell tillles the stress \'arialion under design live loads in highway box girder hridges, All uncrackcd prestressed concrete strucillre is therefore cOl11pletcl\ safe \\ith respect to Llligue, regardless of the magnitude of li\T loads. A limited allloullt of cracking, although (011­ sidered unadvisahle frolll a corrosioll poilll of view, is 110t critical if kept under control. Tests and experience show that a grouted pre­ stressing tendoll can transfer hOlld st I'esses lip to b1 2' 0.4 Stress variation causing failure fs Afs 0.20 FIGURE 4.80. Resistance to fatigue of prestressing strands. Fatigue in Segmental Bridges 5'00 psi to the surrounding concrete. Taking the example of a typical (twelve ~ in. diameter strand) tendon with an outside diameter of 2.5 in. (64 mm), a stress variation of 40,000 psi in the steel produces a tendon force variation of 73,000 lb (33 mt), and the bond development length across a crack is then 73,000/(500 x 2.5 x 7T) = 18 in. (0046 m), see Figure 4.81. The corresponding crack width € is equal to the elongation of the pre­ stressing steel between points A and B with the triangular stress diagram-that is, 40 ksi over an average length of 18 in., or € = E~ = ~06.000 x 18 = 0.028 in. (0.7 mm) A safe crack width limit of 0.015 in. (0.4 mm) can be accepted to eliminate the danger of fatigue in the prestressing steel. In fact, instances of fatigue in segmental structures are extremely few and far between. An isolated case has been reported of a bridge in Dusseldorf, Germany, where failure occurred as a result of fatigue of prestressing bars. The cast-in­ place structure was prestressed with high-strength bars coupled at every construftion joint. After ten years of service, ajoint opened up to ~ in. (10 mm) and caused bar failures at the couplers. All investi­ gation revealed that a bearing had frozen and pre­ vented the structure from following the longitudi­ nal movements due to thermdl variations. This accidental restraint induced high tensile stresses in the concrete and caused cracking, which first ap­ peared in the construction joints precisely where bar couplers were located. The live-load stress level in the prestressing steel increased from 850 psi (6 eFlAe",. 1!ucr FIGURE 4.81. cracked section. Fatigue in prestressing steel across a 211 MPa) for the previously uncracked section to 14,000 psi (96 MPa) for the cracked section and induced failure in the bars. A recommendation was made as a result of this fatigue problem that coup· lers should be moved at least 16 in. (0040 m) away from the construction joints and that reinforcing steel should be provided through the joints if practical. Another sensitive factor relating to fatigue in web reinforcing steel was mentioned in Section 4.10.2 for reinforced concrete test beams. No such danger would exist in prestressed con­ crete if shear and diagonal stresses were kept within the limits that control web cracking. In conclusion, fatigue in prestressed concrete is not a potential danger if design and practical con­ struction take into account a few simple rules: 1. Avoid bending cracks in girders by allowing no tension or only a limited amount at either top or bottom fibers for normal maximum loads, such as the combination of dead loads, pre­ stressing, and design live loads including mo­ ment redistribution and half the temperature gradient. 2. Avoid web cracking by keeping diagonal ten­ sile stresses within allowable limits by proper web thickness and possibly vertical prestress. 3. Design and maintain bearings and expansion joints that allow free volume changes in decks. Temperature stresses that cannot be COIl­ trolled can give rise to enormous forces that may either tear the deck apart or destroy the piers and abutments. 111 this respect, elas­ tomeric bearings, which work by distortion and cannot freeze, are safer than friction bearings. which are more easily affected by dust and weathering of the contact surfaces. Insofar as crack control in segmel1lal structures is concerned. it is usually felt in Europe that exces­ sive concrete cover over the reinforcing steel and prestress tendons does not prevent corrosion but merely increases the crack width.3 For example. the typical 2 in. (50 mm) cover commonly used in bridge decks in the United States is considered ex­ treme in Europe. The 4 in. (100 mm) cover for concrete exposed to sea water would be a complete surprise to European engineers. Several examples of common practice in seg­ mental bridges are given as a simple comparative reference in Table 4.2. Design of Segmental Bridges 212 TABLE 4.2. Concrete Cover to Reinforcing Steel and Prestress Tendons in Europe Concrete cover (in.) Germa.n,'" H to 2 H H ~ Descri ption Reinforcing steel Outside exposure, tendons Inside exposure, tendons France Transverse reinforcing steel Longitudinal reinforcing steel or tendons (normal atmosphere) Corrosive atmosphere (salt water) 2 IVetherlands H H 2 to 2~ Reinforcing steel and tendons (normal exposure) Lightweight concrete Salt water exposure 4.16 Provisions for Future Prestressing For larger segmental bridges, it may be necessary to modify the prestress forces after construction. An example would be a bridge built using can­ tilever construction where positive-moment (con­ tinuity) tendons are added after erection. Or, as discussed in Section 4.8.6, some tendons may be released to articulate a joint. In addition to these adjustments immediately after construction, addi-. tional prestressing may be required at a later date to correct for unanticipated creep deflection or for additional loads such as for a new wearing surface. In Europe on some bridges spare tendon ducts are provided for this reason. A reasonable assumption would be to provide for 5 to 10% of the total pre· stress force for possible future addition. Since the tendon anchorages for the spare ducts are inside the box girder and generally located at the web-flange fillet, they are readily accessible. If future prestressing is needed, it is only necessary to insert the required tendon in the duct,jack it to its designed load, anchor and grout it. Since all this work can be done inside a box girder, it is not nec­ essary to interrupt traffic, and the workmen are fully protected.3 4.17 Design Example The Houston Ship Channel Bridge now under construction in Texas, U.S.A., is an outstanding example of segmental construction and represents the longest box girder bridge in the Americas as of this writing. Typical dimensions were given in Sec­ tion 2.14. This section will deal with some design aspects of this prestressed concrete s~gmental bridge. 4.17.1 LONGITUDINAL BESDING Each of the four identical cantilever arms is made up of: Ten segments 8 ft long (maximum weight 415 kips) Six segments 12 ft long (maximum weight 464 kips) Thirteen segments 15 ft long (maximum weight 457 kips) Longitudinal tendons are as follows: Cantilever tendons: 42 (nineteen 0.6 in. dia strands) + 50 (twelve 0.6 in. dial. Twelve addi­ tional bars used during construction are incorpo­ rated in the permanent prestress system. Continuity tendons in side sfmns: 20 (twelve 0.6 in. dial. Continuity tendons in crnter span: 40 (twelve 0.6 in. dial. A typical layout of the cross section was given in Figure 2.82. _ The main loading combinations considered in the design are summarized in Table 4.3. The lonTABLE 4.3. Houston Ship Channel Bridge, Main Design Load Combinations Load­ ing Case (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Description Allowable Tension on Extreme Fiber, Top or Bottom (ks!) + (P) + (E) + (P) + (L + 1) (D) + (P) + (L + 1) + HC!.T) + (T) (D) + (P) + !(L + 1) + (C!.T) + (T) (D) + (P) + (W) (G) 0 (D) 0 25 25 25 Notations: (C) girder load, (D) total dead load including superimposed dead load, (L + I) live load plus impact, (P) pre­ stress, (E) construction equipment, (tlT) temperature gradient of 18"F between {Op and bottom fiber, (Tl temperature and vol­ ume changes, (W) wind load on structure. Concrete strength and stresses: f~ 6000 psi 864 ksf (42.1 MPa). Basic allowable compressive stress: O.4f~ = 346 ksf (l6.8MPa). Design Example gitudinal bending of the box girder has been analyzed using the Be program, which considers the effects of the creep, shrinkage, and relaxation at each construction phase. Figure 4.82 shows the diagram of prestress forces due to cantilever and continuity tendons at two different dates: After completion of the structure and opening to traffic (780 days after start of deck casting) After relaxation and creep have taken place (4000 days) Significant values of the prestress forces are given in Table 4.4. The variation of stresses in the center and side spans is shown in the following diagrams for the corresponding loading cases: Figures 4.83 and 4.84, all dead loads and prestress at top and bottom fibers Figures 4.85 and 4.86, live load and temperature gradient at top and bottom fibers It is easily shown from these diagrams that all stresses in the various sectipns are kept within the allowable values mentioned in Table 4.3. The !..ONGITUD!p..j.AL PRf5TRE"5SING: A;&:IAl FORCE (KIP) GOODO \(;1> C"''''TIL[VtR PAESiRES!oIIolG(TlHf 7eo D"Y5) r."NlllEIt~IL~R!~_FtE~J..!!!i [TIME -4000 OAY!» ~--------,'-JL---f-"'lML-"'" I~ 195 ' 375 FT ""X1t~·U'" WEIG~l SEGHENT WEIG~lS Of ONE" TRA.lJtI..[,R : II mt) (B'):; 415 K. (ISEI (I~'): 4b4 K. (~IDm\) l''') , 457 K. ('1.07 mt) '2.~O K. (1.04 mk) FIGURE 4.82. Houston Ship Channel Bridge, typical segment layout and longitudinal prestress. 213 TABLE 4.4. Houston Ship Channel Bridge, Significant Values of Prestress Forces Prestress Force (kips) Maximum cantilever prestress in side span Maximum cantilever prestress in center span :Ylaxirnum continuity prestress in side span :'vlaxirnum continuitv prestress in center span Day 780 Day 4000 Percent Loss 54,710 51,310 6.2 54,390 49,280 9.4 9,540 8,760 8.2 18,130 16,780 7.5 maximum compressive stress at the bottom fiber level appears in the section located 124 ft from the pier and is equal to 335 ksf under the combined effect of all dead and live loads and prestress. 4.17.2 REDISTRIBUTION OF l'vlOMENTS The exceptional size of the structure gives rise to a moment redistribution of particular importance. The Be program allows a complete analysis of the behavior of the structure under the separate and combined effects of loads and prestress; also the effect of concrete creep and steel relaxation can be considered separately. Figure 4.87 shows the variation of stresses at top and bottom fibers along the center span between days 780 and 4000, which correspond to bridge opening date and the time when materials will have stabilized (concrete creep and shrinkage having taken place and prestress having reached its final value). The magnitude of the variation is remark­ able, particularly at bottom flange level where it exceeds 100 k..\[ (700 psi or 4.90 ~fPa). To isolate the effect of concrete creep on mo­ ment and stress redistribution, a section near midspan may be analyzed where cantilever pre­ stress is neglibile. Results for the section located at a distance of 352 ft from the pier are summarized in Figure 4.88. The redistribution moment is equal to 52,000 ft-kips. It is interesting to compare this result, obtained through the elaborate analysis of the Be program, with the result of the approximate method out­ lined in Section 4.8.7. Figure 4.89 shows the mo­ ments in a typical cantilever under girder load and final prestress. The prestress moment has been computed using a reduced eccentricity obtained by Design of Segmental Bridges 214 .3QQ i<SF I / / / I o f /"\ \ \ \ \\ kSF 179 ". .... "', I I I I I ~TIME 4000 ,,~ \ \ \ \ 108 \ 20' FIGURE 4.83. HOUSIOIl Ship Channel Bridge. lOp filler preslres~ IOI~ (DL) + (p) at tillle' 7S0 days and 4000 davs. Stresses at top fihel of the deck, Dead load at lime 7HO da\~ \"hell lhe bridge is ,illst opened to traffic alld at lim(' 4000 ([a\'s. transforming the steel area in the concrete section. Therefore, the prestress moment is equal to: Pe(l - np) where e geometric eccentricity, 10, transformed coefficient, p = percentage of prestress steel in the sec­ tion (varying between 0.5 and 0.7%). n The total midspan moment produced in the con­ tinuous span with fixed ends under the combined effect of girder load and final prestress is equal to 84,000 ft-kips. Therefore, the actual redistribution moment obtained by the Be program is equal to: 52,000 _ 84,000 ­ of the total moment The recommendation given in Section 4.8.7 to take a ratio of 2/3 gives a satisfactory approximation. 4.17.'3 STRESSES AT ,HIf)SP.1.Y Because of the moment redistribution the bottom fiber near midspan is subjected to increasing ten­ sile stresses while the top fiber is always under compression. 1t is therefore sufficient to consider the state of stresses at the bottom fiber after creep and relaxation. The results are shown in Table 4.5. It is instruc­ tive to compare the relative magnitude of the vari­ ous factors influencing the stresses at midspan (stresses in ksf at bottom fiber): 1. 2. Live load Moment redistribution (difference between 250 for GL and 159 for prestress) . 3. Temperature gradient 4. Temperature fall 44 91 48 18 Design Example TABLE 4.5. Houston Ship Channel Bridge, Stresses at Midspan Bottolll Fiher Stresses (ksO Panial CUTllulative are light in comparison with those used in other coulltries, particularh' in France and Great Britain. These two factors tend to increase the importance of moment redistribution in relation to the effect of loads computed in the conventional manner, +250 \foment redistribution due (() GL \[oll1ent red isrribut ion d tie to prestress .\!oment redistributioll due to (GL) + (P) All dead loads and all final prestress (lhHll Be pl'O~ gram illcluding Illomellt redist ributioIl) 4.17.4 159 + 91 -66 Live load + impact Temperature gradient, 44 -lH I. IO;l!lin~ combinations in Fi~UI'l; 18 +22 (25) ·Ul5, "Comhination or \Iaximulll ::'1' + T (maximum temperature differential is improhable in winter), 2. 3. Vertical dead-load shear force: 4:350 kips. Resal effect: the compressive stress at the cen­ terline of the bottom slab is 192 ksf and the angle with the horizontal is 0.055 radians, Bottom slab area: 53.5 sq it. Resal effect: 192 x 53,5 x n.055 570 kips. i\et dead-load shear: 3780 ----'-­ Live-load shear force: 430 kips. Corresponding shear stresses in this section: IIQ b The influence of the temperature fall (effect 4) is imputable to the frame action between deck and piers and would not appear in a conventional deck resting on its piers with flexible bearings. Consid­ ering only the other three factors combined, as in loading combination (4) of Table 4.3, the m<lXimUlll tensile stress at the bottom fiber of the 'midspan section is: 91+44+ 48 =1 2 ksf The live-load stress is onl", 44 ksf or 44i 159 = 28 percent of tbe total. In all good faith, a design engineer would have com pletely O\'erlooked effects 2 and 3 only a few vea.rs ago and consequently underdesigned con­ siderably the continuity prestress. The situation has now completely changed, and the knowledge of materials together with the powerful tool of the computer allows segmental structures to be de­ signed safely and realistically. It is as well to remember that the Houston Ship ChaLll1el Bridge is of exceptional size (which tends to increase the im portance of dead load and mo­ ment redistribution) and that American live loads SHEAR The variation of shear stresses along the centel­ span under design loads is given in Figure 4,90 to­ gether with the corresponding longitudinal com­ pressive stress at the centroid. The most critical section is located 187 ft from the pier centerline, The numerical values in this section are as follows: J"T = 18°[­ Temperature fall, T -40°F Loadillg combillation (:!)." (D) + (P) + (I~ + I) Loading c01llbillation (4)," (I) + (P) + ~(L + I) + J.T + T "See 215 14 rr web thickness 4 ft Total shear stress under design load (no load factor) : v 3780 + 430 4210 kips Shear stress: v= 4210 x 4, 5. 6. = 75.2 ks!" Longitudinal compressive stress:j.r 160 ksf Vertical prestress. The contract specifications called for a vertical prestress for the entire deck giving a minimum compressive stress of: 3VJ;. = 232 psi = 33.S ks!" Verification of allowable shear stress. Using the formula proposed in Section 4.10.4: v = 0.05j~ + 0,20j.r + 0.40jy the allowable shear stress is: V max = 0.05 x 864 + 0.20 x 160 + 0.40 x 33.5 = 88.6 ksf while the actual shear stress is onlv 75.2 ksf Design of Segmental Bridges 216 r~onOH BOTTOM FleER C (KSF) 300 KSF MIOSPAN -~ .,/" " ,,......-­ -­ " '.. ... , r­ t ' ____~--~/----__-----------------'~'~~~K~~F------------~----------~_+\ /~TIHE 4000 \\ ,­ ,­ \ r--" \ I TIME dOOO---l. I \ I \ I \.. ..... ,---, I I lOa KsF r I I I I FIGURE 4.84. Houston Ship Channel Bridge, bottom fiber Slresse~ jilr (DL) + (P) at time 780 days and 4000 days. Stresses at bottom hber of the deck. Dead load at time 780 days when the bridge is opened to traffic and at time 400n days. 7. Principal stresses at design loads for the slate of stress: v == 75.2, Ix = 160, and 111 33.5 ksf The two principal stresses are.=..! (tension) and 195 (compression). The angle of the principal stress with the hori­ zontal is given by: tan f3 = = Vu Principal stress: pression). 102 ksf 23 (tension) and 217 (com­ Direction of the principal stress given by: tan f3 0.56 0.466 I f vertical prestresses were not used, the prin­ cipal stresses would become: (tension) and 190 (compression) 8. Corresponding shear stress: Principal stresses at ultimate stage. For the load factors l.3D + 2.17L, including the effect of prestress, the ultimate shear force IS: v u = 5710 kips Web shear cracking at this level of stress would be unlikely. Assuming that the concrete carried none of the ultimate shear across the potential crack shown in Figure 4.91, the total shear load should be resisted by the vertical tendons and the conventional stirrups acting on a length equal to: ~x_l_=~ Q tan f3 0.56 25ft The unit force per foot of girder is therefore: Design Example " , . . - - ......... / " 217 LOAD {MAXI MINI TOP FIBER / / / / LIVE LOAD MAXI LIVE LOAD MINI LIVE LOAD MINI 375fT FIGURE 4.85. ------_·+I··-----------=3~7~.~F~T----------~.1 Houston Ship Channel Bridge. lOp fiber stresses for (L -i- J) and (fl.T = 18°F), 57 10 =.::;~ "')8 k''lpSI'I"mea I t' t The ultimate capacity of tendons and stirrups is: Tendons in three webs Stirrups-0.88 in. 2/1ineal ft per web at 60 ksi 220 kips/lineal ft 158 kips/lineal ft 278 kipsllineal ft shear force per unit length of girder to be carried across the crack is: 1 0.85 x 5710 0.14 x 0 ,,:)~ = 240 k'IpS II'mea I t"t The corresponding amount of steel (grade 60) would be for each web: 1 G.~~ = 268 < 378 kipsllineal ft and is easily met. If no vertical prestress had been used. the slope of the shear crack would be: tan f3 0.487 Using the limiting value tan f3 = 0.5 instead of the actual value (as explained in Section 4,10.4), the 240 3 x 60 The condition V"Ifj> < Vs becomes: = 1.33 in.2flineal ft This amount of steel would still be reasonable (0.7%). 4,17.5 DESIGN OF THE CROSS-SECTION FRAME Owing to the magnitude of the project, particular attention was given to this problem. Five finite element analyses were performed to analyze: The local effects in the transverse frame, Design of Segmer:tal Bridges 218 tfcBoTTOM LIVE LOAD {~t·~" . 40l<SF ,I liVE LOAD MAXI • LIVE LOAD MA:<.j ~ MID5PAN LIVE LOAD MINI / / I / / / '20 z o / \ \ \ \ \ \ / TE"MPERAT RE GRADIENI / \ \ I IS·F \ \ \ "I I. (T \~-/:75 '..,1______.. j' 40 \ +....______ 3=-7.:.-5::......:F_T'--_\._-::_'_-_-_-_-_-_----1 FIGURE 4.86. = IWF). Houston Ship Channel Bridge, hottom fiher stresses for (L + J) and (!::.T The possible differential deHections between the three webs of the box section, The relative hehavior of sections close or al midspan, 10 the piers The effeci of diaphragm restraint near the pier. The dimensions of the cross section at midspan are given in Figure 4.92 with the nine critical sections where moments and axial loads were computed for as many as fourteen loading combinations. A typical set of results is shown in Figure 4.93 for the midspan section. For the section located 187 ft from the pier centerline (already considered for maximum shear stresses), the moments and axial loads are substantially the same as for the midspan section. Excluding the vertical prestress, the most critical loading arrangement gives the following values at the upper section of the outside web (sec­ tion e of Figure 4.92). Moment 11.9 kip-ft/rl Axial load 5.4 kip/ft The steel section required at design stage for grade 60 steel stirrups is 0.34 in. 2 /lineal ft. Applying the recommendations of Section 4. 10.4 for the simple case of a section without web prestress, the re­ quirements for steel on both faces of the web would be: For shear of the longitudinal member: t x 1.33 = 0.67 in. 2 llineal ft For bending of the transverse member: 0.34 in. 2 /lineal ft Quantities of Materials 219 ~ l:::. f TOP GIRDER LOAD 2001-------=~::::t:::===+_ ,111'''-'' z o <fl <fl w ~ 100 KSf I: o <.) STRE55 VARIATION AT TOP FIBER Z <I a. <Jl o ----­ ______ rl:::.f .... "'"-- ­ ..... _ STRESS VARIATION .""':." .... ... Z 1: BOTTOM PRESTRESS "" AT BOTTOM FIBER ~ 100 o !Il Z l:::. f BOTTOM Lu I- GIRDER LOAD 700+-____________..._________________~._---~~~----~~--_+_ FIGURE 4.87. rel;Lxat ion. Hou~toll Ship Channel Bridge, variation of :;!J'esses due to creep and The rwmmlllll area should thus be the higher of the following values: 0.67 + ! x 0.34 .1 x 0.67 + 0.34 0.7(0.67 + 0.34) 0.84 in. 2 /lineaJ ft With vertical prestress: 378/3 Without vertical prestress: 2 kipsllineal ft 126 kips/lineal ft X 0.84 x 60 = 101 = 0.67 in. /1ineal ft 2 = 0.71 in. 2 /1ineaJ ft I t1 the actual structure, the stirrups in this section are #6 bars at 12 in. centers, giving on each face a steel area of 0,44 in.2 together with the rllinimum vertical prestress of 44.2 kips/lineal ft (average com.pressive stress of 230 psi). The ultimate capacity of the section reinforce­ ment is therefore: 4.18 Quantities of Materials Before closing this chapter, it is interesting to give some statistical results concerning the quantities of materials required in segmental box girder bridges. Unit quantities have been computed by dividing the total quantities for the bridge superstructure by the deck area, using the total width of the prestressed concrete structure. The 220 Design of Segmen!al Bridges Stresses, Top Fiber (kst) 780 Loadillg Case Cantilever Prestress Girder + superimposed dead load Total Variatioll from 780 days 10 4000 days SOil' Stresses, Bottom Fiher (ksl) Dr/i'.1 4000 Dr!)'s - 6.36 -56.93 63.29 136. J 8 780 Dms 4 ()()O Da)'\ 13(U~2 -20.20 -16J.OH -266.50 (j l.H9 293.50 41.69 132.42 72.89 +90.73 1: Tensile stresses are positive. Soil' 2: This l110melll is the difference between girder load, 142,000 It-kips, alld cantile\er prestress, gO,nOn ft· kips. 11 = - 72.89 Corresponding moment variatioll: 1 .:Hi (11 +/2) II + 90.73) 4774 15 AM = 52.000 It-kips N '<t 0::) II ...c:: II N U 12= + 90.73 FIGURE 4.88. Houston Ship Channel Bridge. analy­ sis or section at ;152 ft froJn pier. /TOh~NT IAI'.lJUt:INt; fl£IJISTRllJt.lTI/)N average concrete quantity per span foot varies with the span length. For each struct ure considered, the span length used is the average span of the various two-ann cantilevers. The longitudinal prestressing steel is given in pounds per cubic yard of deck con­ crete versus the same span length. It is assumed that prestressing tendons are made up of strands with 270 ksi guaranteed ultimate strength. From the charts given in Figures 4.94 and 4.95, it may be seen that the average quantities of materials may be represented by the following approximate for­ mulae: Concrete (ft 3/ft 2) = 1.0 + (L1250) Longitudinal prestress (lb/ft2) spans up to 750 ft) 4.19 = 1.0 + (L160) (for Potential Problem Areas As with any type of construction with any material, problems arise that require the attention of not only the designers, but contractors and subcon­ tractors as well. No matter how good the design, if FIGURE 4.89. Houston Ship Channel Bridge, rapid computation of moment redistribution. (11) 80 i COMPRESSIVE 5TRE55 If,,) IBO ;," IGO ---- 221 Potential Problem Areas ~~ -- ~ ... '" .... -------:}" ....... EFfECT OF '\ TOTAL PRESTRESS \ \ \ '\ '\ 140 60 \ '\ , 120 WEB SHEAR 5iRE5 11 (KSI') 100 40 l. I 80 60 40 20 20 52 1'24 172 202 232 292 352 375 i FIGURE 4.90. Houston Ship Channel Bridge, variation of web shear stress and aver­ age compressive stress in center span under design load, 7AN ~ ~ 0.455 TAN ~', 0.3% the structure is not properly constructed, there will be problems. Conversely, no matter how diligent the contractor, if the design details are poor, problems will result, Obviously, if the design and the construction are poor, problems are com­ pounded. /f i----,--'-i L"'OI-lR CIRCLE FOR MQNO-A:r,lIU, CCMPRESSION TRAr..SVERSC TENDONS (4X,6"01. STRANO) SPACING J FT In 1" l..­ FIG\JRE 4.91. Houston Ship Channel Bridge, shear and principal web stresses in section 187 ft from Pier (under design loads), 9 In I ..ili FIGURE 4.92. Houston Ship Channel Bridge, design of transverse frame at midspan. Design of Segmental Bridges 222 :\1, Prestressing ~1. DL + PIT 16,59 10.92 -5.24 13,22 6.93 -6.68 -0.92 1.45 5.03 8.01 1.96 -8.82 3.01 4.23 5.88 0.22 -2.93 -1.25 0.08 2.88 -1.25 0 2.14 0.35 (l.O6 -'-5.23 -0.78 4.11 1.75 7,98 -9,51 ]] ,87 -4.55 -4.50 2.59 -6,25 ;..;, dead load :\, transverse prestressing 0.06 50,75 -(),53 51.06 -0,65 51.26 -0.59 51.35 4.24 -0.31 6.08 0.31 0,55 -0,29 0.66 -0,29 0,53 -0.29 :\.DL+PIT ',;. live load :\. DL - PIT -'- LL +1 50.8] 50,53 50,61 50.76 5.77 (),26 0.37 0,24 50,81 50.53 50,{) I 50.76 3,93 1.1 () 5,36 5.77 0.26 0.37 0,24 1\1, Jive load with IMi 111aXI 1\1. DL + PIT + LL +1 SO/I': Web vertical preslress is nOI included. 3. Compressive axial forces arc positive. Positive bending mo· ments caw,e tension at the broken linc face, SIGN CONVENTION FIGURE 4.93. HOUSIOIl Ship Channel Bridge, 1110­ <lnd axial forccs in transverse frame at midspan. 1IH'IIlS Problems are generally associated with quality control. poor design details, or a lack of under­ standing as to how the structure will behave, either through ignorance or because a particular phe­ nomenon is ullknown to the current state of the art, or a combination of all these factors. The fol­ lowing list of problem areas, as they are known to the authors, is presented so that those involved in designing and building segmental bridges may take adequate measures and precautions to avoid these problems. 1. Improper performance of epoxy due to mis­ handling of mixing and application procedure, particularly in rain and cold weather. The con­ sequences are largely reduced by the use of adequate shear keys in webs and in both top and bottom flanges of the box section. 2. Grout leakage between adjoining ducts at joints between segments, particularly in pre­ cast segmental construction. Conformity of the ducts at the joints is a desirable feature if prac­ tical. The use of tendons outside the concrete eliminates this problem. Tensile cracks behind tendon anchorages, particularly for high-capacity continuity ten­ dons in the bottom flange of box sections. . 4, Transverse cracking or opening of joints, or adjacent thereto, due to the combination of several factors such as: a, Underestimation of moment redistribution due to concrete creep, b. Thermal gradients in the box senion, c. Warping of segments due to improper curing procedures. Several such points have been already ad­ dressed in this chapter; others are discussed in Chapter 1 L ShtlUld the recommendations given be followed both in design and construc­ tion methods and in supervision, no more difficulties of this nature are to be expected. 5, Laminar cracking in deck slab or in bottom flange due to wobble and improper alignment of duns at the joints between adjacent seg­ ments. Such incidents have been experienced more often in cast-In-place construction than in precast construction. However, care should always be taken insofar as deck alignment is concerned in all segmental projects. 6. Freezing of water in ducts during construction, especially those anchored in the deck slab (vertical prestressing tendons or draped con­ tinuity tendons). 7. Excessive friction in ducts due to wobble. Proper alignment will reduce friction factors in segmental construction to tbose currently ob­ served in conventional cast-in-place post­ tensioned construction. S. Improper survey control in segment man­ ufacture for precast segments as well as in the field for cast-in-place segments. I s.o... ,-... u. "'. 'u. ..::!.t >­ ': ...z "a" ...'" '"'" :z 0 ,.j /.<= ~al J 0 0 x u '"Cl FIGURE 4.94. Fherage quantities of deck COllnetl'. 15 -:­ 14 ( !~ ! 12 T II ~ I ... -.... '" i 10';' ~ ...w '" s 1 :) 6 f 5 •r 3 i 2 ! 100 200 300 .loa 500 sao AVERAGIi ,PAN FIGURE 4.95. aoo 700 L Cft) Average quantides of longitudinal prestressing steel. 223 Design of Segmental Bridges 224 References I. F. Leonhardt, "!\'ew Trends in Design and Construc­ tion of Long Span Bridges and Viaducts (Skew, Flat Slabs, Torsion Box)," International Asso­ CIation for Bridge and Structural Engineering, Eighth Congress, New York, September 9-14, 1968. 2. Jean Mnller, "Ten Years of Experience in Precast Segmental Construction," Journal of the Prestre.lsed I. January-February Concrete Instituli', Vol. 20, 1975. "0. 3. C. A. Ballinger, W. Podolny,jr., and :VLJ. Abrahams, "A Report on the Design and Construction of.Seg­ mental Prestressed Concrete Bridges in Western Europe-1977," International Road Federation, Washington, D.C., June 1978. (Also available from Federal Highway Administration, Offices of Re­ search and Development, Washington, D.C., Report No. FHWA-RD-78-44.) 4. '"Effets de l'effort tranchant," Federation Inter­ nationale de la Precontrainte, London, 1978. 5 Foundations, Piers, and Abutments 5.1 5.2 5.6.2 River Piers and Foundations for Choisy.le-Roi, Coumevoie, and Juvisy Bridges, France 5.6.3 Piers and Foundations of Chillon Viaducts, Switzer· land 5.6.4 Main Piers and Foundations of the Magnan Viaduct, France 5.6.5 Main Piers and Foundations for the Dauphin Island Bridge, U.S.A. 5.6.6 Deformation and Properties of Piers with Flexible Legs 5.6.7 Elastic Stability of Piers with Flexible Legs INTRODUCTION LOADS APPLIED TO THE PIERS 5.2.1 Loads Applied to the Finished Structure 5.2.2 Loads Applied During Construction 5.3 SUGGESTIONS ON AESTHETICS OF PIERS AND ABUTMENTS 5.3.1 Structure Layout 5.3.2 Aesthetics of Piers 5.3.3 Aesthetics of Abutments 5.4 MOMENT RESISTING PIERS AND THEIR FOUNDA· TIONS 5.4.1 Main Piers for the Brotonne Viaduct, France 5.4.2 Piers and Foundations for the Sallingsund Bridge, Denmark 5.4.3 Concept of Precast Bell Pier Foundation for the 1·205 Columbia River Bridge, U.S.A. 5.4.4 Main Piers for the Houston Ship Channel Bridge, U.S.A. 5.5 PIERS WITH DOUBLE ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS 5.5.1 5.5.2 5.6 Scope and General Considerations Description of Structures Oleron Viaduct, France Blois Bridge, France l:pstream Paris Belt Bridge, France 5.5.3 Properties of Neoprene Bearings Notations Deformations of Neoprene Bearings 5.5.4 Deformation of Piers with a Double Row of Neop· rene Bearings 5.5.5 Properties of Piers with a Double Row of Neoprene Bearings 5.5.6 Influence of Thickness and Arrangement of Neo· prene Bearings on the Variation of Force in a Three-Span Structure PIERS WITH TWIN FLEXIBLE LEGS 5.6.1 Introduction 5.1 Introduction Probably the area most challenging to the civil en­ gineer is that of foundation design and construc­ tion, presenting the largest potential dangers but 5.7 FLEXIBLE PIERS AND THEIR STABILITY DURING CONSTRUCTION 5.7.1 5.7.2 Scope Description of Representative Structures with Tem­ porary Supports Downstream Paris Belt Bridge, France Saint Jean Bridge In Bordeaux, France 5.7.3 Review of the Various Methods of Providing Stabil· ity During Cantilever Construction 5.8 ABUTMENTS 5.8.1 Scope 5.8.2 Combined Abutment/Retaining Wall 5.8.3 Separate End Support and Retaining Wall 5.8.4 Through FiU Abutment 5.8.5 Hollow Box Abutment 5.8.6 Abutments Designed for Uplift 5.8.7 Mini-Abutment 5.9 EFFECT OF DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENTS ON CON­ TINUOlJS DECKS 5.9.1 5.9.2 Effect of an Assumed Pier Settlement on the Stresses in the Superstructure Practical Measures for Counteracting Differential Settlements REFERENCES also yielding the most significant savings to proper design concepts or refll1ecl construction methods. The first industrial application of prestressed con· crete was related to solving an insurmountable problem of foundation underpinning. 225 Foundations, Piers, and Abutments 226 The transatlantic terminal built in Le Hane Harbor in France on the English Channel was opened for operation in 1934 to receive the new generation of fast passenger ships between Europe and America. Improper foundation of the rear bays of the new building caused immediate con­ stant settlements at the rate of! in. (12.7 mm) per momh with no foreseeable limit, except the total ruin of the f~lCilit\·, Figure 5.1. Eugene Freyssinet proposed a unique system of underpinning, which was immediately accepted and implemented, whereby prestressed concrete piles were man­ ufactured in the basement of the existing building in successive increments and progressively driven 1)\ hydraulic jacks to reach the stable lower soil strata. found at a depth of more than 100 ft (30.5 Ill), Figure 5.2. This example should certainly make olle cautious against excessive optimism in foundation design; at t he same time it exemplifies the remarkable potential of prestressed concrete in solving unusual problems. In concrete bridges. often greater savings may be expected from optimization of foundation and pier design than fmlll the superstructure itself. This chapter will deal with certaill specific aspects of piers, abutments. and foundations for bridges built in balanced cantilever. Similar concepts may be extended to cover other construction methods (span-by-sp<ln, inuemental launching. and so 011). Piers with many different shapes have been used in conjunction with cantilever construction. For example, single piers, double piers, and moment­ resistant piers have all been used. The cantilever segmental construction method has an important influence and bearing on the design concept of the structure. Resistance and elastic stability of piers during construction require careful investigation. Temporary piers or temporary strengthening of permanent piers or a combination of both have been used. However, the choice of piers that have adequate stability without temporary aids is highly desirable. Piers of a box section. or twin flexible legs. either vertical or inclined, are equally satis­ facton-o The use of full continuity in the superstructure implies that proper steps have been taken to allow for volume changes (shrinkage, creep and thermal expansion) at the supports. Bridges such as the Choisy-Ie-Roi (Section 3.2), Courbevoie (Section' 3.2), and the Chillon Viaduct (Section 3.6) show how the use of piers with flexible legs makes it pos­ sible to achieve full deck continuity and to build frame action between deck and piers without im­ pairing the free expallsion of the structure. The com'el'ging pier legs used at Choisy-Ie-Roi reduce and even cancel the amount of bending trans­ ferred to the pier foundations. Vertical parallel legs such as t hose in the Courbevoie and Chillon 5ofLSl f d(a -/6.00to -ZI)OO FIGURE 5.1. Le Ha\Te transatlantic lerminal, typical section. 6 Progressive and Span-by-Span Construction 0.[ Segmental Bridges 6.1 INTRODt:cnON 6.1.1 Progressive Placement Method 6.1.2 Span.by.Span Method 6.2 PROGRESSIVE CAST·IN·PLACE BRIDGES 6.2.1 Approach Spans to the Bendorf Bridge, Germany 6.2.2 Ounasjoki Bridge, Finland 6.2.3 Vail Pass Bridges, U.S.A. 6.3 PROGRESSIVE PRECAST BRIDGES 6.3.1 Rombas Viaduct. France 6.3.2 Linn Cove Viaduct, U.S.A. 6.4 SPAN·BY·SPAN CAST·IN·PLACE BRIDGES 6.4.1 Kettiger Hang, Gennany 6.4.2 Krahnenberg Bridge. Germany 6.4.3 Pleichach Viaduct, Germany 6.4.4 Elztalbrucke, Germany 6.1 Introduction Thc concepts or the progressive placel1lellt and span·h\<·spall methods of segment;d cOllstructioll were introduced in SectiollS l.YA <lnd \.9.3, re­ spectiw:h. rItis chapter will explore these concepts ill grcater detail. rhcse two ll1ethods have not lllade the cOll\entiollal cast-ill-place 011 ralsc\\ork ll1ethod obsolete: the cOllventional method is still applicable ami economical where site, environ­ mental, ecological, and economic considerations permit. \Vhat these two methods do is to open up a field where prestressed concrete structures were hitherto !lot practical and where they now can eco­ nomicalh compete with structural steeL The progressive placement and span-bv-span methods are simiia'r in that construction of the superstructure st:Jrts al onc clld and proceeds con­ tinllouslv to the other, as opposed to the balanced cantilever mel hod where superstructure is con­ structed as counterbalancing half-span cantilevers 6.4.5 Guadiana Viaduct, Portugal 6.4.6 Loisach Bridge. Germany 6.4.7 Rheinbriicke Dusseldorf.Flehe. Germany 6.4.8 Denny Creek Bridge. U.S.A. 6.5 SPAN-BY-SPAN PRECAST BRIDGES 6.5.1 Long Key Bridge, U.S.A. 6.5.2 Seven Mile Bridge. U.S.A. 6.6 DESIGN ASPECTS OF SEGMENTAL PROGRESSIVE CONSTRUCTION 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3 General Reactions on Piers During Construction Tensions in Stays and DeHection Control During Construction 6.6.4 Layout of Tendons for Progressive Construction REFERENCES all each side of the various piers. Also, both methods are adaptable to either cast-in-place or precast construction. 6.1.1 PIWGRESSIVE PLACE,HEST ;HETHOD This method was developed to obviate the con­ struction interruption manifested in the balanced cantilever method, where construction must pro­ ceed symmetrically on each side of the various piers. In progressive placement. the construction proceeds from one end of the project in continu­ ous increments to the other end; segments are placed in successive cantilevers from the same side of the various piers. When the superstructure reaches a pier. permanent bearings are placed and the superstructure is continued in the direction of construction. The first implementation of this method, which used cast·in-place segments, was on the Ounasjoki Bridge near the Arctic Circle in Finland. It was 281 282 Progressil'e and Span-by-Span Construction of Segmental Bridges later extended to the first lise of preca:;t segments in the ROlllbas \'iaduct in eastern France, rhe essential ;)(h'antages of this method are as follows: I, ~. :L The operatiolls are continuolls alld are carried oUl from that part of the structure already constructed, Access for personnel ami mate­ riab is cOll\'ellienth' accomplished over the sur­ face of the structure alI-cad\ cOlllpleted (free of the existing terrain). This lIla\' be of impor­ tance with regard to urban \'iaducts cantile­ \'ering o\'(~r Ilumerous obstacles, ReactiOlls to tlIe piers are \"crlieal and 110t sub­ ject to am ullsYlIlmetrical bellding mOlllents, Ihus ;I\'oiding the llced for telllporan bracing during COllstruction, Thc lIlethod is adaptable to curved stl'u('\ure geol1lctn, rhe following are tile disadvantages: L ~, ~~, it is difficult. il nOI impossihle, to utilize tillS Illet hod ill 1 he COllst ruction of the lirst spalL Usually the lirst span must be erected on falsework. In sOll1e rare instances it may he po~sible to cantilever the first span from the ahut lIIent, Forces imposed upon the ;;uperstructure. de­ pending 011 the method of umstruction. are cOIllpletcly dilferent (in sign and order of magnitude) frolll tlIose present in the struc­ ture under senice load, COllsequellth', a telll­ porary exterIJal support s\'stem is required during ('ollstructiol1 ill order to maintain the stresses within reasonable limits and minimize the cost of' unprodunive temporary pre­ stressing. Faisework bents may be used (as in tile LinIl Cove Viaduct), but the more usual solution is that of a mobile temporary mast and cable-stay system (Figure 1.57,). For the progressive placement method the mast and cable-stay system is relocated progressively over the piers as construction advances, In t his system the piers are subjected to a reac­ tion from the self-weight of the superstructure approximately twice that in the final stalic ar­ rangemem of the structure. Hmvever, this is gellerally lIot critical to the design of the piers and foundations, as the effect of the dead load is rarely larger than half the total load includ­ ing horizontal forces. \Vhen cast-in-place segments are used in COIl­ jUllctioll with the progressive placemellt method, the rate of construction is le'is than that for the bal­ anced cantilever method. in that t here is 0111", olle locatioll of construction actiyity, That is, onl~' one segmellt can be cast (at the en'd of the cOIllI;leted portioll of the structure) rather than two (one at each end of the balanced cantilevers), This slow­ ness may he minimized by the use of longer seg­ ments, hut this solution is limited b, the low resis~ I<Illce 01 the \'Ollllg concrete, On the other hand. the lISe 01 epoxv:.-joined precast segments may perl1lit an average rapidity of construction comp,;­ rable to that of balanced cantilner with a launch­ ing girder. Ii.! ,2 S/JA.\'-/ll'-SP.4S ,HFIHO/) As indicated ill Chapter I, the span-In-span. met hod was developed to meet the need for COlI­ SI ruet ing long viaducts wit h relat jyeh short spans such as to incorporate the advantages 01 halanced ca lIt ile\'er COllst run iOll, Frolll a cOlllpetiti\e ]loillt of \'jew, the capital in­ vestlllellt ill the equiplllent lor this type of (Oll­ st run ion is considerahle. I t has heen suggested I titat olle-third of t he cost of the equiplllent be de­ pl'eciated lor a gi\'en site alld that at least four uses would be required to achieve lull depreciation, ill­ cludillg illterest 011 the capital illvestment. H (}\\'­ ever, costly lIlodiliGitions tltat lllay be required hecause 01 changes ill bridge widths or span limi­ tatiollS are not considered in tlte above write-oil polin'. It would, therefore, be ad\lsahle for a COII­ tractor ilJ\'estillg ill tltis t\'pe of eqlliplllellt to con­ sider sOllie type of lIIodular plalllling so that lIlodificatioll for future projects might be kept 10 a lIlillinlllm, It might he possible to ha\'e a basic piece 01 equipment with illterchangeable clements. There is. of cour,e, the potelltial of leasing this equiplllent to others as a means of' l'etirillg the ca pi tal illYest men!. Wiufoh t l. 2 has categorized stepping segmel1tal construction into four subgroups: I, 2. 3. 4. With-on-the ground nontravelillg formwork. With traveling fonnwork or on-the-ground stepping formwork. With off-the-ground stepping formwork. In opposite directions starting from a pier. The first category is generally used where there are a large number of approximately equal spans Progressive Cast-in-Place Bridges of a low height above existing terrain. It is gener­ allv limited to structure lengths of approximately 1000 ft (300 111) and to nonuniform span lengths that prohibit a forming system of uniform size. Normally in span-br-span construction the superstructure is of constant cross section (at least insofar as external dimensions are concerned), and the work proceeds from one abutment to the other. I f a large center span exists, it will be formed first, possibly to an inflection point in the adjacent spans. The fonmvork is allocated such that it is used to cast the spans in the approaches proceed­ ing from the center, in both dil'ectiolls, toward the abutments. Forms and scaffolding are disassem­ bled and reerected in an alternating sequence and in elements that Gill be conveniently handled by a crane. In the second category of span-by-span con­ struction. for economical justification of equip­ ment. the total length of structure must be at least lOOO ft (300 111), the overall cross senion constant, the structure of low height, and the terrain along the longitudinal axis approximately level. \Iaximuill spall for this category is approximately 165 it (50 Ill). and a large n~u111ber of equal SIXll1S are required to achieve repetitiveness and thus eCOIlO1ll"':' The falsework and for1l1s are general\v a span length (either I he dimensioll fr0111 pier to pier or from inflectiol1 poinl to illilection point), Figure 6.1 a The fOrInwork is hxed to the scaffolding and travels will1 it. The bottom of the formwork is de­ signed with a hinge or cOlltinuOlls trap-door device such that the scaffolding and forms can travel past and dear the piers. The scaffolding is moved for­ wal d on r~llis. If a found,lIiol1 for the scaffolding, forms, and weight of superstructure is found to be too costlv or unsafe. a scheme may be used where tbe rails GllT\' onlv the load of the scaffolding and fonmvork. Once in position, the scaffolding is supported at the piers, or at the forward pier, and the completed structure at the rear by auxiliary brackets: thus construction loads are transmitted to the pier foundations. Where conditions exist as in the previous cate­ gorv. but the structure is high with reference to the terrain or crosses over difficult terrain or water, the third category may be used, whereby during the stepping and casting operations the equipment is supported bv the piers or bv a pier and the pre­ viollsly completed portion of the structure. Where conseclltive spans in the range of 160 to 500 ft (50 to 150 m) are contemplated and the fac­ tors mentioned above prevail, the type of con­ 283 r2 i rl I ~~~~, L2 Form LI Scaffolding at concreting position Construction direction , Under-carriage Advancement of Scaffolding 3;JO ;- --17.00· '": Section 1-1 9,20 7,80 9,20 3,30 Hinged bottom plate Section 2-2 FIGURE 6.1. Schemalic of procedure for movable scaffolding, from reCerence 3 (courtesy of Zement und Beton), struction indicated bv the fourth category may be considered. This system uses a gantry rig that has a length one and one-half rimes that of the span. In this method segments are cast ill each direction from a pier, as ill the balanced cantilever method, except that the form traveler and segment being cast are supported bv the gantry. This method is actuallv a balanced cantilever method and not a span-by-span method of COllst ruction as defined here. The advantages of the span-by-span method of construction, besides those associated with seg­ mental construction in general, pertain to the pre­ stressing steel requirements. Since the segments are supported bv the form travelers, there are no cantilever stresses during construction, and pre­ stress requirements are akin to those of conven< tional construction on falsework or those for the final condition of the structure, 62 6.2.1 Progressive Cast-in-Place Bridges APPROACH SPANS TO THE BENDORF BRIDGE, GERM.-1NY As discussed in Section 2.2, the Bendorf Bridge was constructed in two parts. The western portion Progressive and Span-by-Span Construction of Segmental Bridges 284 Flood o 0 166.45 44.55 -------1-­ Construction in free cantilever 216.50 m Construction c , , , '\ Construction ~Phase ~,-~-,,--j sequence I 57.50 , m 'Phase 5 by progressive placing, segment length 4.00 m. FIGURE 6.2. Bendorf Bridge, Part Two (East), construClion procedure, from refer­ ence 1 (courtesy of Beton- and Stahlbelonbau). Phase 5 b~ progressive placing, segment length 4.00 m. . (pan one), Figure 2.9, consists of a snnmelrical seven-span continuous girder constructed by the cast-in-place balanced cantilever method. The eastern portion (pan two), Figure 2.10, consists of a lline-span continuous approach struclUre h;'l\'ing an overall length of 1657 ft (505 111) with spans ranging from 134.5 ft (41 m) to 308 ft (94 111). III t he construction of the a pproach spans, Fig­ ure 6.2, the hve spans from the east abutment were built in a rOlltine manner with the assistance of falsework bents. The four spans over water were C(~nstrllcted by the progressive placement method, using cast-in-place segments and a temporary cahle-stay arrangement to reduce the cantilever stresses. The temporary stay system consisted of a structural steel pylon approximately 65 ft (20 111) high and stays composed of Dywidag bars. 6.2.2 OUXA~JOKI BRIDGE, F!.,\'LASD This structure is near the cit\' of Rovaniemi, Fin­ land, and crosses the Ounas River jusl above its junction with the River Kemi near the Arctic Cir­ cle. The structural arrangement consists of two 230 ft (i0 Ill) interior spans and end spans of 164 fl (50 m), prestressed longitudinally and transversely. The first end span and 75 ft (22.75 111) of the second span were cast-in-place in a conventional manner on lalsework inside a temporary wind­ shielded protective cover, Figure 6.3. Outside temperature cluring this operation ranged from -20 10 30°C. Subsequent progressive cantilever constructioll was performed ,,'jth the aid of a tem­ porar\' pdon alld stan, Figure 6.4. The same' stages were repeated in the remaining spans. The su perstruct 11 re was cast-in-place with the assis­ tance of one form traveler, Figure 6.5. During these stages 01 construction, for protection against low temperatures, form traveler and form were fully enclosed, Figure 6.5. This enclosure was insu­ lated with 4 in. (l00 mm) of fiberglass. Hardening of the concrete took an average of 76 . hours. Temperature of the concrete was main­ tained between 35 and 45°C at mixing and between 20 and 25°C during casting, Curing inside the form traveler enclosure was assisted bv warm-air blowers. Concrete strength was 5000 psi (34.5 MPa). Segment length was 11.5 It (3.5 111), and it was possible to reach a casting rate of two segments a week. Construction slarted in ]966 and was completed in 1967. Table 6.1 lists the temperatures recorded during seven months of tbe construction period. The progressive placement method proved effec­ tive and work progressed throughout the year even during arctic conditions. FIGURE 6.3. Ounasjoki Bridge, temporary protective structure (courtesy of Dyckerhoff & Widmann). Progressive Cast-in-Place Bridges TABLE 6.1. 285 Ounasjoki Bridge, Temperature Variations Month 'remperature A\eragc 0(: .\Iaximlllll °C .\linimul11 0(: .\!arch - April 9 _.:) 0.4 +5.8 -2!1.4 +9,9 -16.8 :>Vlav June Julv August September +5.6 +24.6 -12.2 + 11.7 +24.9 + 14.:) +25.7 +3.0 + 14.8 +28.5 +5.8 -'-8.7 -'-19.3 -4.7 -'-0.1 6.2.3 VAlL PASS BR[f)CES, C.S.A. The Vail Pass structures are part of Interstate 1-70 ne;u' Vail, Colorado, in an environmentally sensi· tive area. Of the 21 bridge structures in this pn~j. ect, seventeen were designed and bid on the basis of alternate designs (Chapter 12). In the segmental alternative the contractor was allowed the option to construct as cast-in.place segmental. A group of four bridges approximately 7 miles (11.3 km) southeast of Vail were successfully bid as cast-in· place segmental and used the concept of progres­ sive placement. I\\'o of these structures are contained ill a four· span dual structure over Black Gore Creek, Figure G.t>. The other two structures are a three-spall FIGURE 6.4. Ounasjoki Bridge, winterprool' travel­ ing form (nmnes\ of Dn;kerholT & Widmann). T ~, n -----.~~~----------------~-~----------- FIGURE 6.5. Ounasjoki Bridge. progressive placing scheme. Progressive and Span-by-Span Construction of Segmental Bridges 286 747'-10· -+--___-..:2::.:2:~S:...·-_0=-'_'----,'t I ft. 11....._---'-14.::6,_·-....:3=-·_'_ _ + __.!:.'1'1~::," __ .. , _ _ _ _-..:2::.:2"'5:...·-_0=-·_ ___ l ... Pier 3 'I' ft. Pier .. ·6 (. Bridge abut. 2 II . TYPICAL ELEVATION 42'-0' Ii Bridge Symm. obout ~ excepf os noled 2" ASvhalt (future) "-8" 9'-6" MID-SPAN NEAR TYPICAL FIGURE 6.6. ft. PIER SECTION Vail Pass Bridges. Black Gore Creek Bridge. typical ele\·,nioll alld sectioll. eastbound bridge and a four-span westbound bridge. both crossing Miller Creek, Figure 6.7. Became the structures are relatively short and the spans small, they were constructed by the progressive placement method with' temporary falsework bents. The work and time required to transport and reassemble the form travelers (as in the balanced cantilever method) was thereby minimized. Construction started from both abut­ ments and proceeded progressively toward the center of each bridge. 4 For each of the two structures in the Miller Creek Bridge, form travelers were assembled atop 30 ft (9. I m) long segments at the abutments. As segment casting began, the side spans were sup­ ported at every second segment by a temporary hent. Arter reaching the first pier, segment con­ strllction proceeded in normal fashion to midspan of the easthound structure. In tbe westhound st ruct ure, when midspan of bot h in terior spans was reached, temporary bents were again used to com­ plete the remaining half-spans to the center pier. After reaching the cellter of the bridge, one form traveler of each bridge was dismantled, and the remaining form traveler was used to cast the clo­ sure pour. In this manner the form travelers for each bridge were assembled and dismantled only once, as opposed to the method of assembling two forms at each pier and dismantling upon comple­ tion of two half-span cantilevers about each pier. For the Black Gore creek structures, to save criti­ cal construction time, both end spans of one struclure and one end span of the other structure were built on falsework, while the form travelers Progressive Cast· in·Place Bridges 287 abut. 2 .J ~=- E. B. ELEVATION It. It Pier Pier 2 '3 GrO!.W1d line W, B, ELEVATION 42'-0" ~ Bridge I.. Symm, about 2" A~pholl , It. except as noled \'-6" (future) 8'-0· i' TYPICAL FIGURE 6.7. Vail Pass Bridges. ~Iiller were occupied at the Miller Creek Bridges. Upon conlpletion of their work at :\liller Creek, the form travelers were transported o\'er the completed end spans of the Black Gore Creek Bridges and con- 10'-0· 9' - '3 ~/9· SECTION Creek Bridge. typical eb'ation and section. struction continued in the progressive placement manner, Figure 6.8. Because of the limited construction time a three-day cycle was required for segment casting. 288 Progressive and Span-by-Span Co!,struction of Segmental Bridges Construction specifications required a concrete strength of 3500 psi (24 MPa) at the time of post­ tensioning and 5500 psi (38 .MPa) at 28 days. Since the time required for forming and placing ofrebar and tendons is somewhat fixed, the only operation that could be acljusted was the concrete curing time. This was accomplished b,' using a special water-reducing agent that allowed the develop­ ment of 3500 psi (24 MPa) concrete in 18 hours, Because of lack of experience with the specific water reducer, honeycombing was experienced in the early stages of construction. Eventually a 2~ day cvde was achieved. FIGURE 6.8. Yail Pass Bridges. Black Gore Creek Bridge, under construction (courtesy of Dr. Man-Chung Tallg, DRC Consultants, Inc.). ROM8A5 PLAN VIE \.1­ (0) FIGURE 6.9. Rombas Viaduct, plan and sections. (a) Plan. (b) Typical bridge sections. (e) Typical segment section. 289 Progressive Precast Bridges Coupe C Coupe A \___ I_IJl "' 2.501 5.50.~ Coupe D Coupe 8 I I Variable r~- ~T:""'I .i_ _\-_--0 -3:00 I" -----i-I-'-' 1 'I' 5.50 .,.j - - - - - - - - I, 11 .~-.t-:-i--l-I- LT ] 5.50 I Var 'I' I Var 680 760 1~~~1 V_.!]l 12.751 1"0"" "I : ~ 8 (b) (c) Figure 6.9. 6.3 6.3.1 (Colltinued) Progressive Precl1:st Bridges ROAcfBAS VhWUCT. FRA.SCE The Rombas Viaduct is a constant-depth super­ structure, supported on neoprene bearings, with nine continuous spans ranginj5 from 75 ft (23 111) to 148 ft (45 111). This structure is curved in plan witq a minimum radius of 900 ft (275 111) and of a variable width, owing to the presence of an exit ramp, Figure 6.9. Total length is 1073 ft (327 m), and the viaduct has two parallel single-cell boxes. In cross section each single-cell box is 8.2 ft (2.5 m) deep and has a width of 36 fr (11.0 m). A <:onstruc­ tion view of the end of a segment is presented in Figure 6.10. Construction of this structure employed the progressive placing of the precast segments. Tem­ porary stability was provided by a cable-stay sys­ tem, Figures 1.57 and 6.11, which advanced from pier to pier as the construction progressed. Seg­ ments were progressively placed, starting from one Progressive and Span-by-Span Construction of Segmental Bridges 290 FIGURE 6.10. Rombas Viaduct, end \jew of segment. FIGURE 6.12. Romba, Viaduct, \'jew of swhel crane. FIGURE 6.13. Lilln Cove Viaduct, photomolltage. _ ... FIGURE 6.11. a nd mast. Romba s Viaduct, \'leW of cable stays abutment, by means of a swiveling hoist, Figure 6.12, advancing along the deck. 6.3.2 Lll\'l',' COVE VIADUC1~ U.S.A. A progressive placement scheme is being used for the Linn Cove Viaduct on the Blue Ridge Parkway in North Carolina, Figures 6.13 and 6.14. It is a FIGURE 6.14. Linn Cove Viaduct, artist's rendering. Progressive Precast Bridges 1243 ft (378.84 Ill) eight-span continuous structure with spans of 98.5, 163,4 at 180, 163, and 98.5 ft (30.02,49.68, four at 54.86,49.68, and 30.02 111) and sharp-radius curves, Figure 6.15. In cross sec­ tion it is a single-cell box ginler with the dimen­ sions indicated in Figure 6.16. Because of the environmental sensitivity of the area, access to some of the piers is not available. Therefore, the piers will be constructed from the tip of a cantilever spall, with men and equipment 291 being lowered down to construct the foundation and piers. The piers are precast segments stacked vertically and post-tensioned to the foundation, Figure 6.17. The extreme curvature of the alignment makes the use of temporary cable stays impractical. Tem­ porary bents at midspan will be used to reduce cantilever and torsional stresses during construc­ tion to acceptable levels. The temporary bents are erected in the same manner as the permanent ~Pier 1 I, o 00 -~ _ P1er 3 o OJ Pier 4 Pier 5 Pier 7 / Brg. Abut. 2 FIGURE 6.15. Linn Cove Viaduct, plan. N) Ie N) 31(' -'---~---' J ' I.' [1 I "H_,i( I I I L. (2' ¥tr7l (­ ).t; HALF SECTION AT POST - TENSIONING BLOCK FIGURE 6.16. TYPICAL HALF SECTION THRU SEGMENT Linll Con; Viaduct, typical seglllC'llt cross sectioll. 5a IXloJ! ~. Span-by-Span Cast-in-Place Bridges 6.4 Span-by-Span Cast-in-Place Bridges 6.4.1 KETrFCER HANC, CEIV,,1ANY The first application of the off-ground methodol­ ogy (category 3). Section 6.1.2. was in 1955 on the Kettiger Hang structure near Andernach (Federal Highway 9), Figure 6.19. 3 This system cOllsists of four scaffolding trusses of slightly more than a span length and two cantilever girders of about a two-span length. The scaffolding trusses support the entire concrete weight during casting. The cantilever girders serve to transfer or advance the scaffolding trusses to the next span to be cast. The concrete form or mold rides with the scaffolding trusses and is thus repeatedly reused. Construction bar tendons through segments not shown 6.4.2 FIGURE 6.17. 293 Linfl CO\'e Viaducr, segmental pier. piers, llsillt-i a still-leg derrick at the end of the com pletcd Gltltilc\'ered poni4)11s of t he structure, Figure 6.18. When the temporary bents are no longer required, they arc dismantled and removed bv eqllipment located Oil the cOlTlpleted portio II of t he bridge deck. KRAHNENBERG BRIDGE, GER1lv1ANY A variation of the off-the-ground system was used on the Krahnenbergbrlicke near Andernach COIl­ structed from 1961 to 1964, Figure 6.20. 1 .:1 This structure has a length of 3609 ft (1100 111), a COll­ stant depth of 6,56 ft (2.D m), a width of 60.7 ft (18.5), and spans of 105 ft (3~ m). The site is on a slide-susceptible hillside, requiring difficult foun­ dations, and its cun'ed alignment follows the to­ f)()t-iraphy, all of which economically £~Ivored the span-by-span technique. STIFF LEG DERRICK . PLACING PRECAST SEGMENTS ---.l_'--.l..-..I.-...i--,i.<;-..I.-..I.-..I.-.....L-.I..---L--i---J. ____ .1 _ _ :+---90' -------~·1~~------9d=-------~ ..... COMPLETED PRECAST BOX PIER ..... FUTURE : TEMPORARY SUPPORT 1 .'" ~~ ... f.O FUTURE PERMANENT ' : PRECAST BOX PIER ... !~J , " , _L ____ ...l FIGURE 6.18. Linn Cove Viaduct, erection scheme for progressive placement. Cantilever beam Roller bracket Scaffolding truss with steel forms I! 1~ II il ~ ---~~ ---. ~~~~~--~----~--~l---------~~~~~~~~~~----~~~--~~----t-----~------ L.1 I 1..---1 351,20 ........,-.---39'20----.~·--351,20~---'----39.20--------- 351,20--'-~'--351,20 !I. 00 Scaffolding truss at concreting position ~ ' .. r 2 Section 1-1 :§: I' ~ !i, : ~ I ~ L2 ..625 / .., .£: i ~~ - y Transverse adjustment Travel direction " ., " ',' ~" -.; Cantilever beam 1V1 ('. r" R oller b racket / • /." 351.20-''-----351.20---~..;_~--39,20---...l.'- . - - - 3 9 , 2 0 - - - - -......~---351,20----..;,·.>-- ,I' ,i ,I Forward l' \------.1 39,20 51,00 Advancement of the Scaffolding truss including forms 3% slope ,I 1,aO{1 '7;20 ~,80 Section 2-2 Rear ~/ crane truck 6,125 I crane truck i"'" -....,.. Travel direction ;,' Advancement of the cantilever beams FIGURE 6.19. Kettiger Hang. schematic of the constructioll procedure, ellce ;) (('(Junes;, or Zemell{ lIml Beton), tWill refer­ Exterior scaffold girder Interior scaffold girder (11) m JY + + 3t-3E' j: ~ J1.7S (b) 294 IUQ -...j.. .-- ~o.QIl - -(c) --J1.7S ,-...... 7ZSQ ..j -1--- J1,7J . Span-by-Span Cast-in-Place Bridges In this project four formwork supporting gird­ ers were used. Two interior girders were rigidly connected together by transverse horizontal brac­ ing. The formwork was arranged so that the forms hinged at the bottom and folded down to allow passage, during advancement, past the piers, Fig­ lire 6.20a. The fOllr girders were supported on the hexagonal piers by transverse support beams at­ tached to the pier. I n this manner the four lon­ gitudinal formwork support girders were sup­ ported on two piers, while an additional set of transverse support beams were attached to the forward pier. Figure 6.20b. Latticework cantilever extensions at both ends of the longitudinal formwork support girders ex­ tended their length to twice the span length, so that a stable support was provided by the tral1S\erSe StlppOri girders during advancement. The outside girders had joints or links at the connectioll with the cantilever latticework so that the curvature of the strllcture could be ,lCcOlllmodated during their adv,lt\cement. The elevatioll of the outside girders was adjusted bv hnlralllic jacks to accommodate superclevatioll. During the advanceillent opera­ tioll IlIe outside girders were advanced first and then the center two girders:Figure 6.20c. When the forward elld of the interior girders reached the transverse supporting beams, the rear transverse beams of Ihe previollsiv cast span were no longer required. Thev were dismantled 1'1'0111 the pier. These transverse beams were erected on the next forward pier bv a crane, Figure 6.20b. The exteriOl' formwork of the two-cell box gird­ el' was attached to the longitudinal support gird­ el's and only required adjustment for curvature. The illterior forms of the cells wCI'e dismantled ~lI1d reasselllbled on the !Iext span after reinforce­ ment was placed in the bottom flange and webs. FIGURE 6.20. (OPpOIile). KI'ahnenherg Bridge. sche­ matic of construction, from reference I (courtesv of lhe American Concrete Institute), (a) Cross section. (b) Formwork equipment in working position. (c) I: Work­ ing position: l'einforcing, and concreting on formwork equipment: installing the supporting constl'Uction on the next following pier bv means of derrick and straight-line trolley. II: After concreting and prestressing: lowering of equipment; opening of formwork Haps; shifting for­ ward of outer girders; dismantling of the first rear sup­ porting girder by straight-line trolley; intermediate stor­ age at center pier. Ill: Partial pony-roughing of center girder; dismantling and placing in intermediate for stor­ age of second rear girder. IV: Final shifting forward of cetHer girders: jacking up of equipment; closing of formwork Haps; new working position. 295 Average casting rate was 706 ft:l per hr (20 m:l). FOllrteen days was required for conslruction a span. or 6.4.3 PLEICHACH VIADUCT, GER,HANY 1n 1963 construction started on the 1148 ft (350 m) long Pleichach Viaduct 1.3 carrying a federal high­ way between Wurzburg and Fulda; it was the first use of the span-by-span technique for a dual structure, Figure 6.21. Span length is 11 9 ft (36.25 Rear crane truck Forward crane truck Scaffolding girder at concreting position Advancement of the scaffolding girder including forms Construction joint Advancement of the scaffolding and cantilever girders R-Scaffolding girder and forms RV-Scaffolding and can tilever girder '''.50~ Cross section FIGURE 6.21. Pleichach Viaduct, schematic of the construction procedure, from reference 3 (courtesy of Zement und Beton). 296 PrQgressitle and Span-by-Span CQ7].structiQn Qf Segmental Bridges m), with each two-cell box girder having a width of 47.2 ft (14.4 m) and a depth of 7.2 ft (2.2 m). The superstructure construction equipment was erected behind an abutment in a position to con­ struct one superstructure. Upon reaching the op­ posite abutment, the equipment was shifted later­ alh' for the return trip to construct the other superstructure. Because of the narrowness, only one longitudinal support girder was required, as opposed to the two girders required for the Krahnenberg Bridge. This girder is slightly longer than twice the span length. The two outside girders are approximately one span length. The outside girders were advanced simultane­ ously by a carrier mweling at the front of the cen­ tral girder and at the rear by carriers running on the deck of the previously completed section. Durillg concreling, the two outside girders are supported Oil brackets at the forward pier and sus­ pended from the completed portion of the superstructure. The center girder, relieved of the load of the two outside girders, is then advanced one span and again connected to the outside gird­ ers by the hinged bottom formwork, thus func­ tioning as an auxiliary support girder. This se­ quence of operations is commonly referred to as the "slide-rule principle." The piers have a width of 16.4 ft (5 m) and have an opening at the top to allow passage of the cen­ tral support girder, Figure 6.21. The width of the pier is determined by the need for sufficient bear­ ing area lor the bearings and clearance for the central support girder. \Vhether the central open­ ing at the top of the pier should be concreted in is one of aesthetics. 0.4.4 ELZTALBRUCKE, GERMANY The EI7_talbrucke,5.6 Figure 6.22, was constructed in 1965 at Eifel, West Germany, approximatelv 18.6 miles (30 km) west of Koblenz. I ~ crosses the deep valley of the Elz River with a total structure length of 1244 ft (379.3 m), Figure 6.23. The superstructure has a width of 98.4 ft (30 m) and is supported on a single row of octagonal piers up to 328 ft (l00 m) in height, Figure 6.24. Owing to the height of the valley, conventional construction on falsework would have been economically prohibi­ tive. Therefore, a span-by-span system of self­ supporting traveling scaffolding was used, Figure 1.53. The Autobahn between Montabauer and Trier, which had been in planning before World War II, FIGURE 6.22. Elztalbriicke, view of completed structure (courtesy of Dip!. lng. Manfred Bockel). had to cross two large natural obstacles, the Rhine River north of Koblenz (see the Bendorf Bridge, Section 2.2) and the Elz Valle\'. In 1962 tenders were called for on the Ell, Valley structure. Bidders were provided with the grade requirements, di­ mensions for a single or a dual structure, the loca­ tion of the abutments, and the foundation condi­ tions. A consortium of Dyckerhoff & Widmann AG, Wayss & Freytag KG, and Siemens-Bauunion GmbH investigated four possible prestressed con­ crete construction possibilities 5 : 1. A three-span variable depth structUre similar to the Bendorf Bridge 2. 3. 4. A six-span constant-depth structure A frame bridge A nine-span "mushroom" construction with a center row of piers These four schemes were proposed, as were a large number of different ones in both steel and con­ crete by other firms. The successful low bid was for scheme 4 above. The nine-span "mushroom" con­ struction was approximately 4'7( less costly than an orthotropic-deck, three-span continuous steel girder and 7% less costly than a prestressed con­ crete girder bridge of six spans. 6 The Elztalbrucke, extending the methodology used earlier for primarily low-level urban viaducts, was the first application of the "mushroom" cross section for a high-level structure crossing a deep valley. Previously, this type of construction, be­ cause of its short, stiff piers, required a number of expansion joints in the deck to accommodate thermal forces, elastic shortening, creep, and shrinkage. In this structure, owing to the flexibility of the tall piers, only one expansion joint was used, Koblenz east abutment JI8,65f A 318,910 r: B E 0 f Jcl,m JIS,.07 I!!!I ..w~ '~ W II 7,00 ... ' " Iii lii!1 IIl,i ,,[ Trier west abutment 32],969 ji' ;11 III I Ii I /Ii II /11 '~~ illJ) - ro ~ en 1M," 7,00 ~5IJ 7,5IJ III " Ii E MO -SL,85,.0 Iii 1 ZJ!J,8J 7,00 m,m I 'I Ii! D&W rock anchors Jc2,',7f) Iii III __ m,zo v H Ii ,I '" ,j~1/) II Ii ~ Ii 5,50 7,00 i .,,5LC'~91 7,50 i,5{i Longitudinal cross section (11) 30 cm stone facing B c o F [ fl H Plan (b) FIGURE 6.23. Elztalbriicke, (courtesy of Der Hauingenieur). N) <.0 ..:r cross seCIlOll a nd plan, frolll Ie ference 5 Longitudinal cros~ section. (b) Plan. I K 298 Progressive and Span-by-Span Construction of Segmental Bridges in the center spall. This joint is located 38 ft (l1.6 111) from pier E. The superstructure is l11onolithi­ calh' connected at all piers and the ahutments. At the center of each span is a 43 It (13d 111) long, lIl<lssi\e fiat plate, which in cross section has a thickness \'arying from the centerline (crown oj road\\';}\) of in. (650 mm) to 17~ in. (450111111) at the outside edges. The "mushroom" ponion or the span \'aries in thickness, trans\-ersely and lon­ gitudinally, to 8 It· (2.45 m) at the pier. The superstruclllre is prestressed longitudinally ·and transversely. The octagonal piers ha\'{~. ill cross senion, exter­ nal dimensiolls of 15.75 by 19 It (4.R bY 5.H 111) witii a wall thickness of I H to I in. (300 to 350 111m). An)' gi\'en pier has a constallt cross section lor its entire height. The percentage of' \'(Ttical reill­ lorcel11elll. with a cOllcrete cover on the outel' aJl(1 interior faces of' 1.5 ill. (40 Illlll). \aries froJll O.H to 1.2 tlc or the gross cOllcrete area. Piers were (,011'­ strllcted by slip-forming. The eight pier shafts were COllst ructcd in Se\'ell months. The tallest pier, ;) 11.6 rt (95 Ill) ill height. was slip-forllled and cast at a rate of ahout 2G It (1'1 1lI) per day and thus J'C­ quired 12 days to constmcl. The top 4 n (1.2 III) portioJl of the pier was cast with the superstructure by the trawling scallolding. On the top or the slip­ formed pier lour 7.2 h (2.2 m) high pedestals were cast to pro\'ide tlte support for the caJltile\'er gir­ der i'rom the traveling scaffolding, Figure 6.25:" The tr,ivelillg sc:tlfolding was asselllhled at abutment A alter c01Jlpletion of the ai>U1l11CJlt and the hall-mushroolJl pndectil1g therefrom. This 101'111 traveler, Figure 6.26, aCCOIl1IJ1O(\ales a lull­ widt h span-lengt h segment of 12:i It (:i7.5 Ill). Alter the hrst span. two weeks were required to complete <t superstructure spall. Tbe first opera- FIGURE 6.24. Elztalbrucke, cross section at pier E, from reference 5 (courtesy of Der Bauingenieur). FIGURE 6.25. ElztalbrLicke, construction \'iew (cour­ tesy of Dip!. lng. Manfred Bockel). Side longitudinal girder Center longitudinal girder Side support bearing Upper catwalk Pier Lower auxiliary scaffold Travel direction J75oo-+----------J7500 ---------+4o'-~+-------J7500 ---- Longitudinal cross section (a) Center longitudinal girder Side longitudinal girder Plan (b) Concreting sequence !II 011 ---- 8Z50 (II) '5::00 Hanger -- IOOIJI) ,Formwork at concreting position ~ T / ~~~zt~~~==~~~~~ \>!I--- Formwork at concreting position traveling position Section A-B position Scaffolding after advancement Section C{) (d) (c) FIGURE 6.26. Elltalbrucke, form traveler, from reference 5 (courtesy of Der Bauingenieur), (a) Longitudinal cross section. (b) Plan. (e) Section A-B. (Ii) Section C-D. 299 300 Progressive and Span-by.Span C-vnstruction of Segmental Bridges tion was to cast a 42.65 ft (13 Ill) wide center por­ tion of the bridge. After hardening and initial stressing, the two outside edges, each 27 ft (8.25 m) wiele, were cast. Subsequently the form traveler was advanced to cast the next span. 5 As mentioned previously, an expansion joint is located in the center span. During construction this joint was "locked" until construction reached pier G; then the joint was released. 5 During concreting the forms are suspended by steel bars, and during advancement the forms are carried by the bottom arm of the transverse can­ tilevered steel members. The form traveler, Figure 6.26, essentially consists of two approximately] 41 ft (43 m) long longitudinal girders and eight trans­ verse frames in a "e" configuration which sur­ rounds the deck construction. The tTansverse frames may be prm'ided with a covering to protect the workmen and the construction from the weather. At the forward end an approximately 72 ft (22 m) long cantilever beam, located on the cen­ tcrline. is projected to the next pier for support. 6.4.5 GUADIASA VIADUCT, PORTUGAL This structure is located on national route 260 crossing the Guadiana River between Beja and Serpa, Portugal. The \'iaduct has a total length of 1115 ft (340 111) and consists of 197 ft (60 m) spans except for the river spans, which are] 64 ft (50 m). Trans\'ersely, the superstructure is 53.8 ft (16.4 m) in width composed of two single-cell box girders. Each box girder is 19.35 ft (5.9 m) wide, with the depth varying from 6.5 ft (2.0 m) at midspan to 9.8 ft (3.0 m) at t.he piers. After construction of the box girders. a longitudinal centerline closure is poured and cantilevered sidewalks are constructed. The superstructure is constructed by the span­ by-span method. from inflection point to inflection point, by an overhead self.launching form carrier, Figure 6.27. The form carrier consists of 279 ft (85 m) long trusses of a depth varying from 9.8 It (;3.0 m) to 16.4 ft (5.0 m). Forms for concreting the superstructure are supported by two series of sus­ penders. One set pierces the concrete flanges and r End traveler support Forward support --; ..r:----.c--~--:if\:'---:7K-J'l\Tif -_-7K-I'r':---/,,"-7K"'--.....j,~ / Rear support I 3rd Phase 52.00 60.00 ~,-+ Elevation (a) Typical cross section (e) Section at forward support-forms open (b) FIGURE 6,27. Guadiana Viaduct, elevation and sections of form carrier. (a) Elevation. (b) Section at forward support-forms open. (e) Typical cross section. Span-by-Span Cast-in-Place Bridges is 'Iocated inside t he box cell. The other set is ar­ ranged outside the box and supports the forms when stripped and traveling past the piers in an open position, Figure 6.27. During concreting of the superstructure the form carrier is supported on the forward pier by an arrangement of a telescoping tubular cross frame, at the rear; it is supported on the superstructure at a location 26 ft (8.0 m) forward of the rear pier. When the form carrier is being launched forward, it moves over a support at the tip of the completed superstructure cantilever (near the inflection point), and its rear support rides on the surface of the completed superstruc­ ture. The form carrier (including all equipment) weighs 209 tons (190 mt). 301 Box girder T-beam ):).50 :2i_2,5C-; :: Loisachbrucke, cross sections, from (courtesy of Dyckerhoff & \Vidrnann). FIGURE 6.29. 6.·/,() LO/S.1ClI BRIDGE. GERMA,VY The federal autobahn between Munich and Lin­ dau has an alignment that transverses the Mur­ nauer swamp area near Ohlstadt and thus crosses the Loisach River and the old federal highway B-2 (Olvmpiastrasse). Figure 6.28. Because of flooding and poor soil conditions an embankment was not possible, alld a decision was lllade requiring a dual viaduct bridge st ructu re wit h a IOtallength of 4314 It (1315 Ill).' The 2:~2.H ft (70.96 111) lIlaill span crossing Ihe Loisach River is a variable-depth single-cell box girder constructed by the free cantilever method. Depl h or the box ),{irder varies from 9.84 ft (:>.0 111) to 5.58 ft (1.7 m), Figure 6.29. '['he approach spalls are of a T-beam cross senion, Figure 6.29, COIl­ structed by the span-by-span method with the forlll carriers rUllllillg below the superstructure. Figure 6.~30 is a longitudinal section of the bridge within the area of the approach spans. showillg the form carrier running below the level of the top slab.. ure 6.31 shows the form traveler in action. reference 1:1 The dual structure has a total width of 100 ft (30.5 1l1). Figure 6.29, and each half is supported Oil two circular piers, excepting the Loisach spall which is supported Oil wall piers. In the total lellgth, the dual structures are subdivided illto three sections by two transverse joints, Figure 6.28. III plan the structure has a radius of 4265 h (1300 m) at the .vlunich end, allli the curvature reverses at the Loisach with a radius of 6562 ft (2000 m).H The completed structure is showll in Figure 6.32. The circular piers arc 4 ft (1.2 III) ill diameter and arc supported 011 20 in. (500 mm) driven piles with an allowable load capacity of 176 tons (160 lIlt). Pile depThs van' frolIl 42 to 72 ft (1:3 to 22 Ill). A total of 1182 piles were driven for a total length of piling of 63,650 ft (19.400 m), with an average length of pile of 53.8 h (16.4 m). Load capacity of the piles was deterIIlined from eleven load tests taken to 265 tons (240 mt). Because of the poor soil conditions ami gnmlld-water pressure, the substructure was COIl- Box FIGURE 6.28. Loisachbriicke, layout and undersiele view of bridge. from reference 1:1 (COllrtesy of Dyckerhoff & Widmann). 302 Progressive and Span-b),-Span Co~struction of Segmental Bridges FIGURE 6.30. Loi~achbrucke, longitudinal and cross section showing form tr;l\-eler (couneS\' of Dip!. lng. Manfred Bockel). - FIGURE 6.31. l.oisachbriicke, \'iew of form traveler ill aClioll (courtes\ of Dip!. lllg. Manfred Bockel). quired at midspan. The radius and superelevation in a support length were held constant. Superele­ \'ation varies from·+5.5 to -4%. For a normal span 88:i0 ft3 (250 m 3) of concrete were placed in nine hours.R Becallse of the tight time schedule, work was continued through the winter months in defiance of the extreme harsh weather conditions in the Loisach Valle\'. A weather enclosure was mounted OIl the form traveler and heated b\' warlll-air blow­ ers. In t his enclosure t he reinforcement and pre'­ heated concrete was placed. In addition, the fresh concrete was protected by heal mats. In this man­ lier the work could proceed up to an outside tem­ peratllre of 5°F ( 15°C). Construction cycle per span was gradually reduced, after f~lllJiliarization, from all original 14 days to se\'en days. Following completioll of the western roadway up to the Loisach the form traveler was transfened to the eastern roadway for the return trip to the Munich abutmellt. All 38 spans on the :'vlunich side were completed hy the elld of February 1972, saving lline weeks in the construction schedule. On the Garmisch side of the Loisach the movable scaffold s\'stem cOllsisted of four principal girders 292 ft (89 111) in length and 9.8 ft (3.0 111) deep, Figure 6.:i3. Superelev<ition varies from +4 to -5.5% . FIGURE 6.32. Loisachbrucke, view of completed structure (courtesy or Dip!. lng. ,Manfred Bockel). stnKted in pits enclosed by sheet piling. The round piers \',II'Y in height from 9.8 to 23 ft (3 to 7 m). Because of the delay in pile driving, resulting from the soil conditions, the foundation completion was delayed jmll1 October 1970 to April 1971. The 73 T-heam spans were constructed with two span-by-span form travelers whose operations were synchronized. On the :'vfunich side of the Loisach four 223 ft (68 m) long and 4.26 ft (1.30 m) high principal form support girders are supported in the 100 ft (31 m) spans on cross beams at each pier, which in turn are supported off the pile caps. For the longer spans an auxiliary support was re­ Because of the dela\' ill the pile driving, the first span was started in Decem her 1970 with a 12-week delav. The last approach span on the left of the Garmisch side was completed in A ugust of 1971. The traveler was then transferred to the other roadway for the return trip and all 35 bridge spans were completed b\' March 1972. By a gradual re­ duction of the work cycle from ]4 days to seven days, nine weeks were saved in the construction schedule. Not only was the loss of time resulting from the foundation work made up, but a time ad­ vantage was attained. The four box girder spans (two in each dual structure) on either side of the principal span over the Loisach were cast on stationary falsework. Aux­ iliary cross beams to support the falsework girder were supported on driven piles. The two main 1 Span-by-Span Cast-in-Place Bridges 303 ers were transferred to the opposite ()Ier for the remaining seven segments. H After a construction time o/" approximately :W months the bridge was completed in 1972, shortly before beginning of the Olympic Games. 6.4.7 FIGURE 6.33. Loisachbl'licke, cross section of mo\'­ ahlc scaffold svstCll1. from reference H (courtesy of J)vckerllOll& Widlll<lnn). spalls of ~:~~.H ft (70.96 ttl) were collstructed by the free cantilen~r method. Thirteen segments of 16.4 ft (5 ttl) were required: six segments \vere cast from one pier and then the cantilever form travel­ RHEISBRt'CKf; f)L'SSEU)ORF·HEHE, GER:"U,Vr This is an asymmetric cable-staved bridge with an inverted concrete Y-pvlon, Figures 6.34 through 6.37. The overall length from abutment to abut­ ment is 3764 ft (1147.25 m). The Rhine River span is 1205 ft (367.25 111) long and is a rectangular three-cell steel box girder with outriggers to sup­ port a 135 ft (41 111) wide orthotropic deck, Figures 6.36 and 6.37. At the pylon there is a tramition from the steel box girder to prestressed concrete box girders, which are used for the thirteen 197ft (GO til) spans in the approach viaduct. The struc­ ture is continuous throughout ils entire length, having expansioll joints on I: at the abutments. The approach viaduct has from pier 9 up to pier U, Figure 6.37, a five-cell box girder cross section with a width of 96.8 It (29.5 m) and a depth of 12.5 ft (3.8 m). This heavy cross section, Figure 6.36, resists the anchorage forces from the cable stays. For the balance of the viaduct length from abut­ ment to pier 9 the cross section consists of two single-cell boxes, a continuation of the exterior cells of the five-cell box girder cross section. How­ ever, the interior webs of each box are of less FIGURE 6.34. Rheinbriicke Dusseldorf-FIche, artist's rendering (courtesy of Dyck­ erhoff & Widmann). Progressive and Span-by-Span Cgnstruction of Segmental Bridges 304 \ . -1. :::::: a. . FIGURE 6.35. _-~_ \>. -= Rheinbrucke Dusseldorf-Flehe, VIew from construction end of approach viaduct looking to­ ward the pylon under cOllstruction. thickness than that of the five-cell cross section. The width of each box then becomes a constant 23 ft (7.0 m) outside-to-outside of webs. A diaphragm occurs at each pier. 'rhe approach spans were constructed segmen­ tally by the span-by-span method with construction joints at approximately the one-fifth point of the span. As described in Section 6.1.2, the method used here employed movable falsework, Figures 1.54 and 6.38: supported from the ground. The 197 rt (60 m) spans were poured in place in one unit from construction joint to construction joint. This required continuous placement of as much as 3200 cubic yards (2500 m 3 ) of concrete. After each section was cast in place and reached sufficient strength, the prestress tendons were stressed and the falsework was moved forward to repeat the cycle. 6.4.8 DENNY CREEK BRIDGE, U.S.A. The Denny Creek Bridge is the first implementa­ tion of the span-by-span method of constr'uction in the United States. It is located a few miles west of Snoqualmie Pass in the state of Washington and will carry the 1-90 westbound traffic down off the pass. It is a three-lane, 20-span, prestressed con­ crete box girder design with a total length of 3620 ft (1103 m) on a 6% grade, Figure 6.39. 'rhe con­ tractor. Hensel Phelps Construction Company, elected a construction method similar to those used in many German and Swiss designs where the area is environmentallv sensitive. Because of th~ ecological and environmental sensitivity of the' project site, construction of the piers was carried out under extreme space restric­ tions. The contractor was allowed a narrow access road for the full length 01 the project and addi­ tional work and storage area at each pieL 9 The 19 pier shal'ts have a hollow rectangular cross section with exterior dimensions of 16 by 1() it (4.R8 [)\ 3.05 Ill), a wall thickness of 2 it (0.61 m), and heiRhts rarq.~inR from 35 to 160 ft (10.7 to 48.8 m), Figure 6.40. Twelve piers are supported on rec­ tangular footings. The other seven piers are sup· ported on pier shafts sun k through talus and till and kned illto solid bed rock, Figure 6.41. Pier­ shaft diameter is 12 it (3.66 m) with a maximum depth of shaft below the terrain of 80 ft (24.38 m). The superstructure was constructed in three stages, Figure 6.42. In the fil-st stage, bottom flange and webs were constructed from a 330 it (100 m) long movable launc,hing truss, Figure 6.43. The twO trusses used for constructing the "U" portion of the box section rested on landing wings at the piers, Figures 6.44 and 6.45, as the launching truss moved up the valley, sliding from pier top 10 pier top. The construction schedule called for one span every two weeks. The entire scaffold system was supported on six jacks to adjust for proper align­ ment, two jacks at the rear of the span or initial pier and four jacks at the advance section or next pier. The launching truss was designed to support the outside steel forms of the box section, Figure 6.46, and to facilitate removal of the inside forms,9 Fig­ ure 6.42. Track-mounted cranes installed at the top of t.he truss frame lifted and moved the inside forms from the web, hanging them on the truss so that they were moved forward with the advance­ ment of the launching truss. Figure 6.47 is an interior view of the working area between trusses. Visible are the overhead track for the 15 ton (13.6 mt) cranes located near each web. Also visible are the cable hangars from the roof frame for the bottom slab support during casting. The steel trapezoidal box form used for con· J~ 17U\t'lh,J" Steel Superstructure i ~.;::::::::E~----_________ __ __ __ __ __ _ : ~1ICll mo ~ ~ ~ • P)-Ion ~ 41"'" "-.,,.,:::::_-------:-:::~~ --". .. ! m.o~~-r--~-~~."!'~""'ICIf~ ,,, " I mo " :t' ': --if ,~;::"""'- ~ I -~ 1I.1SO pso I "") lOt) , - ~SIl'~: m iT7~aDl~r T:lOoo I ~ - -' ~ - ~ I I Reinforced Concrete Superstructure Heavy Section .". ~ It. "" .k'..., llhC!J 0 · 11<>;1 'lj s"a °0 [8..1. ~:I ~i .."" :,,,,,,,.~!.Co- L IJ!JI t! I r;ao I """ pax! 'l7'5 ~ .~ ~ 4 - 11* '"" I PSO Reinforced Concrete Supeniitructure Normal Section .0 [OD~r .., : ..... ! l!!9''It)Q dt!ll I ,.. I j mo MiG mo "lQQ FIGURE 6.36. <.>0 o Vl Rheinbriicke Dl!ssddorl~Flchc, de\atioll of and cross sections. '"OS I D° .100!!! I. w o O"J Eleval i "" lrhWl 10 " 12 13 rrhWl 13.60.0, '80.0 367.25 151! 110.25 Plan \ \'"1; \ ~ Bearing Condilions 1+1 + + + + + + + + FIGURE 6.37. + + + + + Unrestrained :: Wind bearing + + ~ Rhei1lhriid.e Dusseldorf-Fiche, plall and eie\";\tion. + Unrestrained Span-by-Span Cast-in-Place Bridges FIGURE 6.38. view 0[' girder. Rheinbrucke Dusseldorf-Fiehe, end ~truC!ion was insulated with styrofoam, Figure G.48, and had heat cables installed (<Inuated if need be) to help llIailltain the temperature and rate of cure. Also, heat blankets were available to go ()\er the senion to reduce heat loss and main­ tain a COllstant temperature ill cold weather. COllcrete was hatched hOJll a plant erected near the west alHltl1lellt lIslng the highway rig·ht-or-wav. The cOl1traC1or lIsed three H C.lI \<1 (Ii. I Ill;]) ready- 307 mix trucks for mixing the concrete, which was then pumped to the proper location. Superstructure pours were about 300 cu yd (229.4 ma) and took about nine hours, using two concrete pumps and the track-mounted cranes installed in the truss frame. Concrete strength required was 5000 psi (34.47 YfPa). The contractor obtained 3500 psi (24.13 :\IPa) in three days using tin. (19 mill) aggregate. The 28-day strength ranged from 6100 to 6600 psi (42.06 to 45.5l MPa). In stage two the top Hange between the webs was placed. \-1etal forms, Figure 6.49, were supported from the bortom flange and webs, Figure 6.42.9 In stage three the two top flange cantilevers were placed, Figure 6.42, bv a movable GIITiage that rode on top of the box cast ill stage two, Figure 6.42. Upon completion of stage three, the trans­ verse prestressing of the top (lange was accolll­ plished. The completed section is 52 ft (15.08 Ill) wide, providing three traffic lanes. The Washingtoll DOT sponsored the design. Three alternatives were prepared for bidding purposes. One was an in-house state design; tile ot ber two were prepared bv olltside consultants. The Dyckerhofl & Widmanll design proved to be ;.1,1 -,, \. ..t ' :"~ ~ .. rl\.,.,.t-""­ , '",,~ ,~~1.1-: to .• l ., I , 1,­ "" "l. ~\, "·,11­ '. ~l, ' ......." '-I 5' tlJL FIGURE 6.39. Denny Creek Bridge, perspecri\e sketch. Progressive and Span-by-Span 308 ~onstruction FIGURE 6.40. Denny Creek BI-irige, new of piers under construction (courtesy of J. L Vatshell, Wash­ ington DOT). the most economical. VSL Corporation was the subcontl-actor proyiding the prestressing expertise. 6.5 Span-by-Span Precast Bridges 0.5.1 LOSG KEY BRIDGE, U ..S.A. Long Key Bridge in the Florida Keys carries U.S. Highway I across Long Key south to Conch Key. The existing bridge consists of 215 reinforced con­ crete arch spans, ranging in length from 43 to 59 ft (\3.1 10 18 m) for a total bridge length of 11,960 ft (3645 Ill). The new bridge, presently under construction, is 50 ft (15.2 111) between centerlines and just north and parallel to the existing structure. It is a precast segmental box girder constructed by the span-by­ span method and consisting of 101 spans of 118 ft (36 m) and end spans of 113 ft (34.4 m'} for a total length of 12,144 ft (3701 m). The roadway width between barrier curbs is 36 ft (11 m), Figure 6.50, to accommodate a 12 ft (3.66 m) roadway and a 6 ft (1.83 Ill) ~houlder in each direction. Figure 6.51 is of Segmental Bridges FIGURE 6.41. types. Delli1\" Creek Bridge, substructure an artist's rendering showing the precast V -piers with the 7 ft (2m) deep box girder segments. In the preliminary design stage three methods of segmelltal construction were considered: balanced cantilever, span-by-span, and progressive place­ ment. The progressive placement method was dis­ carded because it was felt (at the time) to be too new {or acceptance in U.S. practice. It was later introduced on the Linn Cove Viaduct in :\orth Carolina (see Section 6.3.2). This is the first use of a precast span-by-span method in the United States. The segments are transported from the casting yard to their location in the structure by barge. The segments are then placed with a barge crane on an erection truss, which is supported by a steel grillage at the V-piers. Each span has a 6 in. closure pour after all the segments have been placed on the erection truss and properly aligned. The essential operations are indicated in Figure 6.52. Segment weight is approximately 65 tons (59 mt). Each segment is placed on the erection truss on a three-point support and brought into its final position. It takes approximately four to six hours Schematic of movable scaffolding Stripped position .., I I Overhead dollies Stage two o... 70' Jacks for grade, Truss jacks superelevation and camber '. ---Jacks Rollers and jacks Stage one Stage three FIGURE 6.42. Denm Creek Bridge. schematic of construction stages. from reference 9 (counes\ of the Portland Cement Association). FIGURE 6.43. ing truss. Dennv Creek Bridge, view of launch­ FIGURE 6.44. Denny Creek Bridge, view of landing wings at piers (courtesv of J. L Vatshell, Washington DOT). 309 310 Pro.gressive and Span-by-Span Co.nstructio.n o.f Segmental Bridges FIGURE 6.46. Denn\ Cn'ck Bridg-e. \ in,' of' outside steel fonm (courtesy of J. L Yatshell. Washington DOn. FIGURE 6.45. Denny Creek Bridge, close-up vic\\' of landing wing (counes\, of J. L. Vatshe11. Washingto1l DOT). to place the seglllents required for one spall. The contractor has placed as malJl' as three spans per week for a t(>lal or :154 ft (lOS Ill) of completed superstructure per week and has <l\'eraged 2.25 spalls per week. Allother major deviation from United States practice ill this pn~ect was the use of external pre­ stressing tendons (located inside the box girder cell). This requires that the tendons be considered as ullbonded for ultimate-strength analysis. Plac­ ing the tendons inside the box girder void allows the web thickness to be minimized. Tendon geometry is controlled by deviation blocks cast mOllolithically with the segments at the proper lo­ cation in the span, Figure 6.53. These blocks per­ form the same function as hold-down devices in a pretensioning bed. The tendon ducts between de­ viation blocks or anchorage locations or both are composed of polyethylene pipe, which is then grout-injected upon completion of stressing operations-a corrosion protection system similar to that used for the cable stays on some cable-stay bridges. HI.11 FIGURE 6.47. Denll\ Creek Bridge, \'iew of interior working area between trusses (courtes\ of Herb Schell. FH\\,A Region 10). "-'-- 1:11·;4. FIGURE 6.48. Denny Creek Bridge, insulation on exterior steel forms with installed heat cables (courtesy of Herb Schell, FH\\,A Region 10). Span.by-SpGn Precast Bridges . 311 -,;. FIGURE 6.51. FIGURE 6.49. Denl1v Creek Bridge, \"in\ of l11l'\al form wied /()I' stage-two construnion (courtes\ or J L. Valshell, Washington DOT), Section at pier FIGURE 6.50. Long Kev Bridge. artist".; rendering, The external tendollS overlap at the pier seg­ ment to develop continuity, The bridge is cotltitlll­ OllS betweetl expansion joims for eight spans, 94-l t't (2HH \11). After the closure pOllr reaches the re­ quired strength, the post-tensioning is accol1l­ plished and the span is complete. A :30 in. (7liO mIll) diameter waterline is installed inside the void of the box girder. The erection tl'llSS is then low­ ered and llloved awa\, from the completed span, l'he erection truss is handled at a one-point pick-up location bv a C>shaped lifting hook, Figure 6.5~, The truss is sllpported against the barge crane and lIloved pamllel to the Ilew bridge ulltil it Section at midspan Long Ke\' Bridge, typical cross section of superstructure, 312 Progressive and Span-by-Span c..onstruction of Segmental Bridges The span by span erection concept utilizes a temporary steel assembly truss in conjunction with a barge mounted crane as shown. The steel truss spanning between the piers is equipped with post-tensioning tendons along the bottom chord to facilitate adjustments for deflectiOns and lowering the truss upon completion of the span. Iii I FIGURE 6.52. Long Key Bridge, span-by-span erection scheme. reaches the position for a new span, and the cycle is repealed. 6.5.2 SEVEN AlILE BRIDGE, U.S.A. The Seven Mile Bridge, Figure 6.54, in the Florida Keys carries U.S. Highway 1 across Seven Mile Channel and Moser Channel from Knights Key west and southwest across Pigeon Key to Little Duck Key. The existing structure consists of 209 masonry arch spans, 300 spans of steel girders resting on masonry piers, and a swing span over Moser Channel. The spans range in length from 42 ft in. (I3 m) to 47 ft 4t in. (14.4 m) for the masonry arches and from 59 ft 9 in. (18.2 m) to 80 ft (24.4 m) for the steel girders resting on masonry piers, which along with the 256 ft 10 in. (78.3 m) swing span, produce a total bridge length of 35,716 ft 3 in. (10,886 m). Span-by-Span Precast Bridges 313 DETAIL 1 $CoiJlr' PERSPEC TlVE I·"/~O" VIEw DETAIL SuII!" 2 '''-I~lr ELEVATION FIGURE 6.53. out. ­ Long Key Bridge, typical tendon lay­ '. FIGURE 6.54. Seven Mile Bridge, anist's rendering. The new bridge, presently under construction, is located to the south of the existing bridge. It is a precast segmental box girder constructed by the span-by-span method with 264 spans at 135 ft (41.15 m), a west-end span of 81 ft in. (24.88 m), and an east-end span of 141 ft 9 in. (43.2 m) for a in. (l0,931 m). The total length of 35,863 ft roadway requirements are the same as for the Long Key Bridge and the cross section is almost identical, Figure 6.50. Seven Mile Bridge crosses the Intracoastal Waterwav with 65 ft (19.8 m) verti­ cal clearance, and its alignment has both vertical and horizontal curvature. The consultants, Figg and \Iuller Engineers, I nc., used the same concepts as had been used for the Long Key Bridge. except they omitted the V-pier alternative in favor of a rectangular hollow box-pier scheme that is precast in segments and post-tensioned vertically to the foundation system. As mentioned in Section 1.9.3, the contractor elecred to alter the constru<:tion scheme ill this bridge from that of the Long Kev Bridge bv sus­ pending the segments from an overhead truss rather than placing them on an underslung truss. The essential operations for construction of a typi­ cal span are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. Transportation of all segments by barge to the erection site. Assembly of all segments in a span (with the exception of the pier segment) on a structural steel frame supported by a barge. Placing the pier segment on the pier adjacent to the previously completed portion of tbe deck with the overhead truss working in can­ tilever. Launching the overhead truss onto this newly placed pier segment. Progressive and Span-by-Span Construction oj Segmental Bridges 314 5. 6. 7. Lifting in place the entire assembl\' of tvpical segments with four winches supported bv the truss. Post-tensioning the entire span after the clo­ sure joiIll has been poured between the finished span and the new span. Launching the overhead truss to repeat a new cycle of operations. Arter a period of adjustment, the method has allowed a speed 01 construction equal to that for the assembly truss scheme used for the Long Key Bridge. One complete span rna\ be constructed in olle da\", and as Ill;\m' as six 135 ft spans have been placed ill a single week. Figure 6.55 shows the as­ semhl\" of segments being erected in a "'pical span. 6.6 Design Aspects of Segmental Progressive Construction 6.6. J (; J;;,\'EIU L The use of temporary sta\'~ to earn the weight of segmellts during construction induces onlj' a nor­ tllal compression load ill the deck ami a very lim­ ited <t11l0UIJl of bending. COllsequclllh', the static scheme of t he st ruct u re during const ruction is very close 10 that of the finished struClUl·e. This is a si~nificallt advantage OH~r the conventional can­ tilen:'r construction scheme, where continuity of the sliccessive cantilc\er arms results ill two static schelllcs significantly different het ween const ruc­ tion and sen'ice. Because of this similarit\ of static scheme throughout erection and service, it is expected that I he lanllI1 of prestress tendons fOllnd in cast-in­ place strtlctures or in span-In-spall construction FIGURE 6.55. span. Sc\'C1l Mile Brid~e, erection of a typical -should be applicable to progressive construction, with the added advantage that the tendons can be regularly stressed and anchored at the successive joints between segments in a simple manner. . On the other hand, progressive construction dif­ fers in several aspects such. as pier design and deflection control during construction, calling for a more detailed examination. 6.6.2 REACT/aSS as PIERS DCRISC CO.\'STRllCT/OS Construction of a tvpical span proceeds in two stages, as shown in Figure 6.56: (I) pure cantilever erection, of a length (l from the pier, and (2) con­ struction with temporan staYs on the remaining length (L - (f). Length (f should be selected (within the nearest number of segments being placed) such as 10 keep t he girder load moments O\'er the pier within allowable limits. Assuming that this moment is of exactly the same magnit ude as t he fixed end moment of a t\'pical span tInder the same unit load W, OIle may write: H'(l2 WL2 ~ 12 -==~~ J _pH 1­ FIGURE 6.56. tions on piers. Progressiye construction, deck reac­ Design Aspects of Segmental Progressive Construction for a constant-depth girder, which is the general case for progressive construction. Thus: a = 0.408L l2.5 ks!" The difference is small and usually more than offset bv the fact that horizontal loads during con­ struction are smaller than during service. 6.6.3 = O.4()WL + 1.268 x O.08WL = O.50WL During the second construction stage the weight of the remaining part of the span is supported bv the tempOl'arv stavs, which are anchored in the rear span as close as possible to the previous pier so as not to induce undesirable variations of moments in the lasl completed span. Consequentlv, the weight of that part of the span induces in the pier a react.ioll eq lIal to: O.hWL + l.!O l. U() 1.02/;VL The total reaction <lUI'ing construction applied to the pier is thus: R = O.30WL + 1.02WL as opposed to R = WL for cast-in-place or span­ In.·-span cOl1struction. This temporary increase of girder load re,lCtioll of 62% will evelltuallv vanish whell construction proceeds. It is importallt to verify how critical this pier temporan overload may he lor the design of the substructure. Taking the example of a 130 to 200 It span, the average loads ~lre as follows for a 40 ft wide bridge de­ ·signed for three 1~lIIes of traffic: Girder load Superimposed load Equivalent live load including impact 8.0 ksf 1.3 ksf 2.6 ksf The maximum reaction during construction COIIl­ pares with that after completion as tollows (values gl',:en are the ratio between reaction and span length): l. 2. over the support (15%),2.6 x l.lS 0.40 L Fora = 0.40L the moment over the piel' is equal to AI = 0.08WL2. The moment over the preceding pier, for a structure with a large number of identi­ cal spans, is equal to O.268AJ. Therefore, the reac­ tion over the pier at the end of this first stage of cOllstruction can be easily computed as: R 315 During construction, l.62 x 8.0 = Compkredsrruaure: <). Girder load 8.0 ,b. Superimposed load 1.5 c. Live load, including provision for continuity 1:3 ksf TENSIO,vS IN STAYS AN/) /)EFLlc'CT/O,v CONTROL DL'RI.\'C COXSTRL'CTION As shown previously, progressive construction of a tvpical span entails two successive stages: Cantilever construction on a !engt h 1/ Temporarv sllspension by part of the span (L a) the relllalllll1g Slays 011 This second stage induces small deflectiolls and rotation, provided that the vertical cOll1ponent of the slav loads balances t he total deck weight. On the other hand, the ti rst-stage cons! rtlction not only creates slIbstantial deflections but also changes the geometric position of the entire spall, as lI1av be seen in Figure 6.57. The weight (Wa) of the deck section produces: A rotation of the previous span, w,, which will pn~ject at the following pier and create a vertical deflection, Y I a deflection of the cantilever proper, Y2 a rotation at the end of the cantilever, W2, which will project again at the following pier imo a deflectioll W~ (L (/) Altogether the total dellection is: H! '. ~ ('>L2 ' 17; 24EI- v,} + ,I ~([ L ") W If we let Il = af L. the del1ection can then be written as: vVL I "(2' 1--;:; 24EI uv· J With II lion is: + 4. II 0.4 as assumed before, the total deHec­ Y = 0 .032 . -I WL4 where W unit deck load, L = span length, 316 Progressive and Span-by-Span C~nstruction of Segmental Bridges }:' = concrete modullls, I section inertia. A simple parallletric analysis will reveal the im­ pOrlance of this problem. If tV is the specific gravity of concrete and A the cross-sectional area, then ~v = ,vA. It was shown in Chapter 4 that the efficiencv factor of a box section is: t:, p = = --=-L----t-! _~.L... 0.60 to 0.63 If the section is symmetricaL {, = (2 0.5 h (II = section depth). and I = 0.157 Ah2 max. If (;1 = 0.33 Ii and (2 0.6711, which is the practical dis­ sym melr), of a box seelion. I = 0.133,411 2 111i n. For all practical purposes, assume I = O.14Ah2. The de­ flection then becomes: Because the construction proceeds rapidly, E shollld be taken lor short-duratioll loading: that is, E = 800.000 ksf; t.he specific gravity of concrete is w = 0.15 kef. The slcndcmess ratio Llh varies be­ tW('CI1 18 and 22. Results are shown in Figure 6.58. Constructioll of a 200 ft span, for exalllple, with a slenderness ratio 0120 wiI1 he accompanied h~' a deflection under girder load (without prestress) at the next pier of 8.3 inches. The construction method is therefore ven sensitive \() concrete dc!lcCliolls. which are lI1a~llified b\' the great lever arm of the first-stage construction of the spall projecting its intrinsic deformation to the follow­ lIlg lHer. Fortunately, prestress will give a helping hand and contribute to substantially decreasing the girder load deflection. The minimum prestress re­ quired at this stage is to balance the tensile stresses induced by the girder load moments. "Vith the same notations as above, one may compute the prestress force and the corresponding moment for three positions of the neutral axis: (lilt 0.5 (2/11 = O.S Efficiency factor Distance from centroid or prestress Eccentricity of prestress Lower central core p = 0.60 to d O.OSh e r 2 1c 1 = 0.30h ! y TI1TAL I 01/15 " , 'y/ I.' I lUI I FIGURE 6.57. Pmgrcssiv{' (()llSlrunioll. def(Jrlll<l­ lIons, For an efliciency factor p = 0.65 thc corresponding \,tlues would be: 0.58 0.47 0.39 The prestress will therefore reduce the deflections by the same amoulll-that is, approximately half the total girder loud deflections. The resultant deflection (girder load + prestress) still remains very sigIlificant as SOOI1 as the span length is above J 50 /'t. These deflections must be taken into full account to compute the camber diagram (for seg­ ment precasting). The next important point to consider here is the second-stage construction of a tvpical span when the remaining part of the girder is suspended from the temporary sla\,s. The concrete girder and the group of stays form an elastic svstem that supports the applied loads: girder load for the segments al­ ready in place, swivel crane and new segment 0.4 (21h = 0.6 (11h = 0.33 czlh = 0.67 = 0.60 p = 0.60 (lilt p d 0.05h d O.OSh top fiber Lever arm 01 prestress Prestress moment (ratio of girder load moment) = 0.45h e r 2 1c 1 0.75h ~~ 0.75 = 0.60 __ 0.3~ 0.71 = 0.3Sh 0.36h e = 0.28h r21c I = 0.40h 0.7 J h 0.68h = 0,49 = 0.28 0.68 = 0.41 = Design Aspects of Segmental Progressive Construction o :sp.. .., (flJ so FIGURE 6.58. 100 ISD 100 Progressive c(ll1strllctioll, deflenions. traveling o\'(~r the bridge with the trailer and trac­ tor. Two examples ha\'e been considered to show the relative response the variolls componellts of this elastic s,"stem toward the application of' a load. or l. f08 /1 (33m) sjJan This was one tvpicd span of the Rombas Viaduct. The spall has heell as­ sumed to be completed except for the pier segment over the next pier. For this construction stage, the swivel crane and the new segment applv to the staved cantilever a load of 88 tons (80 mt). In view of the great stiffness of the concrete girder com­ pared to the group of stavs, the total moment in­ duced bv the load remains alinost entirely in the coilcrete girder and there is only a small spontane­ ous increase of the stay loads, as shown in Figure 6.59. The magnitude of temporary prestress in the deck must be designed accordingly to keep all joints under compression for all intermediate loading cases. where progressive construction was cOlltelllpblcd for a viaduct with a large number of identkal 260 ft (80 m) spans all made up of 26 segments lOft C) m) long. Figures 6.60 and 6.61 show the distribu­ tion of moments between concrete girder and temporary stays at three successive stages of seg­ ment placing: segments IS, 20, and 25, respec­ tively. The first nine segments are placed ill can­ tilever; the following 15 segments are suspellded from temporary stays, while the last typical seg­ ment and the acUacent pier segment are placed without stavs. The proportion of the load (alld corresponding moment) (aken by the stavs increases as the can­ tilever length increases ancl, when the last segment is placed, more than half the load is supported b\' the stavs. For very-long-spa n stayed bridges, this distrihution of load between stavs and concrete girder reaches the situation where the load is al­ most entirely supported by the stays and the COll­ crete girder is subjected onlv to an axial force, ex­ cept in the area of the longest st~n's. The consideration of' distributioll of loads and mOll1ents between stays and concrete girder has an important aspect during construction-that is, the accuracv of the tension in the stays ami cOl1Se­ quences of an accidental deviaLion between com­ puted values of stressing loads in the stavs and their actual values in the held. For example, take the simple case of a span L with 4O<Ic huilt in pure cantilever and the remaining 60o/c suspended bv stays (see Figure 6.56). The moment over the pier due to the second-stage construction load is .'1.1 0.4~WL2. Assume that an accidental deviation took place of 5% between the design loads for the Slavs and the actual values obtained in the field (owing to friction in the jacks, illaccurac~' in the pressme gauges, and so on), As a result, an additional mo­ ment will appear over the pier of LlM .fo 0.42 WL 2 =. 0.021 WU. The corresponding tensile stress ~tt the top fiber (assuming the error in stay loads was to reduce the theoretical values by 5%) can be eas­ ily computed b\': 0.02liiJAUc j ApCIC2 0.02IwP With IV 2: 260 ji (80 m) span This example is taken from a recent design for a large project in Europe 317 0.15 kef, p = 0.60, and 2 tlf = 0.0088 Lh C2 0.6011: Progressive and Span-by-Span Construction of Segmentai Bridges 318 FIGURE 6.59. I'rogressi\'l' constructioll. illcrease of st<l\ loading, The stress ill ksl 1'01' 1~/" 20 (slcndcrIlcss ratio) is tht' following lor s(,\'eraJ span lengths: ::00 Assu me I hat the ill<lCClI ran' of the sla\ loads leaves ill the concrcte girder 5~i 01 its own weight to be carried \)\ bending: the resulting deflection over the pier would he: WL4 O,OllH E1 This stress is !lot critical for short spans but 111<1\' becolll(' significant for Jong ones. The simple deri­ \,;ttiolJ gi\'Cll abO\e shows that control of the st<l\'­ l<:nsiolling operatiolls ;11 the site should always he Oil the safe side with due allowance fOT inaccuracy. A de\'iatioll ill the tension of the sta\'s will also affee! t he deflect ions during const ruction. Without t he presence of the stays the total deflection ()\'er the next pier due to the load on the length (L - a) would be: y = which gives for u ) 0.4 as before: , = 0 <)'166 ~t'L 4 ,~" " This value should be compared to the effect or the hrst-sta~e constmctiol1, which \\"as previously given as: y 0.0327 1~~1 In summary, a SO/C deviar.ion of the stay tension loads will increase the call1ilever deflection due to girder load by 36%. Considering the benefJcial ef­ fect of prestressing for the latter, we see that ap­ proximately 7% deviation of the stay load produces the same deflection as the first-stage construction loads including prestressing. This shows that the deflections are important, particularly for long spans built in progressive construction, but that proper deHection control is an excellent tool to 319 References rOTAl (usr.) /'!Q/,!E~T !1Ol!fllT CARRlfD illY CONCRETE QlltDER t5!J()(J '. IS SUlfurs Iii CANTrU:lItll no F1 51'A1t 6MQ'1 ~ . tT (43.1 r.) / r TOTAL I!O/'llJiT IwfOI'fEltT CAMICD &)f CONC1tI'l'l GrrtDcJt tl5lXJ'A ....---;---;~_~__ ; - - 'TJTAl 110/'1tNT I 110"un C~RIID BY CO/ol,MU ilRIIDl FIGURE 6.61. or 1ll0lllCI1I FIGURE 6.60. I'roglc\~i\e uH1~lrl1(li()ll. 0111101111'111 b('II\'(,CI1 ~ral's al1d 14irder. di~lrihllli()11 I'erih I hal slresses ill rile COllcrele girder are alw;t\s kepi within allowable limits, ()JLI Pro14re;.siH' CO IlS I ruct iOll, disl riblll ion bCIIH'l'1l ;.1;l\S and deL Possihh a third familv of' tendons made of internal SI<lVS with a draped profile and anchored over the pi~rs ill the diaphragm. Ihe purpose of which is 10 supplelllelli hoth olher families vdlile reducing Ihc net shear stresses ill the webs hecause of the \'erti­ ed componcllt of prest ress, I..llf}{F OF //:',\/)()SS F()!{ J>/wr;I?ESSIlE (;()SSIRL'CTI()X References or Beculse the sialic scheme al the end each COll­ .SIl'lIC1ioll slep is identical to Ihat of a cast-in-place structure, Ihe permanent tendons Gill he installed in the strtlctllre immediately, without the transi­ tion situations required by other construction methodologies such ,IS incremental laullching. .\ tvpical prestress lavow for progressiv'e COIl­ structioll \\ill rhus include: ,\ hrst family of tendons located in the top Hange ()\er the v;lriolls piers, with anchors symmetricallv locHed ill blisters, the purpose of which is to resist negative lllornelltS over r he supports. A second f;lll1iiv of tendons located along the span ill the bottom Hallgeand also anchored in blisters inside the box section. LJsually the top and bottom blisters are joined to a web rib, allowing temporary preslress hal'S 10 he anchored during segment placing. I. H, Willfoill. "PH'st rcssed Concrete l)ridg-e Con­ strunioll lI'ith Sleppill~ Forllll\'ork EquiIIIl1CI1I," First IlIIcrn;tlional SnnposiulIl COII{TCtC Bridge De­ sign, Papcr SP ~:1-2H, AU Publication Sl'-:!:l, American Concrete Institllte, DCTroit, 19!JY. ,) H. Win!()ill, "Die Vel"\\TIHlullg­ \'on Vorschllriis· Iungell biem Briickellbau" (The l'se of (,ravcling­ Formwork ill Bridge Construction), Intcrnalional Associatioll Brid~c and Structural En~ineerin~, "inlh COllgress. ;\lI1sterdal1l. :'>!av H-13. 197:.!, :1, H. rilul, "Spannbelon iIll Briickenbau," Edoll. Heft 4::, Dezelllber 1962'1. Zi'II/fIIllIl/d 4. :-.rall-Chung Tang, "Recent De\·eloplllent of Con­ strunioll Techniques in Concrete Bridges," Trans­ portation Research Record 665, Bridge Engineer­ ing'. Vol. 2, Proceniill{!,s of the Transportatioll Resl'flrc/t Board COlljt'fl'lIl'1'. September 2.')-27. 1978,51. Louis, :'>10.• "alional .\eadem\" of Sciences, \VashinglOn, D,C. Progressive and Span-by-Span Construction of Segmental Bridges 320 :), l', FillSterw<\lder <lnd H. Sch<lll1heck, "Die EI/.lal­ hriicke," DI'I' BrIll/l/grllll'ln, Heft (i, JlIIle J96(i, and Heft 1, Jallllan 1967. Ii. 1-1. Thill. "Brilckenbau," Betoll­ und Stahlbl'lOllbau, I left ;1, \1a\ 19G6. "Ball del' Loisachbriicke bei Ohlstadt," DYil'idag-Brrirh/1' 1971-3, Dn:kerholl & Widmann, AG. \lunith. H. :\l]on.. "Bau<lllshihrullg der Autobahnbriicke tiber die Loisach hei Ohlstadt." Dnl·idllg-Berichtt 1972-5, IhckerhofT 8.: Widmann, AG. \1ullich. I. :\11011., , 9, Allon" "Denny Creek-Franklin Fans Viaduct, '''''ashingtoll,'' Bridge Repon SR 202.01 E, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 111., 1978. 10. Anoll" "Florida's Long Key Bridge to Utilize Pl:ecast Segillental Box Girder Span-hy-Span Construction," Bridge Repon, Post Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, January 1979. Jr., "An Overview or Precast Ple­ stressed Segmental Bridges,"Journal oflhl' Pres/res.lN/ COII(1('/1' Jl1slilulr, Vol. 24, :'\0. I, January-February 1979. 11. ';"alter Podolny. 7 Incrementally Launched Bridges 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 INTRODUCTION RIO CARONI, VENEZUELA VAL RESTEL VIADUCT, ITALY RA VENSBOSCH VALLEY BRIDGE, HOLLAND OUFANT'S RIVER BRIDGE. SOUTH AFRICA VARIOUS BRIDGES IN FRANCE 7.6.1 Luc Viaduct 7.6.2 Creil Viaduct 7.6.3 Oli Viaduct 7.7 WABASH RIVER BRIDGE, U ...S.A. 7.8 OTHER NOTABLE STRUCTURES 7.8.1 Muhlbachtalbrucke, Gennany 7.8.2 Shepherds House Bridge. England 7.1 Introduction The cOllcept of incrementallv launched segmental prestressed concrete bridges was described in Sec­ tioll 1.9.5. This chapter will describe the im­ plementation of this innovative concept in several 'representative projects. Since the implementation of the incremelltal launching technique on the Rio Caroni Bridge, some eightv bridge superstructures have been con­ structed bv this method through 1976. with gradual refinements and improvements in the method. l Bv concentrating the casting of segments behind an abutment with a tel'}1porary shelter, if required, this method can provide the sallie qualitv control procedures and quality of concrete that can be achieved in a concrete precasting plant. It minimizes temporary falsework, extensive form­ ing, and other temporary expedients required during construction bv the conventional cast-in­ place on falsework method. Basically the method enta~ls incremental fabrication of the superstruc­ ture at a stationary location, longitudinal move­ ment of the fabricated segment an incremental 7.9 DESIGN OF INCREMENTALLY LAUNCHED BRIDGES 7.9.1 Bridge Alignment Requirements 7.9.2 Type, Shape. and Dimensions of Superstructure 7.9.3 Span Arrangement and Related Principle of Con­ struction 7.9.4 Design of Longitudinal Members for Flexure and Tendon Profile 7.9.5 Casting Area and Launching Methods 7.9.6 Launching Nose and Temporary Stays 7.9.7 Piers and Foundations 7.10 DEMOUTION OF A STRUCTURE BY INCREMEN­ T AL LAUNCHING REFERENCES length, and casting of a new segment onto the one previoush cast. In other words. the procedllre call be considered as a horizontal slip-form technique, except that the fabrication and casting occur at a stationan' location, Stringent dimensional control, however, is an absolute necessitv at the stationan' casting site, since errors are verv difficult to correct and result in additional costs in launching. I Straight superstructures are the easiest to ac­ commodate; however, curvature (either vertical or horizontal) can be accomplished if a constant rate of curvature is maintained. If the grade of the structure is 011 an incline, it is preferred to launch the structure, wherever possible, downward. Where the fall is 2%, the superstructure has to be pushed or held back, depending upon the coefficient of friction. Where the fall is in excess of 4%, special provisions are required to prevent a "runawav" superstructure during launching. I To the authors' knowledge, this situation has never oc­ curred. Piers, either temporary or permanent, should be designed to resist the lateral force pro­ duced by the launching operation. A friction force varying from 4 to 7% has been considered for de­ 321 322 Incrementally Launched Bridges sign purposes, although values of only 2 to 3~o/c have been observed in the field. At presellt, it is felt that this system can be used lor superstructures up to 2000 ft (610 m) in length; for longer structures incremental launching is ac­ complished from both abutmelHs toward the center of the structure. The technique has been applied for spans up 10 200 It (60 m) without the use of temporary supporting bents and for spans lip to 330 ft (100 111) with such bents. Girders usu­ ally have a depth-to-span ratio ranging from one-twelfth to one-sixteenth of the longest span a1Jd are of a constant depth. The launching nose has a length of appnlximately 60% of the longest span. The principal ad\'antages of the incremental bunching Illcthod are the ro\lO\.... ing~: I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. \:0 Ldsc\\'ork is required for the construction of the superstruct ure ut her than possibly falsework bems to reduce span length during cOllstructioll. 111 this mallner camilever stresses dUI'ing launching can be mainrained wilhin allowable lilllits. If falsework bents should pro\'(' to he impractical. then a system of tempo­ raJ'\' slaVs can be used as indicated ill Figure ] .6:t Obviously, depending on site conditions, any or all comhinations of temporary bents, 'Iauncbing nose, and temporary stays may be used, the point being Ihat conventional use of falsework is greatly minimized. Tbis is par­ ticularly interesting for projects in urban areas or spanning over water, bighways, or railnmds. Depending on the size of the project there can be a substalltial reduction in form investment. Because casting of tbe segments is centralized at a location behind the abutment, tbe eco­ nomic advantages of mass production and a precasting plant operation can be duplicated. The method eliminates transportation costs of segments cast at a fixed plant and transported to the site. It eliminates heavy cranes or launching trusses and associated erection costs. It eliminates epoxy joints. Since epoxy is not involved, construction can continue at lower temperatures. Camber control and other geometry controls are easily obtained. Disadvantages are as follows: 1. As mentioned in Section 1.9.5, bridge align­ ment for this type of construction must be 2. 3. 4. either straight or curved; however, curvature, either vertical or horizontal, must be of a con­ stant radius. As mentioned above, strict dimensional control during casting is required. Any mistakes in casting are difficult and expensive to correct, especially if they are not discovered until after some length of bridge has been launched. The superstructure must be of a constant sec­ tion and depth. This is a disadvantage in long spans, where a val-iable-depth section would provide a better economy of materials_ Considerable area is required behind the abutment(s) for casting the segments. In sOllie project sites this lllay llot be feasible. In the present state of the art of illcreme11lalh launched hridges there appear to he basically two llJcthods of cOllstructioll, which we shall call roll: lirwou.s {(lsling and balalLled wslillg. They are dif· ferent in mode of execution and in their areas of lltilizatiOlL The cOlllinuous casting mcthod is sOJl1ewhat analogous ro the span-by-span methud, and balallced casting is similar to the cantilever method. The cOlltinuous casting method is generally used for long viaduct-t\pe structures with numerous equal (or nearly equal) spans. Its principal charac­ teristics are the following: I. Entil-e spans, or portions of spans, are COll­ ere ted ill fixed forms. The forms are reused, as in the span-by-span llIethod, except that the forms are fixed instead of mobile and are moved from span to span. Subsequent spans (or portions of a span) are cast and joined to the one previousl\' cast, and the superstructure is progressive I\' launched. 2_ Csually the casting area behind the abutment is long enough to accommodate either a span length plus launching-nose length or some multiple of span segment length plus launch­ ing-nose length. 3. Operations involve successive concreting and launching. The principal phases are: forming; placing of reinforcing and tendons; concreting and curing; tensioning and launching. 4. The two types of superstructure cross section used have been box girder and double T. 5. Longitudinal prestressing consists of two tendons concentricallv families of tendons: . placed and tensioned before launching, and tendons placed and tensioned after launch­ . 323 Rio Caroni, Venezuela ing-that is, negative-moment tendons over the supports and positive-moment tendons in the bottom of the section in the central por­ tion of the span. The balanced casting method is used for smaller projects up to a total length of 650 ft (200 m). It is used for symmetric three-span structures where the central span is twice the end span. Its principal characteristics are: 1. ') 3. 4. Concreting of segments is accomplished sym­ metrically with respect to a temporary support located in the embankment behind the abut­ ments. This method is similar to the balanced cantilever except that the forms are supported on the embankment fill. Two areas of casting are required, one behind each abutment. The half-superstructures are constructed at opposite ends of the project. The distance between the abutment and the axis of the temporary massive support is gen­ erally slightly less than one-fourth tbe length of the project. Al'ter the two half-supt;rstructures have been cOllcreted on the access fill, the two halves are lallllched over the piers andjoined at midspan of the central span bv a closure pour, which usuallv has a length of 3 ft (1 111). Longitudinal prestressing consists of three families: cantilever tendons for each segment, located ill the upper portion of the cross sec­ tion and stressed before launching; continuitv tendolls, tensioned after closure and situated in {he lower flange; and provisiollal tendons, located ill the lower flange, tensioned before launching, and opposing (he calHilever ten­ dOllS. There are two methods of launching. The method used on the Rio Caroni Bridge, Figure 1.67, has the jacks bearing on an abutment face and pulling on a steel rod, which is attached by launching shoes to the last segment cast. The sec­ ond, and more Cll rrent, method is essentially a lift-and-push operation using a combination of horizontal and vertical jacks, Figure 7.1. The verti­ cal jacks slide 011 teHon and stainless steel plates. Friction elements at the top of the jacks engage the superstructure. The vertical jacks lift the superstructure approximately in. (5 mm) for 1au!lching. The horizontal jacks then move the superstructure longitudinally. After the super­ structure has been pushed the length of the hor- FIGURE 7.1. Incremental launching-jacking mech­ anism (courtesy of Prof. Fritz Leonhardt). izontal jack stroke, the vertical jacks are low­ ered and the horizontal jacks retracted to restart the cycle. l Figure 7.2 is a schematic depiction of this cycle. To allow the superstructure to move forward, special temporary sliding bearings of reinforced rubber pads coated with teHon, which slide on chrome-nickel steel plates, are provided at the permanent piers and temporary bents, Figures 7.3 and 7.4. A sequence of operations showing the bearing-pad movement 011 the temporary bearil1~ is depicted in Figure 7.5. A temporary bearing with a lateral guide bearing is shown ill Figure 7.6. 7.2 Rio Caroni, Venezuela The design for this structure was proposed by con­ sulting engineers Dr. Fritz Leonhardt and Willi Ballr or the firm Leonhardt and Andra, Stuttgart, West Germanv, ill an international competition. Design and plannitlg occurred in 1961 and con­ struction in 1962 and 1963. This structure, Figme 7.7, consists of a two-lane bridge with end spans of 157.5 ft (48 m) and four in terior spans of 315 ft (96 m), for a total length of 1575 ft (480 m).1 The site provided some formidable construction problems. The Rio Caroni River during Hoocl stage reaches a depth of 40 ft (l~ m) with velocities of 13 to 16 fUsec (4 to 5 Ill/sec), thus eliminating the consider­ ation of a cast-in-place concrete superstructure on falsework. Balanced cantilever segmental con­ struction was considered; however, the interrup­ tions during high-water periods would require an extensive construction period with attendant high costS.3 The proposed method consisted of assembling and prestressing the entire length of bridge on 324 Incrementally Lflunched Bridges (a) FIGURE 7.3. I ncrclI1ental launching-longitudinal section of launching bearing. from reference 3 (courtesy of the American Concrete Institute). (bi --.--­ FIGURE 7.4. Laullching Bridge. Il!diana. FIGURE 7.2. Schematic of launching jack operation. lafLift. (b) Push. (r) Lowcr. (iI) Rctract. land adjaccllt to thc bridge sile, using precast seg­ ments, and launching ill a longitudinal direction, mer the piers. into final position. Temporary piers were used al midspan of each interior span to pro­ duce ten equal spans of 157.5 ft (48 m) during the launching of the superstructure. Accommodation of on-site assembly of the total superstructure re­ quired a 1600 f't (500 m) long fabrication bed to the rear of one abulment, which was partly excavated ill rock and had to be backfilled and compacted UpOll completion of the project. At the far end of .. h<:arillg. Wabash Riyer this f'abrication beel stationary steel forms were in­ stalled to cast the precast box segments, which were 18 It 4 in. (5.6 lll) high and cast in 30 ft (9.2 m) lengths. After the precast segments attained suf'ficient strength they were stripped from the form and po­ :-.itioned in the fahdcation bed to correspond with their locatiolJ ill the final structure. The segments were mm·ed from t he form 011 wooden rails accu­ rately positioned in the assembly bed, employing formica sheets and a petroleum-base lubricant between the hOUOlll or the segment and the top of the wood rails, Figure 7.8. A space of I ft 4 in. (40 cm) was left between tbe precast segments for an in situ joint. Accurate positioning of the segments in the assemblv bed was required before casting of Lhe joints. To avoid shrinkage damage, the joints wel-e cast dUl'ing the second half of the night so that the temperature expansion of the precast segments during the heat of the day would com­ pensate for the shrinkage in the cast-in-placejoint. 3 After the joints were cast, concentric prestress­ ing located inside the box and passing through openings in the web stiffening ribs, Figure 7.9, was prestressed with a force of' 5000 tons in one opera­ Rio Caroni, Venezuela 325 II u - FIGURE 7'.7. Completed Rio Caroni Bridge. from reference 3 (courtesy of the American Concrete Insti­ tute). -FIGURE 7.8. Precast segments (courtesv of Arvid Grant). FIGURE 7.5. Telllporan ,liding be<]ring. sequence of operations. FIGURE 7.6. Incremental launching-temporary bearing and lateral guide bearing (courtesy of Prof. Fritz Leonhardt). In assembly bed tion. The prestress tendons were continuous around a large half-round concrete block at one end of the structure, Figure 7.10.' This block reacted against a number ofjacks and a 10ft (3 m) thick concrete bulkhead wall. By activating the jacks between the block and the bulkhead and causing a movement of 9 ft (2.8 m) in the stress block, the initial prestress force was induced into the tendons. The prestressing tendons were not attached to the webs. To reduce the hazard of any accidental elastic instabilitv condition, temporary steel bracing frames were installed at 60 ft (20 m) intervals.:! The 3:3 ft 10 in. (10.3 m) top flange of the box girder section was transversely prestressed, Figure 7.9. Upon completion of the prestressing operations the superstructure was readv for launching over the temporary and permanent piers to its final po­ sition. To maintain acceptable levels of concrete stresses, as the girder was launched over the 157.5 ft (48 m) spans, a 56 ft (17111) tapered structural steel launching nose was attached to the leading 326 Incrementally Launched Bridges 10"··----·------····---_ .. -------i_----13'-II"---.'2'.rI', 1'-0" ! v'l / ~ Stress steel : '"" l!II§-71--Longitudinol stress steel "','" ·--16'- 5 " - - - - -......,.·..----16'- 5"---·-~"",, FIGURE 7.9. Rio Caroni. girder (l()S~ sectioll. fmlll rcic)'cll(c :\ (oUrl('s\ or the Amcricall COllcrele IIl,tituIC). ,; , \ lesY FIGURE 7.10. Rio Caroni. prestressing block (cour­ or ..\)'yid Cralll), FIGURE 7.11. Rio Camlli, launching nose, from ref­ erence :) (courteS\' of the Aillerican Concrete Institute). elld of the superstructure, Figure 7.1 1. Two dou­ hlejacks with a tOlal capacil\' of ROO tons, Illoullleci against the bridge abutment and pulling on steel rods fastened to t he girder, proyided the horizon­ tal force required for the longitudinal launching mOYCmClll. To accommodate movement o\,er the piers, two sliding bearings were pl'Ovided at each temporary and permanent pier LOp. These bear· ings collSisted oj chrome, polished steel plates which supported teflon covered bridge bearings which were placed ill all illverted position such that they bore agailIst the underside of the girder and slid OIl the stcel plates. After a launching move­ lllCllt of ;) It (96 CIll) ill the longitudinal direction the operation was halted to allow the entire superstructure to be jacked \'erticall\', simultane­ ously al all piers. The teflon plates were then moved back to their original position (the one they occupied whell the launching operation started) and rotated 180 degrees, with respect to a vertical axis, to compensate for anyone-directional mo\'e­ ment of the teHon coating. Longitudinal launching 11100'emenl OCCUlTed at a rate of 2~ in.!min (6 COl! min); thus, olle 3 ft (6 cm) increment of movement took 16 minutes. A total cycle of operation, after subsequenl synchronization, which included the simultaneous jacking at 22 locations and reposi­ tioning of 22 tefloll bearings, required 30 minutes Val Restel Viaduct, Italy for each 3 ft (96 cm) of movement. In this manner, a daily movement of 63 ft (19.2 m) could be ac­ complished. The required initial jacking force for launching was 220 tons; this gradually increased to 400 tons for the total girder weight of 10,000 tons, which indicates a friction of 2 to 4%.3 After the launching operation was completed, the initial concentric prestressing tendon profile was changed to accommodate the loading condi­ tion in the superstructure after temporary piers were removed. To accomplish the change in ten­ don profile, special V-shaped rods were installed so that they projected upward through the top flange or downward through the bottom flange, the tendons being cradled in the V rods. The rods were then jacked simultaneously at 24 points up­ ward or downward, depending on their location. During this operation the half-round stress block, Figure 7.10, was gradually released such that upon final positioning of the tendons it had retracted 8 ft 6 in. (2.6 m). After the tendons had been relocated, thev were attached to the web and concreted for corrosion protection.:; The procedure used for the construction of the Rio Caron! Bridge, although technically adequate, is prohibitively expensive. The methodology has since been refined such that segments are cast di­ rectly behind the abutment in lengths of 33 to 100 ft (10 to 30 111) and incrememally launchecl after curing of the last segment cast. l 7.3 Val Restel Viaduct, Italy Because of rugged mountain terrain the alignment of a 1050 ft (320 m) portion of this viaduct re- 327 quired a sharp horizontal curvature of 492 ft (150 m) radius, and a vertical curvature of approxi­ mately 8860 ft (2700 m) radius, Figure 7.12. Maximum pier height is 212 ft (64.61 m). Site con­ ditions and alignment precluded construction by the balanced cantilever method or conventional cast-in-place on falsework, leading to the decision to construct by the incremental launching method. The curved 1050 ft (320 m) length of this via­ duct consists of 52.5 ft (16 m) long segments, which were fabricated in an enclosed shed behind an abutment. The bottom flange and bottom stubs of the webs of the first segments were cast first, Figure 7.13a, b, in·a 52.5 ft (16 m) length, and approxi­ mately 118 ft (36 m) behind the first abutment. After curing and stressing of the partial segment it was jacked forward an increment of 52.5 ft (16 Ill) toward the abutment, where the balance at" the section was cast, Figure 7.13a, c. At the same time the [arm work vacated by the first-segment bottom flange was reused for the castiug of the bottom flange of the second segment, monolithically with the previous segment. After launching another 52.5 ft (16 m) increment the cycle was repeated until the superstructure was completed. 4 Placement of the bottom flange mild steel rein­ forcement is shown in Figure 7.14, with the web forms in the background. The side forms for the webs and underside of the top flange cantilever, and the hydraulic jacking arrangement for strip­ ping, are illustrated in Figure 7.15. Reinforcement in the top flange is shown in Figure 7.16 and the completed top flange with the following segment ill the background in Figure 7.17. The completed segment with rails in place as it emerges from the casting shed is shown in Figure 1.61. Elevation (b) Plan (a) .FIGURE 7.12. Plan (a) and longitudinal profile (b) of the Val Reslel Viaduct, showing: A. shed for the construction of the deck segmems; B. hydraulic equipment used for launching. From reference 4. (a) E g N (b) (c) FIGURE 7.13. (d) Construction stages Val Resiel Viaducl. from referellce 4. Val Rcstel. placement ofbollOIll flange )einfill'CCIllCtll. rrom reference 4. FIGURE 7.16. Val Reslel, lOp flange reinforcement, from reference 4. FIGURE 7.15. Val Restel, side form stripping mecha­ ni~Jl), from ref'crence 4, FIGURE 7.]7. Val Resrel, completed top flange, with reinforcement for next segment in background, from reference 4. FIGURE 7.14. 328 329 Ravensbosch Valley Bridge, Holland The superstructure cross section is shown in Figure 7 .18a. Widt h of the segment is 29.5 ft (9.0 m). Total depth of segment is 8.13 ft (2.48 m), for a depth-to-span ratio of 1113. The top nange has a thi<.:kness of 9.8 in. (250 mm) and the bottom flange a thickness of 5.9 in. (I50 mm). Figure 7.ISb is a longitudinal section of the superstructure showing a lavoUl of the second-stage prestressing tendons required after launching to accommodate loads 011 the final structure. Figures 7.19 and 7.20 show the interior anchorage blocks for the second-stage prestressing before and after con­ creting, respectively . .-\ complete ode of fabricating and launching a 5:2.5 ft (16 m) segment was ~lCcomplished in four nine-hour working da\'s. Actuailaullching time for one segment was {)O to 65 minutes. l Figures 7.21 and 7.22 show the laull<.:hing nose approaching and landing on a pier. Views of the <.:ompleted structure are ShOWIl in Figul'cs 7.23 and 7.24. COIl­ struction of this bridge was accomplished ill ten months. frolll JanuaI'\' 1972 through October' 1972. 7.4 of6 it (1.8111) bv 19 ft (5.8111) with wall thickness 01 1.3 ft (0.4 m). Figure 7.26. The superstructure consists of two single-cell trapezoidal box girders connected at the i11lerior upper flange tips bv a 8.3 ft (2.3 Ill) slab and pre­ stressed transversely, Figures 7.26 and 7.27. Ea<.:h box has a width of 56.S ft (17.32 m) and a constant depth of 10.8 ft (3.3 111) for a depth-to-span rat io of 1/17. The top flange has a thickness of9.8 in. (250 mm) and the bottom flange a thickness of 7.9 ill. (200 mm). Top flange cantilever is 13 ft (4.01 m). Each dual structure consists of 22 segments ap­ proximately 62 ft 4 in. (19 111) in length. The C011­ -'1 --'" - ,--,::., ''',:' if', --- , e , Ravensbosch Valley' Bridge, Holland The 1378 ft (4:?O Ill) long Ravensbosch Valley Bridge ncar Valkcnburg represents the first bridge in Holland built by ;he incremental launching method of segmental construction. Figure 7.25. This dual structure has end spans of 1~~7.8 ft (42 111) ;ll1d six interior spans of 183.73 ft (36 111). Hol­ low rectangular piers van' in height from 21 ft (6.5 111) to 77 ft (23.5 Ill) and have exterior ciimensions .~~~~~~~.~--~~-~~~~--.-~_~~~~~~ FIGURE 7.19. Val Restel. second-stage prestressin~ anchorage block hefore ~()ncretillg, from ref'crence 4. n ~ FIGURE 7.20. Val Restel. second-stage prestressing anchorage block after concreting. from reference -I:. ia) ~!> ~7mm - Ca/JleltU 7mm (h) FIGURE 7.18. Val Restel. From reference 4. (a) ,I I' Cross section of deck. (b) Longitudinal section of deck. 330 Incrementally Launched Bridges FIGURE 7.21. Val Restel, launching nose approach­ ing pier, from reference 4. FIGURE 7.24. refercllce 4. Val Restel, completed Viaduct. from FIGURE 7.22. Val Restcl. launching nose landing on pier. from referellce 4. FIGURE 7.25. Ravembosch Valley Bridge, general \iew (courtesy of Brice Bender, BV:\/STS). FIGURE 7.23. Val Restel, \"iew of incrementally launched cUl'ved viaduct after launching, from refer­ ence 4. struction of the superstructure was based upon a cycle of one segment per week. To accommodate bending mornents during launching operations a 52.5 ft (16 m) long launch­ ing nose was used, Figure 7.28, in conjunction with a concentric first-stage prestressing consisting of26 It in. (32 mm) diameter Dywidag bars per box girder. In addition, temporary piers were used at midspan, Figure 7.28. During launching, friction amounted to 2 to 4%, equivalent to a maximum pushing force of 430 tons for a completed box girder. 1'1 iii Olifant's River Bridge, South Africa 331 FIGURE i.26. Ravell~bosch Valley Bridge. dual structure cross section (courtesy of Brice Bender. BV:\!STS). After completion of the launching, second-stage prestressing following a parabolic profile and COI1­ sisting of 12-0.62 in. (16 mm) diameter strands was installed and stressed. This structure was com­ pleted in 1975. 7.5 FIGURE i.27. Ra\cllsl)()sch Vallcy Brid).\c. girder cross section (courtcsv of Brice Bender. BV:-;!STS). FIGURE 7.28. Ravensbosch Valley Bridge. view of launching nose (courtesy of Brice Bender. BV:\/STS). Olifant's River Bridge, South Africa This railroad structure, upon completion, held the world's record for t.he longest bridge accomplished by incremental launching. It has a total length of 3395 ft (1035 m), consisting of 23 equal spans of 147.6 ft (45 m). The final structural arrangement consists of 11 continuous spans on each side fixed at the abutment and one simply supported center span-that is, an expansion joint on either side of the center span. With this structural arrangement the braking force of the trains (transporting iron ore) is transmitted to the abutments (10% of live load). In this manner the flexible piers can be lIsed, resulting in an economy in the foundations by comparison with the classical solution, where the longitudinal force is transmitted through the piers to the foundations. All 23 spans were incrementally launched as 23 continuous spans from one abutment, Figure 7.29. During launching the two expansion joints were made temporarily continuous by temporary pre­ stressing. The joints were released after the struc­ ture was in place and before it was rested on its permanent bearings. A launching nose, 59 ft (i8 m) long, was prestressed to the first segment to maintain the cantilever stresses, during launching, in the concrete within allowable limits. The tip or 332 Incrementally l;aunched Bridges END BENT P1 ~'te!i:\Q;;JI "'"'~ , 2~nJi:t~ 3~'i~!'lii'19!\b~ 1<­ Construction of the superstructure was accom­ plished in nine 1110mhs. Segments were span length, with the theoretical cvcle per span of ten hours attained in the tenth operation and 'gradu­ ally reduced to seven hours at the conclusion of casting operations. Reinforcing cages were prefab­ ricated in templates at the side of the forms. A cycle of operations consisted of the following: Cleaning and adjustment of forms Placemel1l of r.einforcing and tendons for the lower flange and webs Concreting of this first phase Placelllent of reinforcing and tendons for the upper Bange Concreting of this phase FIGURE 7.29. Olifant's Rin'f Bridge. increlllelltal 1""llchillg arrallgement. the laulJching 110se had a jacking arrallgement to acc(lIIl1llodate denection of the nose as it ap­ proached lite pier. III cross section, Figure 730, the superstructure is a cOllstant-depth rectangular single-cell box girder. Depth is 12.5 It (3.BO 111); the top flange is IH I't (5.50111) wide and the bottom flange 10 h (3, I 0 Ill) wiele. The webs and Itll1ges are of a con­ stant thickness throughout the structure. Web thickness is 13.75 in. (0.35 111) and contains verti­ cal iJ;lr prestressing tendons to carry shear. Longi­ tudinal prestressing is straight and contained in the flanges. Anchorage blocks for the longitudinal tcndons arc continuolls across the width of both flanges (interior buttresses) to asslIre a 1I10re favor­ able distribution throughout the section. There arc no diaphragms at the piers; the interior cor­ ner fillets are such as to permit the effect of tOl'­ sion to be accommodated by a transverse box frame. I. FIGURE 7.30. 3.10 ./ Olifalll's Rh'cr Bridge, cross section. Tensioning of tendons in second phase of previous span cast Tensioning of tendons in first phase of span in forms Stripping of forllls Launching After launching, and before placing the structure on its final bearings. it was necessary to adjust the joints wit bin ~ in. (10 ml1l). The principal difficul­ ties in accomplishing this operation were: Temperature differential between night and day, which produced a variation in length of the superstructure of 9.8 in. (250 mm) Age of concrete at time of adjustment, which var­ ied from !line months to ten hours Jacking operations, which could not retract the structure in case of an error in pushing forward The solution of the temperature problem was to quickly accomplish the adjustment early in the mornillg. Because of the constant temperature during the night the temperature of the super­ structure was known, and its length was deter­ minable in spite of the thermal inertia of the concrete. The superstructure was then jacked into its theoretical position on the abutment and firmly maintained by a system of blockage. The temporary tendons that had fixed the first joint were released and jacks were placed into the joint to push the remaining 12 spans and place the central simple span in its exact position. The second joint was then opened, and jacks at the other abutment po­ I, ! ' Various Bridges in France sitioned the last II-span portion of the super­ structu re. When the superstructure had thus been placed in position, it was jacked lip 011 the piers, and the temporary sliding bearings were replaced by the permanent bearings. 7.6 Various Bridges in France 7.6.1 UiC VIADL'CT This is a dual structure 912 ft (278 m) long on a curve of a 3280 ft (1000 m) radius. The super­ structure was constructed by incremental launch­ ing of complete spans on sliding bearings. Resis­ tance of the structure to its dead load during launching was accommodated by a temporary cable-stay system in which the tension was acuusted as construction proceeded, Figure 7 .31. ~o supplementary prestressing was provided during t he launching phases. A 26 ft 111) launching nose was provided at the leading end in order to reduce the weight of the cantilevered structure. It is a continuous strllctlll'e supported on neo­ prene bearings and has a double-T cross section, as indicated in Figure 732. Roadway width is 46 It (14.0 m), and depth of superstructure is a constant 10.3 ft (3.15 111). Spans are 1:33.5 ft (40.7 111). 7.6.2 CRElL VL1lJCCT This structure consists of eight continuous spans having a total length of 1102 ft (336 m), crossing a railroad and the Oise River. The project is of inter­ est in that it was launched from both abutments without the use of a launching nose or a temporary cable-stay svstem. However, temporary bents were used to control the cantilever stresses. In cross sec­ tion the superstructure is a single-cell box, Figure 7.33. Segments for each of the two half-super structures were from 65.6 to 98.4 ft (20 to 30 m) in length. A launching was effected upon com­ pletion of each segment. After the t\1!0 half­ superstructures had been launched to their final position, a closure pour of 3.3 ft (1 m) in length was consummated to provide continuity. 333 Concentric tendons from one end to the of her of each half-superstructure, coupled together at each phase of concreting of segments Straight, short tendons in the top flange over the piers and in the bottom flange, centered in thc span and tensioned after launching Continuity tendons, tensioned after laullchillg, situated in webs and anchoring at the upper flange Short parabolic tendons, located in the webs and anchoring in the top Range, tensioned after launching Temporarv tendons in the upper Hange, having the same effect as the cantilever tcndolls 7.6.3 OLl Vl.-lDL'CT This viaduct spans the vallev of Oli ill 15 spalls of l34.5 it (41111) for a totallellgth 01'2017 ft (GIS Ill) at a height of 197 ft (60 m). The structure has a grade of 5.355% and a horizontal cun'C \\ilh a radius of 6700 ft (2046 m). Total weight of the superstructure is IG,500 tons (I5,nOO I11t). Incremental launching in this structure, rather than pushing the superstructure out mer t he piers, was accomplished b\' a restrained lowering down the grade. The force required in braking the structure was approximately 660 tons (tWO IIlf) as compared to the estimated force of 1540 10m (1400 mt) to push the structure uphill. In its hnal configuration, because it was difficult to accommodate horizontal forces due to braking and seismic effects in the tall flexible piers, the superstructure is anchored in the terrain in the area of the abutments by a tie of a large stiffncss. All of this longitudinal global force is aCCOIll1110­ dated in the large stiff tie. the abutments, and the relatively short stiff piers in each bank. <c\ central joint divicles the structure into two independcllI structures. Cpon completion of launching and before plac­ ing the superstructure on its permanent bearings. it was necessary to "unlock" the joint that held the two half-superstructures together during COIl­ struction and to adjust its position within approxi­ mately ~ in. (10 mm). This operation was COIl­ d ucted as follows: Longitudinal prestress consists of six sets: Cantilever tendons, tensioned before launching, located in the top flange and anchored in fillets at the intersection with the web The superstructure was restrained at the upper abutment until the distance between its theoretical position and the end of the lower abutment was approximately 8 in. (200 mm). 334 Incrementally L:.aunched Bridges PHASE 1 I"~, (~) placing of the launching nose concreting and prestressing of the first span launching of the first span e: PHASE 2 concreting and prestressing of the second erecting the cable-stay system launching of the first two spans s~an PHASE 3 concreting and prestressing of the third span launching of the first three spans PHASE t., Ti-:.~- concreting and prestr~ssing of the fourth span launching of the first four spans PHASE 7 .---P_5~_~ __ ~~.,'fL~_"2.-'D __ " _~t,I"~ _ _ _ _ j9_!2.... ~_~~~ ___',oo:~,.oo.1\IX".nl!l).'ur;:._ ~ ;- m~I' 1.------ •"---. •••••• I, ,!, : ,. =.'i '" . ====,Ir=i.~===:::Z;.CC~~=',~: ,. ;;>-" .1 ,;----~ .. ~, ......!-, ......... -;-. completion of launching operations disassembling of the launching nose and cable-sLay <;,y';,Lt::1ll placing on permenant bearings placing and tensioning of phase 2 prestressing FIGURE 7.31. Luc Viaduct. incrememallaunching phases. (0) Placing of the launching nme. concreting and prestressing of the first span, launching of the first span. (h) COIl­ creting and prestressing of the second span, erecting of the cabk~-stay system, launching of the first t\,'O spans. (c) Concreting and prestressing of the third span, launching of the fIrst three spans. (d) Concreting and Prestressing of the fourth span, launching of the first four spans. (e) Completion of launching operations, disassembling of the launching no.'>e and cable-stay system, placing on permanent bearings, placing and tensioning of phase-two prestressing. The temporary tendons connecting the two half­ superstructures were successively detensioned. However, two temporary tendons restrained the lower half-superstructure. The upper half-super­ structure was fixed to the upper abutment by a system of prestress bars and complementary reinforcement installed in the upper abutment. The t\\'o temporary tendons restraining the lower half-superstructure were detensioned in incre­ ments, allowing the lower half-superstructure to Wabash River Bridge, U.S.A. FIGURE 7.32. Luc Viaduct, cross section. 11.00 .. --. --_. - - - - - - j 5.50_----" ! 23% I. 0 I;::: I~ ' 50 2.75 FIGURE 7.33. Creil Viaducl. cross sectioll. descelld to a blockillg svstelll in,the lower abutment. Fixillg of t he lower hal f-su perst ructll re to the lower abulillellt was thell accolllplished. The superstrllcture bearings. 7.7 W;IS positioned Oll its filIal Wabash River Bridge, U.S.A. This structlIre. the hl'st ilIcreIllelltally launched seglllental bridge constructed in the Ullited States, carries two lanes of C.S. 136 over the Wabash Rjver Ilear Covington, Indiana. It is a six-span structure with end 'pans of 93ft 6 in. (28.5 Ill) and four interior spans of 187ft (57 m), Figure 7.34. Roadway width is 44 ft (13.4 m). Pier heights are approximateh' 40 ft (12 111): average river depth is 11ft (3.35 Ill) with low water at 8 ft CZ.4 Ill) and high water at ~4 ft (7.3 nl). The superstructure is a two-cell hox girder with a constant depth of 8 h (~.4 111). The project was awarded in September of 197t)· with a completion date of October 1978. The entire superstructure was completed in ","ovel11ber of 1977. Original design plans prepared by American Consulting Engineers, Inc., of Indianapolis for the State Highway Commission called for a precast segmental balanced GlI1tilever design: however, the bid documents permitted alternative methods of constructing the superstructure. The successful contractor, a joint venture of Weddle Bros. Con­ 335 struction Co., Inc., and the Ralph Rodgers Con­ struction Co., both of Bloomington, Indiana, in­ vestigated three alternatives for thc superstructure construction. These alternates included cast-in­ place segments supported on falsework, incre­ mental launching, and the cast-in-place segmental balanced cantilever method. Incremental launch­ ing was the successful method and reportedly saved $100,000 over the other precast segmental method:-' The V.S.L. Corporation of Las Gatos, California, was the subcontractor for prestressing and launching. A 140 ft (42.7 rn) casting beel was located behind the west abutment of the bridge alld could accolll­ Illodate three 46 ft 9 in. (14.25 m) segll1ents. The forms for casting were supported on I beall1s . which were supported on steel piling to provide a solid foundation and prevent any settlell1ent of the casting bed, Figure 7.35. The bottol11 third of the two-cell box superstructure was cast at the 1l10st westerlv end of the casti ng bed, Figu re 7.35. I twas thell advanced 46 ft 9 in. (14.25 111), where forIlls for the balallce of the sectioll were positioned, Illild steel reinforcelnellt and prestressing tendons placed, and the babnce of the seglnent cast. Figure 7.36. After the segIllent had been poured alld cured, the 20-ton j;lcks that held the forll1s in posi­ tion, Figure 7.37. were released to break the bond and rcmove the forl1ls. The large ll1etal fOrIm stayed in place and were simplv swung in and out as needed. The segl1lellt was thell advanced to the forward third of the castillg bed for slIrLIce fillishing by a collvelltional Bidwell screed. Figure 7.:~H, before Iaunchillg over the abutment. In this mannel' a production-lille ll1ethodologv was l1laintained. Three segIllents were always in vari­ ous st;lges of fabricarioll, with reinforceIllent and prestressing telldolls continuous between seg­ ments. The first-stage pour required approxill1ateh' s:~ vd: l (40.5 m:J) alld the second pour required frolll 101 to 130 vel:J (77.2 to 99.4 m:l). It took approxi­ mately four hours for each pour. Twenty-eight-day design strength was 4800 psi (3.37 kg/mm~). and 6000 to 7000 psi concrete strengths were actually attained (4.2 to 4.9 kg/mm2). A 3500 psi (2.46 kg/ mm 2 ) strength was required before stressing, and this was normally achieved in 24 to 30 hours. As segments were com pleted, each was stressed to its predecessor by first-stage prestressing consisting of eight tendons of tweh'e ~ in. (12.7 mm) diameter 27 ksi (190 kg/mm2) strands, Figure 7.39. Initially the contractor was able to complete one cycle of seg­ ment fabrication and launching in two weeks: 336 Incrementally Launched Bridges AT M::::>SPAN A"f PIERS 8-0 ELEVATION .Q1K~ ..Of MOVEMfNJ )100­ CONSTRUCTION ELEVATION CONSTRUCTION PLAN FIGURE 7.34. Wabash River Bridge: cross section of girder, from reference 6; ~trllClioll COJ1­ details, from reference 2, however, as experience was gained, two cycles per week were attained. To accommodate the launching stresses a 56 ft (17 111) launching nose was attached to the lead segment, Figures 7,34 and 7.40. In addition, the four interior spans had temporary steel bents at midspan, Figures 7.34 and 7.41. In this manner the total structure length was divided into ten equal spans of 93 ft 6 in, (28.5 m) during the launching procedure. Because of the longitudinal force on the piers during launching, the permanent piers were tied back to tbe abutment with four prestressing strands each, These strands were stressed to 96 kips (43,545 kg) before launching commenced. Each temporary pier was tied back to the preced­ FIGURE 7.35. support. Wabash FIGURE 7.36. Wabash Ri\'er Bridge, casting bed. FIGURE 7.39. stressing. Wabash Ri\er Bridge, first-stage pre­ Rh'er Bridge, casting-bed FIGURE 7.37. Wabash River Bridge, side form jacks, FIGURE 7.38. top flange. ""'abash Ri\er BI'idge, surface finishing 337 Incrementally Launched Bridges 338 FIGURE 7040. Wabash Ri\'er Bridge, launching nose. J ~4,itlf'i1ffitt~~ horizontal jacks an 18 in. (457 mm) stroke. The vertical jacks lifted the superstructure ahout .~ in. ( 13 mm) and the horizolltaljack pushed it forward 17 in. (432 mm). Each jacking o'cle required'about fJ\e minutes, and the entire launching of a 46 rt 9 in. (14.25 m) segment required about three hours. Temporan' bearings. Figure 7.4, were located at each temporary bent and permanent pier. During the launching operation workmen were stationed at each bearing location to insert the teflon pads as the superstructure slid over the bearings: To maintain lateral alignment or the superstructure, lateral guide bearing~. Figure 7.43, were also 10­ clIed at each temporary bearing and also used teflon pads. Workmen would tighten bolts on one side of the superstructure and loosen them on the opposite side to push the superstructure lateralh. Fillal positioning of the superstructure on the east abutment was withinh in. (0.8 111m) or its pre­ ~Clil>ed location. . 7.8 Other Notable Structures illg permanent pier bv two stavs or lOin. hy lOin. (~S4 IIlIll hy ~54 111m) stl'llctllral sleel tubing. Fig'­ ures 7.:14 and 7.42. The jackillg procedure during launching used t ht' two-jack S\'stelll (one \'ertical and one horizon­ Ld) and teflon pads, as described in Figure 7.2. The vCltical jack~ had a 2 in. (50 llllll) stroke and the Allot her example of this I\Ve of constructioll is the \1iihlbachtalbnkke ahout 30 llliles (50 km) south­ west or Stuttgart, West Germany, Figure 7.44. This structure has an overall length of 1903 it (580111) with 141 It (43 111) spallS. The far-side trapezoidal box girder is shown in Figure 7.44 cOlllpleted from abutment 10 abutment: the near-side trapezoidal box girder has heen launched frolll the lefl abut­ ment and the launching nose has reached the first pier. A general view or the SI ruct ure is presented ill Figu re 7.45. FIGURE 7042. tuhing lie. FIGURE 7.43. bearing. FIGURE 7041. Wabash Ri\cr Bridge, temporary steel bellI. Wabash Rh'cr Bridge, structural steel Wabash River Bridge, lateral guide l 339 Other Notable Structures FIGURE 7.47. \Ilihlhachtalhrticke, stressing tendoll anchorage. FIGURE 7.44. \llihlbachtalhrllCke, aerial \'iew. FIGURE 7.45. \fiihlbachtalbriicke, general \'iew. 111 pre­ ! FIGURE 7.48. \fiihlbachtalhriicke, second-stage pre­ ~tressillg ;mchorage block. 7.8.2 \liihlbachtalbrucke, segment first-stage .( Some ide;1 of the size of the box girder IlW\ be obtained frol1l Figure 7.46, showing the intel·ior of' the fornnvork at the rear of the abutment. First­ stage prestressing telldon anchorage at the lOp or lhe web I1l<lV be seen in Figllre 7,47. The ;lIlchor­ age block for the second-stage prest ressing is lo­ cated inside the completed box, Figure 7..tH. FIGURE 7.46. tiollarv forms. ! sta­ SHEPflJ:'IWS HOlJSE BRIf)(;E, F.S(;LA.Yf) The Shepherds House Bridge is the hI'S! illcn~­ mentalh' launched bridge constructed in Englalld. This highway structure crosses four railroad tracks at. Sonning Cutting, Ileal' Reading, about 30 ll1ile~ (48 km) west of London. The new structure COII­ trasts sharply with an existing brick arch srrUC[Ul'C huilt in 1838 bv Brunei, a famolls English en­ gineer. The existing structure consists of three cir­ cular brick arches supported on tall brick piers with the abutments founded in the sides of the cutting.' A general plan showing the existing bridge, railroad tracks, and alignment of the new structure is presented in Figure 7.49. H 340 Incrementally La~unched Bridges FIGURE 7.49. Shepherds House Bridge. general plan, from reference 8 (courtesv of JnstilUtion or Civil Engineers). III 1971 the north abutment settled and the bridge was temporarily closed for repairs. III \larch of ]972, hecause the life expectancy of tile existing structure was in question and because it did not comply with current highway standards, the !l.finistry of Transport instructed consulting engineers, Bullen and Partners, to prepare a study to determine the type and method of construction lor a new structure. The new bridge provides a dllalillg of the existing road, and in the future the existing bridge will be replaced by a parallel struc­ tllre. exi~ting Because British Rail was engaged in extensive lIlaintenance and upgrading of the tracks prior to introduction of high-speed trains, there would be se\'(~re limitations on track possession. Further, it was dictated that piers between tracks were to be avoided and that fOllndations on the north slope of the ctltting were not to disturb the foundations of the existing bridge abutment. Construction work­ ing area was restricted because traffic was to be maintained on a residential street at one end and a trunk road at the other end. Soil conditions re­ quired that any temporary conditions that would load or disturb the slopes was to be avoided, thus requiring pile foundations with the pile caps at the surface to avoid extensive excavation in the slopes. s The consultants initially studied five possible schemes for construction of a bridge. Schemes using cast-in-place construction on falsework had earlier been rejected. An incremental launching scheme was recom­ mended, even though there were no accurate cost data for construction in the C.K. The consultants concluded that this scheme, although of shorter lengt h than customary for this type of construc­ tion, would solve the problems of restricted work­ ing space and interference with residential streets and would require the least track downtime. The west elevation of the bridge is shown in Fig­ ure 7.50. Span lengths, determined by track loca­ tion, are 75.5 ft (23 m), 121.4 ft (37 m), and 82 ft (25 m), The bridge is fixed at the south abutment with an expansion joint at the north abutment. The casting hed for the production of 31.5 ft (9.6 m) segments was located to the rear of the south abutment. The south abutment was located to pro­ vide maximum work space for the casting bed and lO clear a large number of Post Office communica­ tion cables. Interior piers band c were designed to withstand the friction forces exerted during launching operations. In addition, pier c, located close to the railroad tracks, was subject to damage or complete demolishment in the event of a de­ railment. Therefore, the superstructure was de­ signed lO withstand the removal of pier c by an ac­ cident. Six untensioned but anchored Macalloy tendons in certain segments were added so as to preclude ultimate collapse with no live load on the bridge and pier c removed. 7 •s Normally, in this type of construction, the cast­ ing bed is of sufficient length to accommodate at least two and sometimes three segment lengths, such that the bottom flange may be cast separately in advance of the webs and top flange. In this proj­ ect, with restricted space for the casting bed, it was decided to cast one complete segment in one pour. II Other Notable Structures _______ 3'.~OO~O ____________________ 341 ~2~.OOO~ ____ ~ levels in molre& 00. Dtm.naiQnlI in miUuneltU FIGURE 7.50. Shepherds House Bridge, we!it elevation, from reference 7 (courtesy of The Concrete Society, London). A maXl!l1UI11 of three weeks was allowed for con­ struction and launching of a segment. This time was later reduced to two weeks except for those segments with a diaphraglll. 7 A typical cross section of the box girder segment is shown in Figure 7.51. The launching sequence is shown in Figure 7.52. The steel launching truss nose was first erected using a temporarv intermediate support. The first segment was cast against the launching nose and post-tensioned bv Macalloy bars, some of which were llsed to COllnect the launching nose to the first segment. The launching nose, in position, before the launching of the first segment is shown in Fig­ ure 7.53. After the first segment had been laullched forward, the next segment was cast and post-tensioned to the previous one. This proce­ dure was repeated until the completed bridge was I' launched to the north abutment. The launching nose passing over pier c is shown in Figure 7.54. Arrival of the launching nose at pier b is shown in Figure 7.55. The launching nose was removed after the concrete superstructure arrived at pier b, Figure 7.56. The superstructure was launched over tempo­ rary bearings, which consisted of high-grade con­ crete pads with a in. (1 mm) thick stainless steel plate damped and tensioned across the top sur­ face. Lateral guide bearings were also provided to keep the superstructure on line. Cpon completion of launching the superstructure was jacked in a predetermined sequence and the temporar\, bearings were replaced with permanent bearings. H The jacking force for launching was provided by two jacks pulling on a set of nine 0.6 in. (I5 mm) * IOlOOmm E E ~ lOOO mm .1 FIGURE 7.51. Shepherds House Bridge, girder cross section, from refer­ ence 8 (courtesy of The Institution of Civil Engineers). 342 Incrementally L!,lunched Bridges Stage 1; Cast first unit and connect to launching nose Stage 2. Launch to piet C Stages 3-5: Launch over tracks FIGURE 7.54. Shepheld~ HOllse Bridge, launching nose passing O\'er pier c, from reference 7 (courtesy of The Concrete Sociel\, London). Stage 6· Launch to pier B Stage 7 Continue launch Stage 8: Reach pier B and remove nose Slage, 9 and 10: Complete launch FIGURE 7.52. Shepherds HOllse Bridge, ~equence of increlllcntal launching. 1'1'0111 reference 8 (collrle~y of '"he InSI illli ion 01" Ci\"il Engineers). FIGURE 7.55. Shepherds House Bridge, launching nose at pier b, from reference 7 (courtesy of 'rhe Con­ crete Societv, London). FIGURE 7.53. Shepherds House Bridge, launching 110;,(' ill position before launching, fron; reference 7 (collrlesy oj The Concrete Societ\', London). di<lnleter cables passing under the casting bed and anchored to I he front of the abutment. The load was applied to a fabt'icated bracket secured to the rear of the se"ment bv bolts coupling with the projecting ends of the MacalJoy bar tendons in tlte top and hottom Ranges of the segment, Fig­ ure 7.57. The two jacks were operated in tandem by a single pUlllp. This system required 30 seconds for jackillg and 30 seconds for retracting for each 10 in. (254 mIll) stroke. H ~, L FIGURE 7.56. Shepherds House Bridge, superstruc­ ture launched to pier b and launching nose removed, from reference 7 (courtesy of The lA.lnCrete Society, London). Design of Incrementally Launched Bridges 343 The dimensiolls for typical cross sections pre­ sented in Section 4.5.4 remain valid for the web I hickness, but the top flange and bottom /lange thickness may ha\'e to be increased, depending on the l\-pe or prestressing iayou t adopted (see Sect ion 7.9.4). 7.9.3 FIGURE 7.57. Shepherds House Bridge, segment being bU!lched from fOl!l1work, frolll reference 7 (courles\ of lhe CO!lcrete Sociel;-, LO!ldon), 7.9 Design of Incrementally Launched Bridges The desi),!;ller must ;Llw;L\'s remeillher th~u ill order to cOllStrllct increlllelltalh I:lllllched I)ridges, the horizontal alld \'e!lical aliglllllent must he either straight or consLmt h cllned or twisted. This is gelleralh Ilot the case, a~ road pl~lllllers ~Ire not bridge builders..\s a l1l~llIer or fact, it is the SOn]! of the bridge deck that has to be desiglled with a COII­ stan! radius or curvature: the traIlS\'el'se canlilc\er of the deck Ibllge Clli be \';tried to accoIlllllodate possible small de\·i~ltiolls. /,9.2 SP/L\' ARR,/X(;E.HEST AX/) RI:LITEI) PRIXClPU:' Of" COXS1RL'CT/OS The constant-depth requirement limits the eco­ nomical lise or this const ruction Illet hod 10 spans not longer than 150 to 200 ft (50 to 50 Ill). II is advanlage()lIs if all the spans are equal ill length. However, much 101l(!;er spans have been built 1)\ utilizint; special techniques ill conjullction with the basic principle of incremelltal laullching-. A three-span const ruct lOll ll1av be lallllched from both sides. In this way the center Sp~1l1 can be twice I he lel1~t h of t he edge spans wit hou t increase of the stresses in the deck. TiIe span configuration then becomes: L-'.!.L-L (see Figure 7,5H), Champig-Il\ Bridge ne;lr Paris was the fil'st stnlc­ Ilire of this t\pe. Longer bridges are often launched from one side onh (Ihe record leng-tlt is Ihat of Olilant's Ri\er Bridge ill South Africa, ill excess of 3:H)() ft), A.llxiiiarv temporan' devices are llsed to reduce the hending tllotnellls in the trollt portion of the deck (launching Ilose or lower stars) ITPI:', .111.11'[<; .IS/) f)f.H/:',\Sf(),\S OF SL P F. H.SrraCfL 'N,I:' This method of construction requires a cross sec­ tion with a constant depth, since the designer has to insure the resistance of the superstructure, under its 0\\,11 weight, at all sections as the launch­ ing proceeds. Economic cOllsiderations dictate a constant IllOll1ent of inertia. Two tv pes of cross section have been lIsed to date: the box girder and the double T. The box girder prm'ides a better stillness and resistance to torsion and at the same time <In easier placement of the prestressing tendons in the cross section. The depth of the box is llslIallv one-twelfth to one­ sixteenth of the longest span, the first value ap­ plving to larger and the second to smaller spans. Table 7.1 su I1ll11arizes the characteristics of several incremenralh' launched bridges. FIGURE 7.58. Three-span sYmmetrical incremelllaliv laullched bridge. TABLE 7.1. :\alllc :\uel Viaduct, France BOlTigliolle Viaduct, France Kimonkro Bridge, Year Characteristics of IncrementaIly Launched Bridges C ross Sect ion 41' 1976 "I IE 13 1976 ~ 1978 IE 31.3' I 39' Tet Viaduct, Ft'<I 11 ce IE: "I ~ ~I :vla rolles Bridge, France Crcil Bridge, France 344 135 807 135 Launched Weight (t) Vertical Curve Horizolltal Curve 6,000 Slope 6% R = 2,460 ft 807 6,000 Slope 5.5o/c R lIS 709 3,600 141 ()60 1% 915 (It) 2,460 ft Straight 13 Lue Viaduct, Franfe Oli Viaduct, France rotal Length y I \'01'\' Coast l'aillon Bridge, France I\pical Sp<m (It) 34' 1976 !' f---...... 40,5' 1976 'I ~1 13 1972 I" 197H I' 29.5' 'I I~ 36' 'I 7,900 l.l51 135 2.018 131 345 194 1,102 15,000 Slope 3.Ho/c, Straight Slope 1.3Vc Curve Slope 5.85o/c R = 6,712 it 345 Design of Incrementally Launched Bridges TABLE 7.1. (Continued) Launched Weight (t) VenicaJ Curve (It ) .rotal Length (It) 262 1,732 13,000 Slope 0.7% 138 1,10,7 9,700 335 1,476 169 1.562 138 1.398 108 469 Tvpical :\ame Gronachtal Bridge. Germany Year 1978 46.3' I' 1 ~ I \ I~ 175' .1 Val' Viaduct. France 1976 Inn Bridge. Kufstein, Germanv 1965 Sp~1I1 C ross Sect iOIl 32' I' I \ '1 ~r Koehes Vallev Hridge, Germanv Querlin Guen Bridge. Germany 'LJ I Ahcou Aqueduct, France Ingolstadt Bridge. Danube Bridge. ;;J 1967 . 19' Hori/.ontai Curve R 7,217 ft Straight ~t 'I OJ ..... 1 ---L 1978 ""._M_ I 62' 0 JOt I ,--:r::: =t 8 6 spans 197 to 2 x 1.246 377 as. previously indicated in some of the examples de­ scribed in this chapter. When the spans become too large, intermediate temporary bents are used. This was done for the first bridge over the Caroni River in Venezuela, The record span length for incrementally launched bridges was obtained by a structure over the. Danube River designed by Prof. Leonhardt, the originator of the method, Figure 7.59. The cost of the temporary bents depends greatly ort the foundation conditions; it may be prohibitive if the bent height is greater than 100 ft (30 01) and soil conditions require deep piling. For very long bridges, intermediate expansion joints are needed, much the same as for cantilever bridges. The expansion joints are temporarily fixed by prestressing during launching and are re­ leased at the end of construction to allow for ther­ mal expansion iIi the structure during service. A very ingenious variation of this principle was de­ 346 Incrementally Launched Bridges FIGURE 7.59. Danllile RiH'1 Bridge, :\lIst ria. \'(,Ioped for the Basra Bridge in haq, where a COIl­ nete swillg spall was laullched IOgether with the approach spans as a single unit alld later arr;lllged to SCI'\(' its purpose as a lllo\'able hridge mer the 11;[\ Igation channel, Figllre 7.()O. ;. (j./ f)j'-'S!(;.\' OF !.o.\'G!Tl '/)/.\..11.. \IF.\1!1FRS FOR nISl'ln ..IX/) 'IF.\'f)()X j'IWFlLI:' During laullchillg-. the SIlperstructure is subjected to cOlltinllalh ailcrnalillg bcnding IllOlllellts, so t ha t a 11\' OIlC sect iOll is SII hjected to a conlin ual \';ll'iatioll 01 bellding mOlllellts, hoth positi\e and FIGURE 7.60. neg-alive, as shown in Figures 7.61 and 7.62. These hendillg moments are balanced by internal uni­ form axial prestressing. In the final stage, additional tendons are re­ (juired to supplelllent the uniform axial prestress­ ing- in order to carry the service loads. Conven­ tiollal solutions are applied \0 this problem, and in t he pre~ent discllssion we need ollly enlarg-e UpOIl the specific problem of the axial prestressing. For t his prestressing-, tendons are ~o arranged that the cOlllpressi\e stresses are the sallle over the entire cross-section;ll area. The required telldons are placed in the top and bOIlOl1l flang-es of the box section. The\ an' usualh' straig-ht. tClISioned be/ore launching-, so couplers are needed at each joint between slIccessive seglllents. Seg-II 1<:'11 t lengt h Illa\ \,ar\, f'rolll 50 1t (15 Ill) to /()() It (;)() Ill). As Ilotecl ill ollr discllssioll of the progressive constnlCtioll Illethod, then' an~ lilllita­ tiolls to IIIe deck's ctpacitv 10 carr~ its own weight' dlllillg bunchillg when the Irollt part is in can­ tilever hnolld a t\picaJ pier. To keep hending mOIlK'llts and stresses withill allowahle values, it i~ IIsllally nccessan to lise a \;lIlllching nose, a light steel IlH':lllher placed ill frollt of the cOllcrete structure to allow Sllpport frolll the Ilext pier, rather thall launching the cOllcrete deck allthe wa\, with no support. \:lIllHTical values are given ill Figures 7.61 and 7.62 for the critical maximum positi\'{:, and negative Illoments during Iaullching. AssUllling the unit \\'eig-III of the launching lIose 10 he I WI( of t he weight of I hc connete deck (a vallie sOlllewhat lower than ;l\'crage), the critical Basra Bridge, Iraq. I FIGCRE 7.61. OFL~1l2)[6a" -i- Critical negati\'c moments during launching with !lose, 6')1(i 0: 2 )]. '\Iultiplier: WL2/12. For ')I = 0,10: a /3 )d o 0,20 0,30 OAO 0.50 0.80 0.70 0,60 0.50 0,82 1.09 1.46 1.95 1.00 0.00 6.00 ;VI" o L· FIGURE 7.62. (WC'1l2)(0.933 -!sp-'I> ",.>1,""'/ . in fJ'l"c./ S'j>Jh • ~ Critical positive moment during launching with nose. Ml 2.96')1/3 2 ). '\Iultiplier WC'1l2. For ')I 0.10: /3 ,\'1, 0.20 0.30 . 0.40 0.50 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.74 0.79 0.83 0.86 1.00 0.00 0.93 a 347 348 Incrementally La,;nched Bridges ll10ments are as follows for \'arious lengths of the launching nose: :'\ose Length, I'erccnt or hpi"ll Spall :'faximulIl l'.foIl1ellts Support (lHo) Span (M ,) iHo/Jl, 1.95 1.46 1.09 0.82 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.74 ') ')­ _._1 50 60 7ll ~() 1.76 1.38 l.J1 :\!olllent factor is J-FL 2/l2 (W wC'ight of concrete per unit length and L = span length) FIGURE i .65. Technologically, the uniform axial prestress may be illStalled in the superstructure in several differ­ above the concrete deck with steel deviation sad­ dles at intermediate joints. The three solutions above h:l\c their relative merits and disadvantages: (,Il! ways: I. Straight tendons rUllning through the top and bottolll flange of each segment, joined by couplers at the joillls between segments. Straight tendons running through the top and hOIlOlll flanges. anchored ill hlod.-outs inside the box girder. Figure 7.63. TCIIl))()ran' curved tendons may be used to b;dance the final continuity tendons during construction. These tendons are outside the concrete sectioll between supports. Figure 7.64. This met hod has been used for several large pndects. <) Figure 7.65 sho\\'s the Sat horn Bridge in Bangkok. Thailand. with the temporary tendons illstalled FIGURE 7.63. FIGURE 7.64. tem. Lapped prestressing tendons. Temporary external prestressing sys­ Sathorn Bridge, Thailand. 1. The first solution lIlay require local thick­ elling of the concrete flanges for placemenl of the couplers. However, it is often preferred to in­ crease the thickness 01 the flanges over the entire bridge length lO simplifv casting of the segments. Axial prestressing tendons are permanent and cannot he removed. They must he incorporated in the hnal prestressing layout. The joints between segments have to be carefully designed. owing to the presence of couplers and concrete voids that may significantly we<.tken the section. 2. The main ach'<lntage of the second solution pertains to the removal and reuse of those tendons not required in the final prestressing layout. How­ ever, the cost and difficulty of pnl"iding a large number of block-outs offsets a significant pan of the advantage of removing the temporary tendons. 1n order to obtain a satisfactory shear resistance from the webs, particularly during launching with alternating shear and bending stresses, the configuration of the box section and location of the upper and lower blisters must be carefully consid­ ered. This problem was mentioned in Chapter 4 as presenting potential difficulties. A satisfactory so­ lution is shown in Figure 7.66. where upper and lower blisters are not in the same vertical plane. A sufficient amount of vertical prestress will insure the resistance of webs against shear during all con­ struction stages. 3. The third solution is theoretically a satisfac­ tory one, allowing the permanent prestress to be installed during construction and the temporary prestress to be designed only to counteract the un­ Design of Incrementally Launched Bridges 349 reinforcement must be made densely prestressed. FIGURE 7.66. Offset lapped prestressing tendons. desired efFects of the former during moment re­ versals created bv the successive launching stages. In practice, inst'allation of the tendons passing from the inside to the outside of the box section is not particularh simple. An attempt should be made to reuse these temporary tendons to reduce the investment in nonproductive materials. A comparati\'e analysis between the first two methods of temporarv prestressing has been made for a typical railway bridge, Solution 2 requires 19% more conventional reinforcement than solu­ tioll 1 because of the many blisters and more elabo­ rate tendon layout. The total cost of materials (concrete prestress and reinforcement) is 9% higher for solution 2 than for solution I, These re­ SUIIS Illay be signifkantlv different for highway bridges, where the ratio between girder load and superimposed dead and live loads is ven different. 1.9,) ClSTlXG .1REA ,1ND LI exCi II.\'G .\.1ETHODS The precasting area is located behind one abut­ ment and has a length usually equal to that of two or three segments. There are two different launching methods: L The bunching force is transmitted Froll1 the jacks bearing against the abutment face to the bridge by pulling tendons or steel rods an­ chored in the bridge soffit. 2. A launching device consisting of horizontal ancl vertical jacks is placed over the abutment. The vertical jack rests on a sliding surface and has a special friction gripping element at the top. The vertical jack lifts the superstructure for launching, and the horizontal jack pushes it horizontally. The designer should be concerned with the fol­ lowing items: The first launching method applies high local forces to the concrete soffit where the pulling de­ vice is anchored. Careful design of the passive Ifl an area already The second launching method requires sufficient vertical reaction on the vertical jack. This could be critical at the end of launching, when the required launchinD' o force reaches its maximum with a corre­ sponding small vertical reaction. A very precise geometry control is required during launching. The possibility of foundation settle­ ment must be considereel in the design. Whichever launching method is used, after completion of the launching· procedure the deck must be raised suc­ cessively at each pier so that the permanent bear­ inD's o may, be installed. This phase also calls for careful analysis. 1.9,6 L1USCHING NOSE /l1','D TE.HPORARY STAfS The large cantilever moments occurring in the front part of the superstructure that is being launched from pier to pier inevitably call for spe­ cial provisions to keep the bending stresses and the temporary prestress within allowable and eco­ nomically acceptable limits. Two methods have been used together and separately, as previously mentioned: :\ steel member made either of plate girders or of t.russes is temporarily pre­ stressed into the end diaphragm of the concrete bridge, which is the front section of the deck dur­ ing launching. Tower and sta}'s: This method was described ill Chapter 6 for progressive construction, Its appli­ cation to incremental launching, however, needs a special approach, because the relative position of the tower and the Slavs changes constantly with re­ gard to the permanent piers. Launching nose: The advantage of the launching nose to reduce cantilever momems in t.he concrete superstructure was discussed in Section 7.9.4. It is important not onlv to select the proper dimensions of the launching nose but also to take into proper account the actual Aexibilitv of the steel nose in comparison to that of the concrete span. This relative Aexibilitv may be characterized by the following dimension­ less coefficie 11 t: K = £..1., £,./" 350 Incrementally Launched Bridges where E, and Ec refer to steel and concrete moduli, and fs and f" are the moments of inertia of the steel nose and concrete superstructure. Figure 7.67 pre­ sents the results of a study analyzing the variation of the maximum support moment in the concrete deck for different launching stages with the rela­ tive stiffness K. This chart conf1rms the obvious fact that a flexible nose has only a limited efficiency in reducing the moments in the concrete deck. The following table gives the characteristics of several structures using a launching nose and serves as a reference for preliminary investigations of the op­ timum launching method. Brid),(' Wabash Ri\'(T Oil Rin-r Sao lit' Roche Launching \\'('i),(l1! of' :\os(' Lenglh Launclling lit :\os(' (!ons) (111)] Slavs iifi :10 :\0 !1~) :-16 Yes ()!1 :\0 :\0 ( 17) (I X) 93,5 (2X.:i ) 12-l.!'l (:~H) 90 To allow the method to be effective in all launching stages, it is necessary to constantly coJ)­ trol the reaction of the tower applied to the con­ crete deck. When the tower is above one pier; it is totally efficient. When launching has proceeded for another half-span length, the tower and stays produce additional positive moments at midspan, exactly contrary to the desired effect. For this rea­ son the tower may be equipped with jacks between the concrete deck and the tower legs, and the tower reaction may be constantly adjusted to optimize the stresses in the concrete superstructure. Figure 7.68 shows a device being successfully used for the first time in the construction of the Boin'e Viaduct, near Poitiers, France, /,9,/ PIERS ASD FOUSDATIOXS The loads applied to Ihe piers and foundatiom during the incremental launching procedure are' \'er\' difIerelll from those appearing during ser­ vice, The static configuratioll of the piers is also For longer spans the launchillg nose is not neces­ sarily the optimum solution, while Icmporan bellts lll<l\' also he expensive, A tower-and-stay sYstem has been successfully used either alone or in COIl­ jUIl('(ion with a laullching nose to reduce the call­ tilc\'er mOlllents ill the front part of the super­ structure, ~,-+ ~ t.. 1 ... /./ ",$ FIGURE 7.67. lllOlllClll , ".8 (),' Variation of the maximum support FIGURE 7.68. Boivre Viaduct, near Poitiers, France, 351 Design of Incrementally Launched Bridges different. During construction, the bridge slides over the pier tops and the buckling length of the piel- is larger than that during service. The hori­ zontal force applied to the pier top is also higher than during service, thus requiring a close study of this construction phase. Load, Acting on the Piers The various systems of horizontal forces that may act on the piers depend on the followillg: Longitudinal profile of the superstructure Direction of launching ______i'Eiction coefficient of sliding bearings Notation: () angle of hridge superstructure with respect to the horizontal; tall I:J r ¢ = angle of friction of sliding bearings: tan <p p R = total reaction of the superstructure on the pier: vertical and horizontal components V and H, normal and tangential components N and T (h) FIGURE 7.69. Reactions on piers during launching. upward launching. (b) downward launching. (a) The following rom cases will be considered (see Figure 7.69): I. 8 > 4>, upward lalillching: Sliding starts on the bearings when the inclinar.ion of the reaction R with respect to the vertical is: F = N(tan () 3. a II <p, H //tan(II+4» For smail values of I} and <1>: H 2. (r + p)V <p, downward launching: Sliding starts when a I:J - (p. The horizontal force on the pier acts in the direction opposite to that of movement with a value: II H Vtan(e~cf» . For small values of the angles: H=(r p)V Because p varies with environmental condi­ tions (cleanness of the plates in particular), the launching equipment and the pier will be de­ sjgned for H = rV. The downward movement of the bridge is controlled by a restraining jacking force: tan 4» N(r - p) For the same reasons as above. the safe value of F is equal to Sr. I} < 4>, upward launching: As above, the hori­ zontalload applied to the pier is: I-I 4. or F (r + p)V 8 < 4>, downward launchiug: In this case the horizontal load on the pier is applied in the di­ rection of the movement with a value of: H=(r-p)V Because of the possible variation in the angle of friction, it is safer to provide a braking sys­ tem to control the movement of the bridge. Pier Cap Detailing The pier caps must be care­ fully detailed in order to provide room for the fol­ lowing devices: Temporary sliding bearings Vertical jacks to lift the bridge after launching to install the permanent bearings Horizontal guiding devices during launching 352 Incrementally Launched Bridges Adjusting jacks for correction of the relative dis­ placements bel\~) piers and deck / Moreover, to {educe the pier bending moments induced by launching, the sliding bearings are often eccentric. However, it is possible to reduce or balance this horizontal force b\ installing ties an­ chored in the ground. If the piers are verv high, the horizontal force can be eliminated bv using jacking equipment directh' installed on the piers. Demolition of a Structure by Incremental Launching 7.10 \\'e close this chapter with an unusual application showing the interesting potential of incremental lallnching. An overpass structure over the A-I !l1otorwa\' non h o/' Paris needed to he demolished {()I' replacement by another structure as part of a highway relocation program. The limited head­ room hetween the existing bridge soffit and the clearance diagram. IOget her with the considerable Iraflic on 1he major I1lOlOrw<\v providing pcrrna­ nenl access from Paris to Charles de Gaulle Air­ port, made all conventional methods of demolition extremely diITicult and unadapted. A very simple scheme was devised whereby the deck was launched awa\, from the traffic onto the approach embankment to be conventionallv de­ molished at leisure. The dimensions of the bridge - LAUHQlING -- and the principle of the method are shown in Fig­ ure 7.70. The 900-ton st.ruct.ure had a width of 26 ft and the following spans: 46, 46 ft. The existing reinforcing did not provide th'e nec­ essary strength to resist superstructure dead load during launching. Therefore, a rear launching-out tail 26 ft long was installed at the end opposite the direction of launching, while exterior post-ten­ sioning tendons were placed above the deck \0 strengthen the structure. The bridge was lifted off its hearings 7 in. to in­ stall sliding bearings and lateral guiding devices in preparation for the operation. The whole opera­ tion was performed in weeks as fol\ows: Design and preparation of the contract Mobilization and purchase of equipment Launching References I. \",'illi Baur, "Bridge Erection b\ Launching b Fast, Safe, and Efhcienr," Cillit ElIgilll'l'1'illg-ASCE, Vol. 47, :\0. 3, ;"1arch 19i7 REAR NOSE {TAil --- -- II _-+ . . . . . -'4'-"6~'_ _+- LATERAl. ;UIDE5 900 t TOTAL W£lGIlT PROCEDURE 2} lI!'T TOTAL BRIO(O[ PLACE ROLL~RS SCHEDULE 7~ 0\1"'1 PIERS _ DESIGN _ Moe. 3) IN$,ALL APPROACI4 CONCRE,E 4) !'ILL AND 8, TOTAL 51('2 WEEKS CONTRACT: '2 2 PURCHASES _ LAUNCHING BEAM~ PLACt[ PROVI510.. Al.. A REAR .. ost: '26 FT. PIT ,RAFFIC IN,f:RRUP'TlOH : AND (10 P.M. TO LONQ FIGURE 7.70, g Traffic was interrupted for onl\' fOllr nights be­ tween 101'.\1. and 6 ."o.:V1. The operation turned out to he a complete success in ~pitc of its originality. +-----'4""b"-'---+-t _ _"",55"-'_ _-+__-""5,,,,,5_' 1/ 2 2 Bridge over A-I, launching out. 6 ,...M.) 4 1,i!(OI-!.'T!I 353 References 2. Anon., "First I ncrementally Launched Post-Ten­ sioned Box Girder Bridge to Be Built in the enited States," Bridge Report, ifec;;mb~r 1976, Post-Ten­ sioning Illstitute, Phoenix, Ariz. 3. Arvid Grant, "Incremental Launching of Concrete Structures," Journal oj thl' A //Iaican COllcrl'te Institute, Vol. 72, :'\0.8, August 1975. .t. Anon., "Val Restel Viaduct for the Provincial Road :'\0. 89 :-.lear Rovereto, Trenro," Pre.I'/rl'ssf'd Concrele Structures ill Italy 1970/197.J., ;\ssociazione Italian<l Ct'lllento Armato E PrecornplTS~() (.\\CAP) and Associaziollt' I wli,m<l Ecollonica Del Cemento (AITEC), Rome 1974. 5. Anoll., "Segmental Box Girder Bridges \fake the Hig Time in C.S.," Engiuntiflg Sl'w\-Rurml, \larch 2, 197H. 6. Anon., "Wabash River Bridge, Covington, Indiana," Portland Cement Association, Bridge Report, SR201.01E, 1978, Skokie, Ill. 7. M. Maddison, "Crossing the Cutting willl Segmenrs ar Sonning," Concrele, The Journal of Ihe Comrl'te S()cil'ly (London), Vol. 12, :'\0. 2, Februarv 197H. 8. K. H. Best, R. H. Kingston, and \1. J. Whatley, "lll­ cremental Launching at Shepherds House Bridge," Proceeding-r, Insiliululli oj Civil Ellg/llnn, Vol. ()4, Part I, February 1978. 8 ConcTete Segmental Arches, Rigid FTatnes, and l~russ BTidges 8.1 8 ') 8.3 8.4 8.5 INTRODUCTION SEGMENTAL PRECAST BRIDGES OVER THE MARNE RIVER, FRANCE CARACAS VIADUCTS, VENEZUELA GLADESVILLE BRIDGE, AUSTRALIA ARCHES BUILT IN CANTILEVER 8.6 RIGID·FRAME BRIDGES 8.7 8.6.1 Saint Michel Bridge in Toulouse. France 8.6.2 Briesle Maas Bridge. Netherlands 8.6.3 Bonhomme Bridge, France 8.6.4 Motorway Overpasses in the Middle East TRuSS BRIDGES 8.7.1 8.5.1 8.5.2 8.5.3 8.5.4 Review of Concept~ Summary of Structures with Temporary Stays Neckarburg Bridge, Germany Niesenbach Bridge, Austria Kirk Bridges, Yugoslavia 8.1 Introduction All arch hridge, in a pnlpcr setting, is an eleganl and graccful structurc with acsthetic appcal. IIl­ ... tiJl(tin.-h', a lannan relales to all arch hridge as a forlll Ihat follows ils function. Long before pre­ sl ressed concrete was devcloped as a tech Ilolog\', COlHTcte arches were lIsed for long spans, taking advantage of the compressivc stress induced bv gravitatiollal forces into a ctIned member Illuch as earlicr gClJcrations of huilders had done with Ill;tSOlJn' arches. Three bridges designed and built ·bv Eugene Fre\'ssinel het ween 1907 aml 19 lOin central Frallce were 10 become a major landmark in the dc\'cloplllcI1I of concrele struci ures. I n the Veur­ <Ire lhidge, Figure H. I, the three hinged rein­ forced concrete arches had a dear span of 238 ft (72.50 m) alld an unusual rise-to-span ratio of] 115 diclated by the topography of the site and the sud­ den floods of' Ihe Allier River. The \'enture was an unqualifled success both during load testing and aher opellillg 10 traffle. As Freyssinet wrote in his memoirs: 354 Retrospect on Concepts for Concrete Truss Bridges 8.7.2 MangfalJ Bridge, Austria 8.7.3 Rip Bridge, Australia 8.7.4 Concept for a Cro~sing of the English Channel REFERENCES ,JI(I,I a Iriu'lIIjlh. Oil Ihl' riKlil b(III1i, (I hill {)lwrlou/iIlIK lli(' hridK(' ,lilt was ottlljlir't/ liv Sf'l'f·ral Load If,llillK Ihow(JJu/ stH·r/alon 11,110 had lalil'lI (ht'lr plate alrNu'.)' al dawlI 10 11'{1Ith llif' failurl' o/the liridW' !,ret/ictcd Ii) (J lowl //f'Uls/m/H" ,101d 10 sOllie /II/haN))' (olll/H·lilor. Thesl' hopI'S WIT!' d(,(l'iZ'nl, (!lui wc Iwd a COli Ii IIUOU5 Iml!' of /iNn'v ,,[mill rolln,l tra;'diIlK till' bridK(' bark and Jorth quilf ullabl!' 10 prodllte (/l)vlhillK //lure tho II Ilu· rompuled {'{wi" rlff/I'(lio/l.1. Belweell 1907 and 1911, howe\'er. fears de­ veloped in Frevssinel's mind. II seemed thai the hand rails, which had been properly aligned al the lime of Ihe load lest, were showing some convexity IOwaI'd Ihe sky £II the Ilodes of Ihe crown hinges. By the spring of 1911 the crown had moved down­ ward as much as 5 in. (0.13 m), and corre­ spondingly the springings had raised appreciably. Without telling an~'one, Freyssinet mobilized a team of four devoted men and placed hydraulic rams at the arch crowllS to raise the bridge spans to their original profile; he then replaced the hinge by a rigid concrete connection between the two abutting half-arches. This near-disaster was the Introduction - - --- - FIGURE 8.1. first consefluence seen in a 'itructure of a phenom­ enon t heretofore com pletel v ignored: long-term concrete creep. Other beautiful concrete arches were also con­ structed in the same period. The Villeneuve Bridge over the Lot River in southwestern France, Figure H.2, is an interesting example. The twin arch ribs are of plain concrete with a clear span of 316 ft (96 m) and a rise of 47 ft 4 in. (14.5 Ill). Each rib has a solid sectioll 10ft m) wide ~Ind 4 ft 9 ill. (1.45 m) deep built in at both ellds illto the con­ crete abutments. The reinforced concrete deck rests upon the arch ribs through a series of thin spalldrel columns, faced with red brick. Construction began shortlv before World War I and was interrupted for four year'i, fortunately not before the concrete arch ribs could be GIst on a wooden falsework, Figure H.3. Inllllediateh' upon completion, hydraulic rams were used at the midspan section to lift the concrete arches off the Ldsework and acti\'ely create the compressive stress in them, a techniqlle from Fre\ssillet's fertile mind that already contained the germ of the idea of pre­ stressing. ct FIGURE 8.2. 355 Villeneuve Bridge m'er the Lot River. \'curdlc Bridgc. The bridge was completed in 1919 and kept the world's record for long-span concrete .'itructllre.'i for several years. The photograph appearing in Figure 8.2 was taken bv olle of the authors in the summer of 1980; it shows that beautiful structure in a rell1arkable state after sixty vears of contillu­ ous operation under constallt urban traffic. Another Freyssinet design, the TOlllleills Bridge over the Garonne Ri\'er, was built at the sallle time, ~\I1d he considered it to be one of his nicest bridge structures, Figure 8.4. The Plougastel Bridge in Brittal1\, Figure I.:~8, reached for longer spans with concrete arches. For t he first time a box section was emploved, calling on an ingenious method of construction in which ,I wooden falsework was floated into position and re­ used se\Tral tillles for the \'arious arch ribs. Di­ mensions of the structure and t\'pical details of the arches are shown in Figure 8.5, which is a bcsilllile of a document published in 1930. The three arches ha\'e a span length 01611 ft (186.40 m) and GIlTV a single-track railroad ;lI1d a two-lane highwa\'. The reinforced concrete trussed double deck ,ICcoIllIllodates the train track Oil its lower level and the highway on the upper. ;\Tear the arch crown in each span, the train passes through the arch rib. The arch ribs were onlv slightlv reinforced and the quantity of steel was 39 Ib/\'d:l (2:~ kg/Ill:I), in spite of the relati\'ely thin walls used for the box section. The three arch ribs were constructed one after the other on a temporary wooden arch built on shore and Aoated into position for each of the three concrete arches, Figures 8.6 and 8.7. This wooden arch was 490 ft (ISO \11) long and weighed 550 tons (500 mtl, including the two reinforced concrete end sections, which allowed the thrust created by the concrete arch ribs to be transferred 1.>0 c.n O'l LE GENIE CIVIL ~--~~~~~~~~~.- i" , --- - '. Fin,1 Fin'.! 11;) 1) I'~l ail::; Fin·:\ Fill, 2. Dem.] cli:val.Jon . \ Il ell flfj Filr·~j rhl .1. Fi(I·8 !'iff·l>- Dcml-coope du tabhm', a clef FIGURE 8.3. ViIlCIlClI\'L' Tdrtiel1p rill tablw[' Segmental Precast Bridges Over the Marne River, France FIGURE 8.4. Tonneins Bridge over the Garonne River, France. to the arch spnl1gll1gs completed earlier on the foundation caissons. Two barges and a temporarv steel tie slightlv above the water level, with the help of the large tidal range, allowed the tral!sfer of this faisework from the construction area to the three positions of use and its final return after completion of the con­ crete structure. As this outstanding ulldertaking neared COIII­ pletion in 1930 after live veal'S of uninterrupted effort, Frevssinet expressed his thoughts as fol­ lows: In B riitan.v light is lihe a fail)' who cunsta Iltf.y plays at cOl'aillg nature with [many! changing coats, now of Ifad, nuw ofsifl'l'T or o//Jear/s, or of something immllte­ . rial and radiant. Toward the fe'ming 0/ the load testing of lhe bridge. she had spread her most sumptuous treasures on the roadstead and each line 11' lhe work, changl'd into a lung rosary unreal light, added another tOl/ch of beaut)' to till' mar­ vellous whole, proving in this way tltat the Fair.v of the Roadstead had already adopted the child that men had im/J()sed Oil her and had known how to weave for him garments magnijiant enough to hide all the imperji'ctiolls of the worh. 8.2 Segmental Precast Bridges over the Marne River, France Located some 30 miles (50 km) east of Paris, the Luzancy Bridge represents probably the first ap­ plication of truly segmental construction as we 357 know it today. It incorporated so many innovations in a single structure that it would not be out of place in today's modern bridge technology. The single-span structure, Figure 8.8, is a double-hinged arch with a distance between hinges of 180 ft (55 m) and a very tight clearance diagram for river navigation that allowed only 4 ft 3 in. (1.30 m) below the finished grade of the roadway. Consequently, not only is the bridge structure very shallow, 4.16 ft (1.27 m), at midspan, but the rise­ to-span ratio of the arch is unusual: 1123. The bridge consists of three parallel box sections made up of pre~ast segments 8 ft (2.44 m) long, con­ nected after placement in the structure by precast slab sections at both top and bottom Hanges, Figure 8.9. The bridge is prestressed in three directions: The 4 in. (0.10 m) webs are vertically prestressed resist shear. to The longitudinal box girders are then prestressed to connect the precast segments and resist bending. The negative-moment prestressing tendons at the top flange level over the arch springings are lo­ cated in grooves provided at the top surface of the precast segment upper flange and are ultimateh embedded in a 2 in. (50 mm) concrete topping. This dense, high-quality concrete pavement pro­ vides the sole protection for the high-tensile steel wires and also sen'es as the sole roadway wearing course. In spite of the excellent behavior of this structure after more than 34 years of operation, it would probably be difficult to envisage duplicating it todav. Transverse cOllllection between the box girders and the connecting slabs is achieved by prestress­ Ing. There was no cOllventional reinforcing steel in the bridge superstructure except in local areas. such as the Freyssinet concrete hinges at the arch springings. The erection was just as remarkable as the conception of the bridge. Each box girder con­ sisted of 22 segments, which were cast in a central yard at the rate of one a dav (little progress has been achieved after thirty years). Afterward thev were carefully aligned on concrete blocks to take the profile of the finished structure with proper provision for camber. The tin. (20 mm) wide joints were dry packed to allow segment assembly by pre­ stressing. In fact, the 22 segments of each box girder were assembled at this stage in three units: two side units made up of three segments each. and the center unit incorporating the remaining 16 <:;0 CJl 00 LE GENIE CIVIL ONT ,EN ETO AETvlE, SUR EL ORN, PRES DE PL 0 GAS 'ad.. tUl M¥I "'I'r'M,/In"IN/iV! ~;(T.,t:"-- .FIGURE 8.5. Plougastcl Bridge. dimensiolls of the st rurt II Ie alld details or the arches. a facsilllile of a docllmcllt puhli~h('d ill I!1:30. L ( NIS ) Segmental Precast Bridges Over the Marne River, France FIGURE 8.7. FIGURE 8.6. 359 Plougastel Bridge, wooden falsework. Plougastel Bridge, wooden falsework. segments with a length of 170 it (52 rn) and a maximum weight of 134 tons (122 mt). All three units were assembled on the bridge centerline im­ mediately behind one abutment, while the delta­ shaped sections representing the arch springings were GIst ill place over the abutment in their final location in the structure. A special aerial cableway made up of two steel towers resting on both batiks and properly an­ chored to the rear, a svstem of suspended winches, ane! a unique elliptical drum aHowed the transfer of the precast girder units from their assembly po- .j , ~.:1,~.j".J , FIGURE 8.8. LuzaIlCV Bridge. foulre median/] - Dem! coupe dans (axe Oemt· coupe a /a FIGURE 8.9. eM Dem!· coupe a 211 "'00 de la eli Luzancy Bridge, concrete dimensions. 360 Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigid Frames, and Truss Bridges 51110n on the banks to their final location in ~< structure. In spite of a seemingly involved concept, the operations were carried out safely and rapidly; a center beam was placed in only eight hours and a complete arch including all preparatory and finishing operations was assembled in 120 hours, Figure 8.] O. Another interesting feature of this structure was the incorporation at both arch springings of Freys­ sinet fiat jacks and reinforced concrete wedges between the arch inclined legs and the abutment sills, to adjust and control the arch thrust and the bending moments at midspan. FIGURE 8.12. One of the five Marne River Bridges: 'The bridge was opened to traffic in May 1946 Esbly, Anet, Changis. Trilbardou, and lJssv. after successfullY proving its structural adequacy Figure 8.12, at the following locations: Esblv, Anet, through a comprehensive series of static and Changis, Trilbardou, and Ussy. All five bridges d\namic load tests, following a custom still in use have the geometric dimensions shown in Figure today in several European countries. Figure 8.11 8.13: gives a view of the finished structure. This first precast segmental arch bridge was fol­ Distance between hinges: 243 it (74 m) lowed a few years later bv a series of five other Rise of the central axis at the crown over the abut­ structures, all of the same type and in the same ment hinge: 16.3 ft (4.96 m) geographical area, the valley of the Yfarne River, Depth at crown: 2.82 ft (0.86 111) Deck width: 27.5 ft (8.40 m) The deck structure is made up of six precast gir­ ders, each consisting of: Two precast spnngmgs delta-shaped sections at the Thirty-two precast' segments 6.8 ft (2.07 111) long and weighing from 2 to 4.2 tom (1,8 to 3.8 mI). FIGURE 8.10. Luzanc" Bridge, erection of central section. FIGURE 8.ll. rise. Luzaney Bridge, view showing flat arch The same design and construction principles used at the Luzancy Bridge were repeated for this series of five bridges, except for some improve­ ments commensurate to the experience gained from the first structure and taking into account the importance of the project. Precasting of the 960 segments was achieved in a factory completely en­ closed and using the most modern concrete man­ ufacturing techniques of that period. Each segment was fabricated in two stages in heavy steel forms. Top and bottom flanges were cast first, with high-strength steel stirrups em­ bedded in both units. After strength was achieved, a set of steel forms equipped with jacks was placed between the flanges, which were jacked apart to stress the web pretensioned stirrups. Then the web was cast between the flanges. There was no need for any conventional reinforcing steel in the pre­ cast segments. The concrete was vibrated with high-frequency external vibrators, then compressed for maximum t::! : ~4 ti-;-~ , >}. ", ,.~. " ; , ~ ~ riii~ It .­ ~ ~ or, or. ~ ~ ;.. C'll :.., ~ ., - t ~ j § " f ] ::!\ ~ ~ .e ,.; ~ 8' S :it ] ~~ ~ 361 362 Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigid Frames, and Truss Bridges compaction and steam cured for a fast reuse of the forms. The equivalent 28-day cylinder strength was in excess of 6500 psi. l\:ear the precast factory, an assembly yard al­ lowed the segments to be carefully aligned and as­ sembled by temporary prestressing into sections, which were transferred into barges to be floated to the various bridge sites. Each longitudinal girder was thus made up of six sections: The two delta springing sections Two illtermediate five-segment sections Two center ten-segment senions Halldling or these various sections was perforl1led In the Llizalln cahle-way properl\' rearranged for the purpose. The stahility oj the side scctiol!s, at both ends, was ohtaillcd 1)\ temporan' calltilcHT cables <lll­ rlwred ill the ahUltllents, while the two cenler sec­ liolls wcre sllspellded to Ihe cableway uIHil casting 01 tlte wet joinls was completed and longitudinal prestressillg illslalled to allow the an:hes to support their OWlI weight. Figures I:U4 through 8.16 show Ihe various sequellces of the an'l1 cOllstructioll, while Olle 01 the finished hridges is shown ill Figure H.li, The qu,llltities of malerials for the superslI'uc­ ture were ven low, considering the span length alld the slenderlless or the stnlcture: FIGURE 8.15. Marne River Bridges. ereclioll of cell­ tral se('lioll. Precast ronCl-ete: :lS:I y<1'I (2iO m:') Reinforcillg' steel: 13.2 tOllS (12 ml) Prestressing steel: 13.2 tOllS (12 mt) For a deck area of 6540 it 2, the quantities per square foot were: FIGURE 8.16. t ral sen ion . \larne Ri\'er Bridges, erection of C(,I1­ Precast concrete: 1.46 ft 31ft 2 Reinforcing steel: 4.0 Ib/ft 2 Prestressing steel: 4.0 Ib/ft 2 FIGURE 8.14. Ii 011. 1\larne River Bridges, erened end sec­ As in the Luzancy Bridge, the high-density con­ crete placed over the exposed longitudinal pre­ stressing tendons was also used for the roadway Caracas Viaducts, Venezuela \larne Ri\'er Bridges, cOllJpleted struc­ FIGURE 8.17. ture. we;lrillg course. The behavior of these bridges has been excellent for thirty years, 8.3 Caracas Viaducts, Venezuela In Venezuela in 1952 a highway was being con­ structed between Caracas and La GlIaira airport. Alignmem of' this highwav necessitated crossing a gorge at thrt'e locatiolls :vith relativel\ large bridges. These structures were designed and con­ structed LInder the direction or Eugene Frevssinet. I ,·\lthollgh the three bridges aI'e similar in ap­ pearance, Figures 8.18 and 8,19, thev vary In FIGURE 8.18. Caracas Viadtlcts, Bridge I. TABLE 8.1. Bridge 363 Caracas Viaducts. Bridg('s '2 and :1. length as shown in Table 8.1. ~ Preliminary investi­ gations indicated that adequate soillllaterial would probably be found irregularly at great depths. Construction of abutments to resist large bending moments under these conditiolls would be difficult if not impossible. The decision was therefore lIlade that the abutments would resist olllv the centered thrust or the arches alld that the hending moments applied to the abutment would be reduced, as far as practical, to zero. This required that hinges be located as Ileal' as possible to the points of origin of the ;ll\:hes. Because of consideration of long-term creep deformation Oil bllckling of tlte arch and possible conscq lIences of abut llIent displacemcnt as might be caused bv an earthquake, the decision was made to eliminate a crown hinge, thlls result­ ing ill t\,'O hinged arches,' Although rhe bridges v<lr~' consider;lbl; in di­ l1lensions. thev are quite similar ill appearance, Be­ calise of lhe vallev prohle, it was possible to use the same basic desigll for all three structures. All were designed for A:\SHO H20-44 loading. Wherever possible, the elements were standardized ill order to minimize design and maximize precasting and pre­ fabI-icat ion. Pilasters were placed at each end or the arch in Bridge 1 so as to avoid an unpleasant appearance of a change without transition from the main structllre 1.0 the approach viaducts. Caracas Viaduct Arches Total Length Hciuht lrom Bed "of Gorge 10 U It C)08.0 111) IBO It (25:~ m) 700 ft (2I3 ...t m) 230 It (70.1 Ill) 2..t0 It (73.2 lll) 170 It (51.0 tIl) \lain Span 190 It (151.H Ill) 4:70 ft (14:5.7 111) 4;"):3 It (131:\.1 Ill) 364 Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigid Frames, and Truss Bridges ", I , Piers of the access \ltaduct. hIOged a! the h:(l! Caracas S.1e FIGURE 8.20. Caracas Viaducts, cleYUlioll of Bridge 1, from reference 1 (courtesv of Ciyil Enginecring-ASCE). An elevation of Bridge 1, Figure 8,20, shows the principal dimensions and foundations of the arch. The three hridges have identical cross sections, Figure 8.2l. The poured-in-place concrete deck topping varies in thickness from 2 in. (50 mm) at the edges to in. (190 mm) at the center to pro­ \'ide a trallsverse slope of l.57c for drainage. Each deck span, except at the crown, consists of eight precast prestressed I girders. Variations in span lengt h of the deck girders are accommodated by adding or rcmoving standard form units. 1dentical transvcrsely prestressed precast stay-in-place deck slahs span transversely between the deck girders. Continuity of the deck girders is accomplished by longitudinal tendons placed in a groove in the top of the top flange of the girders. 2 Approach piers alld spandrel columns over the arches consist of three I-shaped columns of a standard cross section shown in Figure 8.21. A five-segment precast cap beam on the columIls re­ ceives the eight deck I girders. A perspective of the deck over the piers is shown in Figure 8,22. The precast deck girders, cap beams, and slab are sup­ ported on the cast-in-place piers, and the whole as­ sembly is prestressed vertically, transversely, aI1d longitudinally. The center span consists of three parallel double-hinged arch ribs 27 ft 6 in, (8,4 m) on center, Figure 8,21. Each arch rib is a box with a width of 10 ft 6 in. (3.2 m) and a slightly varying depth fmm 9 ft 6 in, (2,9 m) to lOft (3,05 m) at the supporting points of the deck. To provide in­ creased capacity to resist end moments developed by horizontal loads, the width of the ribs is in­ creased to 17 ft (5.18 m) at the spring lines. The 5 in. by 5 in. (127 mn) x 127 mm) fillets provided at each inside corner of the box are to reduce the concentration of torsion stresses. Thickness of the bottom flange of the box rib was kept to a minimum to reduce weight on the falsework. The ~ standard cross section through arch :"1", "' ~>o'~ i I ~"t,~ * - - 1 0 ' 6 11 - - ­ , Cross section of pier A-A FIGURE 8.21. Caracas Viaducts, typical cross section, from reference 1 (courtesy of Civil Engineering-ASCE). Caracas Viaducts, Venezuela 365 FIGURE 8.22. Caracas Viaducts. perspective of deck over piers, from reference 1 (courtesy of Civil Engineering-ASCE). thicker top flange provides the box rib with the re­ quired area and moment of inertia for resisting t hrllst and live-load llIoments. Design of these structures considered a design wind pressure of 50 psf (2.4 k~/m~). The arch ribs carry part of the wind pressure to which they are directly subjected: the remainder is transmitted to the deck structure bv bending of the spandrel col­ umns and the connection of the arch rib to the deck at the crown. The arches were assumed to be transverselv fixed in the foundations, the end mo­ ment developed in the springings resulting in a slight transverse displacement of the pressure line.~ Thus, the deck structure was chosen as the prin­ cipal member to resist wind loads, requiring the exclusion of all Joints in the deck from abutment to abutment. The condition of deck continuitv leel to the attachment of the deck to the arch on both sides of the arch crown. This was aCCO!1l plished by prestressing the continuous cables provided over the top flange of the girders and anchoring them into the arch. Six girders were connected to the arch in this manner; the two intermediate girders that 'do not rest directly on the arch were lengthened to the crown, Figure 8.21. 2 During construction, an open joint was provided at the crown. In this joint Freyssinet Hat jacks staggered with concrete wedges were inserted, acting as a hinge for the arches to adjust the pres­ sure line during different phases of construction. Expansion and contraction of the deck due to temperature, creep. and shrinkage take place over an approximate length of IDOO ft (305 m), de~ veloping approximatelv symmetrically on both sides of the arch crown. Free movement 0[' the deck structure over the pilasters was accommo­ dated bv providing two concrete rockers over each transverse wall of a pilaster. The rockers consisted of a 3 ft 6 in. (1.07 m) high continuous wall throughout the width or the bridge with a continu­ ous Frf'vssinet-tvpe concrete hinge at both the top and bottom. Approach piers were fixed in the deck at the top and hinged at their footings. Because of their height, these piers have sufficient flexibility to allow movement of the deck without developing appreciable bending moments, the exception being the short stiff piers next to the abutment, which were hingetl both top and bottom. 2 We shall describe the construction procedure for the superstructure of Bridge I, which was also used for the other two bridges. Because the cable­ way did not have the capacity to transport the deck girders across the canvon, precasting operations were established at both ends of the bridge. During construction of the foundations, precasting opera­ tions were started at both sites at either end of the bridge. When the foundations for the approach piers were completed, the cableway transported and po­ sitioned the precast Fre\'ssinet pier hinges to their respective locations, where they were grouted to their respective foundations. Pouring of the piers then commenced, lIsing special steel forms at­ tached to the hinge blocks. Two sets of forms were used in leap-frog fashion to maintain a pouring 366 Concrete SegmentalArches, /ligtdFrames, ano Truss Bridges rate of 5 ft (1.52 m) per cia\. Because olthe hinge al I he base of each pier column, Ihe piers required Icmporarv support unlillhe deck girders could he placed. The firsl 25 ft (7.62 Ill) lift of each column in each pier was supported bv a light sleel scar folding Ihal surmunded each colul11 n; the scaf­ foldings, in \Urn, were braced logel her. Succeed­ ing 25 ft (7.62 111) lifts were braced 10 the previous lift hy light timher trusses. :\s t lie colul11ns in the piers rose, steel reinforcement was placed; at the sallie tiI1le, holes for vertical prestressing tendons were cast in the concrete by the insertion of H in. t:1H III 111) steel tuhes, which were withdrawn H hours after concrete placemellt. L' pon completion of t he three colu m ns of an ap­ proach pier, precast segments of the cap beam were placed atop the columns and prestressed HTticallv to them ,IS indicated ill Figure 8.22. The \1\0 intermediate cap beam seglllents were placed 1)\ the cablcw,1\ and lemporarily held ill position hI' steel brackets. Four prestressing tendolls were then placed through t he cap beaJll segmcnts and the fOllr \crtical I i ill. (:~H llllll) joillls between the segmcnts wcre packed with a rich mortar. At'ter eight to ten hOlils the longitudillal tendom in the cap healll \\'('re strcssed and allchored to cOlllplete a pier bent. which was then reach \0 receive the deck girders and slabs. The 1:17 It (41.75 111) high pilasters at each end or the arch are four-celled hollow boxes 20 b\' HO ft (6.1 x 24.4 111) in plan with all walls 41 in. (120.65 111111) thick. They were ("011­ stmeted in lifts with special steel forl11s that were Icap-frogged. Ten \'Crtical prestressing tendons <lllchored into t he foundation provided stability against wind forces.:l Upon completion of the abutments and the first approach piers, erection of the bridge deck girders and slabs cOlllmenced. It was accomplished with a 126 ft (3H.4 m) long structural steel lattice girder galltr\', 60 It (IH.3 m) of which extended as a can­ t ilever. One 4 H It (14.6 111) span, COil sisting of eight precast beams alld 112 precast slabs, required nine working days ami a crew of 16 l11el1. When the ap­ proach yiaduct c1ecks werc in place, they were pre­ stressed longitudinally b\ prcstressing tendons placed ill the grooves of the top flange of the deck girdns, which wel'e anchored at one end il1lo the abutmellt ami at the other end o\'er the arch pilas­ ters. The three arch ribs of the main span were cast in place on a light wooden falscwork, which was re­ used almost in its entiret\' for the two other bridges. Basically, the system adopted was to erect the timber lormwork for casting the arch ribs by the cantile\'er method, this formwork being placed by the merhead cablew;n alld held in place b\ a system of cable stalS.-;Phus, the arch rib was essen­ tially constructed to the quarter-point s. The -center half-span formwork was constructed as a light wooden trussed arch assembled at the bottom of the camOI1 and winched into position from the ends of the quarter-span cantileyers. The timber falsework t russ was wedged against the concrete arch ribs already erected. It acted as an arch under the weight of the bottom flange concrete, t1'an5­ mitt ing it s t hrust.to the cantile\'cred arch sections pre\iously erected. Later the timber falsework acted compositeh \"it h t he hardened bottom flange concrete to support the webs and top flange of the hollow box arch rihs when t hey were placed.' The following discussion describes the erection sequellce or the cellter-spall arch ribs.:! The fIrst falscwork unit ill the quarter-span (or each arch rih consisted of a tilllber platforlll ;) I ft (9.45 Ill) ill length with" width of 27 f't Hill. (H.43 Ill) at the spring lille and a widt h of 17 It 2 in. (5.23 m) at the opposite end, Figure H.~g (Phase I). This platform was C0I1S\J1IC\cd of g x lOin. (76.2 x 254 111m) tim­ hers 011 edge at 10~ in. (267 mill) centers covered OIl Ihe uppel' face with tin. (12.7 III Ill) thick plywood. It provided the form for the bO\lolTt of the arch rib. For the first section or the quarter­ span, three of these units (one for each rib) were placed In the cablewa\', supported by cable staYs A and B. and their position adjusted by hydraulic jacks at Ihe ends of the anchor cable stays. ~ext tOllr precast Freyssinet hinge blocks were posi­ tiolled ,It the spring line and assembled into one hinge block hy prestressing thelll together. Forms were then erected 011 the ralsework for the webs of t he arch rib, ami placement of concrete com­ menced, Figure 8.23 (Phase As the weight of each increment of concrete came onto t he forms, the cable stays elongated and the geometry of the arch-rib soffit had to be carefully adjusted bv the hydraulic jacks. C pOll completion of the cOllcreting for the first section of the quarter-span, falsework section 2 was attached to it and supported by two more cable stavs, C amI D. After geometry adjustment, con­ creting continued, Figures 8.23 (Phase 3) and 8.24. As a result of the position of the cable stays and the concreting sequence, angular deformations were possible between falsework sections I and 2. Thereforc, a temporary concrete hinge was placed in the lower flange of the arch rib, which would allow angular deformation but transmit the thrust to maintain equilibrium. When the concreting of / / / / / / FIGURE 8.23. Caracas Viaducts, erection and construction sequcnce. from reference Ci\'il Engineering-A5CE). ~~ ((DUnCS\ of 367 368 Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigid Frames, and Truss Bridges .~ • .'f 1 .; FIGURE 8.24. sprillgillgs ()ll Caracas Viaducts. constructioll of arch suspellded scdloldillg, the second portion of arch rib was completed and adjustment made, the temporary hinge was blocked and the two sections were prestressed t()~etl!eL In the same manner. temporan' hin~es were lIsed lor the remaining sectiolls of the quaner-span arch rib am! at each end of the cen­ Iral half-span arch sectioll, The firsl Iwo secliollS of arch rib thus became a COI1liIlUOUS member supporled at the ouler end by cable SlaYS, and during conslruction of the resl of the arch its ~eo!l!etric posilion was adjusted by cable slay l), The next operalion was Ihe erection of the third lalsework ullit consisting of a Irusswork. Its weight was slIch that it could not be accommodated by the cahleway. Therefore, it was assembled al the bot­ tom of the canyon below its position in the arch. The OllIeI' end was lifted by the cab!ewa\' and the inner end by a winch located at the end of the pre­ viollsly concreled section of the al·ch. Stay cables E passing over Ihe pilaster were attached, and the bottom flange of the new arch rib section was cast, Figures 8.23 (Phase 4) and 8.25. In like manner the next section of trussed falsework was positioned and supported by cable stav F. l\"ext, concrete lor the bottom flange of the rib was placed, including small concrete brackets which protruded below the bottom flange totake the Ihrust of the 267 fl (81.4 m) central falsework after its positioning, Figure 8.23 (Phase 5). In Ihe last phase of the quarter-span concreting, the vertical webs were fOnlled and concreted, as well as a few narrow strips across the top to provide stiffness to the arch-rib members, which at this slage had a C-shaped cross section, Figure 8.23 (Phase 6). The anchor stay cables were again ad­ justed 10 bring the 125 ft (38 m) quarter-span into its proper position. The central 267 ft (81.4 m) falsework span had been assembled at the bottom of the canvon below its final position in the arch, Figure 8.26. The ends of the timber falsework arches were lied logether by sleel cables acting as lies to keep the arch falsework rigid. The whole central falsework was hoisted inlo positioll by winches localed at the ends of Ihe cll1tile\'erecl quarter-span unils, Figure 8.27. Ollce the cenlral falsework was ill place and tl\e location of the crown exactly positioned, cement mortar was packed in the g-ap bet ween the ends 01 Ihe cenlral falsework and Ihe quarter-span falsework, and eXIra-flat sand boxes were em­ bedded in the joint for subsequent slripping of the celllral falsework. After two days, the steel tie cables on the central falsework were released and the winches support- ~e()metn FIGURE 8.25. truss. Caracas Viaducts. lifting one wooden GENERAL ELEVATloti OF FALse WORK x "-- - - ~~~ P. "'.. '----.~ - ~. ~ .::>..~ --- -- ."",'L~l't---" _J_ -~ ,,<J L41 i Jo·IAf!D SUEt AO.Jl"U11I6!!.11~ (~r!M!:t. OF &4 HARD 51EEl "IJlE3 ,S·...... ;PU «'.11 ~''; '" /;:::;;:: .X­ ,/ ~ snlAJ1~ 7je-, M~f ROP~ : 1j~~111 \IY,-~g ~~rt FO~ liFTING or CENTRAL'~ SECTION wn::i.mtlG !o! tfoTOII~ : !;L~5;~~lC WIMC~fS fALSfWOltK 2:61 ifET ;l'4fEfT 220 tOMS DETAIL OF JOINT OF LOWER MEMBER AND DIAGONALS I10! DETAIL OF JOINT OF TOP MEMBER AND DIAGONALS .;::::~~~;;fj~?:;lfLJ ",.:iF •o!h. ..- - _ . - - ,. ~~ > i.~:·' ~~:; 4·x"" I>IAGOtiAlS 80TTOtA TOP MEMBER OF FALSf. WOMI( C~~!Lf!30Fbl<d.~TIMSfJtSSlot·~I'·" , 51l0'Mi'IoG T\o!£ ARE. DETAIL OF COtlCRETE END Of FALSEV\OIlIC AHCHOI:IACiE OF liARD 5lEtL W(RES Of TIES .! II lL.IL.ll!Li.JI . FIGURE 8.26. vo c::r> I.C ~ 5£.l'A.UTE A55EM8LEO ~ . 3~OW'II'IO MEt. ~~."f~~S~~~!<""C!l!l~';!'":?,,2!'. CROSS SECTION OF FALSE WORK TIMBER ARCI-IES INTO ONE. COMPLETE FORMH'I(i A~,Q THE5~ FALse WORK RIOH) -LIMIT Ely Mt:AI'tS Of' IHOt'PENDAflT ARCHES VARIOUS 8RAClHGS 0.48'" 0"- 018" 171 . . . 1". _ ~ . I···· !;: .$.~o'" =i~___ ': II 11.11 II ,F • -=. T ~i WHif': ~RAC!Na~ C;lra(a~ ,'j;ldllCb, ('i'CCIiOIl of c('Iller '. MU UIlJ 'I 1f U of an h fabcwork. jJrPLYWOOO bDTTOM WfW&tR DETAIL Of END JOINT OVER SUPPORT A 370 .' Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigid Frames, and Truss Bridges ­ FIGURE 8.27. Carac;t, Viaducts. lifting c(,lIter ing the section were loosened. At this point the cOlllbination of the central trussed falsework and the cOllcreted quarter-span units acted as a com­ pletc arch frOlll abutment to abutmellt. :'\ cxt, t he bottom Aa nges of the arch ribs were cOllcreted, in a previousl\' arrallged sequence, IIp to the crown Oil each side, and temporary crown hillge blocks were placed. The other temporal'\' hinge~ hctweell clements of the quarter span were hlocked alld the cable stays up to stay D removed. The cOlllbillation of timber falsework and partly huilt concrete arch ribs contillued to be held in po­ sition Iw sta\'s D, E, and F, with a temporar\' hinge at F onlv. Thc vert ical webs of the arch ribs over the cen­ tral sectioll were then concreted lip to the crown Ilillge; cable st,l\' D was released; crown concrete was cOlllpleted; the remaining construction joints were tied with prestressing tendons; and the last cable stays E alld F were released. At this point the concrete arch ribs, less the top Aange over the center 260 ft (79.25 m) section, carried themsehes as well as the dead load of the entire falsework. I\:ext, the cement joints at the ends of the falsework were destroyed, sand boxes emptied, and, after the steel cable ties had been retightened, the central section of falsework was lowered, Fig­ ure 8.28. Falsework elements in the quarter-spans were lowered by hand winches. Spandrel columns were constructed next. Then, following a carefull, \\'orked out sequellce, the top flanges of arch ribs over the central section were concreted. Upon completion of the arch ribs the deck beams and slabs were placed, ill the manner previoush' described for the approach viaducts, in a s\'ll1metrical and simultaneous manlier on both sidcs of the crown ...\fter the deck had bcen pre­ st ressed transverseh', it was prest ressed longit udi­ lIall, ill the same lllallncr as the approach \'iaducts. Finishcd Viaduct I is shown in Figure 8.29. . In 1973, twellt\'-one \,ears after the construction of the~e arches, t he\' were reevaluated to see how they \\'Oldd IIOW be desiglled and cOllstructed. Fig­ ures tl.30 alld 8.31 compare the actual project COII­ structed ill 1952 with the structure as it wmIld have been designcd in 1970 (two boxes) and in 1973 (single box). The three-arch-rib and eight-bealll su perst ruct u re would be replaced by a variable­ depth box section (cantilever construction using precast segments) supported on slip-formed piers. The arch remains an appealing and aesthetic structure and might still prove to be competitive; but perhaps the construction technique suggested in the :'\ecbrburg Bridgc (Section 8.5.2) might be lllore appropriate today, either cast in place or precast. <'IF.. ~ """ . ~. /'. ~' .r.fF-~ '. ."... ; FIGURE 8.28. f'aJsc\\'ork. Caracas Viaducts. lowering center FIGURE 8.29. Caracas Viaducts, finished Viaduct 1. 371 Gladesville Bridge, Australia I ---~'5p~ht -----40---~.,t:..oo~J As constructed in 1952 so 00 r----165 ft ' I 264 ft Possible alternative in 1973 FIGURE 8.30. 8.4 Caracas \,iacluCls. cOlllparisoll of l()n~illldjl1al sl'CliollS. Gladesville Bridge, Australia This precast segmental arch bridge, cOlllpleted in 19G4, spans the Parramatta River between Glades­ ville and DrunI111()\'lle and selTes a large seuioll of the northern ~Irea of the Snlnev Metropolis, Fig­ ure H.:12. A fter award of con tract the cont ractors submit ted ,Ill alternative desi.!.{ll. Thev proposed that the arch be built 011 fixed falsework. whereas in the original design part of I he arch was to be built on floating falsework and lOwed illto positioll. The original design called for an arch span of 910 ft (277.4 III). The alternate design increased the dear SP;llI of the arch to 1000 ft (305 m) and eliminated the necessitv for deep-water excavation for the arch foundations on the Gladesville, or nonhern, side of the river.! Total bridge length between 'lbulinents is 1901 ft 6. in. (579.6 m). The 1000 ft (305 111) clear span arch consists of four arch ribs, Figure 8.33, sup­ ported on massive concrete blocks. known as "thrust blocks," founded on sandstone on each side of the river. Roadwav width is 7'-2 ft (22111) with 6 ft (l.8 m) wide sidewalks on each side. The roadway has a grade of 6~:t at each end, and the grades are lonl1~cted In' a vertical curve 300 it (91.4 m) in length over the center portion of the structure. The arch has a maximum clearance. at the crown, of 134 ft (40.8 111) above the water and not less than 1'-20 ft (36.6 Ill) above water level for a width of 20(] ft (61 Ill) in the center of the river. COllstruction of the bridgc involvcd t hc follow­ ing main opcrations 4 : I. Excavation for fOllndation of: a. Arch Il1mst blocks 011 each ~idc of the rivcr at the shoreline and partly below wat.er. b. Abutments at the ends of the bridge. c. Shore pier columns of the approach spans on eaLh sidc of the river. <) Concreting of the arch thrust blocks, the abutments and columns. 3. Driving of falsework piles in the river amI erection of steel falsework to support the hol­ low COllcrete blocks and diaphragms forming each of the four arch ribs. 4. Casting of the box-section segl1lents of the arch and diaphragms and the erection of the fOllr arch ribs one at a time. 5. Jacking each rib to raise and lift it off the falsework. 6. Casting of concrete deck beams on each side of [he river. 7. Erection of the deck beams to form the road­ wav over the arch. 8. Paving of the concrete roadwav and final com­ pletion of the structure. .., ! ~ If! , II j I I' , =" I ;il t I I ;~~:i ~il c:. ~ r i I I ~ ! ! i '0 l l ' . ~ •• _____ h • _ _ •••••• ~ As constructed in 1952 ____ _ ... i 't I' ,\ -~~~~..7,~~.=.=.=.='~}?~~~==~~==~~~ I ~ - - - - - - - . , - , , " i . . - - - - . - ~­ I Possible alternative In 1970 20.50 Possible alternative in 1973 FIGURE 8.31. 372 Caracas Viaducts, comparison of cross sections. Gladesville Bridge, Australia FIGURE 8.32. reference 4. 373 Gladcs\'ille Bridg-e, aerial view, from The roadway deck is supported on pairs of pre­ stressed concrete columlls, Figure 8.33. The wall thickness is 2 ft (0.6 m), except ill the tal! colullllls above the arch foulldation where the wall thickness is increased Iw 6 in. (152 ll11l1). At the top of each pair of colullln~ there is a reinforced COllcrete cap beam to support the deck giJ:!lers. During construction it was necessarv to provide blsework to support the box segments ami dia­ phragms tlmt make lip cadi of the four arch ribs in the arch. The falsework was made up of steel tubuh\r columns 011 steel tubular pile trestles car­ ning spans of steel beams 60 ft (18.3 Ill) long and a steel tl'lISS spall of 220 ft (67 Ill) over a navigation opening in the Gbdesville (Ilonhel'll) half of the FIGURE 8.34. Gladesville Bridge, arch rib Ctlscwork and positioning of arch rib SCg:I11CIH, from refcrcllceL falsework. These falsework units were tied to­ gether and anchored at each end to the thrust blocks, Figure 8.3-L Piling was taken down to rock ill the river bed. Steel columns, braced together, forllled a tower extending transverseh the full width of the bridge at the center of the falsev·/Ork. rranwerse lIlell1­ FIGURE 8.33. Gladesville Bridge, schematic of four arch ribs, col­ umns. and deck. from reference 4. 374 Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigid Frames, and Truss Bridges hel'S, extending the full width of the bridge. above the waterline connected the pile trestles, Figure R.34. The balance of the falsework was of sufficient width to support one arch rib. Upon completion of erection of an arch rib, the falsework was moved transversely on rails on the transverse members of the pile tr~stle to a position to enable erection of the adjacent arch rib, until all arch ribs were erected. Equipment installed 011 the central tower lifted the arch box segments and diaphragms from water level and positioned them. The tower also sened as a lateral bent to stabilize the individual arch ribs alter they were self-supporting alld until thn were tied t oget her. 4 The hollow-box segments and diaphragms were cast;) lIliles (4.8 kl1l) dowllstream h'om the bridge site. The casting \anl was laid out to accommodate the lllallilfacture of one arch rib at a time. Each arch rib consists of 108 box segments amI 19 dia­ phragms. Each arch-rib box segment is 20 rt (6 m) wide, with depths decreasing from 23 ft (7 Ill) at the thrust block to 14 It (4,3 Ill) at t he crown of the arch. measlIred at right angles to the axis of the arch. The lengt h 01 t he box segments a long the arch varies from 7 It 9 in, (2.:~6 111) to 9 It :) ill. (:1.1-12 III). After the box ullits were llI<llluractured, lilt'\' were loaded Oil harges and transported to the hridge site. The box segments and diaphragms were lifted from the barges to the crOWIJ or the arch lals('work and winched down to their proper positioll, Figure R.:~4. Diaphragms are spared at IIltervals of :>0 ft (15.24 III). sen-ing not olliv to support the slender columns that support the roadwa\' abO\'(' hut also to tie the four arch ribs to­ gcther. \,\'hen the units were located in position on the I~tlsework, a ;) in. (76 111m) joinl belween lhe pre­ cast segnlcllls was Gist in place. At two points in elch rib, four la\'ers or Fre\ssinet Hat-jacks were inserted. with 5G jacks ill each layer. The rib was thCl1 jacked IOllgitllClinalh by inflating the jacks with oil Olle laver at a time, the oil being replaced In grout and ;t1J()\\'ed to set before the 'nexl layer was inflated. Inflation of the jacks increased the distance between the edges of lhe segments adja­ CCllt to the jacks and lhus lhe overall length of the arch along its centerline. In this manner a camber was induced into the arch rib, causing it to lift off tlte supporting falsework. The faisework was then shifted laterally into posilion to support lhe adja­ cellt arch rib and repeal the cycle. Figure 8.35 is a view of the completed four arch ribs, and Figure 8.36 shows t he completed bridge. FIGURE 8.35. Glades\ille Bridge. C'OInpleled liHIl' arcli rihs. frolll reference ..t. 8.5 Arches Built in Cantilever Cntil the appearance of the concrete cable-stay bridge starting in 1962 (see Chapter 9), long-span concrete bridges were t he domain or the arch type 01 structure. Clitil 1977, with lhe (()mplelion 01 the Brotonne Cable-Stay Bridge ill France with a span of 1050 It (320 m), the record length for a concrete hridge had alwavs been held by an arch­ tq)e bridge. When the Kirk Bridges in Yugoslavia were completed in 1980, the larger arch with a span of 1280 ft (390 Ill) once again regained for the arch the record of longest concrete span. FIGURE 8.36. bridge. Glades\'ille Bricl!J;e, vicw of compleled Arches Built in Cantilever 375 Here is a brief chronology of record concrete arch spans up to 1964: 1930, Plougastel Bridge, France: three spallS of 611.5 ft (186.40 m) 1939, Rio Esla, Spain: 631 ft (192.4 111) span 1943, Sando, Sweden: 866 ft (264 m) span 1963, Arrabida. Portugal: 886 ft (270 m) span 1964, 19uacu, River Parana, Brazil: 951 ft (290 111) span 1964, Gladesville, Sydney, Australia: 1000 It (305 m) span The concrete arch bridge does not enjov the favor it once did. \Iodern methods of bridge con­ struction utilizillg prestressing, cable stays, and segmental construction have all but eliminated it from contention as a economical bridge type. However, with the application of these modern methods to the older form, and givell the proper site conditions, concrete arches may regain some of their lost popularity. (aJ (b) (d 8.5.1 REVIEW OF CO.\'CEPT; SU.H.\URY OF STRUCTLRES WITH TEJliJOR."IR'( STAYS The use of temporary staYs to facilitate the con­ struction of arch bridges begall. perhaps, with the Plollgastel Bridge. Tem porarv prest ress tendons were used to provide stabilitv to the short arch cantilever sections emanating from the arch foull­ dations (see Figure 8.5). Prestressing telldolls \'.;ere used to support the falsework of the Rio Esla Bridge and were incorporated into the structure, However. the l)1ore novel Illethod, which is the birth of today's technology, was emploved in the construction of the Saint Clair Viaduct at Lvon, France, by ),1. Esquillan. The stabilitv of precast segments was obtained bv the use of temporary stays. In the construction of the Caracas Viaduct, Freyssinet extended this concept bv using tempo­ rary stays to support the falsework and construct a mu<;h longer cantilever section of the arch. This same stay system was then used to accommodate the forces produced by lifting the center arch sec­ tion falsework (see Section 8.3). This concept was partially recaptured for the construction of the Iguacu Bridge in Brazil, where the falsework of the central portion of the arch was supported by tem­ poraI;y stays. The first arch bridge to be constructed using the concept of supporting segmental sections of the FIGURE 8.37. COllcrCIC arches built in calli ilc\cr v,il II teillporar\' slavs. (0) With SlaVS alld pvlOIlS. (ii) With slays . .' palldrel COIUIIlIlS, alld P\"IOllS. (I") Wil h spalldrel col­ 1l1l1llS. lie diagonals and ,ta\s. arch bv temporary sta\"S is the Sibellik Bridge in Yugoslavia. Falsework for an approxilllate lellgth of 88.6 ft (27 Ill) was supported on Bailev trusses. which were in turn supported bv temporary suys. Figure 8.37b, consisting of a combination of cables and structural steel rolled shapes. This arch was constructed in nine sections. f(Hlr on each side and the central closure sectiolJ. A llIodificatiotl of this concept was used for a secotld Yugoslav bridg'e at Pag with a 634 ft (193.2 111) span constructed ill seven sections. A further modiflcatiotl was used for the Van Staden Bridge in Somh Africa, Figure 8.37a, with a span of 656 ft (200 m). A somewhat different concept is wher'e, with the assistance of spandrel columns, the stays act as temporary diagonals during construction, Figure 8.37c. In this manner, the structure is built as a variable-depth Pratt truss. This concept was used for the Kirk Bridges in Yugoslavia. 111 some in­ stances these temporary diagonal stays may be in­ corporated into permanent diagonals such that in the final configuration the structure is a truss and not an arch (see Section 8.7.3). In summarizing the construction methods using temporary cable stavs. we find two basic categories: @ (J) I I -Sluftr,r](! I 6IJ5'(J7 (]) CD I A~ !I A4 I "l "'­ I CD CD ® II (j) I ®I ®, @, 217% a!5% I I I ® I I ® I I I I ~I ~ I" I Longitudinal section (a) Erection scheme (b) a-a at approaches b-b at arch Cross-sections 376 (c) ® ® I Arches Built in Cantilever 377 FIGURE 8.38. (Opposite) :-':eckarburg Bridge. erec­ tion scheme and sections. from referellce 5. (a) LOIl­ gitudinal section. (h) Erection scheme. (e) Cross section. Where the arch is supported directly by the tempo­ rarv stavs Where the temporary slavs act as diagonals of a Pratt truss during construction Characteristics of the arch bridges using this con­ cept of temporary stays during construction are presented in Table 8.2. 8.5.2 .YECKARBLRG BRIDGE. GERHLVY This unique and contemporary arch-supported structure, some 50 miles (80 kl1l) southwest of Stuttgart, crosses the Neckar River near Rottweil, Germany. It is a part of the federal expressway :\-81 from Stuttgart to the west of Bodensee with a connection to Zurich, Switzerland. The original scheme proposed bv German au­ thorities cOllsisted of a steel girder structure sup­ ported on tall piers. Designer-contractor Ed. Zub­ lin. Stuttgart, developed an alternative design consistillg of twin concrete arches to support the roadway. The proposal was to construct the arches segmentallv b~ the cantilever method and con­ strllct the twin single-cell trapezoidal box girders for the roadway by the incremental launching lechni<lue (see Chapter 7). The :\ustrian method called the .\laucder system was used to construct the arches without scaffolding.;;·f; The roadway of this 1197 ft (364.98 m) long structure is approximately 310ft (94.7 m) above the ~eckar River, Figure 8.38. The 507 ft (154.4 m) arch span, Figure 8.39, has a rise of 164 ft (49.85 Ill). Total roadwav width is 102 ft (31.0 mi. The FIGURE 8.39. i\;eckarburg Bridge, completed arch (courtesy of Willhelm Zellner). FIGURE 8'.40. :-':eckarburg Bridge, arch just belm'e closure (COl! rtesv of \Villhell11 Zellner). structure is constructed as two independent paral­ lel slructures with a 1.8 ft (0.54 m) gap in the me­ dian. Roadway spans are 98 ft (30 m) in the ap­ proach sections and 72.6 ft (22.14 m) over the arch. Each independent arch rib is a two-cell box. The arch ribs were constructed in symmetrical halves, Figure 8.40. The curved form work was 43 ft (13. I 111) long, the first 23.3 ft (7.1 Ill) of the form clamped to the previously constructed arch seg­ ment and the remaining 19.7 ft (6 m) remained to cast the next segment incremellt. The first 2:3.3 ft (7.1 m) of arch segment at the arch foundation was constructed by' conventional forming methods. There are 14 segments on each side of an arch rib and a closure segment at the crown of each arch. The exterior dimensions of each two-cell arch rib are 21.3 ft (6.5 m) wide by 9.8 ft (:3.0 m) deep. Ex­ terior webs vary in thickness from 10 to 11 in. (260 .to 280 mm). and the interior web is 6.3 in. (160 mm) thick. The arch rib was cast in two operatiolls -fi rst the bottom Hange and seconcl the webs and top Hanges.;' Piers supported by the arch or independent foundations are of a constant section and slip­ formed by conventional methods. Sliding bearings are used at the abutments and the short stiff piers 1 and 13. The remaining piers are hinged to the superstructure deck such that the elastic piers can follow the superstructure movement. 5.6 During construction, as each half-rib was can­ tilevered out from its foundation, it was supported by a temporary system of Dvwidag bar stays, Fig­ ures 8.38, 8.41, and 8.42. After completion of the arch, the temporary stavs were removed, except those required to stabilize the arch during the in­ cremental launching of the superstructure deck. Dywidag bar stavs were anchored either to a pier foundation or to Dywidag rock anchors in the side of the vaIley.5 1.>0 -.J 00 {:ounU\ YlIgo:-.I<I\I.j "llgo... l;" 1;1 So"lh ,\hi..a Austri:1 .lap,1Il ~ame S,henik P.lg \'all Sladen NlC-SCIl hachbriickc Ilnkawa/H 1'17:1·· 71 I ~)i:\ ,I;\\''\ a tempo!'an diagoll,tl.. I, i \(' tempof.l!') :}t)~ :-:i a Y" tll'ed v pdqn ct... a,ch di,n Ilv ",nh Ille aid of an all'" supporting Ihe p)lon ('Ol1st rUt lion pro­ c{,(,tl". StIPP/H'l('d l· Otl r 'ltay<;;. rdo­ (.\led gl a<lllaill '" I1IHU" ..;upportcd ou (01­ heing .l<ldili()n,dl) the lon,gt'l' ...fav ,ollc·d ""d sl",p"s and "ahl,'s, a1t\.ih,t1,~· pylo1l. (I iO) :l!ll ( 120) C!OO) ii!Hl (I!I:U!) Ab,,"1 I ~IIO rill ('C 'Ia\', /olIHcd trolH n:H I ~11)(j . il7 1'1"1,,,, hHIt \t.n" formed I, om !"Oiled "tcel ,h.,pcs and, ahles, sopponlllg d;· 'T' ,1\ Ihe 'llch \\itil all tllI:xilh,1I \ Hili 1211;) 1% I,on s(.\~· ~h-thod Iml Sp.IIl,IL e"';;j\,c l'lli('('-I ell 'C\ n'.1.III- 1.111- .ISt ast (,T.d "Ia"ilil~ "I' I I It (~A Ill) Icllglh. segm(,l11> tiol1 In (('""i\(' (alltik\'CP,l)\ "'I( (Otl\tI'lU­ ward. 'he IIllIno\{' (olumn .. \rter· hI, lI\()\;,hlc L1Isc"ork ... pan~by-~p<ln (,on",nl< led in a width 1m 1 C<ISe''' s{'("tioll betw('en til(' ahutmellt and III1('a1"h- Irom 2{) to :',211 ill 10 If> Ill) 10 ""S<: ',0 II (FJ m) clIlllinu()lI" 5palls "pt it1giTl~". the " slav 101 lile fi,sl I he (II "I I\p'IIHlrd Iiollow IIUiO Ill) Ihid.­ ,I.,,, 012 It donhl('-'j "pan 01 1)'''(ill,:!IJIIl) (:oIltiIlUOUS ',', n IH'(,{ glnln" 01 71)". it 12:\'\11 Ill) 'p.Ill made (Ol1tinUOlI'; Simpl!' prt·( illddc (IHlllrltlIHl"; Simph' pn'ta.. . ' gil d(T' 01 7fi,·t It 12:1:10 "" '1';111 l{('cLmgul.1l l\\ 0- 1"\\0 parallcl1\nl­ (elf hox{'\. rill ce·, ell gulat box gllbl hox rn D('ck '1\ 1'(' «,11 hox, :\ca, th" Fonl/\',ot k par11,,11, '''p}",rl"d III ment" Hi.:') Ill) long I\C;';' 21 II (Otl­ "U IIcfion of "1l('{ Iwrmiltil1i{ for Sq;llW1l1" )!Ul (20 Ill) 1011l-( Sn'Cll \('( lion, on fa!.,('\\Ol k :! ~ 1 III ~ I III ('C-i (·11 gul.lI ho\. ~·in(' "'('(lion" OJl ,\rc hl\ 1''' I.,J,('\\ 01 k 01 H:"U; and ~r') It (~7 and COllsttwti[)11 ..\1( h Characteristics of Ardl Bridges Constructed with Cable Stays (:OI1f"tl'lH tl()ll Yf';tr of TABLE 8.2 (,0[,­ Ih(' IWO "pt'illgings 01 (he arch Ilillged ;)1 Fi"'d Fixed hall")"), of hr' .II " .. lie jatk~ i'os... ihihly of cor­ the thru'\t at Ihe cnnnt hy a JT( linf.{ ;J( lhe no'\'\.'n h) " hattery of 11y~ .il a,,)i, .lacks n'( ling the thrllsl Pot;sibliJtyof Sialic A, "It Scheme 1092 It (:1:l2,H III) 10'.. of deck is R (orillHltal (utva­ Remarks ~ 7. - 1: '~ ,g -- ...,.. ­ ~ ;_~:~ i " ~ :;. . u: &:~ .. .::: ~ \:; ,.,:,.. ;:: 1­ ~ :... - y !.I -; '" ­ ,:;: ~ ..: sc r-...: ;;; :::; ­ r; "r; .", :::c C,;:! ­ -::-::: ::: r. ,",: :5.,:":_ :: ~ .:... r; ~ 379 380 Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigid Frames, and Truss Bridges '".. FIGURE 8.41. ~eckarburg Bridge, temporal): Dywi­ dag bar stays supporting cantilevered arch rib (cour­ tesY of Willhelm Zellner). FIGURE 8.43. Neckarburg Bridge. launching of deck girder. FIGURE 8.44. :":eckarburg Bridge, dose-up 01 launching nose. FIGURE 8.42. :":eckarburg Bridge, temporary Dywi­ dag bar stays supporting cantilevered arch rib (cour­ tes\' of' Willhelm Zellner). The trapezoidal box girders of the superstruc­ ture deck were constructed behind the Singen abunnent and incrementally launched "downhill" toward the Stuttgart abutment, Figure 8.43. A close-up of the launching nose is shown in Figure 8.44. Overall girder width is 48.8 ft (14.9 m) with a constant depth of 7.5 it (2.3 m). Girder segments were cast in lengths of 65.6 fl (20 m). The lift and push combination of hydraulic jacks (see Chapter 7) launched the girder in lOin. (0.25 m) incre­ ments. To maintain deformations of the arch and piers. resulting from the horizontal forces of the incremental launching operations. within allowable limits, the tops of the piers were tied back to the abutments and the arch was tied back bv the tem­ porary stays used during the arch construction. An inno\'ation introduced bv Zublin on this project was the use of bearings for the incremental launching that remained as permanent bearings. Prior procedure had employed a system of' tempo­ rary bearings for the incremental launching and then a transfer to permanent bearings. s 8.5.3 NIESENBACK BRIDGE, AUSTRIA This is a two-rib arch structure utilizing the free cantilever construction method for each half-arch, Figure 8.45. The arch has a span of 394 ft (120 m) with a rise of 123 ft (37.5 m). Each arch rib is a two-cell box with exterior dimensions of 16.4 ft (5 m) wide by 8.2 ft (2.5 m) deep. The roadway con­ sists of a concrete slab and girder system with an overall width of 57.7 ft (17.6 m). Although the lon­ gitudinal axis of the arch is in a straight line, the 381 Arches Built in Cantilet'er Final structure Structure during construction Hllfspylon 17.60 9.90 lSJO FIGURE 8.45. :-;iesenback Bridge. ele\3.tion. plan. and cross section. from reference 7. roadway it supports has a centerline radius. in plan. of l092 it (332.8 m). The curved roadway structure has spans of 65.6 ft (20 m) over the arch and is supported by two 3.3 ft (1.0 m) square piers, one on each arch rib. At the arch foundations, roadway support is by a wall pier with dimensions of 4.6 ft (l.4 m) by 33.8 ft (10.3 m). ' Each two-cell box arch rib is constructed r.·v the cantilever method. using a 41 ft (l2.5 m. long traveling form. The form clamps to the prec--::ding construction such that a 19,7 ft (6.0 m) se~~.ment can be cast. A crew of seven men was able to ':ast a segment on a weekly cycle. To keep moments in the cantilevering arcC1 to a minimum during construction, the cantik-,ered Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigid Frames, and Truss Bridges 382 portion of the arch was supported by a S\'stem of Dvwidag bar stays, Figure 8.45. Stay stresses are monitored at each stage of construction to main­ tain a nearly moment-free condition in the arch. Dywidag bal's used in the stays were 1 in. (26.5 111m) diameter and were used because they were easily coupled and could be reused. 7 8.5.4 KIRK BRIDGES, rUGOSLAVIA These structures connect the mainland with the Island of Kirk in the Adriatic Sea. In between is a small rocky olllcropping known as St. Mark, such that from the mainland 10 SI. i\1ark is the world's longest concrete arch with a span of 1280 ft (390 m) and from SI. Mark to Kirk is the seventh longest concrete arch with a span of 800 ft (244 Ill), Figures lAO amI H.4G. Because the distallce between the shores of the mainland and St. Mark is 1509 ft (460 m), the arch support is partially founded in the sea, Figure 8.17. The arch reaction of approximately 15,400 LOllS (14,000 mt) is accoIllmodated by the inclined pier in the sea, which takes 9900 tons (9000 mt) to the rock, while the nearly horizontal box structure :I · 8.6 Rigid-Frame Bridges Another bridge type thai lends itself to the con­ temporary segmental concept is the rigid-frame bridge. Cnfortunately, segmental construction has not often heen applied to this type of structure. The reason is probably that the segmental concept is associated with the conventional girder type bridge, and designers have gin:n little considera­ tion to applying this method 10 the rigid-frame bridge. Hopefully, the few examples that follow will stimulate thinking about this t)'pe of structure. -t~Jl_'Q--+ : ! ~ I" . I above sea level takes the other reaction component of 6600 tons (6000 mt). A system of temporary stays was used to s.upport the arch as it was progressively cantilevered out from the springings, Figure 8.48. These temporary stays were used as the top chord and diagonals of a temporary variable-depth Pratt truss during con­ struction, Figures 8.48 and 8.49. The arch rib con­ sists of a three-cell rectangular precast box, which was cast in segment lengths of 16.4 ft (5 m) and assembled with <;:ast-in-place joints, Figure 8.48. A view of the completed arch with spandrel columns is given in Figure 8.50. .. "1',1 --+ co . + LW --1 Section 1 Section 2 KERK _~ ELEVATION FIGURE 8.46. I 2t' OO"--_--l:.:.:72~ Kirk Bridges, ele\'ation and sections. Jeo I 300 I 1 L:::; I i ! - 6. ~O T -1<;1.00 .000 I U, I J J. 50 FIGURE 8.47. Kirk Bridge. foundation detail. 383 384 Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigfd Frames, and Truss Bridges FIGURE 8.48: tion. .-........... • ~~ .. -1" Kirk Bridge, erection of first arch sec- _"'0: _ '" --......:.~--", FIGURE 8.49. FIGURE 8.50. Kirk Bridge, completed arch. '_ . Kirk Bridge. erection approaching (TOWll. FIGURE 8.51. SainI l\1ichael Bridge. \iew of the pleted structure. COITI­ Ja;n' FIGURE 8.52. Saint Michael Bridge, partial longitudinal sectioll. 8.6.1 SAI.\'"/' ,H/CHEL BRIf)GE IN TOULOUSE, FRANCE This beautiful structure, Figure 8.5 L appears as a sliccession of arches with inclined legs, crossing the two branches of the Garonne River in the southern city of Toulouse, France. Typical dimensions of a rigid frame are presented in Figures 8.52 and 8.53. Because the bridge replaced an obsolete struc­ ture resting on masonry piers, it was possible to construct the inclined legs on suspended scaffold­ ing using temporary ties anchored to the masonry piers before they were demolished, Figure 8.54. The longitudinal girders were cast in place be­ tween the legs to complete the rigid frame. Over each pier an expansion joint with laminated bear­ ings is provided in the roadway slab, Figure 8.54. Another view of the finished bridge is pre­ sented in Figure 8.55. I I 13:'1'" FIGURE 8.53. Saint :Vlichael Bridge, typical section. Neopr~n~ b<torlns \ .I FIGURE 8.54. Saint :Vlichael Bridge, constructioll sequence at tvpical pier. FIGURE 8.55. Saim \'[ichael Bridge. finished struc­ ture. 385 386 (1.6.2 Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigi~ BRIESLE MAAS BRIDGE, NETHERLAl'lDS The Briesle Maas Bridge near Rotterdam, com­ pleted in 1969, is a distinctive structure with its V-shaped piers, Figure 8.56. This bridge, crossing the Meuse River, is situated in an area reserved for pleasure boating and recreational purposes. It was therefore considered essential to maintain a high degree of bridge aesthetics. Although the design is perhaps not the most economical, it was chosen to meet t he aesthetic req uirements. The three-span superstructure consists of a 369 f'l \ 112.5 m) center span with end spans of 264 ft (!-iO.5 111). Trans\'erselv, the superstructure consists of three precast singie-cell boxes, joined at iheir flange tips by a longitudinal closure pour and transverselv prestressed, Figure 8.57. The hollow inclined legs of the V piers are structurally con­ llccted to the deck strllcture by post-tensioning, and the V pier is snpported at its base through neo­ prene hearing pads on the pile cap foundation. Fig­ nres H.5H and !-i.59. 'rhe superstructure, with the exception of a few cast-in-place closure joints, is CO III posed of precast segments. Shear forces, mainly concentrated in the webs, Ilormally are transferred to piers or columns by a diaphragm. Prefabrication prevented this solution Frames, and Truss Bridges in this project, however, as the additional weight in the pier segments would have increased intolera­ bly. Shear stresses were maintained at an accept­ able le\'el by increased web thickness and by u-iaxial prestressing. At the moment that the midspan closure pour of the center span is consummated, the bending mo­ ment at this joint is zero. With time this moment increases, as a result of creep, to a significant per­ centage of what would occur if the bridge were built as a continuous structure on falsework. 'Pre­ stressing to accommodate both conditions cannot be gi\'ell maximum eccentricit\·, and it becomes both difficult to execute and expemive. A consid­ erable amount of prestressing was saved b\' eliminating the condition of zero stress at closure and therefore preventillg creep. This was accol1I­ plished by inducing an upward reaction under segmelli s 7 and 72. Figme H.59, ancr joi I1t closure. Simultaneously with the increase of these reactio;1 forces, prestressing tendons in the central span were stressed. Upon completion of the end spans the illduced forces were released automatically by prestressing the end spans. Segmellts were produced at an existillg castillg vanl 68 miles (1 IO kill) from the bridge site. A long-line precasling bed (see Figure 11.37) was I ~ ~i ~ .._1 CROSS FIGURE 8.57. •123 EZl CJ SECTION Briesle Maas Bridge, Irans\'el'se cross section. LONGITUDINAL SECTION WITH CABLE PROFILE FIGURE 8.58. Briesle Maas Bridge, longitudinal section with tendon profile. ospholl prtrtrtuod ConOllt~ prtslrtilled CXltlcntt: (ill rltnf{\f't.Wd conerell (p!af!t;.} liholi Rigid-Frame Bridges 387 _D_ A B C D E Steel frame Jacks Rubber beanng pads Joints Counter weight F= G= Joint Temporary SUflPort H"" Scaffol di ng J = Joint FIGURE 8.59. Briesle \la;ls Bridge, erectioll sequence. lIsed witl! a Ie!l(.ith equal to a half-spall-that is, Olle cantilevcr. Three sets of sC(.illlent forllls were elllploved to cast a total of 2:H segll1ents, avcragill(.i 7R reuses. Seg-ments were transported to the bridge site b\' barge. The variolls stages of erection are indicated in Figure R.59..\ special structural steel frame was used to position the inclined precast hollow-box legs of t he piers a nd to su ppon the seven precast road W;IV girder sCgll1ClltS hefore cast ing the joillts at t he corners of the delta pier portion of the structure. This frame was also utilizcd to balance the pier during- erection of the remainder of the roadway g-irder seglllcnts amI to adjust, by means of jacks, thc loads ill the inclincd legs of the pier during various stages of erection. CpOIl cO!l1pletion of the balanced cantilever erection about both piers, tcmporarv supports were placed under segments 7 and 72 (the extreme end seglllcnts of the partiall\ completed end spans) so that thc temjJoran' steel frames under the piers could be remmec/o At this point"both hahes of the stnicture were in an unstable equilibrium condition, therefore, counterweights were placed over the supported segments, Figure 8.59, to prevent the half-structures from toppling over. Jacks atop the temporar\" suppOrts were used to adjust the position of the bridge halves with respect to olle another and to induce the upward vertical reaction forces previollslv discussed. Also, dif­ ferences in elevation between the three box girders were adjusted by these jacks. Arter castinJ4 Ihc center-span closure joint and stressinJ4 in the center spall, the remaining segments in the end spans were placed Oil falsework, FiJ4llre H.GO; do­ SUI'C Joints were cast: and longitudinal and tran~­ verse prest ressing was completed. All segments in the balanced call!ilever portion of the structure were placed In a !loating crane. Because of the crane's small reach, it could not place the last five segments need cd to complete the end Spall. Therefore, it placed thcm on a 'illlail doll v installed 011 top of the falsework, which would roll them into their final positions. To ~I\()id dismantling the falsework after cOll1pleting (Jilt' girder and reinstallillJ4 it under the lIext, II was constructed so that it could bc lowered ~lI1d m()\cd transverselv into position, Figure R.60. A close-up of tlte piers of the flnished ~!rllC!lln> is shown in Figure 8.61. 8.6.3 BOXflO.H.HE BRIDGE. FR.·/SCE The Bonhomme Bridge over the 81;1\'et River ill Brittany, France, was designed and built between 1972 and 1974, Figure 8.62. This three-spall slant-leg portal-frame bridge has a center span of 481 ft (146.7 111) and end spans of223 ft (6i.95m), Figure 8.63. The span between the foundations of the slant legs is 611 ft (186.25111). A tubular steel framewOI'k was used to support the slant legs tem­ porarilv until closure at midspan, Figures 8.64 and Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigid.frames, and Truss Bridges 388 FIGURE 8.60. span. Briesle :V{aas Bridge, erection falsework for hlst fi\'e segments ill the end 8.65. This structure was huilt h:' the cast-in-place balanced cantilever method. For adjusting the geometry of the bridge, flat jacks were placed under the legs and at midspan. A detail of the ;tCUustillg jacks placed on top of thl:; temporary support is shown in Figure 8.66. Flat jacks and sand boxes were used both to adjust the geometry of the bridge before closure was achieved at midspan and later to release the energy stored in the legs of t he temporary supports, which were loaded with the full weight of the bridge. FIGURE 8.61. \' piers. Briesle Maas Bridge, close-up \'iew of FIGURE 8.62. Bonhomme Bridge over Blavet Ri\'er. ~ORIENT ~ ~ ______________________________ ~2~8~2~,~60~ KERVIGNAC,.. ________________________________ ~~ ____~6~7~,9~5~____~______________~1~~~6~,7~O~________________T-______~6~7~,9~5~__~~ FIGURE 8.63. Bonhomme Bridge, eie\'ation. FIGURE 8.64. Bonhomme Bridge. construction stages . .. + •• ++.~ • + G RANI T E FIGURE 8.65. •••• + + • + Bonbomme Bridge, temporary support. 389 390 Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigid Frames, and Truss Bridges The scheme is a ven satisfactory one in terms of both the aesthetics of the finished structure and simplicity of construction. However, it may be used only when site conditions allow the foundations of the temporary supports to be established safely at a reasonable cost. Figure 8.67 shows the temporary supports during the balanced cantilever construc­ tion of the bridge. 8.6.4 FIGURE 8.65. (Continued) MOTORWA}' OVERPASSES iiI,' THE MIDDLE EAST The use of precast segmental construction for the Alpine Motorways in southern France was de­ scribed in Section :~.15. It was shown how mass production could be applied to the construction of a large number of similar overpasses. This experience was repeated recentlv in a mid­ dle eastern country for the cOllstruction of 17 overpass structures over an existing freeway, Fig­ ure R.6R, To minimize disturbance of freeway trafflc, it was fdt that a three-span rigid-frame structure with inclined legs would be an attractive solution. Dimensions are shown in Figures R.69 and 8.70. The total deck length of 252 ft 3 in. (77 m) is di­ vided into 32 precast segments for each of the twin box girders. Deck wjdth of the overpasses is either 36 ft (II m) or 46 ft (14 m). The same box section is used for all structures, and the cast-in-place lon­ gitudinal closure strip varies as required. The slant legs are precast in the same plant where the deck segments are produced. The typi­ cal erection sequence is shown in Figure 8.71. A temporary bent founded at the edge line of the new freeway is used to place and adjust the precast legs on either side of the bridge. Segments are placed in balanced cantilever from the special seg­ ment located atop the slant legs. A light temporary bent in the short side spans is used to reduce the bending moment in the slant legs during construc­ tion. After completion of the cleck and removal of all temporary supports, the structure is in effect a two-hinged arch with vertical restraints at both ends. The bridges were analyzed for earthquake and large thermal variation loads (seasonal varia­ tion of 120°F and temperature gradient between top and bottom flange of 18°F). Figure 8.72 shows a detailed view of the inclined legs and the temporary support during construc­ tion. ra iO! II FIGURE 8.66. Bonhomme Bridge, details of bearing of concrete can­ tilever on temporary support. 1 1 10----1 I I I I I 1 1 -+-----1 I ­ 1 1 I I , 10 rOI I ' AND 'SAND BOX 1 I 4-_._ _ _ _ 11 ! ~ IOi L ____ J' 391 392 FIGURE 8.67. Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigid Frames, and Truss Bridges BOllhomme Bridge, during call1ile\'er cOIlSlnIC{ion. Plain 19'-0" FIGURE 8.68. \1otorw;1\ O\'el'jl<lss Frames, gellend 19'-0" FIGURE 8.70. Motorwav O\'erpass Frames, cross sec­ tioll and elevation of inclined legs. new. 8.7.1 8.7 Truss Bridges As with rigid frames, segmental construction has seldom been applied to truss bridges. Once again the designer must realize that the principles of segmental construction, together with imagination, can be applied to bridge structures other than the mllventionaJ girder bridge. RETROSPECT ON CONCEPTS FOR CONCRETE TIWSS BRIDGES Trusses were used in all long-span cantilever steel bridges, and it was logical to conceive of the appli­ cation of this type of structure to prestressed con­ crete. An interesting example of such an approach is presented in Figure 8.73, in which an origi­ nal sketch made in 1948 by Eugene Freyssinet for the design of a precast prestressed concrete truss is reproduced. The studies were applied to two specific exam pIes: 149.3 FIGURE 8.69. Mowrway Overpass Frames, longitudinal section. Truss Bridges 393 (a) '-­_ _ _ _ _ _---.l (b) L ­_ _ _ _~_..::; (c) '---:::­_ _ _ _ _ _-.-::J (d) ~ ____ ...._ _ _ _. J ~Iororwa\' O\'erpass Frames, erection sequence, Stage L (b) Stage 2, (e) Stage ,~. (il) Stage 4. FIGURE 8.71. (tI) A bridge over the Hanach River near Algiers. Algeria, with a clear span of 400 ft (123 m), Figures 8.14 and 8.75. A major crossing of the Rhine River at Pfaffen­ dorf, Germany, with a main span of 600 ft (180 m) FIGURE 8.72. Motorway Overpass Frames, detail of inclined leg and temporary support. These studies were very encouraging from the viewpoints of both economy of materials and simplicity of construction. The deck was to be en­ tirely precast, with members assembled by pre­ stressing. Construction would proceed in balanced cantilever from the main piers until reaching midspan closure, where adjustment of the deck geometry and loads in the members was provided by jacks. ...'-'" !J:) A --= , J.. B for a cOllcept (t~J.OJ _ _ ELEVATION ,ketch of E. :.;<'~~--=r;.~""", \.<?>:~ e 40,00 1% L? 'A 51 12300 Concept :sc=- f'IGURE 8.74. ,e vrSlSIO>' SI $1 or prcstrc"cd or a truss ~ iz 1.l:"_"""""'''''F~T',",''r'''Y-'T ",.-rT_:r_r-r_T""r:--r'-J'7-.r'!""'T-,--,,....,.,"~,--r~:r-"-r-"---T :\~, FIGURE 8.73. COllcrete truss (1 \HH). --> /' precast t.O.(JQ ~~- JI'jJ\ ir-~, 395 Truss Bridges 112 COUPE B_ B +--_--<~-..- - - - - - 9 - 0 - 0 - - - - -..-~-~+_~----..~~.- ..----9-00..-.___....._ _ _ _. . -+ , , J J( .. J( :." q,,,.,", .. ~ '", . J "~'! - '.' . )( J , , ." J( I ! I i I 1 Jl J( I I[ I t ' .0, 7. I i I 150 i J L J 1 I I J IIJ L i L J I j i FIGURE 8.75. Concept of a truss bridge. The use of I girders at 7 ft (2 m) spacing for the precast deck would not be considered today as the optimum design. One of the authors, who was in­ volved in the studies with E. Fr-eyssinet, remembers also that many technological problems such as the connection details between diagonals ,and chords were not completely solved. Neither of these two designs reached the con­ struction stage, and the concept was rapidly for­ gotten before its potential could be objectively as­ certained. Oddly enough, the designers of steel structures followed a similar path. Abandoning prematurely the concept of truss structures, which had allowed st,lch outstanding structures as the Firth of Forth Bridge to be built all over the world, they turned to web girder structures and closed box sections with all the critical problems they entailed, such as elas­ tic stability. Perhaps it is time to reassess some major design approaches in both steel and concrete for very long spans. 8.7.2 anced cantilever, as construction started at one abutment and proceeded to the opposite abutment by progressive placement. Temporary interme­ diate piers were used as required to reduce the cantilever stresses. Figure 8.77 shows an interior view. The lower flange is used as a walkway for pedestrians and for bicycles. The railing in the center surrounds an opening in the bottom flange where stress condi­ tions do not require the concrete area. Figure 8.78 is an interior view looking through one of the floor openings, and Figure 8.79 is another interior view. 8.7.3 RIP BRIDGE, AUSTRALIA The recently completed Rip Bridge, Figure 8.80, north of Sydney, Australia, has a center span of lHANGFALL BRIDGE; AUSTRIA The Mangfallbrucke in Austria, Figure 8.76, on the autobahn between Munich and Salzburg was constructed in 1959. This structure is perhaps best described as a large box girder with the webs being a trusswork. Total length is 945 ft (288 m) from abutment to abutment; the center span is 354 ft (108 m) with side spans of 295.5 ft (90 m). It was constructed as cast-in-place segmental using the free cantilever method. However, it was not bal­ FIGURE 8.76. Mangfallbrucke, general view. 396 Concrete Segmental Arches, Rigid Frames, and Truss Bridges I ~ FIGURE 8.77. Iruss\\'orL Mangfalllwiicke, illterior "lew showing FIGURE 8.80. FIGURE 8.78. MangfalJbriicke, interior "iew looking through 1I00r opening. FIGURE 8.79. :'-.1angfallbriicke, general interior view, Rip Bridge, general \·iew. 600 ft (182.88 m). The identical cantilever trusses, which sit symmetrically on either side of the cross­ ing, reach out 240 ft (i3.56 m) toward each other to support a 122 ft (3i 01) drop-in simple span at their extremities, Figure 8.81. The erection scheme is illustrated in Figure 8.82. Note that cable stays were used as diagonal mem­ bers during construction to support the arch seg­ ments. Temporary falsework bents were used at each panel point of the truss on the landward side of the main piers. Precast concrete elements were delivered from a precasting plant some 80 miles (130 km) from the site. Each panel of the lower chords of the truss was assembled from five precast I-shaped elements with a 1 ft (0.3 m) longitudinal pour strip between the flange tips. Similarly, the upper chord was as­ sem bled from five rectangular two-cell precast members. Erection of one of the lower chord members is shown in Figure 8.83. The exterior two I-shaped lower chord members are supported by the diagonal stays, while the interior three ele­ ments of the lower chord are supported by a trans­ verse beam arrangement from the exterior two during construction. Each diagonal member was assembled from lon­ gitudinally split halves, which, when brought to­ gether, encase the diagonal prestress tendon stays, incorporating them into the structure by concrete poured in place between the two halves. The upper chord or deck members are erected after the verti­ cal members along with temporary falsework to support the deck panels, while the cast-in-place concrete is placed between the deck elements and transversely prestressed. Truss Bridges 397 6 c·c a·a A·A 1 FIGURE 8.81. Rip Bridge, eic\;uiol1 and cross sections. Prestress cable to support lower member r In-situ panel . rAbutment FIGURE 8.83. Rip Bridge, erectioll of lower chord . The deck performs as a prestressed concrete tension member. As construction proceeds, addi­ tional prestress is progressively added to ensure that the deck remains in compression. H.7.-ILocation of 1F=~~~#~=';?'ii'''=;F~~~~~~), flat jack temporary hinges for shape correction CO.VCEPT FOR.i CROSSlXC OF THE ENGLISH CHANNEL Certain projects rOt, crossings, such as of the Eng­ lish Channel between France and Great Britain. the Straits of Messina, and even the Straits of Gi­ braltar. have exerted a powerful fascination on the minds of the great engineers of this century. FIGURE 8.82. Rip Bridge. erection sequence, ,~ "& t...; ::: ~ '::;' ;!; :; . . ;.. ;; ': '-' ~ - ri: ~ ~ -" 398 References Eugene Frevssinet was no exception, and he spent the last vears of his long professional career studying the crossing of the English Channel with a series of 2000 ft (612 m) long prestressed concrete spans. The many worthwhile ideas contained in this COIKept are not likely to be developed soon, or even bv the lUrn of the centurv. Figure 8.84 presents all elevation of a typical 2000 ft (612 Ill) span, which was contemplated as a prestressed concrete composite truss. :'1ajor mem­ bers of the truss were not of conventional pre­ stressed concrete, because such high stresses had to be accepted to keep the weight of the span within acceptable limits. A new material to be used for that purpose had occupied Freyssinet's mind for several years and had even beel! laboratorv t.ested for confirmation of the concept. \Vhen a concrete member is cOlllpletely confined in an envelope that creates perlllanently biaxial transverse compressive stress, it will resist safelv much higher stress than if subjected to a lTlonoaxiai stress or reillforced COII­ ventionall\' with ulltensioned transverse reinforc­ ing (such as spirals in a circular column). From a tecllllolo){ical point of view, the perrna­ llent active restraint creating tt1e biaxialt ransverse compressio:1 is easilv achieved in a Illelllber that h<IS a circular cross section bv continin){ it ill a high-stren~th steel pipe or within a contillllOllS spi­ ral of prestressill~ steel wires, \V"hich are pre­ stressed at the time the concrete is cast. This IHateria!' which could be called "pre­ confilled cOllcrete," has extraordinarv properties such as total absence of brittleness and a capabilit\ , ' 399 to sustain several times as much longit udinal COIll­ pressive stress as a reinforced concrete member without excessive strains, provided it is initiaIlv loaded to ofTset the initial strain. Such a project and such a material could not be developed in a short period of time, They are mentioned here at the close of this chapter as a conceptual heritage, which it is onr dutv to make fUllctional. References I. E. Frc;"ssinet, "Larsest Concrete Spans of the Americas-Three '.follllllletltal Bridses Built ill Venezuela," Ci<'il EII,l..,riIlPl'rill[;-tlSCE. '.larch 195:1, ;2, Jean .\Iuller, "Largest Concrete Spans of the Americas-How the Three Bridges Werc De­ signed," Citlil E II!-,riIlPl'rillg-ASCE, '.farch I ()5:l, :3. Rober! Sham<l, "Largesl Concrete Spans of Ihe "\mcricas-Ilo\\' ·lilcI \\"crc Built:· CIi'1i ill,U,-.·ISC/:", .\Lmil I ~I"-d. ":\ew Brid~e over Panamatta Rilcr at (;I;H!es\'ille," ,Hllill ROi/d" Journal of the lkpartlllcill of \bill Roads, :\ew SOllth Wales, DeccmiJer 19(i4. "J. .\11011" 5. :\11011., "'!"albrijcke ROllwcil-:\cckarhul'){," ZlIhlill­ Hefr 7/H. DezcHlllcr 1971), StUtl,l-iart, Ct'l'm<l fl \. Rlllld\rllfl1l, 6. ",\rcl1 Slipforlller ShUll", (;rollfld Support In Crm'i Valle<' FII.!.,rillI'Prwi.( .\'fIl'.I-UI'(IJTlI, JUIIC I. 197H. 7, ,\110IL, ":\iesenhachbriickc, Bog-en illl Freit'll Vm­ h;IlI:' ;\ustria 1~170-74, FIt' COlll-{re;,s HI7,!, :\('\\ York. i L 9 Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges 9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.1.1 Historical Review 9.1.2 Advantages of Concrete Cable-Stayed Bridges 9.1.3 Structural Style and Arrangement LAKE MARACAIBO BRIDGE, VENEZUELA WADI KUF BRIDGE, LIBYA CHACO/CORRIENTES BRIDGE, ARGENTINA MAINBRUCKE. GERMANY TIEL BRIDGE. NETHERLANDS 9.1 Introduction The concept of supporting a beam 01' bridge bv in­ clined cable sta\,s is not new, and the historical evolution of this type of structure has been dis­ cussed in the Iiterature. 1- li Although the modern renaissance of cable-stayed bridges is said to have begun in 1955, with steel as the favored material, in the last 1>\'0 decades a number of cable-stayed bridges have been constructed using a reinfOI'ced or prestressed concrete deck system. In recent years several concrete cable-stayed bridges have been built in the long-span range. In 'at least four current projects, alternative designs in concrete and steel have been prepared for competitive bid­ ding. Cable-stayed bridges are extending the com­ petitive span range of concrete bridge construction 10 dimensions that had previously been considered impossible and reserved for structural steel. To date, approximately 21 concrete cable-stayed bridges have been constructed, and others are either in design or under construction. A tabular summary of concrete cable-stayed bridges is pre­ sented in Tables 9.1 and 9.2. 400 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 PASCO-KENNEWICK BRIDGE, U.S.A. BROTONNE BRIDGE. FRANCE DANUBE CANAL BRIDGE. AUSTRIA NOTABLE EXAMPLES OF CONCEPTS 9.10.1 9.10.2 9.10.3 Proposed Great Belt Bridge, Denmark Proposed Dame Point Bridge, U.S.A. Proposed Ruck-A-Chuck), Bridge. U.S.A. REFERENCES 9.1.1 Hl-5TOR1CAL REVIEW Since the beginni ng of the cable-st<l\ renaissance ill ] 955, whether for technical or other reasons, structural steel has been the preferred construc­ tion material. In ] 957, however, considerable ex­ citemenl was generated when Prof. Riccardo Morandi's prize-winning design of a prestressed concrete 1312 ft (400 m) cenler span cable-stayed bridge for the Lake ~aracaibo crossing was an­ nounced. Regrettably the Lake Maracaibo Bridge was not constructed as originally conceived. The modified structure, built in 1962, is generally con­ sidered to be the first modern cable-stayed bridge. However, the Lake Maracaibo Bridge was pre­ ceded by two little-known concrete cable-stayed structures. The first concrete structure to use cable stays was the Tempul Aqueduct crossing the Guadalete River in Spain." Designed by the famous Spanish engineer, Prof. Torroja. who has introduced many original concepts in prestressed concrete, this structure has a classical three-span symmetrical cable-stayed bridge configuration with two pylons. 401 Introduction TABLE 9.1. Location Type Guadalete River, Spain Yakima River. Wash., C.S.A. Venezuela Kiev, U.S.S.R. Obourg, Belgium Genoa. Italy Rome, Italy Denmark Denmark Pretoria, S. Africa Geelong, Australia Perth, Australia Libya Londonderry, :-.i. Ireland Hoechst, West Germany Parana River, Argentina Tiel, Holland Barranquilla. Columbia Vienna, Austria Taiwan ;\.'ormandy, France Province Poetenza, Italy State of Wash .. C .S.A. Chertsey. England Auburn, California, C .S..-\. Jacksonville, Florida. U.S.A. Eas't Humington, W.Va., U.S.A. Weirton, W,Va., C.S.A. Aqueduct Highway Highway Highway Pedestrian Highway Highway Highway & rail Highway & rail Pipe Pedestrian Pedestrian Highway Highwav Highway & rail Highway Highway Highway Highway Highway Highway Highwav Highwav Rail Highway Highway Highway Highway Bridge Tempul Benton City Lake Maracaibo Dnieper River Canal du Centre Polcevera Viaduct Magliana Danish Great Belr' Danish Great Belt" Pretoria II Barwon River 12 Moum Street 13 Wadi Kuf 14 Richard Foyle 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 2:) 24 25 26 27 28 ~Iainbriicke Chaco/Corrientes River Waal Bananquilla Danube Canal Kwang Fu Pont de Brotonne Carpineto Pasco-Kennewick ~I-25 Overpass Ruck-A-Chuck)", Dame Point" East Huntington" Weirton-Steubenville" Concrete Cable-Stayed Bridges-General Data Spans (ftyl 66-198-66 2@57.5-170-2@57.5 525-5@771-525 216.5-472-216.5 2@220 282-664-689-460 476-176 multispans 1132 multispans 1148 2@93 180-270-180 2@116.8 320-925-320 230-689 485.6-308 537 -803.8-5:)7 312-876-312 228-459-228 182.7-390-182.7 220-440-440-220 471-1050-471 100-594- 100 406.5-981-406.5 2@180.5 1:>00 650-1300-650 158-300-900-608 820-688 Year Completed 1925 1957 1962 1963 1966 1967 1967 Delayed by funding Delayed by funding 1968 1969 1969 1971 Project abandoned 1972 1973 1974 1974 1974 1977 19i1 1977 1978 1978 Design completed Design completed C nder construction In design a Design by White Young and Partners. "Design by Clrich Finsterwalder. "Alternative design with structural steel. I ft = 0.305 m. The stays were introduced to replace two piers that were found to be too difficult to construct in deep water. Thus, the stays were introduced to provide !ntermediate support in the main span. OnJuly 5,1957, a stayed structure crossing the Yakima River at Benton City, Washington, was opened to traffic. Designed by Homer M. Hadley, the structure has a total length of 400 ft (122 m) with a center span of 170 ft (51.9 m) flanked on each side by twO continuous spans of 57.5 ft (17.53 m) each. A 60 ft (18.3 m) central drop-in span of 33 in. (0.84 m) deep steel beams is supported by transverse concrete beams, supported in turn by structural steel wide-flange stays. Continuous lon­ gitudinal concrete beams comprise the remainder of the structure and receive support at their ex­ tremity, in the center span, from the transverse concrete beams and si:eel stays.4.8 In the more than half-century that has elapsed since.Torroja's Tempul Aqueduct. 21 cable-stayed bridges have been constructed (Table 9.1). Thir­ teen, or 62%, of these structures have been con­ structed in the past decade. In the last five years nine have been completed, representing 43% of the total. Within the last three vears the span of 1000 ft (300 m) has been exceeded, and a current design contemplates a span of 1300 ft (400 m). It has taken almost a quarter-century to reach a span contemplated by Prof. Morandi in his original de­ sign concept for the Lake Maracaibo Bridge. Be that as it may, it is obvious from the statistics that in recent years the concrete cable-stayed bridge has been accepted as a viable structure. 9.1.2 ADVA.YT,1GES OF CONCRETE CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES As engineers, we are aware that no particular con­ cept or bridge type can suit all environments, con­ siderations, problems, or site conditions. The selection of the proper type for a given site and set of circumstances must take into account many parameters. The choice of material, in addition to Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges 402 TABLE 9.2. Bridge Telllp,,1 Cit\ :1 I.ake \Iar'acaibo t DlHcpl'l' River :) Canal till Ct'llllT Polec\!'r'a \. iad lIC! i \Iagliana ii Ibrllsir (;rcaf Bell" ~I Ibrllsh (;n'at Heir" 1O Pt ('loria II B~rn\ Oil Ri\ ('I 12 \Ioll!l! Street 1:\ \\adi I\.u! 1·1 ]{i\n I'ovlc I C, \Loi nbriHke It; l :han',!( ;Ollit-II tes Ii Rl\,'r Wa." Ii> B;'IT;u)(llIilla I ~l Dalllll)(' Callal 20 I;. hang I'll 21 1'0llt de Brotollll(' ;2~ ( :arpilll'io 2:\ t'asn)' l\.('nl)(·\\I(\-. 2,1 ;\!_:!c, ()verpa'" ') _:) Rtlc\-'-A-( :lllIcb ;2(i J),mte 1'01111 .)­ _f \-:;"t Illlntingroll :2H \\' "i rtoll,Slelll)('miJle 2 lklllOll " ­ Stav Planes 2 2 2 2 2 2 Concrete Cable-Stayed Bridges-Dimensional Parameters Stay :\0­ Stavs Arrangement :1 4 1 Radiating Radiating 2 Radiating Harp Radiating Fan 1(; 2 2 2 14.1 0.07 2 I :{ 2 2 139.4 95 65.6 I4H 111.5 (J.IH 0.20 315 41 43 1'11.H 0.27 0.44 0.16 0.42 0.19 0.52 0.3H 0.19 (l.11 52.Fl () 15 2:11 94,75 0.22 ~9 2 2 2 2 (ft) Pvlon Heightto-Span Ratio' Harp lIar], Radiating Radiating 177.5 :{60 172 J[J5 O.:~O 0.21 0.23 :> 2 2 2 2 :! " .) 2 2 Deck Width (It) Girder Depth ( rt) 6.9 3.~5 2 :1 2 2 2 Pylon Height All(lV'e Deck 2 21 IH .) 20 21 15116 24 Radiating Lm Radiating Fan 220 il 0.16 0.22 0.:19 Harp Radiatitlg Radiating :,02 279.4 :l33.2 0.2:1 0.:1J 0.41 57 5.H7 59 79 :11.7Y 46 15.8 6 15.75 42.5 9H 101.5 ~7 101 :17 '1l.H Gi G:1 ·11 ,~V 79,H 39 .,}4 105.75 41 103.5 16.4 4.H 1.94 15 9oH-13.2 2:1.5 2,95 3 2 11.5-23 1l.5 SpantoDepth Ratio' Girdn Construction Type" 2H.7 52.3 46.7 9i'1.75 113 46 :{6 4ii 390 31 :{H.5 5HA 70 60 ell' Clp/pC d-i-, PC PC CII'/PC d-i-s CII'!pC d-i-s PC segments CI P segmeuts ell' Ul' ell' CI Pipe d-i-s PC seglllen ts 57 H.5 I 1.5 II.c) 10 9.2 70 76 -16 4"~.3- 12,5 H4 I 1.:, i 9 H,5 '1-6 5 !l.5 52 140 20 I '1:~ 260 IHO 96.5 ClP UP PC/CIt' d-i-s PC and ell' CI I' segments PC and ell' PC PC and ell' ell' PC segmetlls ell' PC scgments ell' and PC Composite Composite ., Design Il\' Wilile Young and Partners. /. ])csign b\ t 'Iri," I-ir"ler\\'aldel'. . Sct' Tahk ~I.I lor malor 'pall dilllcllsions. "(:II' ~ (,;lst-in-place. PC = precast. d·i-s = drop-in·span. , Forlll Inver""lit paraholoid in space. ! Pel single-cell box. I It = O.:HJ:, Ill. material properties, depends on availability and Ihe prevailing economics al a particular time as well as Ihe specific localion of the site. The process of weighting and evaluating Ihese parameters for variolls tvpes of bridges under consi~eration is certailllv Illore an art than a science. III e,,;du:ttillg a concrete cable-stayed bridge, the designer should be aware of the following advan­ tages: I. The main girder can be very shallow with re­ spect 10 the span, Span-to-girder-depth ratios vary from 45 to 100. With proper ael'Odynamic streamlining and multistays the deck structure call be slilll, having span-to-depth ratios of 150 10400, and lIot convey a massive visual impres­ SIOIL 2. 3. 4. 5. Concrete deck structures, b" virtue of their mass and because concrete has inherently favorable damping characteristics, are not as susceptible to aerodynamic vibrations, The horizontal component of cable-stay force, which causes compression with bending in the deck structure, favors a concrete deck struc­ ture. The stay forces produce a prestress force in the concrete, and concrete is at its best in compression. The amount of steel required in the stays is comparatively small. A proper choice of height of pylon with respect to span can yield all op­ timum solution. 9 Live-load deflections are small because of the Iive-Ioad-to-dead-Ioad ratio, and therefore Introduction 6. 403 concrete cable-stayed bridges are applicable to railroad or mass-transit loadings. Erection of the superstructure and cable stays is relatively easy with today's technology of prestressing, prefabrication, and segmental cantilever construction. 9.1.3 STRUCTURAL STrLE ASD ARRASGE,\lE.YT Many of the concrete cable-stayed bridges have been designed by -"1orandi or have been strongly influenced by his style. Commencing with the Lake Maracaibo Bridge, of the 12 bridges constructed, excluding pedestrian and pipe bridges (see Table 9.1), six have been designed by -"{orandi, Figures 9.1 through 9.6. A third prize winner in the 1967 Danish Great Belt Bridge Competition was the Morandi-style design proposed by the English con­ sulting firm of White You ng and Partners, Figure 9.7. The Chaco/Corrientes Bridge, Figure 9.8, very much resembles the Morandi style. FIGURE 9.3. Magliana Viaduct (courtesy of L'lndus­ tria Italiana del Cemento). FIGURE 9.4. Wadi Kuf Bridge, general construction view (collrtesy of Prof. R. MOl'amli). FIGURE 9.1. Lake :Vlaracaibo Bridge, general "iew, from !'eferen<:e 1 I (courtesy of Julius Berger-Bauboag Aktiengesellschaft). FIGURE 9.2. Polcevera Creek Bridge, general view. FIGURE 9.5. Garrido). Barrallquilla Bridge (courtesy of L. A. 404 Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges FIGURE 9.6. Carpineto Yiaducl (courtes\' of L'II1­ ciuslria Italiana del Cemento). FIGURE 9.7. Dallish Great Belt Bridge, anist's rend­ ering (courtesy of \'.'hite Young and Partners). These structures, with the exception of the Ma­ gliana, Barranquilla, and Carpineto bridges, are typified by the A-frame pylon positioned in the plane of the stays and an auxiliary X frame- or in­ clined struts to support the deck structure at the pylon. Thev are staticallv determinate systems so as to preclude am' possible damage from differen­ tial settlements of the bridge piers and pylons or from light seismic shocks. A simple schematic of the structural scheme is shown in Figure 9.9, which consists of a series of independent balanced systems, each carried by an individual pier and pylon. These systems are then connected by drop-in girders, which are simple span girders spanning between independent sys­ tems. IO The cantilever girder is supported at two points (C and D) by a pier system and elasticany supported at two points (B and E) by the cable stays, thus producing a tbree-span girder with cantilevers on each side. The stays are supported bv a pylon ponal frame that is independent of the pier system supporting the girder. Another entry in the 1967 Danish Great Belt Competition by Ulrich Finsterwalder, of the Ger­ mall firm Dyckerhoff & Widmann, deviated from the Morandi style and was awarded a second prize. Finstcrwalder's design proposed a multiple-span, multistay system using Dywidag bars for the stays, Figure 9.10. The deck was envisioned as being con­ structed by the cast-in-place balanced cantilever a b c e FIGURE 9.9. Schematic oj !'.iorancii-st,le structural scheme, from rei'erence 10 (cot! rtesv of the America n COllcrele I nstilUle). FIGURE 9.8. Chaco/Corrientes Bridge, general view, from referellce 13 (courtesy of 'lJormer Gray). FIGURE 9.10. Danish Great Belt Bridge, artist's rend­ ering (courtesy of Ulrich Finsterwalder). Lake Maracaibo Bridge, Venezuela segmental method, each segment being supported by a set of stavs. This concept was later to be con­ summated in the )'lain Bridge and in the design of the Dame Point Bridge. The choice of geometrical conflguration and number of stays in a cable-stayed bridge system is subject to a wide variety of considerations. If cable stays are few, they result in large stay forces, which require massive anchorage systems. A relatively deep girder is required to span the large distance between stays, producing span-to-depth ratios vary­ ing from 45 to 100 (see Table 9.2). Depending upon the location of the longitudinal main girders with respect to the cable-stay planes, large trans­ verse cross girders may be required to transfer the stay force to the main girder. A large number of cable stays, approaching a continuous supporting elastic media, simplifies the anchorage and distribution of forces to the girder and permits the use of a shallower girder, with span-to-depth ratio varving from 150 to 400 (see Table 9.2). The construction of the deck can be erected roadway-width by free cantilever methods from stay to slav without auxiliary methods or stays. If the depth of the r<..>adway girder can be kept at a minimulll. the deck becomes, more or less, the bottom chord of a large cantilevering truss; it needs almost no bending stiffness because the inclined stan; do not allow any large deAections under concentrated loads. 6 In the 55 years since Torroja's Tempul Aque­ duct the concrete cable-stayed bridge has evolved from basically a statically determinate structure with one stay on each side of the pylon to a highly indeterminate system with multistays. As demonstrated by the Danish Great Belt Bridge ·Competition. the Pasco-Kennewick Bridge, and the Pont de Brotonne, spans of approximately 1000 ft (300 m) are practical and have been ac­ complished. The practicality of spans of 1300 ft (400 m) is demonstrated by the Dame Point Bridge. and spans approaching 1600 ft (500 m) are considered technically feasible. Leonhardt 6 has projected that with an aerodynamically shaped cOI,nposire concrete and steel deck a span of 2300 ft (1500 m) can be achieved. With today's technology of prefabrication, prestressing, and segmental cantilever construction, it is obvious that cable­ staved bridges are extending the competitive span range of concrete bridges to dimensions that had previously been considered impossible and into a range that had previously been the domain of structural steel. This technological means exist; they only require implementation. 9.2 405 Lake Maracaibo Bridge, Venezuela This bridge, Figure 9.1, has a total length of 5.4 miles (8.i km). Five main navigation openings COII­ sist of prestressed concrete cable-stayed structures with suspended spans totaling 77 I ft (235 m). The cantilever span is supported on four parallel X frames, while the cable stays are supported on two A frames with a portal member at the top. There is no connection anvwhere between the X and A frames, Figure 9.11. The continuous cantilever girder is a three-cell box girder 16.4 ft deep by 46.7 ft wide (5 ~ by 14.22 m). An axial prestress force is induced into the girder as a result of the horizontal component of cable force, thus, for the most part, only conventional reinforcement is required. Ad­ ditional prestress tendons are required for nega­ tive moment above the X-frame support and the transverse cable-stav anchorage beams. II The pier cap consists of the three-cell box girder with the X frames continued up into the girder to act as transverse diaphragms, Figures 9.12 and 9.13. After completion of the pier, service girders were raised into position to be used in the con­ struction of the cantilever arm. Owing to the addi­ tional moment, produced during this construction stage by the service girder and weight of the can­ tilever arm, additional concentric prestressing was required in the pier cap, Figure 9.13. To avoid overstressing of the X frames during this opera­ tion, temporary horizontal ties were installed and tensioned bv hydraulic jacks, Figures 9.13 and 9.14. FIGURE 9.11. Lake Maracaibo Bridge, pier cap with X frames, from reference 11 (courtesy of Julius Berger-Bauboag Aktiengesellschaft). ;.-1 FIGURE 9.12. reference 11 ~Jlall IOwel ,md X-frallles, f rolll of Julius Berger-BalllJo<lf,i AklicngesellsciIafr), Lake Maracaibo Bridge, main (colirtesY f-.E-r"----------48,55 \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Service girder for cantilever arm ~ II "" "" " "" ;~-,a.i:~7-:-7III : \..J,/ I I / \~~ / '{/: \.:,/ ,I / '\. I / . . _____ ..:-~~V FIGURE 9.13. Lake Maracaibo Bridge, pier cap of a main span and service girder, from reference II (counesy of Julius Berger-Bauboag Aktiengesell­ schaft). 406 Wadi Kuf Bridge, Libya FIGURE 9.14. Lake ~laracaibo Bridge, brace mem­ hers bear agaillSl X frames after being tensioned by hy­ draulic jacks, from reference 11 (courtesy of Julius Berger-Bauboag Aktiengesellschaft). In the construction of the cantilever arms, spe­ cial steel trusses (service girders) were used for formwork. Thev were mpported at one end by the completerl pier cap and at the other end by aux­ iliary piers and foundations, as shown in Figure 9.15. • The anchorages for the cable stays are located in a 73.8 ft (22.5 m) long prestressed inclined trans­ verse girder. The reinforcing cages for these members were fabricated on shore in a position corresponding to the inclination of the stays. They 407 FIGURE 9.15. Lake \[aracaibo Bridge, placing ser­ \ice gir<ler (il!' forming cantile\'er girders, trom refer­ ence 11 (collrteS\ of Julius Berger-Bauboag Ak­ tiellgesellschaf't). weighed 60 tons and contained 70 prestressing tendons, Figu re 9.16. The cable stavs are housed in thick-walled steel pipes, Figure 9.17, which were welded to steel plates at their extremities and were encased in the anchorage beam. A special steel spreader beam was used to erect the fabricated cage in its proper orientation. The suspended spans are com posed of four prest ressed T sections. 9.3 Wadi Kuf Bridge, Libya The Wadi Kuf Bridge in Libya, designed by Prof. Morandi, consists of two independent balanced FIGURE 9.16. Lake Maracaibo Bridge, fabrication of anchorage beam, from referellce 11 (courtesy of Julius Berger-Bauboag Aktiengesellschaft). 408 Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges 9.4 FIGURE 9.17. Lake :Ylaracaibo Bridge, housing for cahle slavs, fmm reference 11 (courtesy of jUJillS Ikrgcr-Bauboag Akliengesellschaft). cable-stay systems having their ends anchored to the abutment by a short hinge strut. The cable-stay systems are connected by a simply supported drop-in span, Figure 9.4. This structure consists of only three spans. The center span is 925 ft (2S0 m) long and the two end spans are each 320 ft (97.5111), for a total length of 1565 ft (475 111). The simply supported drop-in center portion of the main span consists of three double-T beams ISO ft (55 111) in length; each beam weighs approximately 220 tons (200 mt).12 The A-frame towers are 459 ft and 400 ft (140 and 122111) high and the roadway deck is 597 (1S2 Ill) above the lowest point of the valley beneath the Slrllct ure. 12 The su perstructure is a single-cell box gilder that varies from 13 ft (4.0 m) to 23 ft (7.0 111) at the pylons. The single-cell box is 24 ft (7.4 m) wide and with cantilever flanges forms a 42.7 ft (13 111) cleek. The contractor made good use of traveling forms to construct the box girder and deck, using the balanced cantilever technique to build on both sides of the pylons at the same time. Traveling forms were used because extreme height and difficult terrain made other conventional con­ struction methods impossible or too. costly. The deck was constructed by progressive cast-in-place segments, attached to the previously completed segments by means of temporary prestress ties and subsequent permanent post-tensioning Dywidag bars. The procedure adopted required temporary cable stays to support the cantilever arms during the construction sequence as the superstructure progressed in both directions from the pylon. When the superstructure extended sufficiently, the permanent stays were installed, and the structure was completed in the same manner. ChacolCorrientes Bridge, Argentina The Chaco/Corrientes Bridge (also referred to as the General Manuel Belgrano Bridge) crosses the Parana River between the provinces of Chaco and Corrientes in northeast Argentina and is an im­ portant link in one of the highways between Brazil and Argentina, Figure 9.8. It has a center naviga­ tion span of 803 ft lOin. (245 m), side spans of 537 ft (163.7 m), and a number of 271 ft (82.6 m) ap­ proach spans on both the Chaco and Corrientes sides of the riv<:;r. The vertical clearance in the main spans above flood level is 115 ft (35 m).13.14 The superstructure of this bridge consists of two cast-in-place concrete A-frame pylons, which sup­ port a deck of precast segmelllal post-tensioned concrete. The pylons are flanked by concrete struts, which reduce the unsupported length of the deck, Figure 9.18. Although the pier cap section of the deck (between inclined struts) is cast in place, the cantilever portion consists of precast segments. The drop-in spans are cast in place. The deck structure consists of two longitudinal hollow boxes 8 ft 2Y2 in. (2.5 m) wide and with a constant depth of II ft 6 in. (3.5 m), which support precast roadway deck elements, Figure 9.19. The precast girder elements were match-cast on the river bank in lengths of 13 ft I Y2 in. (4.0 m), with the exception of shorter units at the point of stay attachment, which contain an inclined transverse anchorage beam, Figure 9.20. Units were cast by the long-line method on a concrete foundation with the proper camber built in. Each ullit was cast with three alignment keys, one in each web and one in the LOp flange. The units were erected as balanced cantilevers with respect to the pylon to minimize erection stresses. After a unit was hoisted, an epoxy joint material was placed over all of the butting area; then the unit was placed against the already erected unit and tensionedY To eliminate the need for falsework, the inclined struts and pylon legs were supported by horizontal ties at successive levels as construction proceeded, Figure 9.21. The legs were poured in segments by cantilevering the formwork from previously con­ structed segments. When deck level was reached, the girder section between the extremities of the inclined ties was cast on formwork. To further stif­ fen the pylon structure, a slab was cast between box girders at the level of the girder bottom flanges. This slab is within the limits of the cast-in-place box girders and inclined struts and serves as an addi­ tional element to accept the horizontal thrust from the cable stays. The upper portion of the pylon was Chaco/Corrientes Bridge, Argentina 409 157~ Precast segments (10.00 m) 4 ft 1ij in. (1.50 m) Precast construction -+Cast·in·place 369 ft 1 in. (112.50 m) -.;- Precast construction 369 ft 1 ih. (112,50 m) _ 8 0 3 ft 10 in (245,00 m ) - + - - 5 3 7 ft 0 in. (163.70m)~ Center span Side span FIGURE 9.18. Chaco/Corrientes Bridge. longitudinal geometry. from refer­ ence H (courtesy of Civil Engineering-ASCE). 8~ in, 9 It 2~ (2,80 In, 27 ft 3 in, 9 It 2i in. 8~ in, (8,30 m) (2.80m) (22 em) m) Cast·in·place concretei 2% down ' 2% down -­ I I t. Bridge 8 ituminous pavement Box girder I I ~ 8 It 2~ in,~ 11 (2.50 m) ft 3~ in. (3.45 m) I Symm. about t. +' ~. 11 ft 5~ in, (3.50 m) channel ". :±==::::J 7~ in, to 1 ft 7~ in. t; , I (20-50 em) J9~ in, to l1ij in. 11 ft 3~ in,~ 8 ft 2~ in. (25-30 em) (3.45 m) (2.50 m) FIGURE 9.19. Chaco/Corrientes Bridge. deck cross section, from reference H (cOl1rtesv of Ci\il Engincering-ASCE). FIGURE 9.20. Chaco/Corricllles Bridge. cable an­ chorage at girder, from refcrence 14 (courtesy of Civil Engineering-ASCE). then completed, using horizontal struts to brace the legs until they were connected at the apex. Fig­ ure 9.21. 13• 14 The precast box girder units. with the exception of those at the cable-stay anchorage. were cast 13 ft 1V2 in. (4 m) in length by the long-line. match-cast procedure. The soffit bed of the casting form had the required camber built in. Alignment keys were cast into both webs and the top flange. Match cast­ ing and alignment keys were required to ensure a precise fit during erection. Each 44 ton (40 mt) unit was transported bv barge to the construction site and erected by a traveling crane operating on the erected portion of the deck. Since each box was lifted by a balance beam, four heavy vertical bolts had to be cast into the top flange of each box. The lifting crane at deck level allowed longitudinal 410 Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges -'2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Erect diaphragms between lines of boxes and post-tension. Place temporary and permanent stays as erec­ tion proceeds. Remove temporary stays. Remove temporary post-tensioning in the can­ tilever sections. Place precast deck slabs between box girders. Concrete the three 65 ft 8 in. (20 m) drop-in spans. Place asphalt p~\'ement, curbs, and railings. 9,5 FIGURE 9.21. Ch;lr()/C()lTiellle~ Bridge. crefllOll sc­ qll('Il(C of p\lOIl. fmlll reference 14 (courtes\ of Ci,il b Igillecrillg-:\SCE), 1I1(l\CIl1Cllt of the suspellded box. Upon erection to the proper elevation, the unit was held to within 6 in. (150 llllll) of' the mating unit while epoX\' joi1lt 1l1ateriaJ was applied. Bearing surfaces of the unit w('re sand-blasted alld water-soaked before erec­ tioll, The water film was removed before erection and application of the epoxy joint material. The tra\eling deck crane held the unit in position against its mating unit until it could be post-ten­ sioned into position. The crane was slacked off without waiting for the joint material to cure. 13• 14 To minimize overturning forces and stresses in the pylon, it was necessarv to erect the precast box ullits by a balanced cantilever method on both sides of the centerline of the pvlon, The erection sched­ ule delltalldcd simultaneous erection at each pYlolJ, although the pylons are independent of each other. \\'hen four precast box units were erected ill the cantilever on each side of the pylon, temporary stays were installed from the 'top of the pylon to their respective connections at deck level. After installation of the temporary stays, cantilever erection proceeded to the positions of the perma­ nent stays, and the procedure was repeated to completion of the installation of the precast box units. 13 The erection sequence may be outlined as fol­ lows: 1. Erect precast boxes and post-tension succes­ sively. Mainbrucke, Germany The Main Bridge near Hoechst, a suburb of Frankfort, constructed in 1971 is a prestressed. cast-in-place. segmental, cable-stayed structure that connects the Fahwerke Hoechst's chemical in-. dustrial complex on both sides or the River Main in West Germany, Figure 9.22. It carries two three-lane roads separated by a railway track and pipelines. This structure, a successor to Finster­ walder's Danish Great Belt Bridge proposal, repre­ sents the first practical application of the Dywidag bar stay.l:; The hridge spans the river at a skew of 70° from the high northern bank to the southern bank, which is 23 ft (7 m) lower. The center navigation span is 486 ft (148.2,3 m) with a northern ap­ proach span of 86 ft (26.17m) and southern ap­ proach spans of 55, 84, 95, and 129 ft (16.91, 25.65, 29, and 39.35 m), Figure 9,23. Railroad track and pipelines are in the median between the two cantilever pylon shafts and are supported on an 8.7 ft (2.66 111) deep torsionally stiff box girder, Figure 9,24. The centerline of the FIGURE 9.22. Mainhriicke, [rom reference 16. Mainbrucke, Germany FIGURE 9.23. Mainbrticke, elevation and plan, from reference 16. aUERSCHNITl DER S~ROM OFFNUNG !; I I, :! I~ 1 aUERSCHNITT DER VORLANDOFFNUNGEN FIGURE 9.24. :\lainbrticke, cross sections, from reference 16. longitudinal webs of the box girder coincides with the centerline of the indi\'idual cantilever pylons, , and they are 26.25 ft (8 m) apart. Transverse cross beams at 9.8 ft (3 m) centers form diaphragms for the box and cantilevers, which extend 39 ft (11.95 m) on one side and 36 ft (II m) on the other side of the central box to support the two roadways, Figure 9.25. The cross section of the towers consists of an an­ choring web in the center, san9wiched by two flat­ pl;,lte flange elements, Figure 9.26. In a transverse elevation of the pylons, the width of the pylon in­ creases from the top to just below the transverse strut, where it decreases to accommodate clearance requirements for both modes of traffic, Figure 9.26. The stay cables (Dywidag bars) are in pairs, horizontal to each other in the main span and ver­ tica~ in the side span, thus simplifying the anchor­ age detail at the pylon. Figure 9.26. 16 FIGURE 9.25. \Iainbrticke, view of deck at pylon (courtesy of Richard Heinen), 411 ,1 I I 412 Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges ANSICHT' QUER ' VERANKERUNG DER SCHRXGSEILE 1M PYLON FIGURE 9.26. l\lainbnjcke, pYlon and cable configuration, from refer­ ence 16. COllstruction of the bridge superstructure was hy the cast-in-place segmental method. Figure 9.27. Segments in the river span were 20.7 ft (6.3 m) in length, corresponding to the spacing of the stays, Segments in the anchor span were 19ft (.5.8 Ill) ill lellgt 11. Segments in the allchor span were concreted before the corresponding segment in the river span to maintain stability. The pylon segments were associated with the superstruc­ ture segments. and each pylon segment was slip­ formed. Figure 9.28 shows the partially completed structure and the falsework necessary to install the stays. Each stay is composed of twenty-flve 16 mm (% in.) diameter Dywidag bars encased in a metal duct. which is grouted for corrosion protection similar to post-tensioned prestressed concrete con­ struction. FIGURE 9.27. Mainbriicke, casting of deck segments (courtesy of D}'ckerhoff & Widmann). 9.6 Tiel Bridge, The Netherlands The Tiel Bridge,17 Figures 9,29 and 9.30, crosses the Waal River, which, together with the Maas and the Rhine. flowing east to west, divides the FIGURE 9.28. Mainbrucke, partially structure (courtesy of Richard Heinen). completed r.,;o -"'" !):;tu i NORD _NORTH II¥! VIAOUC O'ACCE5 -1W....- APPUIS GLlS5ANTS SliOING BHRING5 -l aXl - 6 r ._&». ~--, APPUIS CAOUTCHOUC RUBi:lER BEARINGS r~~~~ _"''D _ _ _ ,JD) _ _ ~~ FIGURE 9.29. Tiel ]I'd!l APPUIS GLiSSANT5 SLIDING BEARINGS APPROACH VIADUCT 10 ~ __ OUVRAGE PRI NCIPAL 14 15 MAIN BRIDGE ~.=: 414 FIGURE 9.30. CotlCrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges Tiel Bridge, main spam, \;etherlands into northern and southern parts, struCl ure pr()\ides a needed t rafflc link be­ tween the town of Tiel and the south of the (OUI1­ tn' and is a lIlajor north-south route, The structure has an overall length of 4656 ft (1419 111) and consists of a 2644 ft (806 Ill) curved viaduct on a 19,685 ft (6000 111) radius, which in­ cludes ten continuous 258 ft (i8,5 111) long spans alld a 200H ft (G12 Ill) straight main structure CO!1l­ prising three ~t,l\ed spans of 312,876, and :112 ft (95, 26i. and 95 Ill) and two 254 ft (ii.5 111) side spans. The cross section cOllsists of two pI'eGlst concrete boxes. each supporting two vehicular and one bicy­ de lane, The total width of the superstructure, which is R9 it (2i.2 Ill) in the access viaduct, Figure 9.:11. is elliarged to 103 ft (31,5 m) over the main ~tnl('lllI'e so a~ 10 accommodate the pdon sup­ porting the sta,'s, The structure crosses not only the "Vaal Ri,'er but also a flood plain, which is under water during the willter months. :'\avigation requirements dictate a horizontal de,lI'allee of 853 ft (260 m) and a verti­ cal clearance of30 ft (9.1 m). Thi~ FIGURE 9.31. Tiel Bridge, approach ,'iaduCL The ten-span 2648 ft (806 m) long access viaduct is continuous over iL~ entire length. The super­ structure is supported on the piers by sliding teflon bearings, except at the three center j)iers where it is supported on neoprene bearings, hav­ ing a thickness such that they fix the viaduct at these piers. Expansion joints are located at piers 1 and II. The superstructure in the access viaduct consists of two precast rectangular boxes of a con­ stant depth of 11.5 ft (3.5 m) and width of 21 ft 8 in. (6.6 111). The top flange including cantile\ler O\'erhangs has a width of 44 ft (13.44 m). The l)Verall width of the approach viaduct deck is 89 n 3 in. (2i.2 111), including a longitudinal pour strip. The viaduct was constructed by the precast bal­ anced cantilever met hod with cast-in-place closure pours at the midspans. To accommodate the can­ tilever compressive stresses in the hottom flange ()\er the piers, the thie Kness of 1 he ilOll om flange is . linearly increased from a minimum of 8 in, (200 1ll!1l) to 24 in. (600 111m) over a length of 33 ft (10 m) on each side of the pier. Each pier segment cOJltains a diaphragm. Because of the potential flooding of the river from A, pril through December a nci the consequent loss or damage of fabework and loss of time, it was decided to build the access viaduct utilizing precast segments in the balanced or "free" cantilever con­ su'uction. The segments could be cast during flooding and placed in storage. Erection of the segments, which WOUld take less time than the casting, could be accomplished after the Hood had subsided. The precast segments, weighing 132 tons (120 mt), were cast in I11m'able forms on a casting bed baving the length of one span (by the long-line method, see Section 11.6.2). Segments were Slored by and parallel to the casting bed and handled by a 130 ft (40 m) span gantry crane, Figure 9.32. They were transported to the site (access viaduct abut­ ment) by means of a 132 ton (120 I1lt) capacity trolley and then placed in the structure by the same gantry crane used in the precasting yard for han­ dling, Figure 9.33. The trolley was used to trans­ port the segments because the gantry was usually engaged in the precasting yard or in placing seg­ ments in the viaduct. The gantry crane was such that it spanned over the twin boxes in the super­ structure and 'the trolleyway used to transport the segments. Segment joints are of the epoxy-bonded type (see Section 11.5). Cantilever imbalance is accom­ modated by a temporary support adjacent to the pier, Figure 9.33. Five temporary prestress bars Tiel Bridge, The Netherlands 415 FIGtJRE 9.32. Pn~castillg plant. (1) Casting hed, (~) re-bar srorage, (C) segment storage, (cl) {oncrete hdtch plant, (5) office, (6) gamry crane, (7) hridge approach. are used as provisional prestressing to hold the segments in position until permanent prestress tendons can be threaded into the ducts and stressed. The sVlTlmetrical box girder main structure consists of a 254 ft (7i.5 m) 'Side span, a 312 it (95 m) side stayed span, and a 331 ft (101 111) section of staved center span cantilevering toward the center of the bridge. The center section between the staved cantilever ends is made up of four 213 ft (65 m) suspended lightweight concrete girders. Two alternatives were considered for the cable­ stay pylons: a single p\'lon located on the 1011­ gitudinal centerline of the bridge or a ponal-type pylon. To simplify the project, the portal-type pylon was selected. The portal pylon is fixed to the .pier and passes freely through the superstructure. Figure 9.34. The superstructure is fixed at the pylon piers except l'or rotation. It is allowed to move longitudinally at succeeding piers. Two alternatives were also considered for the stay system: a multiple stay system supporting the deck almost continuously and a system consisting of a few large staY's. As prestressed concrete stays had been selected, the second solution became somewhat mandatorY" Construction of prestressed FIGURE 9.33. FIGURE 9.34. Free pas.sage of pYlol1 t 11 Hlllgil deck. concrete stays is a costly operation requiring extell­ sive high scaft'olding, Figure 9.35; thus it is advan­ tageous to reduce the number of stays. The short stays of the bridge have a slope of I: 1 and the long stavs a slope of I :2. Their points of anchorage to the deck are respectively at 156ft (47.5 111) and 312 ft (95 m) OIl both sides of a pvlon. The long stays have a cross section of 3 by 3.:; ft (0.9 by 1.0 m) and are prestressed bv 36 tendons Oil the bank side and bv 40 tendons on the river side, because of the larger load on that side, Figure 9.36a. The effect of the different loads on the stays introduces a flexural moment into the pylon. The short stays have a cross section of 2.13 by 3.3 ft (0.65 by 1.0 m) and are prestressed by 16 tendons Placing of segme!l!s bv gal1lry crane. Concrete Segmental 416 Ca~le-Stayed Bridges Three loading conditions were considered for the stays from a statics point of view: 1. 2. 3. FIGURE 9.35. Fabcwork for sta\' construction. the hank side and 20 tendons on the river side, Figure 9.36b. The concrete of the stays has a 2H-day stl-ength 01 approximately 8700 psi (60 ,\IPa). Its function is llot only to protect the tendons, hut also to increase the rigidity of the stays, which is four times that of the tendoJ]s alone. 011 (a) Short stays 20/16 cables (b) FIGURE 9.36. 1 Cross section of stays. For the self-weight of the stays and dead toad of the superstructure, the deck is considered as supported on nonyielding supports. which are the stay anchorage points, and the load in the stays results from the reactions at these points. For design live load, the deck is considered as supported on yielding supports, the rigidity of which is determined by the rigidity of the pre­ stressed stays. . The prestress of the stavs was calculated with a safety factor against cracking of 1.1 for dead load and 1.3 for live load, without allowing an~ tension in the concrete. The ultimate load safety Elctor is 1.8. For the load condition be­ tween cracking and collapse the stay rigidity is reduced to the rigidity of the tendons alone .. Their excessive elongation, in case they yielded, would lead to an excessive deflection of the box girder and a premature collapse be­ fore the proposed safety limit. Therefore, it was necessary to reduce the initial stress of the tendons to 40 to 45o/c of their ultimate strength in order to keep them in the elastic range up to ultimate load determined by the safety factor of the structure as a whole. The sag of the long stay is 2.3 ft (0.70 m) in a length of 328ft (l00 m) under dead load. Under live load the sag is reduced to 1.8 ft (0.55 m). The cross section of the staYs at their extremities is in­ creased slightly to resist bending stresses. These stresses were calculated by the method of finite dif­ ferences. In the longitudinal direction the girders are prestressed primarily by the horizontal components of the stay forces. The unstayed end spans are pre­ stressed with 54 tendons. In the other spans addi­ tional prestressing is provided by 10 tendons that overlap each other at the supports. These tendons were required until such time as the stay forces were applied and, at completion, to provide safety against cracking and collapse. The deck slab is pre­ stressed transversely by tendons spaced at 12 to 17 in. (0.30 to 0.44 m). The suspended 213 ft (65 m) span is composed of four precast lightweight concrete girders with a 6500 psi (45 MPa) concrete. The cast-in-place deck slab is increased from a thickness of 9.8 in. (250 mm) in the box girders to 12.6 in. (320 mm), owing to the smaller restraint of the slab in the one web girders. Tiel Bridge, The Netherlands The following restraints and conditions were considered in the determination of the construc­ tion procedure for the main spans of the structure: I. 2. 3. 4. The exclusion of falsework from the river be­ cause of navigation requirements. The potential for flooding. The presence of the precasting plant on the north bank. The possibility of adjusting the attachment points of the stay to the deck. 417 "'''' .41 !--~= II 12 PHASE 2 12A 13 ~ !~~_~~=I= I I I I 475~ 72.50 4750 4750 PHflSES DE CONSTRUCTiON DE L' OUVRAGE PRINCIPAL Construction was executed in increments limited by the attachment points of' the stays to the deck. The stays were prestressed progressively, by in­ creasing the number of stressed tendons as the load in the stays increased. However, during cer­ tain construction phases when the load in the stays decreased, some of the tendons were detensioned or slacked otT. Using the north side (access viaduct side) as an example, the construction was divided into the following phases, Figure 9.37: PIlil ,I I' 1: C()n~I/'l1cti()n o/thl' mller .lImns-that i,l, the stay-supported side span and/lanking span Superstructure from pier 11 to pier 12 and a 72 ft (22 m) cantilever into the next span b. Extension up to temporary support l2A c. Extension up to pier 13 with a 26 ft (8 m) cantilever into the center span; simultaneous construction of the pylon MAIN BRIDGE CONSTRUCTiON PHASES FIGURE 9.37. ~lain bloidge construction phases. a. . Phase 2: Construction of the first section Ol'er the river and the short forestay, Phase 3: Construction of the second section over the riNr and the long/oresta}. The external spans on the north side were con­ structed on falsework during the dry season. Ctilizing the precast plant on the north side, pre­ cast segments 16.7 ft (5.10 m) long weighing 132 tons (120 mt) were assembled on the falsework. Segments were joined by tin. (5 mm) cast-in-place joints. Placing of the segments was carried out by the same gantry crane as for the access viaduct. On the south bank, where there was no precasting plant, the external spans were cast in place on false.work. The cantilever river spans were built on 157 ft (48 m) long steel falsework, consisting of four 10ft (3 m) deep girders on 23 ft (7.10 m) centers. This falsework was suspended at one end by prestress­ ing strands from the top of the pylons. At the lower end. the temporary support strands were an­ chored in a cross beam that supported the steel falsework by four 350 ton (315 mt) jacks. The 3 ft (1.0 m) stroke of the jacks allowed adjustment of the level of the suspension points, and the jacks were used also to release the temporary prestress suspension strands when the final stays were in­ stalled. At the opposite end, the steel falsework was hinged. The horizontal force component on these hinges was transmitted directly to the completed part of the deck, and the vertical component was taken by 1 in. (26 mm) bars. In Phase 3, the temporary stays were deflected by means of 95 ft (29 m) booms. This provided the advantage of maintaining the angles at the lower connection equal to that of Phase 2 and keeping approximately the same force level in the tempo­ rary stay. The falsework used in Phases 2 and 3 was car­ ried on a barge; it was positioned by two derricks located on the completed part of the deck and by a floating crane. After the box girders were cast, the level of the falsework was adjusted, the last joint 418 Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges was cast, and the concrete was prestressed. The next steps were constructing the stays, prestressing them, releasing the temporary stays, and removing the blsework. In order to reduce creep and shrinkage, the stays were made of 17 ft (5.15 Ill) long segments with protruding reinforcement and 16 in. (0.4 m) cast-in-place joints. The building of the falsework for the stays and the handling of the precast segIllents were carried out with the hel p of a 16 [on (15 mt) tower crane 213 ft (65 m) high, running on the deck. The precast 213 ft (65 m) suspended span gird­ ers weighed 468 tons (425 mt) and were trans­ ported by barge. 9.7 Pasco-Kennewick Bridge, U.S.A. The hrst cable-stmed bridge with a segmental con­ crete superstructure to be constructed in the United States is the Pasco-Kennewick Intercity Bridge crossing the Columbia Rh'er in the state of \Nashingloll, Figure 9.3R. ConstruClioll began in August 1975 and was completed in May 1978. The overall length of this structure is 2503 ft (763 m). The center cable-stayed span is 981 ft (299 111), and the stayed flanking spans are 406.5 ft (124 m). The Pasco approach is a single span of 126 ft (38.4 m), FIGURE 9.38. Pasco-Kennewick (courtesy of An'id Grallt). Intercity Bridge -while the Kennewick approach is one span at 124 ft (37.8 m) and three spans at 148 ft (45.1 m).4.15.18.19 The girder is continuous without expansion joints from abutment to abutment, being fixed at the Pasco (north) end and having all expansion joint at the Kennewick (south) abutment. The con­ crete bridge girder is of uniform cross section, of constant 7 ft (2 m) depth along its entire length and 79 ft 10 in. (24.3 m) width. The shallow girder and the long main spans are necessarv in order to re­ duce roadway grades to a minimum, to provide the greatest possible na\igation clearance below, and to reduce the number of piers in the 70 ft (21.3 m) deep ri\·er. The bridge is not symmetrical. The Pasco pylon is approximately 6 ft (1.8 m) shorter than the Ken­ newick pylon, and the girder has a 2000 ft (610 m) vertical curve that is no[ symmetrical with the main span. Therefore, the cable-stay pairs are not of equal length, the longest being 506.43 ft (154 m).IH , There is no attachment 01 the girder at the py­ lons, except for vertical neoprene-teAon bearings to accommodate transverse loads. The girder is supported only by the stay cahles. There are, of course, vertical bearil1g~ al the approach piers and abutments. It is estimated that the natural fre­ quency of the girder, where it will respond to dynamic acceleration (i.e., earthquake), is 2 cycles per second. If the siluatjon occurs where the lon­ gitudinal acceleration exceeds this value, the ver­ tical restraint at the I:asco (north) abutment is de­ signed to fail in direct shear, thus changing the structure frequency to 0. I cycles per second, which renders the system illSensitive 10 dynamic excita­ tion. The three main spans were assembled from precast, prestressed concrete segments, while the approach spans were cast in place on falsework, Figures 9.39 and 9.40. Deck segments were precast about 2 miles (3.2 km) downstream from the bridge site. Each seg­ ment weighs about 300 tons (272 mt) and is 27 ft (8.2 m) long, Figure 9.41. The segment has an 8 in. (0.2 m) thick roadway slab, supported by 9 in. (0.22 m) thick transverse beams on 9 ft (2.7 m) centers, and is joined along the exterior girder edges by a triangular box which serves the function of cable anchorage stress distribution through the girder body, Figure 9.42.6 Each match-cast segment re­ quired approximately 145 yd3 (111m 3 ) of concrete, continuously placed in a previously adopted se­ quence within six hours. After initial curing in the forms, the girder segments were wet cured for two weeks in the storage yard, air cured for an ad­ ditional six months, prestressed transversely, Brotonne Bridge, France FIGURE 9.39. Pasco-KcIlnewick Intercitv Bridge. precast segmellts ill maill spans (courtesv of An'id Granl). FIGURE 9.40. Pasco-Kennewick Intercity Bridge, ap­ proach spans cast in place on falsework (collrtesy of Waltcr Brvant, FHWA Region 10). 419 cleaned, repaired, completed, loaded on a barge, and transported to the structure site for illStalla­ tion in their final location. F01' possible unpredictcd developments a shimming process was held in re­ serve for mainta1l1111g the assembled girder geometry correctness, but it was not used. There are no shims in the segmentally assembled, epoxy-joined prestressed concrete girder.I.;·lH.l!> The sections were barged directly beneath their place in the bridge and hoisted into position, Figure 9.43. Fiftv-eight precast bridge girder segments were required for the project. The stays are arranged in two parallel planes with 72 stays in each plane-that is, 18 stays 011 each side of a pylon in each plane. Thev are held at each pvlon top, 180 ft (55 111) above the bridge roadwaY', in a steel weldment, Figure 9.44. Stay all­ chorages in the bridge deck are spaced at 27 ft (8.2 11l) to correspond with the segment length. The stays are composed on in. (6 mm) diameter parallel high-strenglh steel wires of the EER type. The prefabricated SlaVS, manufactured bY' The PreSCOll Corporation, arrived on the job site on reels, Fig­ ure 9.45, and contained from 73 to 283 wires, de­ pending upon their location in the structure. They were covered with a ~ in. 00 mm) thick poly­ ethylene pipe, and after installation and final adjustment were protected against corrosion by pressure-injected cement grout. cl'he outside di­ ameter of the pipe covering varies from 5 to 7 in. (0.12 to 0.17 m). Design stress level for the stays is 109 ksi (751.5 MPa). Stay anchorages <Ire of the epoxy-steel ball (HiAmp) fatigue type produced bv The Prescon Corporation. This structure was designed bv Arvid Grant and Associates, Inc., of Olympia, Washington, in pro­ fessional collaboration with Leonhardt and Andra of Stuttgart, Germany. 9.8 Pasco-Kennewick Intercity Bridge, precast segments in casting yard (courtesv of An'ill Grant). FIGURE 9.41. Brotonne Bridge, France The Pont de Brotonne, designed and built by Campenon Bernard of Paris, crosses the Seine River downstream from Rouen in France. Because of increased navigation traffic in the area, a second crossing over the Seine River was urgently needed between the two harbors of Le Havre and Rouen. The first one, the steel suspension bridge of Tan­ carville, was opened to traffic in 1959. The second, the Brotonne Bridge, the world's largest cable­ staved prestressed concrete bridge, was opened to traffic in June 1977. 20 A model of the structure is I 22.50 m CROSS -SECTION OF CONCRETE BRIDGE sleeve cushion I 4A 48 SECTION A - A SECTION. ELEVATION 8 - B FIGURE 9.42. Pasco-Kennewick Intercity Bridge, cross section alld allchorage of st<l\ callies (courteS\' Prof. Fritz Leonhardt). or FIGURE 9.43. Pasco-Kennewick Intercity Bridge. erection of precast segments from barge (courtesy of Arvid Grant). 420 FIGURE 9.44. Pasco-Kennewick Intercity Bridge. pylon and stay attachment steel weldment at top (cour­ tesy of Arvid Grant). Brotonne Bridge, France FIGURE 9.45. Pasco-Kennewick prefahricatcd cahle stay on rcel. Intercity Bridge, shown in Figure 9.46 and the general layout in Fig­ ures 9.47 and 9.4:8. The box girder carries four lanes and replaces ferry service between two major highways that run north and south of the Seine. Because large ships use this section of the river to approach the inland port of Rauen 22 miles (35 km) to the east, vertical navigation clearance is 164 ft (50 m) above water level, which results in a 6.5% grade for its longer approach. 15.21 Total length of structure IS 4194 ft (1,278.4 m), consisting of the main bridge and two approach viaducts. The main crossing has a span of 1050 ft (320 m). On the right bank, the transition between the main span and the ground is quite short be­ cause of a favorable topography where limestone strata slope upward to a relatively steep cliff. On the left bank, the terrain is flat and occupied by meadows. With an allowable maximum grade of 6.5% and a maximum height of fill of 50 ft (15 m), a nine-span viaduct was required to reach the main ·bridge. In a structural sense, the bridge is divided into two sections separated by an expansion joint at a point of contraflexure in the left-bank viaduct span adjacent to the cable-stayed side span, Figure 9.48. 20 FIGURE 9.47. Brotonne. 2. Model of the Pont de Brotonne. Artist's rendering of the Pont de The prestressed segmental concrete deck con­ sists of a single-cell trapezoidal box girder with interior stiffening struts, Figures 9A9 and 9.50. In the approach spans. web thickness is increased from 8 in. (200 mm) to 16 in. (400 mm) near the piers, and the bottom flange thickness is increased to a maximum thickness of 17 in. (430 mm). The only portion of the segment that was precast is its sloping webs, Figure 9.51, which were precast at the site. The other portions of the cross section, including top and bottom flanges, interior stiffen­ ing struts, and cable-stay anchorages (in the main structure only), were cast in place. Each segment is 9.8 ft (3 m) long. Extensive use of prestressing was made in the deck to provide adequate strength to this light structure. To resist the extreme shear stresses it was decided to place vertical prestressing in the webs. Pretensioned units were stressed on a casting bed, Figure 9.52, and equipped with specially de­ signed button heads. thus producing a combina­ tion of pretensioning and anchorage plates. This system has the advantage of ensuring a perfect centering of the prestressing force together with a very rapid transfer of this force at both ends. In­ tensive rupture tests proved that an extremely high resistance to shear was created by this sys­ tenl. 20 Finally, prestressing was also used as follows, Figure 9.53: 20 1. FIGURE 9.46. 421 Transversely in the top flange to provide flexural strength to the thin 8 in. (200 mm) slab. In the inclined internal stiffeners, to accom­ modate tensile forces created by the transfer of loads from the box girder to the stays. .c.. N) Nl ! \ +.58,50._ ~5850 ____ . __320,00 I ' ,') 464 40 .12'840 FIGURE 9.48. Ccm'r;d or Brolollllc , • 5,5,iQ., nOO~ (63') 19.20 t r s o 6.S0 15')(21') 1.60 (5') ROADWAY I (18') (13') FIGURE 9,49. FIGURE 9.50. Bridge. Illtel'ior vIew of deck, b:..:lkhead ROADWAY ( 18') Cross sectioll of BroHlIIIH: FIGURE 9.51. cou?ler for steel forms (21 ') (13') Brotonnt' tensi(;n~ ::"cc S 1.50 ( 5') 6.50 160 • (5') • Brid~e. Precast webs, Brownnc ";;ensioning jack distributiun be~~ 36 mm d i~te.1~i~n-;:-od~ ?lcju3table adjustable brackets' brackets "Y',,!dag nut Brid~c. 11~36 mm ,-,,""...- ..~~. Dywidag "-­ tension bar. FIGURE 9.52. Casting bed for pre tensioned webs. 423 424 Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges FIGURE 9.53. ;). 4. Various prestressing systems in the box girder. Transversely in the bottom flange, to coun­ teract tensile forces created by the stiffeners. Longitudinally near the center of the main span, to allow for a reasonable margin of the order of 300 psi (2 MPa) of compressive stress in view of creep and secondary tensile stresses. Before erection of the superstructure, the bridge's 12 approach piers were slip-formed, nine on the left bank and three on the right. The pier shaf'ls have an octagonal curvilinear cross section inscribed inside a l3 by 29 ft (4.0 by 8.75 m) rec­ tangle, Figure 9.54. The same section was used for all the approach-span piers, whose height varied from 40 to 160 ft (12 to 49 m). The shape of the piers did not substantially increase costs but did in­ (Tease the aesthetic appeal of the piers. The piers bear through a reinforced concrete footing on four rectangular slurry trench walls used as piles with a maximum length of60 ft (18 m), Figure 5.17. The pylon pier shafts also have an octagonal curvilinear shape inscribed inside a 30 ft (9.2 m) square to produce equal bending resistance about both principal axes. They are supported on foun­ dation shafts having a diameter of 35 ft (10.86 m) with a maximum wall thickness of 6 ft 8 in. (2.03 111). The foundation shafts transfer the loads to a limestone stratum at a depth of 115 ft (35 m) below ground level. Foundation shafts were built inside a circular slurrv trench wall, which was used as a cofferdam for dewatering. 20 When slip-forming of the piers reached deck level, the piers were prestressed to their founda­ tion so as to stabilize them for erection of the deck segments. As the precast deck units were erected, w 18 8 !Jeeticm A-A FIGURE 9.54. spans. Pier and Section B-B foundation of approach Section C-C Section D-D 120,oa Longitudinal Section A-A FIGURE 9.55. Half center span and pylon. __ 8..-l0 __ . _ _ _ connection between pylon and pier FIGURE 9.56. ~ layout or neoprene bearings Connection between pvlon, deck, and pier. 425 426 Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges the pylon was constructed by conventional methods. Two single-shaft pylons carry a svstem of 21 stays located on the longitudinal axis of the struc­ ture, Figure 9.55. The reinforced concrete pylons required limited cross-sectional dimensions to pre­ clude an unnecessary increase of the deck width while providing sufficient dimension to accommo­ date bending stresses from a transverse wind di­ l'cction. Total pvlon height above the deck is 231 ft (70.5 m). Construction of the pylon required leap­ frog forms with 10 ft (3 m) lifts. An interesting feature is the total fixity of the pylon with the box girder deck. Because the bending capacity of the pYlon pier and foundation had to be such as to ac­ commodate unsymmetrical loads due to the can­ tilever construction, a decision was made to take advantage of this requirement in the final structure to reduce the effect oflive load in the deck. There­ fore, the pylon was constructed integral with the deck at its base, both pylon and deck being sepa­ rated from the pier by a ring of neoprene bearings, Figure 9.56. 20 FIGURE 9.57. Cable-Slay anchorage. All deck loads are carried to the pylon piers by 21 stays on each pylon. Each stay consists of 39 to 60-0.6 in. (15 mm) strands encased in a steel pipe, which is grouted after final tensioning. Stay 1ength varies from 275 to 1115 ft (84 to 340 m). Anchor­ age spacing of the stavs at deck level is every 19.7 ft (6 m), even other segment, where the inclined stif­ feners in the deck segments converge, Figures 9.53 and 9.57. A special deck anchorage block was de­ signed to accommodate the variable number of strands in the stay as well as to allow full adjust­ ment of the temion in the stavs by a simple an­ choring nut, Figure 9.58. The anchorage of the stays is such that it is possible at any time during the life of the structure to either readjust the ten­ sion in the stay or replace it without interrupting traffic on the bridge. Permanellt jacks are incorpo­ rated into the anchorage, Figure 9.59, such that by tensioning the stav the <l<Uusting nut can be slacked ofT. Stays are continuous through the pyl<)n where thev transfer load to the pvlon bv a steel saddle. The pipe wall thickness is increased near the anchorage points and near the pylon so as to improve fatiguc rcsistance of the stavs with regard to bending reversals. ~o III constructing the deck girder, the operation was to extend the bottom flange form from a traveling form at the completed segment, placing the precast web units that form the basic shape and act as a guide for the remaining traveling form. After placement of'the precast webs the interior steel form was jacked forward to cast the bottom flange struts and the top flange. Tower cranes at the pylon placed, as far as they could reach in both directions, the precast webs, Figure 9.60. Beyond the range of the tower cranes, gantry cranes run­ ning on rails on the top flange and extending 9.8 ft ,;,J"" renr- FIGURE 9.58. Jacking of stay. -­ 427 Danube Canal Bridge, Austria concrete cover FIGURE 9.59. Permanent stay anchorag;e. FIGpRE 9.60. \l<Iin pier. pylon. and deck during construction. from reference 20. (3 m) beyond the end of the completed section were used to place new elements. The strucwre is shown at the start of main span construction in Figure 9.61, before closure of the main span in Figure 9.62. and completed in Figure 9.63. 20 FIGURE 9.61. reference 20: Start of main span cOBstruction. from FIGURE 9.62. erence 20. Before closure of main span. from rd­ FIGURE 9.63. Aerial view of the Brotonne Bridge. from reference 20. 9.9 Danube Canal Bridge, Austria This structure is located on the West Motorway (Vienna Airport Motorway) and crosses the Danube Canal at a skew of 45°. It has a 390 ft (119 m) center span and 182.7 ft (55.7 m) side spans, Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges 428 I, I 182.7 ft 390 ft 55.7 m 110m FIGURE 9.64. ., d, Construction of half-bridge on bank of FIGURE 9.66. ·1· 55.7 m ·1 EIe\'ation of the Danube Canal Bridge. Figure 9.64. It is unique because of its construction technique. Because construction was not allowed to interfere 'with navigation on the canal, the struc­ ture was built in two 360.8 ft (110m) halves on each ballk and parallel to the canal, Figure 9.65. Cpon completion the two halves were rotated into FIGURE 9.65. c<lnal. 182.7 ft final position and a cast-in-place closure joint was made, Figures 9.66 through 9.69. In other words. each half was constructed as a one-time swing span. The bridge superstructure is a 51.8 ft (15.8 01) wide trapezoidal three-cell box girder, Figure 9.70. The central box was cast in 25 ft (7.6 m) long seg­ ments on falsework, Figure 9.71. After the precast inclined web segments were placed, Figure 9.72. the top slab was cast. Each half-structure has two cantilever pylons fixed in a heavily prestressed trapezoidal crosshead pmtruding under the deck with a two-point bear­ ing on the pier, Figure 9.73. At the cleek level the stays attach to steel brackets connected 10 pre­ stressed crossbeams, Figures 9.74 and 9.75. Each stay consists of eight cables, two horizontal by four vertical. At the top of the pylons each cable is seated in a cast-irol,l saddle. The cable saddles are stacked four high, Figure 9.76, and are fixed to each other as well as to those in the adjacent plane. The cables were first laid out on the deck. fixed to a saddle, and then lifted by a cralle for placement at the top of the pylon. The cables were then pulled Plan of Danube Canal Bridge during construction and final state. Danube Canal Bridge, Austria FIGURE 9.67. Danube Canal Bridge during rotation. FIGURE 9.69. FIGURE 9.68. 429 Closure joint. Danube Canal Bridge. Danube Canal Bridge during rotation. FIGURE 9.70. Cross section. Danube Canal Bridge. at each extremity by a winch rope to their attach­ ment point at the deck level. During rotation of the two half-bridges, the dec k and pylon sat on a bearing consisting of five epoxy-glued circular steel plates. The top plate was coated with teflon, sitting in turn on a reinforced concrete block that sat on a sand box. After rota­ tion the structure was lowered to permanent bearings by emptying the sand box. At the canal-bank end the deck had a concrete wall on its underside, bearing on a circular con­ crete sliding track, Figure 9.77. The bearing be­ tween the wall and the track was effected by two concrete blocks clad with steel plates, under which 430 Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges FIGURE 9.71. HI idge. Comtl'uClioll Oil ballk. Danuhe Canal Trapezoidal U'osshead. Danube Canal Bridge. FIGURE 9.72. Precast \\cbs. Dallube Callal Bridge. tclloll-coated neoprene pads were introduced during the rotation 1110vemel1l (similar to the in­ rrementallaullching method). The pivoting was ac­ complished by means of a jack pulling on a cable anchored in a block located near the sliding-track elld. After rotation the two haJ"es of the structure were connected by a cast-in-place closurejoint, and continuity tendons were placed and stressed. 22 The filial structure is shown in Figure 9.78. 9.10 9.10.1 Notable Examples of Concepts PROPOSED GREAT BELT BRIDGE, DENMARK The competitIon for a suitable bridge design in Denmark produced many new concepts and ar­ chitectural styles. The design requirements spec­ ified three lanes for vehicular traffic in each direc­ tion and a single railway line in each direction. FIGURE 9.74. Jacking of stays. Dallube Canal Bridge. The rail traffic was based on speeds of 100 mph (161 km/hr).2:! Navigational requirements stipu­ lated that the bridge deck be 220 ft (67 m) above water level, and the clear width of the channel was to be 1130 ft (345 m). A third prize winner in this competition was the Morandi-style design proposed by the English con­ sulting firm of White Young and Partners, Figure Notable Examples of Concepts FIGURE 9.75. Bridge. 431 Cable-stav attachment. Danube Canal FIGURE 9.77. Circular concrete sliding track. Dan­ ube Canal Bridge. FIGURE 9.78. .- , '11 , FIGURE 9.76. Stav saddles at pylon. Danube Canal Bridge. 9.7. This design embodied the principles of a cable-stayed bridge combined with conventional approaches of girders and piers with normal spans. The principal feature of this bridge design is the three-plane alignment of cable stays. This feature may become more important in urban areas, where trends in the future may dictate multimodal trans­ portation requirements and an increase in the Completed Danube Canal Bddge. number of automobile traffic lanes. The deck COI1­ sists of two parallel single-cell prestressed concrete box girder segments. Figure 9.79. The rail traffic is supported within the box on the bottom flange and the road traffic is carried on the surface of the top flange. The box girder contemplated a depth of 23.5 ft (7.2 m) and width of 27.75 ft (8.45 m) with the top flange cantilevered out 12 ft (3.7 m) on each side. The piers and towers were to be cast-in-place construction to support the deck segments, which were to be precast at various locations on shore and floated to the bridge site for erection. The maximum weight of a single box segment was es­ timated at 2200 tons (2000 mt). All segments of the superstructure were to be of reinforced and prestressed concrete. Up to this point in time, when the competition for this structLre was conducted, all the concrete cable-stayed bridges had been either designed by Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges 432 _ 3.675 m 8.'\5 m ------.;.-~--<E-- 3.675 m----o- Main longitudinal prestressing tendons I 7.20 m Vertical prestressing bars FIGURE 9.i9. Danish Great Belt Bridge. section through deck beam at ex­ pansion and constructioll joint. frolll reference 23. ;'vloralldi (Lake Maracaibo, Wadi Kuf, and so on) or strongly influenced bv his style (Chaco/ Corrienles). They were typified, for the most part, bv the transverse A-frame pylon with auxilian X-frame support for the girder. However, an entry in the Danish Great Belt Competition by Ulrich Finsterwalder of the German firm of DyckerhofT & Widmann deviated from this style and wa~ awarded a second prize. Finsterwalder proposed a multiple span, multi­ stay system using Dywidag bars for the stays, Fig­ ure 9.10. This proposal contemplated a spacing between pylons of 1148 it (350 m) and a spacing.of the stays at deck level of 32.8 It (10 111). P\"lon height above water level was 520 ft (158.5 m). 1n a transverse cross section the deck was 146 (44.5 m) wide with two centrally located vertical stay planes 39 ft 4 in. (12 m) a part to accommodate the two rail traffic lanes, and three automobile traffic lanes in each direction outboard orthe stay planes, Figure 9.80. The solid concrete deck had a thickness of 3 ft (0.9 m) in the transverse center portion, under the rail traffic, and tap~red to a 1.3 ft (0.4 m) thickness -1.;.158,50 :.12,50 form I F'" ~.--.~.--.l._-------- 350,00 -~·-----""'---175,OO --~ - - - ------------------ -r­ ~- , ,! JA:=~=~===~==~:::==::::;::::::::==~::::=====i::======.!i. c'i 0,40 Ij"": - - - - 15,25 ----."'!2,OO:...-lO,OO-----.i2,OO:..-~-- 15,25 _ 1...--------- ------44,5O~·--·--------· ..--.--­ FIGURE 9.80. Danish Great Belt Bridge, elevation and cross section (courtesy of DyckerhofJ & \\'idmann). .:!:, 0,00 Notable Examples of Concepts at the edges. The deck was to be constructed by the cast-in-place balanced cantilever segmental method, each segment being supported by a set of stays. 9.10.2 PROPOSED DA.'vlE POIST BRIDGE, U.S.A. The proposed Dame Point Bridge over the St. Johns River in Jacksonville, Florida, as designed by the firm of Howard ;-';eedles Tammen & Bergendoff, is a cable-stayed structure with a con­ crete and a steel alternative. An artist's rendering of the concrete cable-stayed bridge alternative is shown in Figure 9.81. Navigation requirements dictate a 1250 ft (381 m) minimum horizontal opening and a vertical clearance of 152 ft (46.3 m) above mean high water at the centerline of the clear opening. The proposed concrete cable-stayed main structure will h;l\'e a 1300 ft (396 m) central . --..,..;:,:.."" / ~~~:. FIGURE 9.81. Dame Point Bridge. arris["s rendering of Ho\\'ard :\cedles LlIl1l11en & Bergendoff). «Olll'lCSV 433 span with 650 ft (198 m) flanking spans. The layout of the main structure is shown in Figure 9.82.24 Structural arrangement of the bridge deck is shown in Figure 9.83. The bridge deck, which will carry three lanes of traffic in each direction, will span between longitudinal edge girders on each side. The longitudinal edge girder is in turn sup­ ported by a vertical plane of stays arranged in a harp configuration. The concrete deck and edge girders take local and overall bending from dead and live load in addition to the horizontal th rust from the stavs. 25 The stay cables are anchored in massive ver:tical concrete pylons, two at each main pier, which carry all loads to the foundations, Fig­ ure 9.84. In the center span, at each edge of the deck, the stays are in a single plane spaced 30 in. (0.76 m) vertically, Figures 9.84 and 9.85. Stays in the side spans, along each edge, are in two planes spaced 30 in. (0.76 m) transversely. Spacing of pairs of stays along the edge beam is approximately 30 It (9.1 111). Preliminary design contemplates 7 to 9 Dywida~ bars per stay, It in. (31.75 mm) in diameter, the number of bars per stay being a function of stre~s in the stay. The Dvwidag bars are to be encased in a metal duct. During erection the fabricated length of duct is left uncoupled. After final adjustment the lengths of duct are coupled and pressure­ grouted. Thus, the steel encasing tube will thell be composite for live load and secondary dead loa<l.2;; Construction proceeds bv conventional methods from the top of the pier bases at elevation 15.0 It (4.6 m) to the level of the roadway at elevation 144.6 ft (44 m). At this point, a fixed formtable is secured and the first elements of the pvlon and edge girders are cast. Erection of the deck is bv the llev. !5f (396m (198m) 1 2600 Main River Bridge ( 793m) FIGURE 9.82. Dame Point Bridge. concrete cable-staved alternative, from reference (courteS\' of Ho;,-ard :\eedles Tammen & BergendofO. ~l 105'-10" (323m) 43'-6"Roadway (06m)2' 43'-6" Roadway (133m) (!33m) Cables C~llit in abies plact' Declo. i ~Pfecast Cast- in-situ Beam <EM Sp.nl T Beam FIGURE 9.83. Dame Point Bridge. structural arrangemellt of bridge deck. from reference :24 ("(Jurtes\ of HO\\'ard '\c(,dlcsLlllllllCIl &- lkrgcmio!f). -, c c 0 0 0­ 0. (f) Slrul (f) c:0 c '" IJ.J ::;: ., ~ :is 0 u .0 0 u \ " J Tow~r jDeCk PedeSlal ". _."I(t\.' SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW FIGURE 9.84. Dame Point Bridge, pylon <lrrangment, from reference 24 (courtesy of Howard l'\eedles Tammen & Bergendoff). 434 "" ~ u-. HOw,"D N:~o':~>":~~·::;~~·cR.G:~o.o::IHNTB FIGURE 9.85. Dame Poillt illidge, snpnSlrnUllrt' of Ilowan/ :\ccdlcs LlIlIIlICIl & Bcrgelldofl). (l()llne~V ISOMETRIC VIEW OF ERECTION SEQUENCE lal iOll, \7 from ", BECI~ ERECT I ON SEQUENCE or CAS.T'IIl~?LAC£ CASLES sap S RFplAT STEP 8 (621;0) PR£CAS1 T BEAM NOH: :!:'> 1.0NSTRIJCT lOS- COh!.TRIJCT TOPf'IN4 [)UII::IIfG EACH (YClf. SEAM AT H?AttSION DAMES POINT BRIDGE CAST~Itl-PlACE CASTwl~'PLAtE 10,-- ERECT (6)RO) PFlECAST T firM. lo6,~, [FlECl JOI~TS GIRDER SEGMENT tS- REPEA; STEPS 10 THRU )'< TO STEP lOS 14- RfPlAT STEP 6 13·- REPEAT STEP 1 12- REnAT ST[P 9 I! - 10- REPlAl 9- ERECT (4TH) PR£{AH T BCAM r SEAM (;A5T-IN~f>LACf 6- OiHT (3RD) PHECAlT at. Tli(:(N CONSTRUCT n{>!(,Al ERECT (7-NOl PRECAST T BEAM IRGIN TYPICAL HQtJHlCt Of (ABtES. GIRDER ArlD CUNSTRLlCTIOll 4- afGIN CONSTRI.lCTlOk Of rOVER (OCE CA$i"IIi-f'LMf OfCK BHIJ(U4 T(lIJfk, CO)-I!;.TRuCTIDti (G~STRtJ(! 19 3- ERECT fiRST PRUAST T BEAM 2-- ll'rt'll'IlC(, \Il PLATE 17 Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges 436 balanced cantilever method. Two pairs of traveling forms are then used for sequential casting of 17.5 ft (5.3 m) lengths of edge girders on each side of the pylon. The bridge deck consists of single-T precast Hoor beams spanning between longitudi­ nal edge girders and a cast-in-place topping. The precast T's are pretensioned for erection loads. After erection the entire deck is post-tensioned to provide positive precompression between edge girders under all conditions of loading, Figure 9.85. 24 ,25 A hinge ex pansion joint is provided at the cen­ terline of the main span to allow for changes of superstructure length due to temperature, creep, and shrinkage. Similar joints are provided at the end piers, and link connections are used to prevent vertical movement of the superstructure. 0./ 0.") 1)IUW()S/~n fa ·C'l(-.·}-UIL 'CAl' HW n(;/:', C.S ..·/. The site for the proposed Ruck-A-Chucky Bridge designed In T. Y. Lin International, Figure 9.86, is approximateh' 10 miles (16 kl1l) north of the pro­ posed Auburn Dam and about 35 miles (56 kill) northeast of Sacramento, California, crossing the middle fork of the American River. The river at this location is about 30 ft (9 m) deep and 100 ft (30.5 m) wide: however, upon impounding of the water behind the proposed dam, the river will be­ come 450 It (137 m) deep and 1100 ft (335 m) wide. 2 (; In order to provide a 50 ft (15 m) vertical clear­ ance above high resenoir water level, a bridge length of 1300 ft (396 m) will be required between the hillsides, which rise at a 40° angle from the horizontaL Two existing roads parallel the canyon faces; a straight bridge across the river would re­ quire extensive cuts into the rock faces of the can­ yon to provide the necessary turning radiu~ at the bridge approaches. This would be not only expen­ sive but would also be damaging to the environment. Conventional piers in the river provide prohibitive design constraints, not only because of the 450 ft (137 m) water depth, but also because of the seis­ micity of the area. The hydroseismic (seiche effect) forces provide a formidable design load. After extensive studies, the proposed final solu­ tion was that of a hanging arc, Figures 9.87 and 9.88. The geometric configuration of this structure is such that the stays are tensioned to control the stresses and strains, in order to balance all the dead load with zero deHection; the curved girder carries the traffic and absorbs the horizontal component of the stays as axial compression. The stays are an­ chored on the slope according to the design form~­ tion to control the line of pressure in the girder. Thus, an ideal stress condition is achieved with almost no bending or torsional moments. After numerous studies and trade-olfs a final radius of cunature was selected at 1500 ft (457 m).26 Two alternative designs have been prepar,=d for this structure, one with a steel box girder and one with a lightweight concrete box girder. The con­ crete box girder, Figure 9.89, is fixed at the abut­ ments and has no hinges or expansion joints in the 1300 ft (396 m) spcin. Depth of this box girder is 8.5 ft (2.6 m), so as to provide vertical stiffness and to distribute live load and construction loads on the deck to a sufficient number of adjoining cables. Stay anchorage at the girder is at 30 ft (9 m) inter­ vals, based on construction and aesthetic consider­ ations. 26 FIGURE 9.86. Ruck-A-Chucky Bridge, artist's rend­ ering (courtesy of T. Y. Lin). .10 c"o .... lercn'llCl' ~ti . FIGURE 9.87. BRIDGE RlIck-.\-Chuckv Hlidgc, ~~ of 12'9.691 CHOj1tD· LIN,rN C> It ~ O· o o o 1300:'0' I..I,,.,,.,EI'I(' IEO"""'6 .. , . ..- t II it II (OIllTl'lc ailt'rllalc. from SPAN '-..PE:O€SrALS sourH INSIO€ \. \ \. \ \. \ ,\ \. .\ '~ \\.. , , \' , \, '\. \ '\ \. "\~\. .­ ~J • 00 00 U ~ = ai ~ '/: j f<:-':;,__ ./ " -/ I if,f' ',',,1,,',',," ,'r; ":'?;-'->./ , ' i'ii ,z;, ! - "':/ ; / ;'t::t.l / 438 / / /' . / ... -= :::::: :; ;:, (,!l ;:: :5 t;:~ References 439 54'-0" ~ _________________2~7_'_-0_"________________~4-______________2~7_'~-O~" ____________________~ 5' -9" i agonal Struts lO"xlO" e'-5t" \05:...'_-_4,,:...'_' 6'-6" I -----r-d _+-__8_'-_8_~_"'____--I______________::::25=-'_-_1:...1'_'_______________--1-_-8 _'-_B,,-t'_' FIGURE 9.89. Ruck-A-Chuch Bridge, cross section of concrete box girder alternative, from reference ::6. 10. R. Morandi, "Some Types of Tied Bridges ill Pre­ stressed Concrete," First International Symposium, A. Feige, "The Evolution of German Cable-Staved Concrete Bridge Design, ACI Publication SP::3, Bridges--An Overall Survey," Acier-Slahl-Sleel, :\0. Paper 23-25, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 12, December 1966 (reprinted in AISC Engineering 1969. journal, july 1967). II. Anon., TIll" Brid!il' S/JIlnnmg I.rlkp .H{/mmilJl) 1/1 Vrn­ ezw11l. Wiesbaden, Berlin, Bauverlag (;m 1)I-L, H. Thul, "Cable-Staved Bridges in Germany," Pro­ ceedings, Cunference on Structural Steelwork, I flstilutiun 196~\. of Civil Engineer>, Sl'ptember 26 to 28, 1966, London. I::. Anon., "Longest Concrete Cable-Stan~d Span Can­ tilevered over Tough Terrain," Enginfenng NPll',\­ W. Podolny, jr., and J. F. Fleming, "Historical De­ Record, julv 15, 1971. velopment of Cable-Staved Bridges," journal uj the Structural Divisiun, ASCE, Vol. 98, No. ST9, Sep­ 13. ::\. Gray, "Chaco/Corrientes Bridge in Argentina," tember 197::. JJ unicipal EngillCPrs journal, Pa per :\1). 380, Vol. 59. W. Podolny,jr., and]. B. Scalzi, "Construction and Fourth Quarter, 1973. Design of Cable-Stayed Bridges," john Wiley & 14. H. B. Rothman, and F K. Chang, "Ll)ngest Precast­ Sons, Inc., :--Jew York, 1976. Concrete Box-Girder Bridge in Western Hemi­ sphere," Civil Engineering, ASCE, March 1974. ~L S. Troitsky, "Cable-Staved Bridges-Theory and Design," Crosby Lockwood Staples, London, 1977. 15. W. Podoiny, jr .. "Concrete Cable-Stayed Bridges," Transportation Research Record 665, Bridge En­ F. Leonhardt, "Latest Developments of Cable­ gineering, Vol. 2, Proceedings, Transpurtatiun Research Stayed Bridges for Long Spans," Saetryk af Bygoningsstatiske ivfeddelelser, Vol. 45, No.4, 1974 Board Conference, September 25-27, 1978, St. Louis, Mo., National Academy of Sciences, Washington, Denmark). D.C. 'E. Torroja, Philosophy of Structures, English version References I. 2. 3. '4:, 5. 6. 7. by J. ]. Polivka and !¥filos Polivka, V niversity of California Press, Berkelev and Los Angeles, 1958. 8. H. M. Hadley, "Tied-Cantilever Bridge-Pioneer Structure in V.S.," Civil Engineering, ASCE, january 1958. 9. F. Leonhardt and W, Zellner, "Vergleiche zwischen Hzmgbrucken und Schragkabelbrucken fur Spann­ weiten tiber 600 Ill." Intemationnl dssociation j(n Bridge and Structural Engineering, Vol. 32, 1972. 16. H. Schambeck, "The Construction of the Main Bridge-Hoechst to the Design of the 365 m Span Rhein Bridge Dusseldorf-Flehe," Cable-Staved Bridges, Structural Engineering Series No.4, june 1978, Bridge Division, Federal Highway Adminis­ tration, Washington, D.C. 17. Anon., "Tiel Bridge," Frey'>sinet International, STUP Bulletin, March-April 1973. IR. A.l'vid Grant, "Pasco-Kennewick Bridge-The 440 Concrete Segmental Cable-Stayed Bridges Longest Cable-Stayed Bridge in !'\orth America." Ch'l} Ellginrrring, ASCE, \'o!. 47, :\'0. 8, August 1977. 19. Arvid Grant, "Intercity Bridge: A Concrete Ribbon on']' the Colu!I1bia River, Washingtoll," Cablc­ Staved Bridges, Structural Engineering Series No. 4, June 1978, Bridge Di\'ision, Federal Highway Administration. \\'ashington. D.C. 20. C. Lenglet, "Brotonne Bridge: Longest Prestressed Concrete Cable Stayed Bridge," Cable-Stayed Bridges, Structural Engineering Series !'\o. 4, June 1978, Bridge Division, Federal Highwa\' Adminis­ tration, \\'ashington, D.C. 21. Anon., "Cable-Staved Bridge Goes to a Record with Ihbrid Circlel Design." Lligill(,l'Iill{!, .\'('il',I-R('rou/, October 28. 1976. qq AIIOIl., "The Danube Callal Bridge (Austria)," ~ Frl'"),ssinet international, STUP Bullrtill, May-June, 1975. 23. Anon., "Morandi-Stde Design Allows Constant Sus­ pended Spans," COl/.witing Eligilll'l') (l,ondon), ~1arch 1967. 24. H. J. Graham, "Dame Point Bridge," Cable-Stayed Bridges, Structural Engineering Series No.4, June 1978, Bridge Division, Federal Highway Adminis­ tration, Washington, D.C. 25. Anon., "Dame Point Bridge," Design Report, How­ ard :\'eedles Tammen & Bergendoff, ;'\ovember 1976. 26. T. Y. Lin, Y. C. Yang, H. K. Lu, and C. M. Redfield, "Design of Ruck-A-Chucky Bridge," Cable-Stayed Bridges, Structural Engineering Series No.4. June 1978, Bridge Division, Fecleral Highw;1\ Adminis­ tration, Washington, D.C. 10 Segmental Railway Bridges 10.1 INTRODUCTION TO PARTICULAR ASPECTS OF RAILWA Y BRIDGES AND FIELD OF APPLICA· TlON 10.2 LA VOULTE BRIDGE OVER THE RHONE RIVER, FRANCE MORAND BRIDGE IN LYONS, FRANCE 10.3 lOA 10.5 10.6 10.i 10.1 CERGY PONTOISE BRIDGE NEAR PARIS, FRANCE MARNE LA VALLEE AND TORCY BRIDGES FOR THE NEW EXPRESS LINt NEAR PARIS, FRANCE CLICHY R.-\ILWAY BRIDGE l'iEAR PARIS, FRANCE OLIFANTS RIVER BRIDGE, SOUTH AFRICA Introduction to Particular Aspects of Railway Bridges and Field of Application Construction of segmental post-tensioned bridges for railway structllres started in France in 1952 . with a bridge <Tossing the Rhone River at La Voulte, Figure 10.1. It has been used extemively since that time in many countries. Precast seg­ mental cOllstruction was introduced in railway structures in France with the ;Vrarne ]a Vallee Via­ duct and in Japan with the Kakogawa Bridge, while incremental launching was adopted for sev­ eral large railway crossings including the world's longest bridge of this type: the Olifant's River Bridge in SOLith Africa (see Section 7.5). The m,~()r characteristic distinguishing railway bridges from highway bridges is the magnitude and application of loading. Live loading on a rail­ way structure is two to four times larger than that applied to a highway bridge of comparable size. Every time a train crosses a railway bridge, the ac­ tuat load applied to the structure is much closer to design live load than for a highway bridge, where even dense truck traffic usually represents only a 10.8 INCREMENTALLY LAUNCHED RAILWAY BRIDGES FOR THE HlGH·SPEED LINE, PARIS TO LYONS, FRANCE 10.9 SEGMEl'iTAL RAILWAY BRIDGES Il'i JAPAN 10.10 SPECIAL DESIGN ASPECTS OF SEGMEl'iTAL RAILWAY BRIDGES 10.11 10.10.1 Magnitude of Vertical Loads 10.10.2 Horizontal Forces 10.10.3 Bearings 10.1 0.4 Stray Currents 10.10.5 Durability of the Structure 10.10.6 Conclusion PROPOSED CONCEPTS FOR FUTURE SEGMEN· TAL RAILWAY BRIDGES moderate proportion of the design load. Fatigue and durability of railway structures, therefore, are essential problems and need careful consideration, particularly in view of the fact that maintenance and repair of railway structures under permanent FIGURE 10.1. La Voulte Bridge. new of the com­ pleted structure. 441 Segmental Rc;ilway Bridges 442 trafflc is a very critical operation that can lead to unacceptable disturbance in a railway network. 10.2 La Voulte Bridge over the Rhone River, France This first segmental prestressed concrete railway bridge is a notable structure and a landmark in the development of prestressed concrete. Constructed in 1952, it carries one railway track over the Rhone River near la Voulte, 80 miles (128 km) south of Lyons, in the southeastern part of France. The structure has five spans, each 164 ft (50 m) long. Each pier is made up of two inclined legs. and each span is an independent frame supported by an inclined leg at each end. Between the inclined legs on each pier, the deck is supported by a small beam resting on simple bearings. Construction proceeded using the cantilever schellle, with poured-ill-place segments. The form travelers wcre supported by a temporary sted truss i>ridge, Figure 10.2. The cantilevers were built sYlllllletrically III ol1e span. the unbalanced moments being taken care of by temporary post-tcnsioning connecting t he two inclined legs ali(I the independent beam on one pier. The seg­ lllellts were 9 It (2.75 m) long. Tbe bending mo­ mellls 01 each completed frame were adjusted by jacks placed at midspan and by continuity post­ tellsionillg tendons. Figure 10.3, 10.3 Morand Bridge in Lyons, France This structure is a combined highway and mass­ transit bridge over the Rhone River in Lyons, t: .' jC._"i:.L'." ~," i W~ FIGURE 10.2. La Voulte Bridge, aerial view of [he deck under construction. FIGURE 10.3. La Voulte Bridge. cantilever' deck con­ struction in progress. France's third largest city. It is a three-span con­ tinIlous struclllre witll span lengths of 160, 292, and 160 ft (49,89, and 49 m), resting on two river piers and two end abutments, which allow the tran­ sition of highway and railway traffic on both banks. The deck is made lip of two parallel box girders carrying at the upper le\el three lanes of highway traffic including sidewalks. Inside each box girder is a railway track for the mass-transit system, Fig­ ure 10.4. . This final scheme proved to be significantly less expensive and more efficient in terms of the layout of the railway system. than did the initial proposal, which contemplated a submerged tunnel for the railway crossing and a separate bridge for the highway traffic. Dimensions of the structure in cross section are shown in Figure 10.5. The railway clearance of 13 it 5 in. (4.12 m), including ballast and rail, calls for a 15 fl (4.56 m) structural height in excess of the normal requirements for a maximum span length of 292 It (89 m). A constant-depth girder could thus be maintained throughout the river crossing except in the vicinity of the river piers. where short straight haunches allow the depth to be increased to 22 ft 7 in. (6.90 m). Over the piers a strong transverse diaphragm connects the two box girders, and the additional height over the pier allows the continuity of the diaphragm over the height of the haunch while the full clearance of the trains is maintained inside the box girders. The deck was built in balanced cantilever with 10 ft (3.0 m) long cast-in-place segments using one pair of travelers on a typical one-week cycle, Fig­ ures 10.6 and 10.7. Typical quantities of materials are as follows for the deck alone: 443 Morand Bridge in Lyons, France FIGURE lOA. ON PIER Morand Bridgc, pcrspecti\c \'iew of the structurc. .. AT MID-SPAN ( 1 ... ~ E3 136 36 ~ ~ 1 ..,1 -1.. 7 I . r . .1e6 I ....'" H2 I it27 ... ,~2715:50 4.62 mW .. ! r" FIGURE 10.5. i,.e61 .~ \Iorand Bridge, typical cross section. Deck area Concrete Reinforcing steel Prestressing steel (longitudinal and transverse) 31,200 3,100 618,000 256,000 ftZ yd:l lb Ib 2,900 m 2 2,400 m:! 280,000 kg 116,000 kg FIGURE 10.6. su perstructure. Morand Bridge, construction of the Both concrete and reinforcing steel quantities far exceed those required for a typical highway be­ cause of the very important increase of loads due to the railway lines in the box girders. The structure was completed and opened to traffic in 1977. 444 Segmental Railway Bridges single box carries the twin tracks, with the depth varying between 13.6 ft (4.15 m) and 17.9 ft (5.45 m) for the maximum span length of 280 ft (85 m) as shown in Figures 10.9 and 10.10. The segmental deck was cast in place, with travelers working in the conventional balanced cantilever fashion. 10.5 The extension of the Paris mass-transit system in the highly populated southeastern suburbs was the occasion for building a long elevated segmental prestressed concrete railway structure in a sensitive urban environment, Figure 10.11. This structure, located in the city of Marne la Vallee, includes a bridge over the Marne River and a long viaduct carrying two parallel railway tracks. Near the tran: sition between the river bridge and the viaduct a passenger station is carried by the bridge structure. Three major considerations guided the choice of the structure: FIGURE 10.7. \loralld Bridge, constructioll of supcntructlln'. :--';otc pier segment for second parallel box girder. 10.4 Cergy.Pontoise Bridge near Paris, France :\ 11(,\\ railway lille \\'as completed ill 1977 between Marne la Vallee and Torcy Bridges for the New Express Line near Paris, France Paris alld the new satellite W\\'n oj Cergy.Pontoise. A major prestressed COllcrete structure carries this line onT sen'ral ohstacles, including an inter­ change between two expressways (A-~6 alld :\-14) alld two brallches of the Seine Ri\·er. Maintain maximum clearance at ground level, not only to reduce the visual disturbance to the neighboring population, but also to allow all piers of the new structure to be fully compatible with the layout of all existing and future roads. The treslle structures have a solid slab deck with spans varying between 65 ft (20 m) and 117 ft (35.60 m). T\'pical dimensions of the two main bridges over the Seine are shown in Figure 10.8. A Elevation (a) Typical cross section (b) FIGURE 10.8. section. Cergy-Pontoise Bridge, dimensions. (a) Ele\'<l{ion. (b) Typical cross Marne La Vallee and Torcy Bridges near Paris, France 445 ----~. ~ FIGURE 10.9. Cergv-Pontoise Bridge, cantilever con­ struction. FIGURE 10.10. c1osurc. Cergv-PoI1toise Bridge. mam span Produce a structure that is aestheticallv pleasing when seen constantly from nearby. Protect the neighbol'ing population from unac­ ceptable noise aggression. Basically, the structure is a single box of constant depth built of precast segments assembled by pre­ stress into a continuous beam; the beam rests upon vertical piers provided with an architectural shape and regularly distributed at distances of 90 ft (27 m) to 120 ft (36 m), Figure 10.12. Both parallel tracks are laid on the transversely prestressed deck slab of the box girder and on a crushed-Slone bed retained sidewavs bv three conlinuous reinforced concrete walls. A central noise barrier separates the two opposite tracks and pre­ vents the noise of a train riding one track to travel across to the other. At the edge of the concrete box girder. precast concrete panels manufactured with spe~ial white cement improve the appearance of the structure while providing the outside sound barriers. I ;' FIGURE nUl. Marne la Vallee Bridge, aerial view of the completed structure. FIGURE 10.12. :'/arne la Vallee Bridge. finished structure from ground level. VICW of In plan, the structure is laid out on a curve with a minimum radius of curvature of 1640 ft (500 Ill). Figure 10.11. Characteristic dimensions of the Marne la Vallee Viaduct are shown in Figures 10.13 and 10.14 and are summarized as follows: L Bridge over the Marne River: a. Total length, 528 ft (161 mi. b. Three-span continuous bridge with spans of 157, 246, and 125 ft (48, 75, and 38 m). c. Cross section: constant-depth box section with depth of 12.8 ft (3.90 m), web thick­ ness varying from 20 to 35 in. (0.50 to 0.90 m) and bottom flange thickness from 7 in. (0.18 m) at midspan to 51 in. (1.30 m) over the river piers. Length of precast segments 5.6 ft (1.71 m). d. Two river piers are founded on large­ diameter bored piles and support the su perstructure through special teflon bearings. 1205 o <0 N 6.00 ~ (3955) II •• j \ ,-J'; -4- ..... Lt••. : ; : : • ALLUVIUM DEPOSITS ALLUVIUM DEPOSITS I • II' ,.1 .. , iLL~ Jj~ ~ ~J. , -. : I ,- I \1 : ::: r .11 I ,If ~:~~:;: .. ~.:::: I ~ I , 'I :: I., I , L _ ;. LIMESTONE SAND FIGURE 10.13. 446 Marne la Vallee Bridge, typical sections of deck and piers. Marne la Vallee and Torey Bridges near Paris, France f. g. 470 _250___ _ 1100 12 MID 12 CROSS SECT ION ON i>IER SPAN CROSS SECTION 447 All bearings in the viaduct are standard laminated elastomeric pads. Piers are made of twin columns located under the webs of the box girder and con­ nected at ground level by a common foot­ ing, which transfers the loads to deep slurry trenched walls anchored in lime­ stone. The number and position of these bearing walls under each pier has been determined in relation to the magnitude of the transverse and longitudinal hori­ zontalloads transferred by the superstruc­ ture, particularly in the curved portion of the viaduct. (a) 4.70 1100 (b) FIGURE 10.14. \Iarne la Vallee and Torev Viaduct, l\pic~t1 deck sections. (a) .\larne la Vallee l;'estle and ['orey Viaduct cross section. (h) \!arne la Vallee Bridge over lhe .\£arne River. 2. Elevated viaduct: a. T Ofal length. 4482 ft (1367 m). b. The viaduct is divided into 11 sections separated by expansion joints. allowing compatibility of thermal stress between the continuous welded rails and the concrete superstructure. The typical section is 412 ft (126 m) long with four spans of 88, 118, 118. and 88 ft (27,36,36, and 27 m). e. The two south viaduct sections adjacent to the main river crossing carry the passen­ ger station and have _shorter spans 69 and 92 ft (21 and 28 m). d. Typical cross section is a single box carry­ ing the two tracks with two main vertical webs 35 in. (0.90 m) thick and two sharply inclined facia webs used essentially for ar­ chitectural purposes to reduce the appar­ ent structural depth of the box and focus the eye on the high parapet wall. e. Average length of precast segments 7.5 ft (2.:30 m). The entire project was predicated on the use of precast segments with match casting and epoxy joints. A precasting yard on the south bank of the Marne, using four casting machines, produced the 690 segments with a maximum weight of 60 tons (55 mt) in eleven months. Segments were trans­ ported with a tire-mounted self-propelled carrier over the finished portion of the deck and placed in the structure with a launching gantry, Figure 10.15, in balanced cantilever. The gantry used on that project was that designed and built earlier for the B-3 Viaducts project. The gantry allowed all operations to be per­ formed from the top in complete independence from the ground and all its related constraints. Placing of all segments was performed in a period of nine months between March and December of 1976, including the three spans of the main bridge and the forty-four spans of the viaduct. The entire project was completed in 24 months (including preparation of the final design), for a total deck area of 190,000 ft 2 (l 7,600 m 2). Figure 10.16 shows FIGURE 10.15. r-.larne la Vallee Bridge, precast seg­ ments placed with the launching gantry. Segmental Railway Bridges 448 FIGURE 10.18. FIGURE 10.16. :>Iarne la Vallee Bridge. crossing the \Iarne River and elevated passenger station. Torey Viaduct, segment transporta­ tion frol11 l'Iarne la Vallee to Torc\,. The total length of 1870 it (570 m) is divided into three separate sections: one fou r-span unit, on<:; nine-span unit, and one four-span unit. FIGURE 10.17. ?-larne la Vallee Bridge, aerial view of the rin~r crossing. a passenger station. and the elevated viaduct. Precast segments were placed in the structure with an overhead launching gantry of a type ,.;lightly different from the one used previously, although calling on the same sequence of mm'e­ ments. T\\'o parallel longitudinal trusses make the track for a transverse overhead portal crane carrying and placing the segments between the trusses. Figures 10.19 and 10.20 show the general view of the gantry a~d the detail of one segment placing. The overall view of the finished bridge appears in Figure 10.21. the northern span of the river crossing and the ele­ vated passenger station. Figure 10.17 is an aerial view of the overall project. 1n view of the success of this first application of segmental construction in urban railway elevated structures, the Paris Mass-Transit Authority de­ cided to extend the same concept to construct an­ other large structure a few miles eastward: the Torcy Viaduct. Fortunately, the precasting yard for the first bridge was still available and all seg­ ments could be manufactured there and trucked to the second bridge site, Figure HU8. Dimensions of this new bridge are as follows: Cross section: exactly the same as for the Marne la Vallee elevated viaduct. Distribution of spans: 17 spans with typical span length of 115 ft (35 m). FIGURE 10.19. Torey Viaduct, precast segment plac­ ing with launching gantry. elichy Railway Bridge near Paris, France FIGURE 10.20. Torcy Viaduct, detail of segment handling between twin trusses of launching gantry. ~~l"~"':'~~ · ,~~",~CL '}'Wm~'-"'" ;J.:":" ff!:~--: "c::-' .nt ~~~T»'C':'~ FIG:URE 10.21. structure. 10.6 449 vated metro. It crosses the Seine River adjacent to a new highway bridge between the cities of Clichy and Asnieres, as shown in Figure 10.22. Layout and principal dimensions appear in Figures 10.23 and 10.24. The prestressed concrete segmental structure is 1350 ft (412 m) long with a 280 ft (85 m) main span over the river with a deck of variable depth. The river piers of the two railway and highway bridges match exactly to minimize water flow and barge traffic disturbance. A provision is made for a sec­ ond future highway bridge at the other side of the railway bridge, as seen clearly in Figure 10.25a. The rest;icted transverse clearances between the three structures and their corresponding traffic explains the special shape of the piers for the center railway bridge, which was carefully studied architecturally to enhance the appearance of the project. Foundations were very close to one an­ other but could be maintained structurally inde­ pendent to better control settlement and avoid vi­ bration interference between bridges and in the ground. To carry the two railway tracks, the deck has a typical cross section consisting of three precast webs connected by a bottom slab, which forms es­ sentially the compression Aange over the piers, and an intermediate slab, which receives the ballast, Figures 1O.25b and 10.26. The depression thus realized between the web top flange and the tracks has several advantages, including providing full safety against derailing on one track and reducing the noise level. Construction of the superstructure included match casting of all webs in a yard near the project site. The webs were placed in balanced cantilever with a light portal crane carried by the finished Torcy Viaduct, view of the completed Clichy Railway Bridge near Paris, France At about the same time the two structures de­ scri~ed aboye were built, a large and innovative railway bridge was constructed in the northeastern suburb of Paris for another extension of the reno­ FIGURE 10.22. Clichy Railway Bridge, VIew of the completed structure. .... 450 Segmental Railway Bridges 1 I' ASNIERES C'''''.~'f'''' d,,: , c~, .. '" ; '1 • ,I' LA SEINE CLiCHY (a) (b) FIGURE 10.23. Clichy Railw<.J) Bridge, layout and dCY<ltion of the' structure, \'ic\\', (Ii) EIe\'alioll. (a) Pial! ~::::l=~~=F==~I:+ ~+----,-1,6.'~+/971~34 _ ("pG) g_lI_CI~t~__ .__.SEIN.L13.!!g!L. (7)7) FIGURE 10.24. (l'Ct) , (J>!J) __ l __.~,s!>'IERES (Plrp (?lP Clichy Railway Bridge, main dimensions of segmental structure. portion of the deck, Figure 10.27. Maximum weight of precast webs was 19 tons (17 mt), whereas segments that included the full three-web box (or even a more conventional single box for the equivalent span length) would have weighed in excess of 66 tons (60 mt), After assembly of precast webs with longitudinal post-tensioning, the two twin slab sections were poured in place between the webs in balanced cantilever on very simple travel­ ers, Web segments were 7.3 ft (2.22 m) long for the constant-depth part of the deck and 4.8 ft (l.48 m) for the variable-depth part. In fact, the slabs were cast in place between the three webs in two or three increments of that length respectively (a length of Clichy Railway Bridge near Paris, France E~~~_ 451 .--'"--_____.___ .2110) ------"­ l!G!:NDE _ Ouvroge\ b con\frulre. (a) !}ur~J i, fJlJc~ Sl.b.s . '>-, J FIGURE 10.25, Clidn Ibih,<\\ Bridge, t\vicaJ SC(­ lions of pier, and dcck, (II) Flc\'<trioll of lalld and rl\er pins. (hI DiIllt'llsiollS of lhe dcck (TOSS scerioll. 14-.6 or 4"+·1 m) to reduce the number of site oper­ ;)tions. A three-day cYcle of operations could be constantly maintained, including some overtime work for the larger segments near the river piers. Overall, construction in cantilever of the total superstructure took one year between September 197.7 and September 1978. A special design aspect, specific to railway bl'idges, was the transfer of horizontal loads (in­ FIGURE 10.26. Clichv Railwav Bridge, pier seglllCIIt and ca ntilever con~rrllerion. duced through braking or starting of the trains over the bridge), to the piers and foundations. A single fixed bearing was provided over pier P6, the foundation of which was designed to transfer to Segmental Railway Bridges 452 ,_ the need arise in the future. Two families of ten­ dons could be added: ." . ."(.). . . .. ' l . :.v..~ Above the lower slab in the two voids of the box section, anchors being provided in blisters already built in the structure. Atop the center precast web and on the outside face of the two facia webs, anchor blocks and de­ viation saddles being prestressed by high-strength bolts to the precast webs. FIGURE 10.27. Chehv Railw,1\ Bridge, placing pre­ cast \\Ths for can1 ile\"t'r constnlClion. the limestone stratum the total maximum hori­ zontal load of 660 tons (600 Int) applied to the bridge. There are three pot bearings between the deck and the pier shaft, each capable of safelv transferring half of the maximum horizontal load. Each bearing can thus be changed under traffic without I-educing the capacity of the structure. Special provisions were also included at the de­ sign stage, Figure 10.28, to allow additional pre­ stressing to be incorporated in the structure should The large precast architectural panels on hoth sides of the deck could be temporarih' removed to allow this work of additional prestressing to be per­ formed. Cpon completion, all additional tendons would be full\' protected and concealed behind the panels. The new line has been open to traffic since May 1980, and the first months of operation confirm that the precautions taken to reduce noise and vi: bration disturbance through welded continuous rails and sound-barrier panels make such elevated structures an acceptable solution for mass-transit lilies in urbanized areas. 10.7 Olifant's River Bridge, South Africa (b) FIGURE 10.28. Clichy Railway Bridge. (a) View of adjacelll highway and railway hridges crossing the Seine River. (b) Provisions for future additional prestress. This structure is part of a line carning iron ore on special heavy trains 7500 ft (2300 m) long made up of 200 cars with a lotal weight of 19,000 tons (17,000 mt) to connect the Sishen mines to the har­ bour of Saldanha 110 miles north of Capetown. Olifant's River Viaduct is today the world's longest incrementally launched prestressed concrete structure (refer to Chapter 7) with a total length of 3400 ft (l035 m) and 23 spans of 148 ft (45 m), Figure 10.29. Shown in cross section in Figure 10.29, the single box girder deck accommodates only one track on ballast. The equivalent uniform live load of the 33 ton (30 mt) axles is 7.1 kips/lineal ft (l0.5 mt/lm), which is increased by an impact factor of 1.29. The 23 spans are divided into two II-span sec­ tions, each anchored to the end abutment, and one single transition span at the center. This scheme allows all horizontal loads to be transferred to the abutments. The maximum horizontal reaction in­ cluding all thermal effects is in excess of 1200 tons (1100 mt). The piers, which vary between 80 ft (25 m) and 150 ft (55 m) in height, are extremely flexi­ ble and do not, therefore, have an important effect on the horizontal restraint of the structure, except during construction. The pier shafts have an 1­ Incrementally Launched Railway Bridges 453 (b) FIGURE 10.29. Olifallt's Rin'r Viaduct. (II) General view of the structure. (b) '[\Vic~\ll"ross section. shaped cross section with longitudinally tapered faces. Neoprene bearings are used for the piers near the abutments and teAon sliding bearings in the center of the structure. The deck was entirelv constructed behind one abutment (see schematic view in Figure 7.29) and incrementally launched in one direction. Construc­ tion time for the superstructure was nine months, with a theoretical cycle of 10 working days for a . typical 148 ft (45111) span realized after 10 spans; it was further reduced to se\en days with two shifts toward the end of the project. The total weight of the superstructure of 14,500 tons (13,000 mt) called for two 200 ton jacks for the push-out oper­ ations in increments of 3.5 ft 0.00 m). A 60 ft (18 m) long launching nose was used in front of the first span to reduce the variation of bending stresses in the superstructure during the ·successive stages of construction, Figure 10.30. The bridge nearing completion is shown in Figure 10.31; it was opened to iron ore trains in 1976. 10.8 Incrementally Launched Railway Bridges for the High-Speed Line, Paris to Lyons, France FIGURE 10.30. Olifant's River Viaduct, launching nose reaching bevond a high pier. build some new very-high-speed train lines (safe maximum speed of 200 mph or 320 km/hr) and started the construction of the first such line be­ tween Paris and Lyons, which included an entirely new structure over a distance of 250 miles (400 km) with proper connections to the existing met­ ropolitan track and station system. The new project required 400 bridges including nine large viaducts. such as the structure shown in Figure 10.32. A very comprehensive optimization study followed, and a set of guidelines and struc­ tural standards were prepared for the French Na­ tional Railways by a team of engineers headed by one of the authors. Results of the preliminary in­ vestigations and of this optimization study can be summarized as follows: L To meet increased competition by domestic air­ lines, the French National Railways decided to Track alignment is chosen to keep the curva­ ture in plan more than 10,500 ft (3200 m) and preferably more than 13,000 ft (4000 m). The Segmental Railway Bridges 454 4, 5, 6. FIGURE 10.31. Olifallt's Ri\cr Viaduct. \'ie'\\" of the s\ nln llre lIe'a ri IIg com plet ion, FIGURE 10.32. Railwa\ Viaducts for Paris-Lnms high-spcl'd lil1c, \'ie\\' of the \'iadun O\;er (he Saone Ri\'er. 2, 3. corresponding cross fall between rails is 7 in. (180 111m), All rails are to be continuously welded and placed on a ballast bed with a minimum thick­ ness or 14 in. (0,35 m). Maximum rigidity of the structures is obtained by using a continuous box section with slen­ derness ratio of 1/14. The corresponding maximum deflection under design load is therefore 1/2000 of the span, whereas conven­ tional specifications for normal-speed lines allow up to 1/800, Adopt as much as possible single box girder decks for the two parallel tracks with minimum web thickness of 14 in. (0,35 m) and a minimum top slab thickness of lOin, (0.25 m). The optimum span length is between 150 and 170 ft (45 to 50 111), which lea\es the construc­ tion method open to various solutions (can­ tilever, spar1-b\'-span or increlnental launch­ ing). The horizontal loads should be transferred to one abutment equipped with a special fixed bearing, allowing all piers to be relieved of am appreciable longitudinal bending. A tvpical H-section was adopted as the most appro­ priate except for certain specific locatioos where a box section might be required. Because many of the \'iaducts were located in en­ virolll11elltalh sensitive areas, all overall architec­ IUral study was also conducted to establish a unitv or appearance for all hrid~es ill terms of t he shapes of deck and piers, parapet or guard rails, abut­ ments and approach fills, Of the nine viaducts, two were finally con­ structed with conventional methods and the re­ maining seven wert' incrementally launched, This method proved economical in view of the moder­ ate span lengths, the depth of the box section avail­ able, and especially because the superimposed dead and live loads were so much more important than for a highway bridge that the increased dead-load moments during construction were in proportion of much less significance. Table 10,1 gives the essential characteristics of the seven segmental viaducts, including principal quantities of materials for the superstructure. Ele­ \'ations or fi\'e hridges appear in Figure 10,33, As an example of the construction method, some details are given ror the bridge over the Saone River, where a launching nose 93 ft (28.50 m) long and weighing 71 tons (65 mt) was used in front or the first span to reduce the stress variations in the superstructure during launching, Figure 10.34. "fhe bridge superstructure was cast in successive increments in a fixed location behind the right bank abutment in the length of a half-span, Figure 10.35. A typical sequence of operations is shown schematically in Figure 10.36. Each superstructure section is in fact cast in two stages ~ (Jt (Jt (Ill))" 41.0 (12.50) 40.0 (12.10) 429 (131) 279 (il5) Long. grade: 0.2% Straight in plan 39.0 (11.90) 1260 (385) -10.3 (12.30) 1112 (339) 39.0 (11.90) 41.0 (12.50) 662 (202) 1370 (419) 41.0 (12.50) (ft) Total Witllh 662 (202) !:Iritlg.: Length Long. grade: O.S5% Slraight in plan Long. grade: 2.5% Straight in plan Long. grade: 3.5% Radius in plan: 10,61l0 ft (3250 Ill) Long. gradt.:: 1.3% Radius in plan: 20,000 ft (6000 m) I.ong. grade: 0.95% Radius in pia,,: 26,000 ft (8000 m) Cin·ula. ptofile in elevation: R 130,000 h (40,000111) Bridge I.ayolll 7.8 (2.37) 13.1 (4.(H» (:UO) 10.8 10.8 (S.30) 11.5 (3.51) 10.8 (3.30) 10.8 (3.30) (tl) Heighl 19.0 (5.80) 190 (5.80) IB.O (5.50) 18.0 (5.50) IS.O (5.50) 111.0 (5.50) IS.O (5.50) (It) Box Widlh eft 12 (0.30) 24/35 (0.60/0.90) 10 (0.25) (0.28) II 12.5 (0.32) 24 (0.60) 12.5 (0.32) 12.5 (0.32) II (0.275) 11 (0275) Top (in.) Pi.:,. (III)] (0.20) 8 12/20 (0.30/0.50) 14 (0.35) 14 (0.35) 43/105 43 (1'1) 36 (II) 43/115 (l:W5) (! :I/:I:!) 2.30 (0.70) 2.30 (1l.70) 84 (50) 84 (50) 84 (50) 190 (110) 250 (150) 250 (150) 210 (125) 84 (50) 2.46 (0.75) 46 (14) 12.5 (0.32) 240 (140) 78 (46) 661148 (20145) 10 (0.25) 2.52 «(l.77) [Ib/yd' (kg/lll')] Reinf. Steel 240 (140) [Ib/yd' (kg/m")] HT. S.ed Quantities of neck 78 (46) (m'/Ill")] [fI'/ft' :i.52 (0.77) 4611:i1 1ft Heigh. ConCi. (HI:;7) 10 (0.25) Bottom (in.) Flange Thick 24 (0.60) 20 (0.50) 18/49 (0.45/1.25) (0.45/1.25) IHI4!J (in.) Web Thick. Dimensions of Deck or in. (m)] Characteristics of Segmental Viaducts on the Paris-Lyons High-Speed Line uSlfunures are nUlnhet eLI with increasing nlunbers, fronl Paris to Lyons. 109-S~v 144-109 (33.4 - 8 @ 44 - 33.4) @ Roche 108 ­ 7 @ 149 - 108 (33.1 - 7 @ 45.5 - 33.1) CD Sei1lE River 114 - 201-114 (34.8 - 61.1 - 34.8) ® Center Canal (length) 85 ­ 105 ­ 85 (26 - 32 - 27) @ Digoille Saulieu 115-3«v 144-115 (35 - 3 @ 44 - 35) CID Sereill 115- 3 @ 144 - 115 (35 - 3 @ 44 - 35) (J) Same River 155 - 5 @ 164 - 137 (47.2 - 5 (iiJ 50 - 41.8) CD 1ft Bridge Location and Span Lengths Table 10.1. Year 1978 1980 1978 1978 1979 1979 1978 Cmn­ pk,,·!! ... LYON Viii/due sur la Seine. ttl II Viadue du Serrein. t\l It Via due de la Digoine. Viadue de /a RO'ihe. I I tlUl I r=m=. -~.~.. •- =;;=a'""1I ji tuttli, ',." ~ '1.111­ !:==1~~~?F~~~::::,E*' i "J ",' '" ,,', JI'JOI Viadue sur fa Sa6ne. FIGURE 10.33. 456 Elevation of five segmental bridges for Paris-Lyon!> line. Segmental Railway Bridges inJapan 457 (bottom slab during the first stage, webs and top slab during the second stage). The typical con­ struction cycle allowed casting a half-span every week-that is, constructing two spans per month. The launching operation proper called for a very efficient system, developed and perfected previously in Germany, including under each web of the box section: One vertical jack with sliding plate Two coupled horizontal jacks for actual launching, allowing movements in 3 ft increments FIGURE 10.34. Saone Ri\'er Bridge, launching nose approaching pier. Typically, launching of an 80 ft section took three to three and a half hours, despite the large weight of the concrete superstructure, reaching 9000 tons (8000 mt) at the end of construction. Figure 10.37 shows a completed structure, and Figure 10.38 shows another aspect of the con­ struction of these seven viaducts. 10.9 Segmental Railway Bridges inJapan Many railroad bridges have been built in Japan using the segmental construction technique. The sketches shown in Figures 10.39 through 10.42 de­ pict the elevation and the cross section of the fol­ lowing cast-in-place segmental bridges: FIGURE 10.35. Saone River Bridge, aerial view with casting vanl in behind abutment in foreground, TE~PCRARY SLiOINI> FOR PADS 50 DOm - SUPPORT PUSHt£ (WITH JACK) 50.00 ~- 4300 Kyobashigawa Bridge Natorigawa Bridge - APPROACH SPt.N ,­ PRECAST Yt.RO 23!10 ....---~~.-~,..... SITUATION DURING FABRICATION OF SEGMENT 7 - 2(\.50 1025 2070. 2500 -~ .......................25.00 --~. SrTUATION AFTER PUSHING OF SEGMENT 7 GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF THE CONSTRUCTION METHOD BY PUSHING FIGURE 10.36. Saone River Bridge. typical construction stages of incre­ mental launching. Segmental Railway Bridges 458 FIGURE 10.37. Saone River Bridge, view of the completed structure. FIGURE 10.38. Digoine Bridge, incremental launch­ ing over high piers. Kisogawa Bridge Ashidagawa Bridge Figure 10.43 shows the Kakogawa Bridge during construction. The superstructure is made of twin constant-depth box girders, one box girder carry­ ing one railway track. The total length of the bridge is 1640 ft (500 m), with typical span length of 180 ft (55 m). Each box is 13 ft (4 m) wide and 11.5 ft (.3.50 m) deep. The precast segments were handled by a launching gantry and assembled by longitudinal post-tensioning tendons. The erection used the balanced cantilever system. The most outstanding prestressed concrete rail­ way structure, however, is the Akayagawa arch bridge shown in Figure 10.44. Total length is 980 ft (298 m) and the center arch span is 410ft (126 m). The 13 ft (4.00 m) deep box girder carrying two railway tracks is continued throughout be­ tween abutments and rests over the center gorge on a very flat arch rib through ten spandrel col­ umns. The respective proportions are such that the deck carries all bending moments and the arch rib carries the normal load induced by its curvature. The erection scheme was unique and called for cantilever construction starting from both sides. A very strong back stay made up of a prestressed concrete member with a prestress force of 5300 tons (4800 mt) was installed diagonally between the top of the main transition piers between the arch structure and the approaches on one hand, and the foundation of the adjacent piers in the approach structures on the other hand. While erection progressed, high-strength steel bars were placed diagonally between the vertical members, forming a temporary truss structure until the crown was reached from both ends. Con­ trol of tensioning of those steel bars was very criti­ cal and complicated. Finally, all steel bars and the two temporary back stays were removed after clo­ sure of the arch at midspan. 10.10 Special Design Aspects of Segmental Railway Bridges 10.10.1 M.AGNITUDE OF VERTICAL LOADS Most bridges carry tracks laid on ballast with a minimum thickness of 10 to 14 in. (0.25 to 0.35 m). Special Design Aspects of Segmental Railway Bridges 459 HAKATA ELEVATION CROSS SECTION FIGURE 10.39. Hvobashigawa Bridge, Japan. Live loading used in design of railway bridges varies between countries-Cooper loading for Anglo-Saxon countries, new UIC loading for most European countries-and also according to the na­ ture of the structure: mass-transit lines are usually designed for much lighter loads than normal train lines. The heaviest loadings are for are freight trains. To exemplify the basic diff.erence between a highway and a railway bridge, Figure 10.45 com­ pares a typical 150 ft span and a 36 ft wide deck normally designed for three highway lanes of traffic or two railway tracks. The total superim­ posed dead and live load is 3.6 times greater for the railway bridge. hi addition, the weight of bal­ last (representing 40% of the total load) must be considered as a live load to cover the cases where the ballast is removed from the deck or has not yet been placed on a new bridge. /0./0.2 HORIZONTAL FORCES Railway bridges have to carry very important hori­ zontal forces, between five and ten times the hori­ zontal forces carried by a highway bridge of similar size. The standard current practice for long via­ ducts is to have a fixed bearing on one abutment if the bridge length is less than 1500 ft (450 m), and on both abutments and on intermediate special bents if it is greater. The order of magnitude of this horizontal force on the abutments carrying the fixed bearings is often 1000 tons for a two-track viaduct. The various forces involved are described below: Long-itudinal Forces Braking and acceleration forces Segmental Railway Bridges 460 TOKYO r r-----------51.95 52.00 ~---t-- 524.90 m • ~ -1- H !Jl:Ur '0 I -- 52.00 I 52.00 - 54.50 . 54.50 - 52.00 , 52.00 52.00 T"---r-O ·--~---T----·---I--------r..----..-'---....--- 10,. :~ -- 0 MORIOKA _ 5195 ------~. . ' [2 I • ~#M~" 8·"~ Ff;1~ F9r­ ELEVATION ~---,;:- - -- I] -----1 -: J L...2:=====i' .. - - .. i I -----j _-=-5::-9--t--t-....:2:::,:.2::..::5......,.1_-=-2.:.:.,75::...--li 2. £,5 6.00 I I 2.45 ~~-_---~--~l~l.l~O~m~------~ CROSS SECTION FIGURE 10.40. Natorigawa Bridge, Japan. Forces due to box girder deformations: creep, shrinkage, and temperature variations Loads induced by the length variations of long welded rails under temperature variations Longitudinal component of wind forces Braking and acceleration forces are one­ seventh of the total weight of live loads, with a ceiling of 285 tons for braking and 53. tons for ac­ celeration (French regulations). Forces due to longitudinal deformations of the box girder vary because of creep, shrinkage, and temperature variations. The bearing displace­ ments induce horizontal loads by distortion or friction. Length variations of the long welded rails due to temperature variations create a horizontal force parallel to the rail. This force can be estimated at 50 tons per rail (length of rail more than 100 me­ ters). For a two-track bridge it is 2 x 2 x 50 = 200 tons. Longitudinal component of wind forces are de­ scribed in the AASHTO specifications for bridges. Transverse Horizontal Forces Centrifugal horizontal force can be very important for high-speed trains. For the 200 mph train from Paris to Lyons this force is more than 400 tons for some viaducts 1200 ft (380 m) long with two tracks and radius of cur­ vature of 10,500 ft (3200 m), The lateral accelera­ tion is more than 20% of that of gravity. Transverse wind force is described in the AASHTO standards (50 Ib/ft2 ). 10.10.3 BEARINGS In order to gain complete control of these very large horizontal forces, the bearings are specially designed to take care of the vertical loads and ro­ tation of the box girder and simultaneously to pro­ vide all possible horizontal restraints (fixed bear­ ing, bearing free lengthwise or crosswise, or both), Special Design Aspects of Segmental Railway Bridges 461 ----1 m --- I HAGOn, -=>­ ELEVATION 76 or-b5~~~:~ I-Iii ~1~IL I co :1, 0 Ii ' 2.00 ,I 1 '9 .u 'I'1 2 40 !.' 5:30 ,. 2.00 9.30m I I CROSS SECTION FIGURE 10.11. Kisogawa Bridge. Japan. These bearings are specially manufactured for this type of structure. Figures 10.46 and 10.47. The sliding parts consist of a teflon-coated plate resting on a stainless steel plate, and the restraints are pro­ vided by steel keys. ference of potential with the ground may be mea­ sured at regular intervals, and a permanent con­ nection with the ground may be decided on as a result. 10.10.5 10.10.4 DURABILITY OF THE STRUCTURE STRAY CURREVTS For structures carrying electrified railways there is some uncertainty about the long-term effect of stray currents generated near the power lines. In order to preclude electrolytic corrosion of rein­ forcing steel and prestressing steel, the following precautions are now taken in prestressed concrete structures: The deck is electrically isolated from the ground, piers, and abutments by e1astomeric plates. The reinforcing and prestressing steel svstems of the entire deck are interconnected by mild steel bars to equalize the electric potential. The dif­ Because very difficult problems of train traffic would arise during repairs to these bridges, their durability needs special attention. The following provisions were established for the high-speed bridges between Paris and Lyons: Under the worst service loads the concrete must remain under a 140 psi minimum compression. For continuous bridges, the design shall be checked by weighing the dead-load vertical force on the bearings. The stressing force of the post-tensioning tendons shall be less than 80% of the ultimate strength of the tendons. 462 Segmental Railway Bridges HAKAlA ----::.. ELEVATION FIGURE 10.42. CROSS SECTION Ashidagawa Bridge, Japan. 10.10.6 FIGURE 10.43. Kakogawa Railway Bridge, placing precast segments with launching gantry. The ultimate strength of the structure should be capable of supporting the service loads increased by 30%, if 30% of the post-tensioning steel were missing. Provisions shall be made for installing additional tendons while the structure is under traffic. The additional post-tensioning force shall be 15% of the designed force minimum. It shall be possible to replace all the bearings. CONCLL'SlON This review of specific design problems of railway bridges should raise no doubts whatsoever about the advantages of prestressed concrete and seg­ mental construction in this field. Prestressed con­ crete is the safest material known today to resist indefinitely the large variations of loads such as those applied to a railway bridge. The problem of fatigue has been covered briefly in Chapter 4, and the results mentioned there apply particularly well to railway bridges. The main objective in the design and construction of prestressed concrete bridges should be to minimize and even eliminate concrete cracking, which is al­ ways a source of weakness in a structure subject to cyclic loading. . The use of the provisions laid down in Section 10.10.5 should result in practically crack-free structures with an expected life free of major maintenance. (a) Arch rib (b) FIGCRE 10.44. .\k;n;lg;ma I<.;lil\,·;I\ l)ridge. general dimciisiolls. \.lliOl1. (/1) rq)ical ClOSS sectioll .\-.\. 55 k 125t) 5A ,<icF 18 t/ml) III.'IIIIIIIIIII!IIIIIIU j 55 k (25t) . 55 k (25!) I J 55 k (25t) (II) Fk­ 5A k/cF j j (8 t/ml) 1IIIIIIIIIIIIIlIIIIIIIIIIII . 2.6' I i80l Railwav Bridge Description Span length Deck width :\ umber of lanes or t LICb Superimposed dead load: Ballast Curb, pavement. etL Total S.L. Live loads: Equivalent uniforlll load Impact bctor Total L.L. Total (S.L + L.t.) 150 ft (45 m) 150 ft (45 Ill) %ft(lllll) Three lanes :.16 ft (11 Ill) Two tracks 6.:3 kips/h 0.& kips/ft L5'kipslft i.O kipslft 1.5 kips/ft 6.8 kips/It 2.4 kipslll 30% 2.8 kips/ft 8.8 kips/ft 4.3 kips!!t 15.8 kips/ft FIGURE 10.45. Venical loading on railway bridges. (II) Typical U Ie track loading. COlllparison of superimposed dead and live loading on highway and r,lilw<lV bridges. (b) 463 Segmental Railwa)' Bridges 464 10.11 ... ... :.". .," ' ,", ·t~....: ...... '" '-. , r ,... " . • I'.. • • '" . .­ .. ) ~ , . . . FIGURE 10.46. pOl bearillg \\'ith unidircc· I jona! horizollla!lII01'cmclll. Proposed Concepts for Future Segmental Railway Bridges We should note that many types of structur:es de­ scribed for highway bridges are equally appropriate for railway bridges: the structures described in this chapter were essentially girder or arch bridges built in cantilever or incrementally launched. Today, many design projects are based on stayed bridges. As an example, Figure 10.48 shows a pro­ posed crossing of the Caroni Ri"er in Venzuela for hea"y iron ore freight trains. I ! I I ! i I I , 131',/31"129' ,-=-+-'. ~-. t !3/tJ' 318'. FIGURE 10.48. Pmpmt'd iron ore ]'ail"'<I\' lint', ('J()s~jng of Rio Camni iOl 11 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 SCOPE AND INTRODUCTION CONCRETE AND FORMWORK FOR SEGMENTAL CONSTRUCTION 11.2.1 Concrete Design and Properties 11.2.2 Concrete Heat Curing 11.2.3 Dimensional Tolerances 11.2.4 FOTmwork for Segmental Construction POST-TENSIONING MATERIALS AND OPERATIONS 11.3.1 General 11.3.2 Ducts 11.3.3 Tendon Anchors 11.3.4 Tendon Layout 11.3.5 Friction Losses in Prestressing Tendons 11.3.6 Grouting 11.3.7 Unbonded Tendons SEGMENT FABRICATION FOR CAST-IN-PLACE CANTILEVER COr-;STRUCTION 11.4.1 Conventional Travelers Self-Supporting Mobile Fonnwork 11.4.3 Two-Stage Casting 11..1..1 Combination of Precast Webs with Cast-in-Place Flanges 11.4.5 Practical Problems in Cast-in-Place Construction Camber Control CHARACTERISTICS OF PRECAST SEGMENTS AND !\fATCH-CAST EPOXY JOINTS 11.6 11.6.1 11.6.2 11.6.3 11.6.4 11.6.5 11.7 11.8 11.1 Scope and Introduction Certain problems are common to all tvpes of seg­ mental construction-for example, the selection and control of materials. prestressing operations. and choice of bearings, joints, and wearing surface. Other prohlems are specific to a particular con­ struction method. The use of form travelers in cast-in-place cantilever construction and the cast­ ing ~U1d handling of segments in precast cantilever construction are two such examples. This chapter covers these various topics in the following order: Introduction Long-Line Casting Short-Line Horizontal Casting Short-Line Vertical Casting Geometry and Survey Control Segment Precasting in a Casting Machine Segment Casting Parameters Survey Control During Precasting Operations Survey Control During Construction Conclusion 11.6.6 Precasting Yard and Factories HANDUNG AND TEMPORARY ASSEMBLY OF PRE­ CAST SEGMENTS PLACING PRECAST SEGMENTS 11.8.1 Independent Lifting Equipment 1 1.8.2 The Beam-and·Winch Method 11.8.3 Launching Girders Launching Girders Slightly Longer Than the Span Length Launching Girders Slightly Longer Than Twice the Typical Span II.U 11.5 11.5.1 First-Generation Segments 11.5.2 Second-Generation Segments 11.5.3 Epoxy for Joints MANUFACTURE OF PRECAST SEGMENTS REFERENCES I. 2. 3. Problems common to all segmental bridges Problems specific to cast-in-place cantilever construction Problems specific to match-cast segmental bridges with particular emphasis on cantilever construction, which is the most widely used method. In designing segmental bridges, it is important to pay attention to certain details at the time of conception, in order to keep the project as simple as possible and thereby achieve economy and effi­ 465 466 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges nellC), during construction. The following guide­ lines apply to both cast-in-place and precast con­ struction: 1. Keep the length of the segments equal, and keep the segments straight even for curved stnlCtures (chord elements). <) :\1aintain constant cross-section dimensions as much as possible. Variations of cross-section dimensions should be limited to change of depth of webs and thickness of bottom slab. ~~. Corners should be beyelcd to facilitate casting. 4. Segment proportions (shear keys, for example) should be such as to allow easy form stripping. 5. Ay(lid as much as possible surface discon­ tinuities on webs and flanges caused by anchor blocks. inserts, and so on. 6. Use a repetitive lavout for tendons and all­ chors. if possible. 7. Minimize the number of diaphragms amI stif­ fencl'S. H. Avoid dowels passing through fonnwork, if possihle. 11.2 Concrete and Formwork for Segmental Construction 11.2.1 COXCRETE DESIG.\' /i,VD PROPERTIES Ullifonll qual it v of concrcte is essential for seg­ mental construction. Procedures for obtaining high-quality concrete are covered in PCl and ACI publications. 1.2 Both normal weight and light­ weight concrete can be made consistent and uni­ form by means of proper mix proportioning and prod uction con t ro1s. Ideal concrete will have a slump as low as prac­ ticable. notwithstanding the possible use of special placing equipment such as pumps, and a 28-day strength greater than the minimum specified by structural design. It is recommended that statistical methods be used to evaluate uniformity of con­ crete mixes. The methods and procedures used to obtain the concrete characteristics required by the design may vary somewhat, depending on whether the seg­ mCllIS are cast in the field or in a plant. The j'csults will be affected by curing temperature and type of curing. Liquid or steam curing or electric heat curing may be used. In tem perate climates and where cu ring is car­ ried out in an isothermal enclosure, only small ad­ ditions of heat are required to maintain the curing temperature, full advantage being taken of the heat of h\'dration generated by the fresh concrete. In this case heat demand will be a function of the ambient temperature, more heat being required in winter and little or no additional heat during hot summer weather. 'Where segment production rate is not critical, it may be possible to do without accelerated curing and simplY use a normal curing period of a few dm's, during which the concrete is well protected against excessive temperature variations and a!J exposed surfaces are kept moist. A sufficient number of trial mixes must be made to assure uniformity of strengt h and modulus of elasticity at all important phases of construction. Careful selection of aggregates, cement, admix­ tures, and water will improve strength and mod­ ulus of elasticity and will also reduce shrinkage and creep. Soft aggregates anc! poor sands must he' avoided. Creep and shrinkage data for the con­ crete mixes should he determined bv tests. Corrosive admixtures such as calcium chloride should nevcr be used, since thc\' can have a det­ rimental effect on hanlelled cOllcrete and can cause corrosion of reinforcement and prestressing steel. \Vater-reducing admixtures aud also air­ entraining admixtures that improve cOllcrete re­ sistance to environnienlal effects, such as de-icing salts and freeze and thaw actions, are highlv desir­ ahle. Yen careful control at the batching stage is required, however, since the advantages of air­ entrained concrete callnot be relicd upon ullless the qualltitv of entrained air is within specified limits. The cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, water, and admixture should be combined to pro­ duce a homogeneous concrete mixture of a quality that will conform to the minimum field-test and structural design requirements. Care is necessary in proportioning concrete mixes 10 insure that they meet specif1ed criteria. Reliable data on the poten­ tial of the mix in terms of strength gain, creep, and shrinkage performance should be developed to serve asth~ basis for improved design parameters. Proper vibration should be used to permit the use of low-slump concrete and to allow for the op­ timum consolidation of the concrete. 11.2.2 CONCRETE HEAT CURiNG An early concrete strength usually is required to reduce the cycle of operations and to maintain the Concrete and Formwork for Segmental Construction efficiency of the special equipment used either in cast-in-place or in precast construction. Two methods may be used for this purpose, either sepa­ rately or together: (a) preheating the fresh con­ crete, before placing it in the forms or in the cast­ ing machines, (b) heat curing the concrete after consolidation in the forms. In the first case the concrete is preheated to about 85 to gO°F (30 to 35°C). This operation is achieved in several ways: 1. 2. 3. Steam heating the aggregates-a simple solu­ tion that presents the disadvantage of chang­ ing the aggregate water content Heating the water-a solution that has limited efficiency, owing to the small proportion of water in comparison with the other compo­ nents (water at l40°F raises the concrete tem­ perature bv only 20°F). Direct heating of the concrete mix bv injecting steam into the mixer itself-the best solution and the one lllost easily controlled. To avoid heat loss, the [or!11S are generally in­ sulated and some source of radiant heat is installed inside the segment (radiators or infrared ele­ ments). In the second case, the concrete is heated in its mold inside a container in which low-pressure steam is circulated. I n this way it is relatively easy to obtain the strength required for prestressing oper­ ations [350n to 4000 psi (25 to 28 MPa)] after one or two days, even in winter. If however, tensioning operations are to be performed earlier, after 24 hours for example, modifications must be made to the concrete in the anchorage zone. Electrical resistances mav be embedded in the concrete. or precast end-blocks may be used. Pre­ cast end-blocks were used notably for the Issy­ les-~IoulineaLlx, Clichy, and Gennevilliers Bridges. For the Gennevilliers Bridge, despite the excep­ tional dimensions of the box girder deck, two segments were cast each week .through an early stressing of the prestress tendons. In the case of precast segments, the accelerated curing of the concrete must attain two apparently contradictor\' objectives: 1. 2. 1. 2. 3. 467 Conventional kilns. Direct heating of forms with electric resis­ tances. Direct heating of forms with low-pressure steam. The use of a conventional kiln entails several precautions. First, a constant temperature must be maintained in the kiln. Second, the segment sec­ tions of varying thickness are all heated to the same temperature, which may produce unacceptable local thermal gradients and cracking if heat curing is excessive.' Finally, the heated segment may be subjected to a thermal shock when removed from the kiln, if the difference between the ambient temperature and the kiln temperature is greater than 60°F. However, kiln curing is a simple solu­ tion and is acceptable for long curing cycles-for example. of 10 to 14 hours. Form heating by means of electrical resistances is perfectly adapted to long curing cycles. This sys­ tem permits a wide range of adjustment per zone, varying the temperature between the thick and thin sections of the segment and thereby minimiz­ ing thermal gradients and eliminating the risk of permanent damage to the concrete at the begin­ ning of its solidifying phase. The heating of forms with low-pressure stearn is preferable for short curing cycles lasting less than five hours, as it permits the distribution of a large quantity of calories over a short period, causing a rise in the internal temperature of the concrete of the order of 20 to 30°F (10 to l5°C) per hour. This system, however, requires a complex regulator to ensure an equal temperature in all the form panel enclosures, at all times during the treatment, what­ ever their thermal inertia and the external influences to which they are subjected, Figure 11.1. Accelerated curing to permit rapid stripping. Final compressive strength as near as possible tQ thaL of the design concrete. Several curing systems may be considered: FIGURE 11.1. Viaducts). Heat-curing control system (B-3 South Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges 468 The different systems (kiln, electrical resistances, and low-pressure steam) have all been applied suc­ cessfully to segmental bridges. The segments for the Choisy-Ie-Roi and Courbevoie bridges were kiln cured. Electric heating was adopted for the construction of the upstream and downstream bridges on the Paris Ring Road and the Blois Rridge. among others. Form heating using low­ pressure steam was used for the Pierre Benite Bridges. the Oleron Viaduct. and the B-3 South \'iad ucts. Whether forms are heated bv electricity or bv steam, it is relatively easy to produce a long curing ocle, and the desired final concrete strength is easih' ohtained. A short curing cycle, on the other hand, reguires a great deal of caution and meticu­ lous preliminary calculations. Particular attention must be given to: I. 2. 3. Choosing a cement, the performance of which is adapted to the accelerated curing of concrete (preferred is artificial Portland cement with: C"A ~ II (If and C: I S/C 2S ~ 3). Consistently manufacturing concrete with a minimum water content and a maximum tem­ perature ol9S"F (35°C) at the time of pouring. Using sufficiently rigid forms to resist the thermal expansion of the concrete in its plastic state while heating. 212 In order to avoid a drop in the long-term me­ chanical properties of the concrete. the tempera­ ture curve during the heat curing must necessarily include. see Figure 11.2: An initial curing period of two to three hours, during which the concrete is kept at the ambient temperature An increase in temperature at a low rate of less than 36°F (200C) per hour A period (depending upon the concrete strength be attained) during which the temperature is held constant and below 150°F (65°C) to A period during which the concrete is cooled at a rate similar to that used for the temperature in­ crease The loss of strength greater: III If the initial curing period is short It' the temperature increase is rapid II the lIJaximum telllperature is high As an example, the short-cycle treatment used lor the B-3 Viaduct segments was the following, see Figure 11.3: Initial period of H hour at 95°F (35°C) (mixing temperature) PREHEATING ALTERNATIVE 95­ 65-1---­ '-v--I~ '-----r----I\'---~.,------il INITIAL TEMPERATURE CONSTANT CURING INCREASE TEMPERATURE PERIOD FIGURE 11,2. the long term will be COOLING Heat-treatment cycle. Concrete and Formwork for Segmental Construction 11.2.4 SHORT CYCLE GO F LONG CYCLE f'1---- r--_ 11.0' FIGURE 11.3. Example of shl-H·t and long cycles. Temperature increase of 27°F (l5°C) per hour for 2 hours A constant temperature of IS0°F (65°C) for H hours Figure 11.3 shows an example of long-cycle heat treatment, the Conflans Bridge, which had a total heat-treatment duration of 19 hours. 11.2.3 DI.HE.YSIOXAL TOLERAA'CES Formwork that produces typical bridge box girder segments within the following tolerances is consid­ ered to be of good quality~·4: Width of web Depth of bottom slab Depth of top slab Overall depth of segment Overall width of segment Length of match-cast segment Diaphragm dimensions FORMH'ORK FOR SEGMENTAL CONSTRUCTION Formwork along with its supports and foundations must be designed to safely support all loads that might be applied without undesired deformations or settlements. Soil stabilization of the foundation may be required. Since economical production of cast-in-place or precast segments is based on repetitive use of the same forms as much as possible, the formwork must be sturdy and special attention must be given to construction details. Where form work is to be assembled by persons other than the manufacturer or his representatives, particular care must be taken with erection details and assembly instruc­ tions. All elements of the formwork must be easy to handle. 1.2 Formwork for structures of variable geometry will need to be relatively flexible in order to allow adaptation at the various joints. Both external and internal forms are usually retractable in order to leave a free working space for placing reinforcing steel and prestressing ducts. 3 Special consideration must be given to those parts of the forms that have variable dimensions. To facilitate alignment or adjustment, special equipment such as turnbuckles, prefitted wedges, screws, or hydraulic jacks should be provided. Tendon anchors and inserts must be designed in such a way that they remain rigidly in position during casting. Projecting anchorage blocks or other such irregularities should be detailed to permit easy form stripping. 3 If accelerated steam curing with temperatures of the order of 130°F (55°C) is to be used, then the deformations of the forms caused by heating and cooling must be considered in order to prevent cracking of the voung concrete. In general, internal vibration using needle vi­ brators should always be applied. External vibra­ tors, if used, must be attached at locations that will ::d in. +! in. to 0 in. ±t in. ±~ of depth with t in. min. ±iooo of width with t in. min. Hl. ±~ 469 in. 10 mm) (+ 10 mm to 0 mm) (±S mm) (5 mm min.) {5 mm min.} (±S mm) (± 10 mm) 470 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges achieve maximum efficiency of consolidation and permit easy replacement in the case of a break­ down during casting operations. External vibration may lead to f~ltigue failure in welded joints, and regular inspection should be made to help prevent am sudden failure of this kind. 3 Paste leakage through formwork joints must be prevented by suitable design of joint seals. Nor­ mally this can be achieved by using a flexible seal­ ing material. This is particularly important at the joint face with the matching segment, where loss of cement paste can lead to poorlv formed joint sur­ faces and subsequent spalIing and loss of matching, requiring repair. Special attention must be given to the junction of tendon sheathing with the forms. 3 • 4 All form surfaces, especially welded joints in con­ tact with the concrete, must be perfectly smooth and free from reentrant areas, pitting, or other discontinuities, which could entrap small volumes of UlllCl'ete and lead to spalling during form strip­ ping. 3 11.3 Ducts must have sufficient grouting inlets, shut­ off valves, and drains to allow proper grouting and to avoid accumulation of water during storage. Vent pipes should not be spaced more tha'J1 ap­ proximately 400 ft (120 m) apart. 7 This spacing may have to be reduced, depending upon the ex­ pertise of the personnel performing the grouting. Particular attention must be paid to the quality of duct connections at the joints between segments. At the joints, accurate placing is mandatory. The method of duct connection depends on the type of joint 3: Telescopic sleeves pushed over projecting ducts -wide joints Screw-on type sleeves-wide joints Internal rubber or plastic sleeves-malch-cast joints Gaskets or other special seals-match-cast joints' No special provisions: clean ducts with a torpedo after jointing to remove penetrated epoxv if any-match-cast joints Post-Tensioning Materials and Operations 11.3.1 CEA'ERAL Techllical details relating to the different methods available are described in the various post­ tensioning manuals 5 •6 and in the specific docu­ ments issued by su ppliers. 113.2 DUCTS Ducts are used to form the holes or enclose the space in which the prestressing tendons are lo­ cated. The ducts may be located inside or outside the concrete section. Although in some instances the tendons are placed in the ducts before concreting (cast-in-place and span-by-span construction), post-tensioning tendons will normally be threaded into the ducts after erection of the segments. The' duct cross section must, therefore, be adequate to allow proper threading; and in general it will be about t in. (5 mm) larger in any direction than for ducts in which the tendons are placed before concreting. The duct dimension must allow not only the in­ stallation of the tendons but also free passage of grout materials after stressing. The ratio or pro­ portion of cross-sectional area of the duct with re­ spect to the net area of prestressing steel should conform to appropriate specifications or codes. 4 A minimum value of 2 usually leads to satisfactory re­ sults. Connection tightness is essential in order to pre­ vent penetration of joint material, water, or other liquids or solids into the ducts, which would intro­ duce a risk of blockage, and also to prevent leakage at the joint during tendon grouting operations. 3 , 11 33 TENDOlv' ANCHORS Tendon anchors usually consist of a bearing plate and an anchorage device either in combination or as separate units. Shape and dimensions of the an­ chors must conform with the applicable specifica­ tions, particularly insofar as bearing stresses are concerned. Choice of anchor positions in the segments should take into account the following considera­ tions;}: Tendon layout requirements and installation se­ quences. Stresses generated around the anchors. Ease of tendon threading and stressing. Ease of formwork preparation, stripping and con­ crete placing. Certain anchorage positions, such as the anchorage block on a thin slab shown in Figure 11.4, should be avoided. If this type of detail cannot be avoided, then particular care must be taken in design and construction of the zone concerned.;} ,, = Post-Tensioning Materials and Operations FIGURE 11.4. .-\nchoragc block position to be avoided. Bearing plates are usually emhedded in the seg­ ment at the time of casting. In certain cases they are installed against the hardened surface of the concrete with a dry mortar bed or a suitable cush­ ioning material such as asbestos cement or syn­ thetic resin. 11.3.4 Construction sequence with respect to tendon placing. segment casting (or erection), and other construction imperat.ives Standardization and repetition of essential fea­ tures, especialh· duct and anchor positions at joints (in order to facilitate formwork design) Various loading conditions throughout the con­ struction period and in service When using large tendons. it is not advisable to couplers or crossed splices. for reasons of con­ gestion and formwork complication. Also, couplers and splices should not be located in areas where yielding mav occur under ultimate load condi­ tions. 3 I n order to limit friction losses, and to facilitate tendon threading. excessively curved tendons should be avoided if possible. u~e Il.3.5 struction under ordinary working conditions and supervision. The actual results obtained in a seg­ mental bridge built in Europe are given below by way of example for the benefit of future project designers. Cantilever tendons were placed along a straight profile in the roadway slab and anchored either on the segment face or in a block-out inside the box girder. Continuity tendons were either anchored in a block-out at the bottom slab level or draped upward in the webs and anchored in the same block-out of the cantilever tendons. All tendons were made up of twelve 0.6 in. diameter strands. Soluble oil for reducing friction in the ducts was not allowed by the consultant. The calculations were carried out using the following values for curvature and wobble friction coefficients: TEVDON LAYOCT This subject has been covered in Chapter 4 relating to design. The choice of tendon layout must be treated carefully, with special attention paid to the following factors: FRICTION LOSSES LV PRESTRESSI.VG TE,VDOSS Segmental construction usually calls for prestress­ ing tendons to be installed through a succession of short duct lengths coupled to one another at the joints between segments, these being at approxi­ mately 8 to 30 ft (2.5 to 10 m) intervals. The friction factors (for curvature and wobble) usually accepted for long tendons in cast-in-place structures may not be realistic for this type of con­ 471 f.L 0.20, K = 0.007/ft 0.0021/m The Young's modulus of the tendon samples tested in the factory or in the laboratory varied between 28,000 and 29,000 ksi, and the variation between various heats over the whole structure was very low. According to direct tests carried out on site, and a systematic analysis of all results of ten­ don elongations recorded during the stressing op­ eration, the actual Young's modulus of a (twelve 0.6 in. diameter strand) tendon at first tensioning varied between 25,000 and 26,000 ksi, which is only 90% of the value recorded during factory and laboratory tests. Figures 11.5 and 11.6 show values of the wobble friction coefficient K measured for all the tendons in the structure's 18 cantilevers. All the tendons are shown in Figure 11.5, while Figure 11.6 shows only those tendons in the spans without hinges. and separates the tendons anchored on the segment face from those anchored in block-outs (the ten­ dons had the same lavout except a rather severe curvature at the end). It is obvious that: 1. 2. 3. As construction proceeded and the quality of manufacture and supervision improved, the results got better. At the beginning of the job, the effect of the curved ends of certain tendons was lost in the generally mediocre results. As these results got better (value of K equal to that used in calcula­ tion from cantilever lIon), this effect became preponderant, counteracting that of the im­ proved standard of work. As the site staff became accustomed to the work and the effort and supervision dropped, the results became gradually worse (compare cantilevers 13 and 17, for example). 472 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges 3+--------------­ 2+-----------~- +------~~----"~-" ;tV\ -+­ 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1" 15 16 17 18 CANTILEVER 2 3 " FIGURE 11.5. Prcstressing in <I (;lIllilen'r IJridg(·. \'arialiol) of \wlJlJic frinioll (oclliciclIt for clIlIiin'cr tendons ill each of file SlnlClUlC\ Ix spall;', 3 +----<~------ -----,--,~~~ 2 +-~.__~..,....-__\---_T_ENDONS ANCHORED nO IN BLOCK - OUTS TENDONS ANCHORE_~. It..T __ THE SEGMENT FACE 2 3 S 7 9 11 13 1S I I 17 18 CANTILEVER FIGURE 11.6. Prestressing in a cantilever bridge. Wobble friction coefficient for can­ tilever tendons in the 10 spans without hinges. As an example, a straight tendon in the top slab fillet between slab and web was isolated. The wob­ ble friction coefficient depends on the care exer­ cised in fastening the duct to the reinforcing steel cage as the concrete is poured (when the tendon is in the slab rather than in the fillet, the accidental deviations are much smaller). For the first seven cantilevers (see Figure 11.7) the wobble coefficient Post- Tensioning Materials and Operations II') - I I FL EXI f3LE. 0...­ )( :::t:. RIGID T DUCT 3 473 ­ DUCT I­ Z W c,:? lJ... lJ... w 2 0 () z Q I­ ~ a:: lJ... 1 W ...J CO OJ ~ 2 3 " 5 6 e 9 10 11 12 13 1~ 15 16 17 1! FIGURE 11.7. Prestressing in a cantilever bridge. Wobble friction coefficient for a 'itraight tendon locat.cd in the upper fillet. reached up to six times the assumed value used in the calculations, and yet very careful construction will enable this assumed value to be reached or at least approached closely to obtain the desired pre­ stress with little room for uncertainty. Th~ presence of hinged segments not only com­ plicates the tendon profile and the construction phases, but introduces uncertainty about obtaining the required prestress force. Owing to the techni­ cal restrictions imposed by the consultant, the tra­ ditional prestress layout employed in earlier bridges could not be used. Consequently, long ten­ dons stressed only at the opposite end had to be accepted. It was thought that a realistic value of the final force for each of the tendons (twelve 0.6 in. diameter strand) would be 350 kips (160 mt). It is 474 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges fortunate that a direct check was made at the site, which revealed the actual initial load at transfer to be the following for the four tendons under con­ sideration: 130 kips (60 mt), 210 kips (96 mt), 130 kips (60 mt), and 200 kips (90 mt). The average initial prestress load per tendon was therefore 170 kips (i8 ml), and the probable final force would ha\'e been 150 kips (70 mt) as compared to the as­ sumed \'alue of 350 kips (160 mt). Fortunateh', the situation could be easily corrected and remedial measures put into effect as follows: 1. :2. The reinforcing steel and local prestressing tendons allowed for a certain margin of safety. 11 was possible to restress t\\'o of the four cables in the flrst cantilever and then to change the profile and method of placing segments in order to stress all the tendons at both ends for the rest of the cantilevers. 'rhe above results, quoted rigoroush· so as to il­ lustrate se\'eral important aspens of friction losses, must not lead the reader to suppose that the safety of the structure was at any time compromised. The force ill a tendon \'aries much more slowly than any changes in the friction coefficients for ordinary tendon profiles. For example, in a 270 it (80 m) tendon stressed at both ends, if the friction coefficients are multiplied by 4, the minimum force in the tendon is reduced by only 16%. It is interesting to examine the results for the actual prestress obtained in cantilevers 2 and 3 (the ones having the worst results) shown in Figure 11.8 for each section, compared with the prestress used in the calculations. The lack of prestress, most marked at midspan, was compensated by addi­ tional tendons to bring the force back up to that required by the calculations in the first two spans. Afterward, the Ol;jginally calculated prestress was always sufficient. To summarize, the authors wish to underline the following points: I. 2. Bench tests should be performed on site to determine a realistic value of the modulus of elasticity of the tendons to be used 1.0 compute the theoretical tendon elongations. Realistic values of curvature and wobble fric­ tion coefficients should be used in the design and further controlled on site. Direct friction tests should be made together with a statistical analysis of the measured elongations for all tendons. r----------.-.---- --------.----------------, SUPPORT \cXXl 0950 0.900 0.650 3 FIGURE 11.8. Prestressing in a cantilever bridge. Effecti\'e prestress in spans 2 and 3. Segment Fabrication for Cast-in-Place Cantilever Construction 3. Provisions should be made at the design stage for additional prestress to compensate for any unexpected reduction in the design prestress force due to excessive friction. This may be done as follows: a. By adding additional ducts over and above the number required by design calcula­ tions; if this method is used, the unused ducts at the end of construction must be grouted to prevent water from seeping in­ side and subsequently freezing with disas­ trous effects on the structure. b. By using larger than required sizes for some of the ducts, so as to allow the use of larger-capacity tendons if required. c. By providing anchor blocks and possible deviation saddles so as to allow the instal­ lation of external tendons located inside the box girder but outside the concrete section. [f the correct approach is taken at the concep­ tion stage, perfect con trol of this aspect of prestress rnav be obtained and very satisfactory structures can be built that give maintenance-free long-term performance. I " II.J.6 .. used because it increases the moisture content of the air and reduces the natural corrosion protec­ tion. Another important and sometimes acute prob­ lem relates to potential grout leakage at segment joints, which can lead to the passing of grout from one duct to another. For this reason ducts must be well connected and sealed at joints. To check the grout tightness of the joints and to avoid blockages, it is advisable to flush the ducts with water under pressure before grouting. Any leakage points thus detected may then be sealed. If communication is discovered' between tendon ducts, the tendon groups affected should be grouted in one opera­ tion after threading and stressing of all the tendons involved. 3 If couplers are being used (notably for single-bar tendons), precautions must be taken to limit the risk of grout blockage at the coupling points. Couplers must be housed in special enlarged en­ closures with two essential features:!: 1. ' 2. Clear cross-sectional area for the passage of grout equal to or greater than that for the rest of the tendon. Independent grout inlets and vent pipes. GROLTI:VC As in conventional post-tensioned structures, seg­ mental construction requires the grouting of pre­ stressing tendons after tensioning to provide cor­ rosion protection and to develop bond between the tendon and the surrounding concrete. Current recommendations and provisions of good practice are therefore applicable to segmental bridges. However, several important points need to be ex­ amined. Grouting must not be carried out if the temper­ ature in the ducts is less than 35°F (2°C) or if the surrounding concrete temperature is less than 32°F (2"C). This requirement virtuallv precludes grouting operations during the winter months in the northern and middle western United States, unless very special winter precautions are used. It is preferable to postpone all grouting operations until the following spring, even though some ten­ dons may be left tensioned and ungrouted for a long period. Attention must then be given to cor­ rosion protection of the high-tensile steel bars or strands. Satisfactory protection is obtained by seal­ ing all tendon ducts at both ends after blowing out with cool compressed air. Hot air should not be 475 11.3.7 USBONDED TESDONS Unbonded tendons may be used in segmental con­ struction provided that the performance require­ ments of the post-tensioning steel are also met by the tendon anchorage, notably with respect to fatigue characteristics. In unbonded post-ten­ sioning a corrosion protection system must be provided to guarantee at least the same degree of corrosion protection as for bonded tensioning. This may be achieved by enclosing the tendons in flexible ducts (such as polyethylene pipes) and by cement grouting after tensioning. 11.4 Segment Fabrication for Cast-in-Place Cantilever Construction 11.4.1 CONVENTIONAL TR::lVELERS The conventional form traveler supports the weight of fresh concrete of the new segment by means of longitudinal beams extending out in can­ tilever from the last segment in order to support the forms and service walkways. I :1 476 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges Form Travelers with Top Main Beams (Figure 2.83) The longitudinal main beams or girders are usually located above the segment to be concreted, in line with the webs. The outside forms, the bot­ tom forms, the work floor, and the service walk­ ways are hung from the main beams with the help of cross beams. The inside forms are supported on a trolley, which travels inside the deck. The main beams are anchored to the previous segment. In order to maintain stabilitv during the pouring operation a counterweight is sometimes used to reduce the uplift forces applied to the con­ crete section. When the traveler is transported to its new position ready for the next segment, the counterweight keeps it in balance between two suc­ cessive anchoring positions. The main beams that suppon the load due to concrete, forms, walkways, and so on are often subject to large deflections, which can give rise to transverse cracking along the joints between segments. These cracks appear at the upper face of the bottom slab and at the con­ nection between web and top slab. This undesir­ able condition can be avoided by using a rigid structure; the weight of the traveler is increased together with the prestress required in the can­ tilevers. The form traveler used for the Oissel Bridge weighed 120 tons (110 mt) and may be considered as a heavy form traveler. . If the travelers are light, care must be taken to compensate deflections during concreting by ad­ justing jacks. This type of traveler weighs (exclud­ ing counterweight) a little less than half the maximum concrete segment weight. An example of a light form traveler is shown in Figure 11.9 for the Tourville Bridge. Each traveler weighs 33 tons (30 mt). Form Travelers with Lateral Main Beams (Figure 11.10) Travelers with their main beams above the bridge deck present the disadvantage of hindering the construction operation concerning the upper part of the segment. For this reason ·certain form travelers have their main beams disposed laterally parallel to the outside webs, underneath the bridge deck. This solution leaves a clear working surface and allows easy access to all surfaces to be formed, reinforced, and concreted. In this way, the tech­ nology originally developed for precast segmental construction can be applied to cast-in-place can­ tilever methods, resulting in shorter construction cycles. The Moulin-Ies-Metz Bridge in eastern France, Figure 11.1 I, was constructed using this type of form traveler. FIGURE 11.9. eler. 11.4.2 Tourville-la-Riviere Bridge form trav­ SELF·SUPPORTING MOBILE FORAHV()RK I n the case of traditional form travelers, the re­ sulting deflections seen during construction are almost entirely due to the main beams. The formwork as such IJ.sually acts only as a mold and does not support any part of the total load, even though it comprises very stiff walls. In several recent bridges the traveler concept has been modified so as to use the rigid form work as the weight-carrying member, thus producing a self-supporting rigid mold. Several advantages are gained with this concept: Surveying control and correction of bridge deck geometry are easily obtained. Cracking near the joints caused by the deflection of conventional travelers is completely eliminated. The work area is maintained completely free and allows prefabricated reinforcing steel cages to be used as in precast segmental construction. This type of mobile formwork was first used for constant-inertia bridge decks such as the Kennedy Bridge, Dijon, and the Canadians Interchange in Paris, Figure 11.12. During the concreting operations, the mobile formwork is prestressed to the existing deck. The exact positioning of the formwork is obtained by Segment Fabrication for Cast-in-Place Cantilever Construction 477 , _ CONCRETI NG PHASE Rear support Horizontal '\ Pre5tre!>sed suspension / rod!> restress Self su form 2_ LAUNCHING PHASE LIpunq t' " I ey ..rOI I .. ! I i • Vi I'\J I FIGL'RE 11.10. FIGURE 11.11. rypical form traveler with lateral main beams, \Ioulins-les-\Ietz form traveler. FIGURE 11.12. Canadians Viaduct (Paris), VIew of form traveler in operation. means of adjusting pins located at the rear in res­ ervations provided in the previously poured seg­ ments. The formwork is transported to its new po­ sition, ready for the next segment, on an overhead trolley, which travels along short steel girders can­ tilevered out from the existing hardened concrete in line with the webs. A further refinement was to use pretensioned reinforcing to add to the stability of the traveler while pouring the segment. Figure 11.13 shows the arrangement for the Canadians Viaduct in Paris, France. Monostrands located in the webs are provi­ sionally anchored to the front of the traveler and embedded in the webs of the concrete segments to be incorporated in the reinforcement of the per­ manent structure. The use of the self-supporting mobile formwork was later extended to variable-depth bridge decks 478 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges Is fA /l.JpperB~ar.Fixa1ion 1 i I Pre$tres$ Tendons ( 12 xO 6") ! SIng 1~2t~and~~ (4x06~) I ~ l§ SECTION B.B SECTION A.A . Uppe r Fiulio ns " Single FIGURE 11.13. ~.!rands Canadiam Viaduct (Pari~). as well as three-web cross sections, as in the Clichy, Orleans, and Gennevilliers Bridges. The structural members of the mobile formwork are therefore the side forms of the exterior face of the outside webs and the bottom forms of the underside of the bottom slab, both of which are stiffened transversely by front and rear frames braced together for additional rigidity, Figure 11.14. In this manner a rigid box is formed, which is prestressed to the existing deck. The change of section height is achieved by vertical displacement of the bottom forms, which are fastened to the front stiffening framework and bottom slab of the last segment. The stability of the self-supporting mobile forms I of the Gennevilliers Bridge was ensured by (Figure 11.15): l. 2. / Two steel pins fixed to the top of. the outside forms and matching imprints provided on the outside face of the previous segment, the con­ nection being assured by high-strength bars going through each web. Two steel pins fixed to the upper surface of the bottom forms and matching the corresponding imprints provided in the last segment bottom slab, again held by prestress bars. The self-weight of the mobile forms and the fresh concrete creates an overturning moment, which is details of the self-supporting form Ira\'eler. balanced by two forces F sustained by the previ­ ously described locating pins. Practically all the shear force is taken by the upper pins. Because of the large forces transmitted through the top pins to the concrete, precast concrete elements are used to avoid the transmission of high stresses to young concrete, Figure 11.i6. These forces are transmit­ ted by friction between pin and concrete, and this determines the necessary prestress force. 11.4.3 TWO-STAGE CASTING The method of two-stage casting involves, first, the fabrication of the bottom slab and the webs to­ gether with a small part of the top slab in order to create a flange in which all or some of the can­ tilever tendons can be located. This operation, car­ ried out using a conventional form traveler, pro­ duces either a U-shaped or a W-shaped section, depending on the number of webs, Figure 11.17. After the cantilever tendons are stressed the form traveler is moved to the next position, the top is poured using a mobile formwork of relatively sim­ ple design. This second stage usually follows the first with a minimum interval of two or three seg­ ments, and concrete can be placed in a simple pour over the length of several segments. This method has the advantage of reducing the concrete volume to be supported by the form traveler, thus reducing the weight of the traveler. Segment Fabrication for Cast-in-Place Cantilever Construction 479 SII/{ suppllrtin IIXtirior Hobll, truss Bottom FIGURE 11.14. Self-supporting mobile forms for \;ll'iable-depth bridge decks. Concreting. (/I) ~IO\il1g forward. In addition, the second stage is independent with respect to the first and so is no longer on the critical path of concreting operations. The bridge decks of the Saint Isidore and Mag­ nan Viaducts on the Nizza A-8 bypass were con­ structed using this method. All of the 130ft (40 m) spans of the Saint Isidore Viaduct were completed for stage one only, including closure to the pre­ ceding> span, before the second stage was com­ pleted, using mobile formwork which rolled along the bottom slab from one abutment to the other. As regards the Magnan Viaduct, the second stage followed the first with an interval or three seg­ (a) ments, because of the long spans in this structure. The same procedure was used for the Clichv,Join­ ville, and Woippy Bridges, Figure 11.18. 11.4.4 COAtBINATlON OF PRECAST WEBS WITH CAST-IN-PLACE FLANGES The preceding methods allowed a considerable re­ duction in the construction cycle. Two pairs of segments could thus be completed every week, cor­ responding to an average rate of construction of 7 to 10 ft (2 to 3 m) per working day. MOBILE FIGURE 11.15. FORM - STABILITY Stabililv of the GellllC\illiers Bridge self-supporting lllobile forms. PRECAST JOIN T Prestressing FIGURE 11.16. Precast gusset for GelllJ(.'\·ilJiers Bridge. / st \ U' SECTION - 1 FIGURE 11.17. 480 STAGE Two-stage construction of a two-web bridge deck. bars Segment Fabrication jor Cast-in-Place Cantilever Construction _~a_'"':......... ~_--:::--~_ _ ~~_~~~ __ - -- - -~- _ - 481 ~.- ~ FIGURE 11.18. \voippy Viaduct, France. Detail of the self supporting form traveler and two-stage casting. The main obstacle preventing further reduction in the construction cycle and therefore a closer ap­ proach to the speed of precast segmental construc­ tion is the lack of strength of young concrete and the consequent interference with stressing opera­ tions. Apart from several other methods already discussed, the problem can be partially overcome bv using precast end blocks or precast webs or both. This was first tried for the construction of the Brotonne Viaduct approach spans. Figure 11.19. The webs, which were rather thin and heavily in­ clined, were precast in pairs and pretensioned. Figure 11.20. The deck was cantilevered out from the piers using 10 ft (3 m) long segments assembled in two phases. In the first phase. the precast webs weigh­ ing up to 18 tons (16 mt) were placed inside the ·form traveler, previously adjusted to the bridge profile including the desired camber. The webs were then prestressed to the preceding segment with provisional prestress bars, the joint being FIGURE 11.19. rier. Brotonne Bridge, mobile form car­ match-cast or cast in place. The second phase con­ sisted of casting the rest of the segment inside the form traveler. which was now suspended from the newly stressed webs. This procedure, which requires partial prefabri­ cation of the segments using light casting equip­ ment, enables a considerable simplification of the form traveling equipment, the limitation of total weight to 39 tons (35 mt), and a reduction in the construction cycle such as to produce, even for a cable-stayed bridge, as many as four segments per week for each pair of form travelers. COUPLER FOR \TENSION RODS 36 mm dia TENSION RODS STEEL FORMS 7 DISTRI BUTION BEAM \ ADJUSTABLE BRACKETS BRACKETS SOFFIT BED FOR PRETENSION ED WEBS FIGURE 11.20. Brotonne Bridge, precasting of webs. CASTING BED 482 Technolog), and Construction of Segmental Bridges During construction of the Brotonne cable­ stayed bridge, the precast wehs were placed hy tower crane traveling parallel to the bridge deck above the river banks and by an overhead gantry crane above the Seine River. Another example of the use of precast webs is found in the Clichy Bridge carrying the met­ ropolitan line over the Seine in the northwest of Paris. The bridge deck with a 280 ft (85 m) maximum span consists of a three-web box girder without cantilever flanges and with the deck sup­ porting the live loads as low as possible in order to reduce the length of the access ramps to the struc­ ture. The 8 ft (2.5 m) long segments were also con­ SI ructed in two stages, Figure 11.21. The precast wehs, with epoxy match-cast joints, are placed with the aid of a mobile handling system rolling along the webs of the previously placed segments. They are then prestressed 10 the existing structure before the lOp and bottom slabs are poured in place on the length of two segments. 11.4.5 PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN CAST-IN-PLACE CONSTRUCTlON CAMBER CONTROL Before proceeding with the cantilever construction proper, a starting base must first be completed on the various piers. This first special segment, called a pier segment or a pier table, is generally con­ structed on a temporary platform anchored by FIGURE 11.21. Precast web placing equipment for Clichy Bridge carrying the metropolitan line over the Seine River. E ~EV!~TlON SECTION 7· ~/ J; 1: nOll \ \ FIGURE 11.22. Con~truClioll of the pier segment for a cast-in-place camile\'cr deck. prestressing the pier top, Figure 11.22. This spe­ cial segment may either be given the minimum length to insure adequate connection to the pier for the stability of the future cantilever or else be of such length as to allow both travelers to be installed simultaneously, Figure 11,23. Another important problem relates to the safety of the travelers during construction. Chapter 4 de­ scribed the difficulties of ensuring pier safety in the event a form traveler fell during transfer from one position to the next. The difficulties would even be greater in the event of an accident during the casting operation. Consequently, all precau­ tions must be taken both at the design stage and during construction to eliminate this potential hazard. The load-carrying members of the traveler must be carefully inspected and may even be load tested before use so as to practically eliminate the danger of structural failure. The most critical areas are in the safety of the suspension rods and the transfer of the traveler reactions to the concrete. Preferably all suspension rods and anchor bars should be doubled. Also, the prestressing tendons must have an adequate mar­ gin of safety. Use of a single strand or a single bar in each web of the box should be avoided. Rather a multistrand tendon with individual anchors for each strand or two prestress bars should be used. Worldwide use of cast-in-place cantilever con­ struction has established an extremely good safety record, much better than that for cast-in-place con­ struction on falsework. Accidents are very few and far between; however, designers and constructors must always be safety conscious. Segment Fabrication for Cast-in-Place Cantilever Construction 3. 4. 5. FIGURE 11.23_ Start of GlIltiIever construction from the pier segment. (a) Short pieI- segment succeSSIve installatioll of tr;l\-elers. [iJ} Long pier segment '-siIllultaneous installatiolJ of travelers. The most critical practical problem of cast-in­ place construction is deflection control, partic­ ularly for long-span structures. There are five categories of deflections (or space geometrical movements of the structure) during construction and after completion: Deflection of the travelers under the weight of the concrete segment. This value is given by the manufacturer or may be computed and checked at the site during the first operations. 2. Deflection of the concrete cantilever arms ,during construction. For each casting of a pair of segments, the weight of the concrete seg­ ments and the corresponding cantilever pre­ 1. 483 stress forces impose upon the cantilever a new deflection curve. Deflections of the various cantilever arms after construction and after removal of the travelers before continuity is achieved with the other parts of the deck. Short- and long-term deflections of the con­ tinuous structure, including the effect of superimposed dead loads (curbs, railings, pavements, utilities, and so on) and live loads. Short- and long-term pier shortenings and foundation settlements. Using the data available on concrete properties and foundation conditions, the designer should compute the various deflections mentioned under items 3,4, and 5 above, assuming the bridge un­ loaded for foundation settlements and long-term concrete defltfctions and half the design live load for computation of the short-term concrete deflec­ tions. The sum of the various deflection values ob­ tained in the successive sections of the dcck allows the construction of a camber diagram, which should be added to the theoretical longitudinal profile of the bridge to determine for each can­ tilever arm an adequate casting cUrve. This casting curve is the goal toward which construction pro­ ceeds during cantilever casting. The essential difficulty is that no absolute coordinates are avail­ able in a system where everything changes at each construction stage (transfer of traveler, concrete casting, or cantilever prestressing). A very simple example may illustrate the solu­ tion of the problem of accommodating the deflec­ tions described under item 2 above. For simplicity. assume only a four-segment cantilever arm. for which a horizontal longitudinal profile is required, Figure 11.24. As outlined in Chapter 4 and summarized briefly above, the designer analyzes the various deflection curves for each construction step (casting segment and precasting). The typical results are shown in Figure 11.24. The cumulative deflection curve is immediately obtained together with the camber dia· gram, Figure 11.25. The use ofthe camber diagram for determining the adequate deflection at each con­ struction stage is simple; however, it is much less simple to use in a proper manner in the field, and experienced surveyors have often made mistakes. When properly used, the camber diagram allows the determination at each joint, of offset values such as YI-2, Y2-:l, and YH at each point, which will 484 Technology and Constructio:: of Segmental Bridges I ELEVATION OF TYPICAL CANTILEVER --­ 3 NOTE 8 I) CD Denotes projection of deflection curve outboard in the following joints Downward deflection is posItive I CASTING AND PRESTRESSING SEGMENT (0 ~-~ FIGURE 11.24. struction sLage. B c0 Ed:V (-23) 1-11) (-17) 1 5 (9) (13) 5 10 20 130) 8 18 29 49 +9 +22 41 69 -5 CD 0 8 TOTAL DEFLECTION I I VERTICAL DEFLECTIONS (in mm) , . Partial deflections due to girder weighL and prestressing at each con­ bring the traveler in the proper position to realize the desired final geometry. The sketch and table in Figure 11.26 show how to use the camber diagram properly. It is very important to realize that at no construction stage does the profile of the cantilever coincide with either the final deflection curve or the camber diagram. The natural tendency would be to build up the traveler to the required offset to make its nose fall exactly on the camber diagram. The results of this improper procedure are shown in detail in Figure 11.27. The bridge is built with an undesired double curvature, particularly undesirable toward the end of the cantilever. When the mistake is discovered, it is usually too late to put into effect any remedial measures, because the final shape of a cantilever depends essentially upon the accuracy of the geometry near the piers, where the deck is sub­ Characteristics of Precast Segments and Match-Cast Epoxy Joints 485 C;lmber curve \ . \ \ o FIGURE 11.25. camber. Cumulative deflection curve and choice of b. jeeted to the highest moments and where its detleetions have the greatest effect at midspan. 2. 11.5 Characteristics of Precast Segments and Match-Cast Epoxy Joints In the finished structure after hardening: a. To ensure the watertightness of the joints, especially in the top slab. b. Developed originally to allow a rapid and safe as­ sembly of precast segments at the construction site, the technique of match casting was progressively refined as experience was gained. We shall de­ scribe the characteristics of segments in the early structures to further highlight the latest improve­ ments and variations of the original concept. 11.5.1 FIRST-GENER1.TION SEGMENTS In those early structures the epoxy resin played several important roles: 1. During assembly before hardening: a. To lubricate the mating surfaces while final positioning took place. To compensate for minor imperfections in the match-cast surfaces. To participate in the structural resistance by transmitting compression and shear forces. However, before hardening of the epoxy resin, the joints present no shear re­ sistance whatsoever, because the epoxy behaves like a perfect lubricant. It was therefore necessary to provide shear keys in each web in order to ensure the shear­ force transfer between segments. These keys, as well as those situated in the top slab, also allowed a very accurate assembly of one segment with respect to another. During assembly of the deck, some sort of tem­ porary fixation, either mechanical or by means of prestress bars, allowed the placing equipment (launching girder, crane, and so on) to be quickly 486 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges /J CD i i SEGMENT cD i SEGMENT CAMBER L . LOADS TOT~L CAMBER 0 +~' 0 SEGM£NT LO~D5 TOTAL -13 CAMBER 0 0 LOADS :, 10 TOTAL 8 I 0 I I -18 29 C 0 0 +B +18 + 29 0 0 a - f j ! . FIGURE 11.26. Follow-up camber diagram. j- or ullloadcd without wailing for the cantilever len· dons to be stressed. Figure 11.28 shows how a typical first-generation segment can be assembled to the existing structure using a temporary apparatus'located on the top and boltom slabs, which is used to create forces F I and F2 which ensure the equilibrium of the new segment at the joint. These two forces, combined with the weight W of the segment, give the resultant force R, which is inclined with respect to the joint. Because of the very small coefficient of friction of the epoxy, the shearing component of R produced by W can be balanced only by the vertical component of the reaction C, which exists normal to the bottom face of the web shear keys, Figure 11.28. The resultant R is composed, therefore, of the oblique reaction C supported by the shear keys and a horizontal reac­ tion N, which is responsible for securing the joint. The axial stress distribution at the joint cross section differs in this case from what would be ob­ --i­ +1.9 0 deflectiolls with proper' use of tained by ordinary calculations. I t is obvious that N is smaller than F (the sum of forces F 1 and F 2)' Let Q' be the angle of the key support faces with respect to the horizontal; then F N == W tan Q', and for a typical case of tan Q' = 0.50, F N == W 12. Consider a segment weighing 50 tons (45 mt), temporarily assembled by a prestress force of 100 tons (90 mt) located in the top slab; the axial force reduction is 25 tons (23 mt)-that is, 25% of the total applied prestress force. If the rate of erection of the precast segments is sufficient to ensure the positioning of four seg­ ments before the resin in the first joint has set, then the reduction in the effective axial force in this joint will be 100 tons (90 mt), which more or less corresponds to one tendon of twelve! in. diameter strands. The same conclusion would be valid when the permanent prestressing was used to ensure the temporary stability of the cantilever. In conclusion, it is recommended that this re­ duction of the effective prestress force be taken Characteristics of Precast Segments and Match-Cast Epoxy Joints 487 I!oIPROPI:R CAM9ER SEGM£N'T ( -35) --,--­ CAMBER ( LOAD~ -1~ TOTAL o CAM8ER UJAOS (]) ~ SEGMENT CD SEGMENl (0 23) +_.­ 10TAL 0 CAMSER --.----~ LOADS 5 TOTA .... -8 CAM8ER a LOADS 6 rOTA i.. 0 + FIGURE 11.27. Follow-up of deflections with improper use of camber diagram. . TEMPORARY SEGMENT ASSEMBLY JOINT EOUILIBRIU~ N (v) F2 (b) (a) FIGURE 11.28. Temporary assemblv. (a) Elevation of temporary assembly. (b) Joint equilibrium. into· account while verifying the cantilever resis­ tance and stability. Failure to do so may result in temporary joint opening. which is undesirable al­ though not dangerous for stability. It is also preferable to choose the intensity and the point of application of the forces F I and F 2 such as to allow the axial force N to be as close as possi­ ble to the section centroidal axis, thus ensuring a Technology and ConstructiQll of Segmental Bridges 488 nearly uniform axial stress distribution over the total height and hence a resin film of constant thickness. be satisfied, however, in order that the resin cure properk 1. Permanent Assernbl,·; Structural Importance of Epoxy Resins As regards 'the final prestress tendo.n pro­ files, it was shown in Chapter 4 how the resIstance of the different cantilevers is ensured by a first group of tendons, known as cantilever tendons, which may be straight or curved in profile and an­ chored o~ the various segment faces. The stressing operations remain in the critical path of construc­ tion because a new pair of segments cannot be placed before the last pair has been stressed to the existing cantilever, Figure 11.29. The second grou p of tendons joins the different cantilevers together and makes the structure CO~1tinuOllS. Thev are anchored either in block-outs m the bottom slab or in the fillets at the junction be­ tween the top slab and the webs after upward de­ viation (0 (OP slab level. . . The service shear forces that act upon the Jomts \ar" according to the type and characteristics .of the structure. In variable-depth bridge decks WIth draped prestressing tendons the shear stress across the joints is usually low. In a long-span, constant­ depth bridge deck with straight tendons, howev.er, the shear stresses at the joints can exceed 600 pSI (4 MPa), as was the case in several structures men­ tioned in Chapter 4. A bad choice, or improper use, of the epoxy resin can be a critical factor con­ cerning the shear resistance of th~ joint:, and f.or this reason joints of this type reqUire strIct quality control. In general, the different t}:pes of epoxy resins available have final strengths substantially exceed­ ing that of concrete, so they do nOl c.o~stitute a weak point in themselves. Several condItIons must 2. 3. 4. Mixing the constituents III their correct· pro­ portions. Eliminating any solvents that have a fatal effect on the properties of the resin. Avoiding any flexible additives, such as thiokol, that greatly increase the deformabilitv of the epoxy. Mixing and applying carefully. With respect to the last point, the surfaces to be joined must be specially treated if the best results are to be obtained. Comparative tests have shown that sand blasting gives the most satisfactorv re­ sults, the surfaces being kept clean, dry, and free from grease d Ul'ing placillg. I n damp or raim weather alcohol is burnt on the joint surfaces t<l eliminate surface moisture. The water present in the concrete itself has no detrimental effect on the performance of the resin. It has also been established that rapid placing of successive segments has a favorable effect on the properties of the resin. The additional compres~i\'e stress applied to an epoxy joint under polymerIza­ tion when the next segment is prestressed im­ proves the resin's ultimate mechanical properties. Finally, note that in variable-height structures the joint detailing is' such .that the joint plane is not normal to the principal stress, especially at the bottom slab level. The epoxy joint is then subjected to shear forces that may be quite large and that can cause failure of the bottom sbb in the event of non polymerization of the epoxy resin. In addition to the precautions taken to ensure correct curing, one may provide against the risk of bad results by including shear keys in the bottom slab. FINAL SEGMENT ASSEMBLY J J.5.2 FIGURE 11.29. Final segment assembly. SECOXD-GEXERATIOX SEGMEXTS Although the characteristics and performance of the first structures built with match-cast joints are not in doubt, it seems a good idea to investigate new types of joints allowing the transmission of shear forces without relying on the strength of epoxy reslIls. Second-generation segments do just this, being equipped with interlocking keys in the top and bottom slabs and in most of the height of the webs. This configuration of shear keys at regular inter­ vals, which improves the behavior of joints by re­ lieving the epoxy of its structural role, has the Characteristics of Precast Segments and Match-Cast Epoxy Joints advantages of simplicity and safety. This type of segment has been used with success in several bridges, notably the Alpine Motorways, the Saint Andre de Cubzac Bridge, and the Sallingsund Bridge, and more recently in several structures in the United States such as the Long Key and Seven Mile bridges in Florida. with properties that depend upon the type of resin and hardener used. Three grades of epoxy resin are commonly used, depending upon the ambient temperature range under which the resin is to be applied: 40 to 60°F (5 to 15°C) 60 to 75°F (15 to 25°C) Ribs and Interior Anchorage Block, Anchorage blocks (blisters) or stiffening ribs are currently used inside the segments for the final longitudinal prestress anchors. The tendons, ensuring the sta­ bility and resistance of the cantilever and placed progressively as construction proceeds, can be an­ chored away from the joint faces, thereby render­ ing the stressing operations and the segment­ placing operations independent of one another. The ribs and anchorage blocks are generally used to house the temporary prestress that ensures the provisional stability of the cantilever, thus leaving the top slab completely free. Bolted Ribs Despite the tensile strength of the epoxy resin at a glued joint, no tensile resistance is usually considered, as 'preca~t segmental structures are nearly always totally prestressed and so no ten­ sile stresses can develop across the joint. However, we can further improve epoxied match-cast joints bv giving them a certain resistance to tension by using bolted ribs, which ensure the continuity of the longitudinal reinforcing steel, Figure 11.30. 11.5.] EPOXY FOR JOINTS The structural importance of the thill layer of .epoxy resin forming the joint between two adjacent precast segments was discussed in Section 11.5.1. We now take a closer look at the physical and me­ chanical properties of these resins and the various precautions to be taken to ensure satisfactory and consistent results. Epoxy Types Epoxy resin glues are made up from two components: the epoxy resin and the hardener. Mixing these two components in the correct proportions gives a thermostable product 489 Fast-reacting epoxy Medium-fast-reacting epoxy Slow-reacting epoxy 1. COLO'T The resin and the hardener must be of clearly contrasting colors thus avoiding any con­ fusion. When properly mixed, the final product is to be a homogeneous gray color similar to that of concrete. 2. Shelf life of components Both components may be stored for up to one year, provided that the storage temperatur; is kept between 50 and 70°F (10 and 20°C). After three months' storage it is necessary to check that the epoxy resin shows no sign of becoming crystalline. If it does, then special treatment must be given to the resin, followed by tests, before use. 3. Pot Life of the :Hixed Glue The pot life of an epoxy resin is a measure of the time interval be­ tween the mixing of the components together and the moment when the glue becomes no longer workable. The workability of the glue is deter­ mined by its internal temperature, depending upon the grade of epoxy resin employed. For a 10 Ib (5 kg) mix used on site, mixed under isothermic conditions until an even color of mix is obtained, the following results are required: Workability Limit Temperature Epoxy Grade {oCe 5 to 15°C c (104°F) e (104°F) 15 to 25°C 40 25 to clOoe 55 to 60°C (131 to HO°F) The pot life must be approximately: Ambient Temperature Epoxy Grade 5 to 15°C 15 to 25°C 25 to clODe 41°F 50°F we) ( looq 40 min. 15 min. 59°F ( 15°C) 68°F (20 o q 20 min. 15 min. 25 min. 18 min. 490 . Technology and Constructiop oj Segmental Bridges BOLTED RIB JO INTS FIGURE 11.30. On site, each 10 Ib (5 kg) mix of epoxy resin must be applied to the concrete surhlce within the pot­ life period as specified above. f!l the Applied Epoxy Glue The open time of the glue is defined as the period be­ tween its application to the concrete surface and the moment when it reaches its workability limit temperature. Because of the much greater heat dissipation from the thin layer [~ to ~ in. (l to 3 mm)] on the concrete surface, the applied glue takes much longer to reach the workability limit temperature than the mix in the pot. 4. Opm Time The open time must never be less than one hour, regardless of the grade used. One measur­ ing device used to determine open time is the Vicat's needle shown in Figure 11.31. A 1 mm layer of epoxy glue is spread onto a steel plate. and the stopwatch is started. The time lapsed before the needle will penetrate only 0.5 mm into the glue layer is defined as the open time. 5. Thixotropy This characteristic gives an in­ dication of the epoxy resin's ability to be applied to vertical surfaces with relative ease and yet with sub­ sequent running. Thixotropy may be. measured using Daniel's gauge, Figure 11.32. The gauge is placed on a level surface with the gutter section horizontal. The gutter is then filled with freshly mixed resin and hardener and abruptly turned to the upright position, as shown in the diagram. The flow time relationship is recorded. The test should be carried out at the maximum temperature for which the resin is specified. A resin that flows less than 30 mm in 10 minutes is suitable for applica­ tion to vertical concrete surfaces. Other testing methods are available such as the sag flow ap­ paratus according to ASTM D2730-68. Bolted rib joints. Other characteristics of the epoX\' glue that may be resred on sile are: The angle ol internalfric/ion: The ease with which the excess resin may be squeezed out of the joinl when subject 10 uniform pressure. ..!'Iungf!r 300gr weight Nf!l!'dll!' lmmt ~~ FIGURE 11.31. Open-time testing-Vicat's needle. Characteristics of Precast Segments and Match-Cast Epoxy Joints 491 4 X 4cm p E u !£> FIGURE 11.32. Thixotropv testing-Daniel's gauge. Shri rz}wgl': \1 ust be praltiLall \' nil. Wilta absorption mtl' and solubility in water: Maximum permissible true water absorption­ 12%. Maximum permissible quantity of epoxy sol­ uble in water at 25°C (77°F)-4%. FIGURE 11.33. Shear-resistance test. ceptable ultimate shear stress at the interface is 1400 psi (10 MPa). 2. Shear i'vl()duhL~ The instantaneous shear modulus (G i ) must be greater than 220,000 psi (1500 MPa) at: \Iinimum required value accord­ ing to :\fostells (Dl;\J 53458) on week-old 10 x 15 x 120 1ll!11 test rods is 50°C (122°F). 25°C (77°F) for grade 15 to 25°C ,\1 ahlt niw[ /Jrojil'l't iI'S 40°C (104°F) for grade 25 to 40°C Heat resistance: I. Shm r rf,li,I/(J1/('1' The shear resista nce of the mixed epoxv glue is determined on rectangular concrete test specimens with the following dimen­ sions: 1.6 x 1.6 x 6.3 in. (4 x 4 x 16 cm) with a resin interface at 17° to the vertical, Figure 11.33. The concrete test pieces are made from a high­ quality concrete comparable to that used in precast segment manufaLture and are cured under water seven days from time of casting. After removal from the water the pieces are dab­ dried and the surfaces to be assembled are pre­ pared by shot blasting, wire b!'ushing, or other similar methods to remove laitance. The test pieces are then resubmerged in water for three hours, after which they are removed and dabbed dry with a clean cloth. The resin is then applied in a layer of jj\ in. (2 mIll) on one surface and the test beam clamped in an assembly that maintains a normal pressure on the interface of 21 psi (0.15 .:vIPa). The assembly is stored for seven days at a temperature repre'sentative of the desired working conditions, and then the test is carried out. The minimum ac- 15°C (59°F) for grade 5 to 15°C The long-term shear modulus must be greater than 14,500 psi (1000 .:vIPa) after 28 days at the same temperatures as above. Solid cylindrical test pieces are used for measuring these values in con­ junction with the easily made test apparatus shown in Figure 11.34. - Certain epoxy resins show an excessive sensitiv­ ity to high temperatures that makes them unac­ ceptable in warm climates. Figure 11.35 shows comparative results of ten different resins tested for the Rio Niteroi Bridge. It is obvious that a produLt that becomes practically plastic with no shear modulus at 60°C is completely unacceptable. 3. Tensile Bending Strength A three-point bending test is carried out on a pair of glued con­ crete cubes with a compressive strength of 5700 psi (400 kg/cm 2 ), Figure 11.36. The faces to be glued are shot blasted, or bush hammered, so as to re­ move laitance. The cubes are then submerged in water for 72 hours. When taken out of the water the surfaces to be glued are dried simply by dab­ bing with a clean cloth. Immediately after the dab Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges 492 Dial X....J vi~ X-X Vie-w from one- side- FIGURE 11.34. Shear-modulus test. 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 o ~---------L--------~--------~------~~----~--~t('C) 20 30 FIGURE 11.35. 40 50 60 70 \'al-iatioll of shear l1]odulus G wit h tcmpcrature. drying the glue is applied in a layer of II,; in. (1.5 mm) to one of the prepared faces. The corre­ sponding face of the other cure is placed against the glue layer, and the two cubes are clamped to­ gether with a clamping force of 300 Ib (150 kg). The assembly is then wrapped in a damp cloth, which must be kept wet until the three-point bending test is carried out. 4. Compressive Strength The compressive strength is determined according to DIN I I 64 on 4 cm (H in.) cubes of cured epoxy glue. After 24 hours (from the time of preparing the samples) at the maximum temperatures for each grade the compressive strength must be not less than 12,000 psi (SO MPa). The loading rate is to be approxi­ mately 3600 psi (25 MPa) per minute. 5. Elastic modulus in compression The instan­ taneous modulus (E j ) is determined on cubes of pure epoxy after curing for seven days at the maximum group temperature. These cubes are the same size as those used for the compressive· strength determinations. The modulus must not be less than 1,140,000 psi (7850 \IPa) Prartical u.\(' of E/JOx)' ill Malch·Cast joillfl III regard to the me of the resin, the two compo­ nents should be mixed carefully and quickly as near as possible to the surfaces to be coated. Under no circumstances should oil or grease be allowed to come into contact with surfaces that are to be glued. Most standard de molding agents are suita­ ble for use, but care should be taken to ensure that no oil-based de molders are used. Exposure to weather during the storage period is often sufficient to remove the demolding agent. For best results, surface laitance should be removed by shot blasting or bush hammering. This treatment is normally carried out in the storage yard. With the use of multiple keys, the structural role of the I ! = = Manufacture of Precast Segments Loa~ied 493 here EPOXY JOINT FIGURE 11.36. Tensile bending-strength test. epoxy is considerably reduced and a special prepa­ ration of the Sli rbce is' not a mandatory feature. lmmediatelv before the glue is applied, the sur­ faces are to be cleaned to remove traces of dirt, grease or oil. and dust. C nder normal climatic conditions it will not al­ ways be possible to avoid dampness on the surfaces to be glued. If the surf~lCes do show signs of mois­ tllre, the\' mllst be dab dried with a dean cloth. and no gluing mav proceed until all free water has been eliminated. The thickness of the glue laver should be about 1.~ in. (1.5 mill). A.s soon as possible after the resin has been applied, the surfaces must be brought to­ gether. Pressure must be applied before the open time of the epoxy resin expires. The pressure applied by either tern porarv or final prestress should !lot be less than 30 psi (0.2 "'IPa). 11.6 2. ing along the bed for the successive casting op­ erations. Short-line casting (with either horizontal or vertical casting), where segments are man­ ufactured in a step-by-step procedure with the forms maintained at a stationary position. For match-cast joint structures, the accuracy of the segment geometrv is an absolute priority. Ade­ quate surveying methods and equipment must be used to ensure an accurate foilow-u p of the geometry and an independent verification of all measurements and adjustments. Immediately after the manu facture of a segment the as-cast geometry should be controlled and compared to the theoretical geometry to allow any necessary adjustment to be incorporated in sub­ sequent casting operations. This aspect of match casting is particularlv important for the short-line method and will be covered later in this chapter. Manufacture of Precast Segments 11.6.2 11.6.1 The various methods used until now for precasting segments fall into two basic categories: 1. LONG-aVE C-ISTING INTRODL'CTlON Long-line casting, where all segments to make Lip either half or a full cantilever are manufac­ tured on a fixed bed with the form work mo\'­ In this method all the segments are cast, in their correct relative position. on a casting bed that exactly reproduces the profile of the structure with allowance for camber. One or more formwork units travel along this line and are guided by a preadjusted soffit. With this method the joillt sur­ faces are invariablv cast in a vertical position. ·I. ,. .' l._: Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges 494 Figure 11.37 shows the casting sequence.:l The pier segment (3) is cast first. then the segments on either side of the pier segment (l) and (2). If a pair of forms is llsed, then the symmetrical segments on eacb side of the pier segment can be cast simul­ taueously, thus saving casting time. As segment casting progresses, the initial segments may be re­ moved for storage, leaving the center portion of tile casting bed free. If enough forms are available, tben the casting of a second pair of cantilevers may proceed even though the first pair is not com­ pleteh cast. Figure 11.38 shows the typical cross section of a long-line casting bed with the formwork in opera­ tion. The method was initially developed for constant-depth box girders (Choisv-le-Roi and C(lurbevoie Bridges). It was later extended to the case of variable-depth decks such as the Oleron Viaduct (the two sketches of Figures 11.37 and 11.38 refer to this structure) and also adopted in other coul1tries (Hartel Bridge in Holland). The importallt advantages of the long-line cast­ ing method are: It is e;lsy to set out and cOlllrolthe deck geometry. 'After form stripping, it is not necessary to im­ mediatel\' transfer the segments to the storage area in order to continue casting. The disadvantages are: Substantial space may be required. The minimum length is usually slightly more than half the length of the longest span of the structure, but it depends upon the geometry and the symmetry of the structure. The casting bed must be built on a firm foundation that will not settle or deflect under the weight of the segments. If the structure is curved, the long line must accommodate this curyature. All equipment necessary for casting, curing, and so on must be mobile. 11.6.3 SHORT-LISE HORIZO.\T·IL C"IST/.\'(; The short -line casting method requires all seg­ ments to be cast in the same place, using stationan' forms, and against the previously cast segment in order to obtain a match-cast joint. After casting and initial curing, the previously cast segment is 1:t!J=! .~. ~II ,>¥!>)$)?e; !:W:] li~ll! . .I Y' ~' ,5)P7999 I Segments being cast FIGURE 11.37. r I Ii Travelling crane leg I • knL~ • l.J.v,L r .! .' • r] 'Ltpl)$~ Segments completed. Typical long-line precasting bed. Mobile outside formwork Telescopic inside form work FIGURE 11.38. Tvpical cross section of long-line casting bed with form work. Manufacture of Precast Segments removed f()r storage and the freshly cast segment is moved into its place. The casting cycle is then re­ peated. This operation is illustrated in Figures 11.39 ami 11.40.~·4 TO STORAGE BLANK END , t FIGURE 11.39. l\pictl ,llOrt-lille precaslillg opcra­ II Oil. It is important that the reader fully comprehend the principle of the method insofar as building a deck of a given geometry is concerned. When a straight box is desired, Figure 11.41, the match marking mate segment (n - 1) is moved from the casting position to the match-cast position along a straight line, and this is usually verified by taking measurements on four elevation bolts (a) em­ bedded in the concrete roadway slab and two alignment stirrups (b) located along the box cen­ terline. A pure translation of each segmellt be­ tweell the cast and match-cast positions therefore results in t.he construction or a perfectly straight bridge (both in elevation and in plan view), within the accuracy of the measurements made at the casting site. To obtain a bridge with a vertical curve, the match-cast segment (1/ - 1) must first be translated from its original position and then give a small ro­ tation in the vertical plane (angle a shown in Fig­ ure 11.42). Usuallv the bulkhead is left in a fixed position, and all sef!;ments have ill devatjon the shape of a rectangular trapezoid with the tapered face along the match-catch sef!;llleni. It is thcl'efore onlv necessarv to <l(ljust the soffit of the cast seg­ ment dUl-ing the a(ljustment operations. A curve in the horizontal plane is obtained ill the same fashion. Figure 11.43. by firsl moving the malch-cast segment (n - 1) to its position by a pure translation followed bv a rotation of a small angle f3 in plan to realize the desired curvature. CONJUGATE UNIT FIGCRE 11040. 495 Formwork used in casting scgmellls. , ELEVATION TRANSVERSE SECTION STRAIGHT BRIDGE PLAN VIEW FIGURE 11041. Straight bridge. [ J ELEVATION TRANSVERSE SECTION BRIDGE WITH CURVE VERTICAL PLAN VIEW FIGURE 11042. 496 Bridge with vertical curve. 497 Manufacture ofPrecast Segments TRANSVERSE SECTION ELEVATION BRIDGE WITH HORIZONTAL CURVE PLAN VIEW FIGURE 11.43. Bridge with horizontal curve. Change in the superelevation of the bridge may also be achieved with a short-line casting; however, the principle is a little more difficult to properly grasp. Figures 11.44 and 11.45. A constant trans­ verse fall of the bridge does not need to be re­ peated in the casting machine. Segments may be cast with soffit and roadway slab both horizontal and placed at their proper attitude in the bridge by offsetting the bearing elevation under the webs to obtain the desired cross fall. Only a variable superelevation must be accounted for in the cast­ ing operation, and this is the normal case in bridges with reverse curves and in transition areas between curves and straight alignments. In such a case match-cast segment (n - 1) needs to be ro­ tated by a small angle such as y around the bridge centerline. Because the bridge geometry is usually defined at roadway level and not at soffit level. the rotation given to the match-cast segment results in a slight horizontal displacement of the soffit in the casting machine, which must be accounted for. Also all surfaces of the box segment (top slab, soffit. and webs) are no longer true planes but are slightly warped. To allow the form work panels to adjust to this change of shape, it is absolutely man­ datory to eliminate all restraints such as closed tor­ sionally stiff members. The basic advantages of the short-line casting method are therefore the relatively small space re­ quired and the fact that all equipment and form work remain at a stationary position. The mobility of equipment necessary for the long-line method is no longer needed. Also, horizontal and vertical curves as well as variable superelevation are obtained with short-line casting without the major change in soffit configuration that would be required in the long-line casting method. How­ ever, success will depend upon the accuracy of ad­ justment of the match-rast segments, and precise survey and control procedures must be initiated (Section 11.6.5). This last aspect represents the major potential disadvantage as a direct conse­ quence of the intrinsic potential of the method. 11.6.4 SHORT-LINE VERTICAL CASTING Normally. for both the long- and short-line methods, the segments are cast in a horizontal po­ sition. A variation in the short-line method is that used for the Alpine Motorways near Lyons, France, where the segments were cast in a vertical position (cast on end) as shown in Figure 3.100. The procedure is as follows: after the first segment is cast, the forms are removed and moved upward 498 Technology and Constru:tion oj Segmental Bridges TRANSVERSE ELEVATION SECTION BRIDGE WITH VARIABLE SUPER ELEVATION PLAN VIEW FIGURE 11.44. Short-lille cast.illg-hridge with \';triable supcrelc\"atioll" CONJUGATE UNIT END BULKHEA:! FIGVRE lI.45. su perele\'a tioll. Short-line casting-isometric view of segment casting with \"ariable so that each succeeding segment can be cast above the previous one. After a segment is cast and cured, the segment beneath it is transferred to storage and the one removed from the forms is moved down, 10 rest on the floor. The advantages claimed for vertical match casting include easier placing and vibration of the concrete. However, special handling equipment and procedures are required to rolate the segment from the vertical to its final horizontal position. Manufacture of Precast Segments 11.6.5 499 GEQ,lMnRi' AND SURVEY CONTROL Segment Precasting in a Casting lHachine The principles described in this section apply to short-line horizontal casting hut may be easily ex­ tended to vertical casting. The apparatus used to form the concrete segment is usually referred to as a casting machine and is made up essential! y of five components: 'rhe bulkhead that forms the front section of the segment. 2. The match-cast segment, properly coated at the front end section with a suitable demolding agent and used to form the back end section of the newly cast segment. 3. The mold hottom (or soffit). 4. The side forms, properly hinged for stripping and firmlv sealed to the bul khead and the match-cast segment during casting. The inside forms, which pivot and retract for stripping. 5. The imide forms, which pi\ot and retract I'or stripping. Joint A 1. The relationship between ail individual segment and the finished structure is established bv means of three different svstems of reference: 1. 2. 3. The final ,,),stnn of nferenre, which is the refer­ ence for the finished geometry of the struc­ ture. I n this s\'stem each segment is described by its basic geometrY. The auxiliary system of reference, which corre­ sponds to the precasting machine and is at­ tached thereto. The elementary reference s)'.,tem, which is attached to each segment and would be the equivalent of intrinsic coordinates ill space geometry. The principle of the precasting method is as follows. During the casting of segment A (segment B being in the match-cast position) the elementary reference system of A is identical with the auxiliary reference system, that of the casting machine. To position B with respect to A becomes simply a matter of positioning B with respect to the pre­ casting machine. It is the task of the design office to provide the theoretical geometric information nec­ essary for positioning. The values are computed from the basic geometry with the addition of the relevant compensatory values for deflections. The definitions of these reference systems are pre­ sented below. FIGURE 11.46. Auxiliary I-eference system (casting­ IIlachine reference). The auxiliary reference system refers to the casting machine and is defined in Figure 11.46. The plane of the bulkhead is perfectly venical. The upper edge of the bulkhead is a horizontal in this plane except when segments do not have pla­ nar top surfaces. The x, y and z axes refer to the casting-machine reference system, whereas XA, y,!, and Z,I refer to the elementary system of reference. The elementary system of reference is materialized on each segment in the following manner: I. 2. 3. The x" axis: This axis is represented by marks (such as saw cuts) made on two steel stirrups anchored in the top slab as near as possible to the joints. The origin 0,,: The origin 0" is located at the point where the x" axis intersects the plane of the joint at the bulkhead. The plane x"' o",y,,: This plane may be defined by three fixed leveling points, the position of each point with respect to the plane x, 0, y being arbitrary but invariable. For practical reasons, four leveling points are used and materialized by bolts anchored in the top surface of the segment above the webs and as close as possible to the joints. Now that the elementary system of reference has been established (all measurements and readings being made while the segment is in the casting machine before the forms are removed), the seg­ ment can be positioned with respect to the aux­ iliary reference system, so that it can be placed in the correct countercasting position according to the calculations supplied by the design office. 500 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges In order to correctly position the countercasting segment. information is needed about the final geometry of the structure. The overall geometrv of a bridge structure is lIormallv defined by thc geometry of the roadway. From this roadway geometry it is necessary to determine the geometry of the concrete structure itself. The longitudinal reference line to which all the necessary parameters are related is known as the /lox ,I.,rirdtr IiJl!' (BGL). This line may coincide with the top concrete surface of the box girder. but it IlJa\ also he a fictitious line of reference if the box girder top slah shape is not regular. The box girder line is ustlally described using two ClInes, Figure 11.47: zontal plane and follow the curvilinear abscissas. The segment lengths chosen on this basis may be retained, but in calculating the real lengths of cast-in-place closure joints and t hree-dimel13iollal s curve must be used. Because of the way a casting machine works, the segment joint at the bulkhead end is ill\'ariably perpendicular to the axis of the segment. There­ fore, ill plan view, the segments are generally of trapezoidal shape. except for segments over the piers which are rectangular in order to provide a constant starting- point for each cantilever, Figllre 1 1.48. Olle curve (fT) ill a horizolltal plane, which gives}' <l!-. a function of x for each point where the box girder line intersects a joint planc between seg­ ments and also the center points of supports (abut­ ments or piers); this curve is simply the projection of the true space box girder line onto a horizontal plane and is sometimes referred to as the "hgl" (small letters). All measurements on a segment are made when the segment is still in the casting machine. Readings mllst be taken when the (,OIIOTtc has hardened and hefore forlllwork st ripping, Figure 11.49. Horizontal alignment readings give t he dis­ tance of the segmellt axes as marked on the stir­ rups frolll the casting-machine reference line. Longitlldinal profile le\·e1 readings are given In the fOllr bolt elevations relative to the horilontal refer­ ellce plane. Readings Illllst be taken Oil the segment jllst cast and also on the match-cast segment. Correuiol1s are applied \0 allow for the geollletric defects in the preceding segl1lent, Figure 11.50, and are lIsed as "theoretical yalues for adjustment." Olle curve (s) in a developed vertical plane giving z as a fUllction of (T for the same points mentioned abo\'e. Thisl curve is the real box girder line. BGL. To complete t he definition of the segment posi­ tion ill space-at each joint line and at support centers-we must define the transverse slope of the theoretical extrados line. It is important for both the bgl and the BGL to calculate the fT and .1 parameters, respectively, ill order to obtain an accurate determination of pro­ jected and real span lengths. The calculations and structural drawings refer to Ilominal segment lengths and span lengths. Usu­ ally these lengths refer to the projection on a hori- Pil!'f 3 I SCfPlll'lI1 CaS/III/?: Parmlll'/cr.1 Surue'li Control During 1. Theoretical basic data supplied In' tlte design office, allowing the preparation of the hori­ 100ltai alignment and the two parallel bolt lines. 2. Corrected values defined eit her graphically or by computer. Survey control readings_ Linear measurements on the segments. Schematic representation of the segment to rapidly verify the relative positions of the seg­ ment axes. A level check to pick up any gross error in level readings on the same segment­ 3. 2 I 4. 5. Cr' lHorizontat proJPction o! box 9trdeor 'Iobgt lf FIGURE 11.47. Box girder line cunes. Operatum) The surveyor in charge of the operations mllst complete a data sheet for each segment containing essentially: line Pjrt Precastillt.; 6. "Of' 7. Comments on the casting operations. 1 I lHanufacture of Precast Segments 501 (St'gmt'nt axis ,r-Segment over pier Pier ~ FIGURE 11.48. '\ Box girder line "bg ," or c:r ( sigma) curve Short-line casling-position of sel-{Illent joillls in plan \'iew. I i ,AN i ! I CASTING MACUINE , RUE. RENeE Ll NE FIGCRE 11.49. me;lsurcnleIHs. Ca,ling-machine As an example, Figure I L5I shows the typical survey control made on the first four segments of a tvpical cantilever. Control of alignment and. levels rnav be followed graphicallv or numerically by computer, using the basic geometric data obtained in th~ casting machine and shown in Figure 11.52. In order to avoid any significant deviation from the theoretical geometry, it is necessary to provide orientation and segmenl for corrections when casting the next segment. Figure 11.53 shows how this would be done for the plan alignment. Similar corrections are made for the longitudinal profile on the two parallel bolt lines. It is essential not only to follow carefully the trajectory of the two bolt lines separately but also to check for each segment that the superelevation (given by the crosswise difference in level between 502 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges w~' 1£4' -. -~--+ ",--'IISTIA/!: I'1)1CffINE R!'FER!'IYC{ iJ¥E FIGURE 11.50. Plan yjew of casting operation­ readings using sunf)' instrumems. i -LON I -~, 8otts­ Lf CD .'-zs~~.~~ FIGURE 11.51. Casting operation-typical survey control. the two boll lines) varies regularly according to the theoretical geometry. Failure to do so has resulted in important geometric imperfections on certain projects. Sun1ey Contml During Construction The nature of match-cast segmental construction is such that the structure is really "built" in the pre­ casting yard. Although corrections can be made in the field, such corrections are undesirable and al­ ways a source of additional expense and delays. Close control of precasting is far more efficient. It is nevertheless important to check the evolution of the structural geometry during segment placing: 1. To compare actual deflections with computed values, 2. To ensure that no major errors have escaped the control in the precast yard or factory. Such checks at the site should include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Pier positions, height and in plan. Bearing positions, level and orientation. Pier segments, level and orientation. Cantilevers proper, every third segment, in­ cluding levels, superelevation, and orientation. Overall geometry of the structure after con­ tinuity is achieved between the individual can­ tilevers. Conclusion The principles of geometry and survey control are more complicated to explain than to use, once the Manufacture of Precast Segments 503 THEORfTICt1L1I)IIS Of 0 REIlL /lXIS OF" 0 Se:GME.NT1 SeGMENTO I<EIlL LEVf.LFOR 0 :nU:'ORE:TICAL LEVEL FOR 1 I NWO" I -;--- _ NEOI NWO -L --+---- _ HIEORETICAL Lf:VE"L FORO f NE a" - r -- ) _.- I _ __,_ ___ __ __ NW11 r -- +- . .i:!J!&l.~...REFERENCE L_--o"------~-r :NE,1) LE.VE.L·O.OOOO C4STING MACI-IINE" BU!J(H~AD 5EGME:NT 0 FIGURE 11.52. Sliney control-horizontal alignment and longitudin;ll profile results. (1/) Horiwnt;tl alignment. (b) Longitudin;t1 profile. FIGURE 11.53, Typical alignment corrections during casting operations. basic principles of a casting machine are thor­ oughly understood. The short-line method has great potential to construct segments for bridges, cycn . those with very complicated trajectories, rapidly and economically. Outstanding examples are the Chillon and St. Cloud Viaducts in Europe and Linn Cove Viaduct in the United States. At Saint Cloud, 120- to 140-ton segments were cast on a one-day cycle, and the final geometry of the bridge was obtained with no on-site adjustment. ,[' ii I I Technology and Construction oj Segmental Bridges 504 Oil the other hand, a loose approach to, In the case of wide decks or long spans, where the segment length is reduced to reduce the unit g('ometry control at the casting yard mav lead to weight, the usual geometric proportions may vary serious difficulties at the pn~ject site. considerably; stich is t he case for two notable structures: 11.6.6 PRECASTlNG fA/W AND FACTORIES The precasting operations are usualJv carried out in a vaHi or e\'en a facton if the size of the project allows the corresponding im'estmenl. All opera­ tions, such as: Preparation of the reinforcing steel cages and ducts for post-tensioning tendons l\lanufacture 01 concrete !\1anufacture or segmellts including heat curillg Storage of segments including finishing and qual­ i1\ control are performed in a repetitive fashion under facton conditions. :\s all example or typical precasting-yard lay­ outs, Figures 11.54 and 11.55 show \'iews of: The Saint Cloud Viaduct precasting :anl with short-Ii lie casting The Oleron Viaduct precasting yard with long-line casting The tvpical precasting c\'c1e (with either the long-line or t lIe short-line met hod) is of one seg­ ment per fOrIllwork per day with a one-day work shirt, COIHTele hardenillg laking place during the night (at least 14 hours between the completion of conuete plaeing ill the evening and the stripping of forms the Ilexl morning), Shorter construction cn:\cs may be obtained hy reducing the time of concrete hardelling, but quality mav decline if all the operatiollS are not kept under very strict COI1­ t rol. Heat (urillg of the concrete 10 reduce the con­ struction cvcle and accelerate the rotation of the casting machines is perfectly acceptable. Its im­ proper use, however, may alter the. accuracy of joim !natching bet ween segments, as shown in Fig­ ure 11.56. This effect would be particularly significant ror wide but short segments. Typical segments usually have the following di­ mensIOns: Width Length Ralio width/length 30 to 40 ft (9 to 12 m) 10 to 12 ft (3 to 3.6 m) 3 to 3.5 St. Cloud St. Andre de Cubzac width iO ft, length i It. ratio 10 width 58 ft, length 5.8 ft, ratio 10 For sllch segments, heat curing is more likely to create smail changes in the segment shape, which may build up progressi\ely and so alter the ef­ fectiveness of joint matching. This is due to the development 01 a temperature gradient in the match-cast segment, which is in contact on one side with the newly cast heated segment and on the other side with the lower uutside temperature, The problem may be completely eliminated by always heat curing both segmt'llts simultaneollsly so as to avoid any temperature gradient. Experi­ ence has proved the method totally eHicient. When the project lIl\'olving segment precasting is of sufficient magnitude or \\'here climatic comii­ tions al'e adverse, precasting ElClOries are a logical extrapolation from the short-line method per­ formed in an open precasting yard. Segment man­ ufacture takes place in a completely enclosed building with a better use of personnel and a more consistent quality of products. An interesting e~ample is afforded by the B-3 South Viaducts. requiring production or 2200 pre­ cast segments weighing between 2H and 5H tons (25 to 53 mt). The precasting site was installed close to the project and included four main areas: 1. 2. 3. 4. An assembly workshop. where the reinforcing steel cages were prepared and the prestressing ducts positioned. The finished cages were handled by a 5 ton tower crane, A concrete mixing plant. A precasting factory where the segments were cast and cured. A storage area where the finished segments were left to cure adequately. These segments were handled by a traveling portal crane. The precasting factory was equipped with four precasting machines, all of which were entirely protected from the outside environment. Two machines were reserved for the manufacture of 15 to 20 ft (4.5 to 6 m) segments and two for the 20 to (,J, <::> I.>l r::: Q) ...... ([l ~ . 3. Pt'Pstl'f'SSlng st(>,,1 storac(f' 7, 1'.[,)ulo bottom 6. Travf'lling crall" tcal'\( 5. Segment storagf'. Z\)fH~ Launching;5\ n.\P!' assl'!llbly .\ t" Loadin!,( po \ nt fo :l Sf'l!,lnpnr.s: !\cr.f'SS :2 l'amp and tcolll'Y 1. Laurlchin.; tl'ack for ginlf'!" Q) ;"'/' " B ....., -+-' Pt".>{'ast plo:.>ll1 P !lts C(>(~f·r3\ cps. "~;f'C\:,Cf'S al \ .'111\1('1\ I (t'utucp (:~lrf>la~p'.vay ---- FIGURE 11.54. Sl. C10tld Viaducl, precislillg rani IalOtll. (I) I ami trolle~·. (~) Access ramp. (3) Loadillg pOilll for segmellts. (-1) assembly wile. (5) Segmellt storage. (6) Tral'dillg crane track. (7) :\(old bottom. Presll'essillg Sled stor;lge, (9) rower (Jalle Irack. (10) Reiul()lu'1I1elll asselllbly. (II) COliC rete plallt. (1~) Precast ('1('IIll'llIS. (I:~) Prestress (elldon mallufaCiure. (H) Of'fices. (15) (;clleral ,ell ices. (Ifi) '1011 g:lIe pmilioll. (t7). hUlIll' clrri<lgell'<I\ \'7 Iii. Toll .;atp PUSIU\JII I c) 11 f2ctur p 13. l'!'p>iII'PSS tf'IUI-H! mll!lU' 1'2 CASTING YARD H"llIiul·,:f'!l1f'flt as,;pmbly. rUWf'r crall" track It. C\,I1<,<,,,tp plant 10 ~J Scale 1/500 p 6 ~7 r to Maren nes "II \ - ..•. --~.--,--;jj 506 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges Staff quarters :....- Duct storage area FIGURE 11.55. O]cron \'iaduCi. precasting L Office ~'anl ];l\OUI. CONJUSt.TE UNIT g~~~~~~Tti CNIT AMBIANT :EMPERATUqE <-:2ic2dL----l r y AO'F R . EFFECT OF IMPROPER CURING OF SEGMENTS IN SHORT LINE CASTING FIGURE 11.56. Effect of improper curing of segments in 31 ft. (6 to 9.5 m) segments, Figures 11.57 and 11.58. Each casting machine was made up of a mobile form, an end form or bulkhead, two hinged out­ side forms, and a telescopic inside form, Figure 11.59. Handling of concrete and reinforcing steel inside the factory was performed by two 10 ton travel cranes. ~hort-line casting. The production of the different segments volved the following operations: 1. 2. 3. 111­ Assembly of the steel cages in a template. Steel-cage storage. Final steel-cage preparation and duct installa­ tion. Handling and Temporary Assembly of Precast Segments FIGURE 11.57. B-3 South Viaducts, inside view of the precasting factory. Casting machine FIGURE 11.58. 507 Concrete Plant Control System B-:, Sou th Viaducls. pIa n \'iew of I he precasling Inside formwork facLOlV, of the newly cast segment to the match-cast po­ sition by means of an independent motorized trolley. 11.7 Handling and Temporary Assembly of Precast Segments Bottom formwork FIGURE 11.59. machine. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. B-3 Somh Viaducts, detail of a casting Positioning of steel cage inside the formwork. Adjustment of casting machine, including alignment of match-cast segment and sealing of all form panels. Concrete casting and finishing. Steam curing. Fonnwork stripping, followed by transfer of the match-cast segment to the storage yard and In either long- or short-line casting, segments can­ not be handled before the concrete has reached a sufficient strength to prevent: Spalling of edges and keys Cracking of the parts of the segment subjected to appreciable bending stresses due to self-weight Inelastic deformations that would ultimately Im­ pair proper matching of the segments Critical sections in a typical single-cell box segment are, Figure 11.60: Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges 508 FIGURE 11.60. Critical ~ecljollS ill a t\'jlical seg-mellt at time of IOrlmmrk ~Iri]l]lillg. Section A where the side calltilevers are attached to the wehs Sectiolls Band C at midspan oflhc top and bottom slab Sectioll A is allllost alw<lvs the lllost critical. Section B is IlS11;tlh· suhjected ro moderate tensile stress he­ cause the top slab is huilt-ill Oil the weh when the inner fOllllwork is stripped. Section C is critical oIlh· oIlloIlg-lille casting when the casting bed docs not have a continuous soffit and when the span of the bottom slab is larger than 16 to ~() ft (5 to 6 m). Experience has shown that at t he time of form stripping and bef()re any handling of the segIllent is allowed, the tensile cracking strength of the COll­ crete should be at least equal to the bending stress due to the segment weight in the most critical sec­ tiolls (A, B, and C). Practically, the corresponding compressive strength is: j;i = 30()O to 4000 psi (21 to 28 MPa) In the casting yard, segme!1\s are usually handled hv a portal crane traveliIlg on rails or on steeriIlg wheels for added mobility. A typical portal crane in the Olel'On Viaduct precasting yard is. shown in Figure I 1 .61. Proper handling of the segment requires proper pick-up poillts to keep the stresses in the section within the allowable limits. A typical example of halJ(llillg three different shapes of box girders is shown in Figure 11.62. For the conventional single box, inserts or through holes are provided near the web in the roadway slab, allowing lifting to be accomplished by a simple spreader beam. FIGURE 11.61. OlclOll \'iatiuct, portal cralle ill 1'1('­ casting \·anL For the twill-box, three-web section, a four-point pick-up is usually nccessarv to eliminate excessive transverse bending of the top and bottom slab. A triple spreader-beam arrangement allows the load transfer from the four pick-up points to the single lifting hook. For a triple-box, four-web section (such as used ill the Saint Cloud Bridge), temporary ties are pro­ vided in the outer cells to transfer the reaction of the outside webs 10 the center webs. A simple spreader beam is then sufficient to lift the segment. Segments must be stored in a manner designed to eliminate warping or secondary stresses. Con­ crete beams installed at ground level provide a good bearing for the segments, which must be supported under the web or very close thereto. If stacking is required to save storage space, precau­ tions must be taken to transfer weight from the = Placing Precast Segments FIGURE 11.62. H;tlldlil1~ prct,l~l segments. Illellt. (i) Four-wcb ~l'gnlt'lll. upper to tltc lov,.-er lavers of se~mellts without ex­ cessive bendin~ of th(' slab. _ 11.8 Placing Precast Segments Transportation and placement of segments may be performed bv one of several methods. depending Oil t he site location and the ~eneral characteristics or the strllcture. These methods can be divided illto three main categories: 1. 2. 3. Transportation by bnd or water and place­ Illelll b~ an independent lifting apparatus. Trall5porlation bv land or water and place­ ment with the help of a beam and winch carried by the bridge deck itself. Transportation b~ \;tnd. water, or along t!le bridge deck alreadv constructed and place­ ment with the help of a launching girder. There are methods that fall into none of these cat­ egories, such as the use of a cableway, but their use is limited. 11.8.1 IXDEPEXDEXT LIFTING EQCIPJIENT This method, where feasible, is the simplest and least expensive. It W;IS llsed for the Choisy-le-Roi, Courbevoie. Juvisy, and Conflans bridges, where the navigable stretch of water lent itself to the use (II) 509 T\\,()-\\Tb segmt'Tlt. (hl I"hrl't'-\\'ciJ s<'g­ of a barge-mounted crane, ensuring tile colleUiol1 of segments from the precasting site and their po­ sitioning in the final structure. A terrestrial crane was employed for the Cardon, Bourg-Saint An­ <leol, and Bonpas Bridges. The same crane, ma­ neuvering either on land or over water (011 a barge), assured the positioning of all the segments used to construct the upstream and downstream bridges of the Paris Ring Road. 'When site conditions are suitable, the same lift­ in~ crane may be lIsed both to serve the precasting van\ and to transport the segments to their final position in the structure (Hartel Bridge, Holland), This principle was enlar~ed successfully durin~ the construction of the bridges over the Loire River at TOllrs ('.[otorwav Bridge and Mirabeau Bridge). where the segments were placed with the aid of a mobile portal frame. The portal frame is placed astride the bridge deck and moves along a track supported by two bailey bridges, one either side of the structure. The track length is approximately twice that of the typical span, and the track itself is lTloved forward progressively as construction pro­ ceeds. The bailey bridges are supported on tempo­ rary piers driven into the river bed. The segments are first brought to the bridge deck and then taken by the mobile portal frame, which transports them to their final position in the finished structure, Fig­ ure 1.47, Where a mobile truck or crawler crane is used for placement, there are often difficulties in the 510 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges positioning of the key segments at midspan, be­ cause the finished structure on either side of the key segment prevents the crane from maneuvering properly and hinders the positioning of the seg­ ment, which may be carried out only from the side of the structure. For the B-3 Motorway Bridges a special apparatus was designed to place those seg­ ments in the cantilever arm to be constructed in the direction of the completed structure, Figure 3.95. Two longitudinal girders are braced together and rested on the pier head of the cantilever to be con­ structed at the front, and on the existing structure at the rear. The apparatus consists of a mobile winch-trolley, ensuring the hoisting and position­ illg of the segments, and an advancing trolley situated at the rear and equipped with a translation lllotOr. The front and rear supports are conceived in such a manner as to transmit the vertical loads through the segment webs. The segments 011 the other side of the cantilever are easily placed by the mobile crane. This beam lIlay easily be used to ensure cantilever stability <lUI'iug cOllstruction when the piers are not sufficiently rigid to support unsymmetrical load­ ing. The cantilever is rigidly fixed to the girders by damping bars Lapable of resisting both tension and compression, The crane and the girders, used to­ gether, will allow a 130 ft (40 m) span to be erected in four working days. Placement of segments with a mobile crane has found another application in the construction of small-span structures such as three-span motorway overpasses (see the discussion of the Alpine Motorway, Section 3.15, and Figure 3.103). The segments are precast in a central factory, trans­ ported to the various sites bv road and positioned by a mobile crane according to the erection scheme, which consists essentially of the following: Two temporar~' adjustable props, easily dismount­ able, placed at the one-fourth and three-fourths points of the central span. Temporary supports with jacks allowing cantilever construction Temporary prestress to tie the segments together before stressing the final prestress Elimination of the classic cast-in-place closure joint by direct junction of the two cantilever arms face to face. Final prestress by continuous tendons instead of can tilever-type layou t. The total construction time for such an overpass, including the piers, usually does not exceed two weeks, of which less than one week is spent .on the bridge supel'structure itself. This method has been used with great success for the Rhone-Alps motor­ way o\'erpasses, with spans varying between 60 ft (18 m) and 100 ft (30 m). 11.8.2 THE BEA,\1-AXD-Wll\'CH METHOD The beam-and-winch method of placing precast segments was conceived for the construction of the Pierre-Benite Bridges over the Rhone River. This construction method requires a fairly simple ap­ paratus rolling along the already constructed part of the cantilever and ensuring the lifting, transla­ tion, and positioning of all the segmelits. The ap­ paratus is shown diagrammatically in Figure 11.63. I t consists of the lifting gear B carried by the trolley C rolling along the bridge deck on tracks D. The segment A is brought, by land or water, beneath the pier in question, where it is lifted by the equipment. It is then transported to two laun~hing beams E that cantilever out from the bridge deck, upon which it contillues to advance until reaching its final position, whereupon it is lifted to its final level next to the previous segment, Figure 11.64. This system can, of course, be simplified if the segment can be brpught by some independent means to a location vertically below its final posi­ tion in the structure. As originally conceived, this system was not completely independent; another construction procedure was required to erect the pier segment. The pier segment was cast in place in the Pierre­ Benite Bridges. It was precast and placed by a crane for the Ampel Bridge in Holland and by a floating barge crane for the Bayonne Bridge over the river Adour. This weakness was eliminated in the construction of the Saint-Andre-de-Cubzac Bridge. For this structure, the pier segments, which form the starting point for each cantilever, were placed by the same equipment that placed the typical span segments, Figure 3.72. The equipment was hung, with the help of cables, to an auxiliary mast fixed to a lateral pier face. The pier segment was brought in from the opposite side, lifted and placed by the mobile equipment's winches. In the same position the following segment was located and the auxiliary mast removed, Figure 3.73. At this point it was a simple matter to reposition the mobile lifting equipment in order to place the typi­ cal span segments, Figure 3.70. Placing Precast Segments 511 PLACING SEGMENTS NEAR RIGHT BANK LIFTING APPARATUS I rANTILEVER BEAM LIFTING APPARATUS TRANSFER TROLLEY TRANSFER TROLL Y SERVICE WALKWAY PIER BLOCK SEGMENT BEING PLACED FIGURE 11.63. cn Paris Downstream Bridge, placing apparatLls. ~------:--::-". ~'~:r'\'~) evolved and how the original concept has been modified. , • Launching Girders Slightly Longer Than the Span Length FIGURE 11.64. ing a segment. 11.8.3 Paris DO\\nstream Bridge, position­ LAU.vCHI,VG GIRDERS This last method, by far the most elegant, uses a launching girder above the bridge deck to bring the segments to their position in the structure. Employed for the first time during construction of the Oleron Viaduct in France, this method has now been successfully used for many different bridges throughout the world. We shall now look at the most important structures constructed by this method to see how the launching girder has We first consider the construction method of the OIeron Viaduct Bridge superstructure, Figure 3.32. The segments were brought along the top slab until they reached the launching girder, then lifted by the latter, transported to their final posi­ tion, lowered so as to come into contact with the previous segment erected, and prestressed to the cantilever. The launching girder itself, slightly longer than the span length, was made up of a steel trellis beam with an entirely welded rectangular section weighing 124 tons (l13 mt) and measuring 312 ft (95 m). The maximum span length of the bridge was 260ft (79 m). [he launching-girder system consists of two fixed supports, called tunnel legs, allowing the segments to pass between them, one at the rear of the girder and the other at the center. At the front end is a mobile prop enabling the girder to find support on the next pier. The bottom chords of the girder are used for the rolling track that supports the segment trolley, which can move the segment horizontally and vertically and rotate it a quar­ 512 Technology and COllstruct~on Placing center segment - - 1 1 8 ' --~-.-~ 141'~............... - - - 259'-~·--·-- ~- ---~-~- Moving gantry to next pier I~~~ f., I i I II,I i ~---141' i I Placing segments '" daub:" cantilever FIGURE 11.65. Olewll "l)('r;ttioll.,. tAl Rear Viaduct, bunciIing-girder ~UppOrl. (H) cellter support. (e) IClIlfJOlan from prop, (D) prop SlIp]>OI·t. (E) pier seg­ IllCIlt, (I-') tellljloran' SlippOIi. ttT-turn. Three phases <Ire clearly distinguishahle in the COBstruction of a cantilever, Figure 11.65: Plw.W' J: Placing tlie l)il'1' ,\egllll'lIt The launching girder rests on three supports-the rear SUppOI't, the center support near the end of the newly constructed cantilever, and the front prop, which is attached to the front of the next pier with the help of a temporary prop support. of Segmental Bridges A wpport adjustment was carried out with the help of hydraulic jacks when the girder was resting on the rear and central supports and the te,mpo­ rary front prop, before installing the pier segment. The purpose of this adjustment was to obtain the optimal distribution of the launching girder self­ weight alllong the three supports. While the frollt prop is being installed, the central support rests on the end of the pre\'ious cantilever in the same po­ sition in which the rear support will be during the erection of the t\'I?ical segments. In this phase tbe launching girder rests on two supports and is therefore staticall\' determinate: nothing call be done (() change the rear-support reaction. While the pier segment is being placed, howe\'er, the girder is resting on three supports and is staticallv indeterminate. It is therefore necessary to ensure that the reaction at the central support is less than or equal to that which will he produced 1)\ the rear support during the next construction stage. in­ cluding the weight of the trollcy alld the tractor placed ill the near \·ieinit\'. Se\'eral other strllctllres have been built with launching girders of the same generation (I, the one used for the Oleron Viaduc\. The Chillol1 Viaduct, Figures :i.43, 1 1.66, and 11.6i, along the bank of Lake Leman used a 400 ft (122 Ill) launching girder weighing 253 tons (230 mt). The maximulll span length was 341 it (104 111). The launching p;irder, of constallt rectangular sec­ tion, was of the suspe.nsion type, being suspended at the one-quarter points bY'cahle sta\'s anchored at the central mast, which extended above the level of the launching girder. The supports were h\­ draulicallv a(Uustable, allowing the girder to cope with different angles of superclevation, Figure Phase 2: [Hoving the launching girrll'T furward The girder rolls along on the rear support and the segment trolley, which is rigidly attached to a metal framework known as the temporary translation support, which is fixed to the pier segment. The rear and central supports are equipped with bogies and roll along a track fixed to the bridge deck while the girder is being moved forward. Phase 3: Placing typical segments The launching girder rests on two supports, the central support anchored to the pier segment and the rear support tied with prestressing bars to the end of the previously constructed cantilever. FIGURE 11.66. operatioll. ChillOll Viaduct. laullching-girder in Placing Precast Segments 513 zndSt,uge PI;;.clil-3 p'¢r Sti:'3I"'t",~,at5 4th '5t.;;q~ Glr~<:i !dUC'Nlr'g ur1""I.,"' ' FIGL'RE 11.67. (:hill,,11 \'iadllCl. blltlchillh-ginkr llH)\,('llIl'llls. 11.68. The laullching- girder included three means of adjustlllent: ,!;\, / I I / / ' I Ai/illstllll'lIt DI: Lateral movement of the trollev in order 10 place eccentric scg-mctlls "'lriiustltll'llt D2: Lateral translation of the celltral support ill order to cope with horizontal curvature of the structure "1 diu.,tml'lIt D 3: Vcnical ,l(ljustlllem of bog-ies to take up the slIperelevatioll and so keep the central support vertical. \ \ 1\ / \ \ \ Horizontal chassis FIGURE 11.68. ,ldjllstllll'llt s. Chilloll \'iadllcl. lalillchillg-ginier III order to follow the horizontal curves the launching ginler rotated about the rear support while llIo\'ing- sidew;:vs across the central support, Fig-ure 11.69. The mobile temporary front prop was conceived in the same way as the other sup­ ports so as to allow the passage of the first segments to either side of the pier segment. The Blois Bridge on the Loire River in France had a 367 ft (112 Ill) long launching girder weigh­ ing 135 tons (123 mt). Figure I L70. The maximum span length was 300 ft (91 m). The launching girder. of constant triangular section. could be dismantled and transported by road. All of the girder components were assembled wilh high-strength bolts. ensuring the transmission of 514 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges CONSTRucnON CONSTR.UCTION OF Of" HQIl!I'ZONTIl.L.. ~OR'Z:ONTAL FIGURE 11.69. struction. eURvl:. CURve ( STAGE 1. ) (STAGE 2 ) Chillon Viaduct, cun-ed span con­ ELEVATION FIGURE 11.70. I}~~I Blois Bridge, launching girder. SECTION A forces by friction between adjoining plates, Figure 11.71. The use of a very light structural steel framework carried with it the risk of large deflec­ tions. These were reduced and controlled by two sets of cable stavs, passive and prestressed, which came successively into play during maneuvering of a segment (upper passive stays) and during the launching-girder advancement (lower prestressed stays). This launching girder was later used for the erection of two other structures: the Aramon Bridge on the Rhone River, Figure 11.72, and the 2950 ft (900 m) long Seudre Viaduct. The Saint Cloud Bridge on the Sei~e, Figure 3.78, is a recent example of the use of a large launching girder. The girder could place segments weighing up to 143 tons (130 mt) in spans of up to 335 ft (102 m) with a minimal radius of curvature in plan of 1080 ft (330 m), Figure 3.79. The weight of the launching girder was 260 tons (235 mt) and its total length was equal to 400 ft (122 m). The adjustments adopted were similar to those used for the Oleron, Blois, and Chillon bridges. The launching girder, which used upper passive stays and lower prestressed stays, was constructed FIGURE 11.71. sClllhh delail. Blois Bridge. launching-girder as­ FIGURE 11.72. River. Aramon Bridge over the Rhone with a constant triangular section made up of indi­ vidual elements assembled by prestressing. This launching girder is notable, apart from its assembly by prestress, for its ability to follow extremely tight curves. The movements used for the Chillon Via­ Placing Precast Segments duct were, of course, lIsed for this purpose. How­ ever, in the Saint Cloud Bridge it was necessary also for the launching girder to take up several in­ termediate positions during the erection of a given cantilever so as to bring each segment to its final position in the structure. The total lateral transla­ tion reached 19.7 ft (6 Ill) at its maximum. Con­ struction speed of the bridge deck was 130 ft (40 m) per week, including all launching-girder ma­ neuvers. Two other structures erected with the help of the Saint Cloud launching girder were the Angers Bridge and the Sallingsund Viaduct. The launching girder used for the Alpine \lotorw;JV network was conceived for spans and segment weights of more modest dimensions; it is typical of lightweight universal equipment that can be easily dismantled for reuse in another structure, Figure 11.73. This girder allowed the h,mdling of segments weighing lip to 55 toIlS (50 !lit) over spans lip to 20() ft (00 m). Reflecting on the launching girders mentioned above, we note that their evolution centers on two major characteristics: the structural conception or the girder and the assembly method (collnection types, number of elem~nts, and so on). Launching girders tend lIlore and more to be of the lightweight tvpe, relving on exterior forces to cope wit h diflerenl loadings. rhese exterior forces arc provided by the exterr1<l1 .)ctive cable stays, which allow tlte structure 10 be placed in a condi­ tioll ensuring a favorable behavior unde\· a givell loading. This approach to launching-girder design provides more optimal lise of materials than did the first-gelleration girders of variable cross sec­ tioll. Another advantage of a constant cross section is that it facilitates I he construction of standard sec­ FIGURE 11.73. .-\[pine :-"[OlOn\<!v launching- girder. 515 tions that can be interchanged and assembled on site. In this way the girder length can be varied ac­ cording to the span length and the weight of the segments. Connectjons are made with tensioned bolts, Figure 11.74, which reduce considerably the number required and consequelltly the time needed to assemble or dismantle the structure. These connections have recentlv replaced those made with high-strength bolts and fish plates, nota­ ble on such structures as the Deventer Bridge and the B-3 Viaducts. Means of erection adjustments also have im­ proved, tending to reduce the forces applied to the deck itself by ensuring thal the girder supports are located over the piers or at Icast in t he very near vicinity. This natural evolution leads liS toward a new type of launching girder, one whose total length is slightly greater than twice the typical span length, allowing the simultaneous placing of the typical segmellls of cantilever N and the picr segment of cantilever N + I. LIIUIIChilig Girr/('n Sligh/tv Lllllg!'r Thall Twice lhl' '(VjJical Spa n The tirst launching girders of this type were used 011 the following bridges: Rio ;\;iteroi ill Brazil; De­ venter ill Holland, Figu re 3.50; and B-3 South Viaducts in the eastern subudlS of Paris. Figure 3.93. The Rio \literoi Bridge (Section 3.8), linking the city of Rio de Janeiro with \literoi, consists 01 10 miles (16 km) of bridge deck constructed by four identicallaul1ching girders, Figures 3.55 and 3.51>. Each 545 ft (160 111) long girder could be com­ pletel\' dismantled. The const;Jllt lI·ianglllar sec- FIGURE 11.74. Prestressed conneClions. "I" Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges 516 tion, weighing 440 tons (400 mt), could cope with spans of up to 260 ft (80111). The conncctions were identical in principle to those used for the Blois girder. Each installation was equipped wit h three supports of nontullnel type, olle fixed and the other two retractable. The erection sequence was as follows, Figure 1.51 : Phose 1: Se{;IIII'IIII)/aciug The girder rests on three supports, each one O\'er a pier. Two segmellts are erected sillluitaneously, one on either side of the douhle cantilever under COllst ructioll. Thc pier segment of the nex t GlII­ tilenT is also placed with the launching girder in t his position. It' Phose 2: ,\J01'ill{; Ihe /mJl/cilin{; {;irrirr/imL'flrd The girdcr rolls on two telllporan' translation sup­ ports, olle placed ahove t he pier of the finished c<lntile\el' and the ot her above t he pier of t he can­ tilever to hc constructed. These teJ))porar~' sup­ ports arc attached 10 the trolleys; the laullching girder is lilted, thus frceing the penll;}ncllt sup­ ports: and tlte tmlleys arc cllgaged, enabling the translatiOlI of IIle launching girder to a positioll to erect the next calltilever. The temporal'\' transla­ tion supports are equipped with a mechanislll al­ lowing transycrse ll1()VelllelltS, as the structure in­ cllldes a ccrtain amolillt of horizontal CUr\'ature. Thc Rio :\iteroi girder was equipped with three sets of active stays: lateral sta\'s, central staYs, and I;ltlllchillg sta\'s. The lateral stays, positioned Oil the ullderside of the two spans and constalltly ullder tension, ellsure the resistallce of the girder while the load (segmellt) passes near midspan. The central stays strengthell the girder in the vicillity of tlte central support. The laullching stays, under tellsion while Ill;tncuvering t he girder, trallsfer the 110llt and rear reactiolls to the central support. Owing to the Jengt h of t he bridge and t he pres­ ence of a large stretch of water beneath the struc­ ture, the segments were brought to the launching girder Oil bargcs. The ca nt ilc\'cr stahilit y (.)1' the bridge was assu red \)\ the launching girder itself, and ties and props were positioned as construction proceeded. The launching girder used for the Devenler Bridge in Holland, Figures 3.49 and 3.50, were also capable of being entireh dismantled alld of triangular seclion. Its total length was 512 ft (156 111) for a weight 19H tOilS (IHO 1111). The maximulll span length was 243 ft (74 111), Assembly of the launching-girder elements was COllsllllllllated by prestress hars norlllal 10 the joints. It was supported by the fixed supports, of which the rear and the ccntl'al allowed the passage of a segmcllt, and two sets of cable st;.IYS: celltral sla\'s alld launching st<l\'S. The translatioll opera­ tiolls wcre identical to those of the Rio :\itcroi Bridge, CYCII though ollly OIlC seglllcllt could be lowered illto plaC<.~ at a tillie. \\'ilat was peculiar about this laullching girder was its ahilit~ to raise itsellto its working Icvdln its OWIl llleans, alld this frolll the ground level where it was ;lsselllbled. This was lllade possible bv the central sllspension mast, which acted as a lifting jack. In the case of the B-3 South Viaducts, Figure 3.92, the cOllstantly varying structure supportcd \)\ 200 piers, crossing five railw<I\ tracks, the Ourcll Callal, alld several uri>all r~)adwa\s, was lllastered In a highh mechanized launching girder. The simultalleolls placillg of two seglllents of the same calltilever, each weighillg between 33 and 55 tOilS (:H) and 50 lilt) either side of the pier, is controlled by a radio-controlled servo lllechanislli that S\'n­ chronizes the loading al each end of the girder. Agaill the length of the launching girder was slightly greater thall twice the typical span length, or 'TYPICIl.L CR055_.:5ECTIQN t L{t.ng tl'"OUflJ ( J l.Ifttng tmlk,!l [ Cent.rat $uppor-t, CanlA<tvef" sta b, II Z<2'I" FIGURE 11.75, ~I u B-:1 Smull Viaduct Iaullching girder. gcneral layout. 517 Refere1lces that IS, between four and SIX segments per day. The average construction speed, including launching-girder maneuvers, was therefore 200 ft (60 Ill) per week. The B-3 launching girder was recently reused for the ,'.Iame-Ia-Vallee Viaduct, which carries high-speed suburban rail for the Paris transport authorit\', References FIGURE 11.76. B-:) South \·iadllCl. segment t rallS­ I. Anon., ,\1111/1/(/1 jill' Quality CUll/ml/o,- PIIIII/.1 111111 Pro­ Iiflcliol/ Q/Premsi Pre,'Iressed COlladl' Pmliutls, .\I::\L­ Itti.70, Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, 1970. port (I'actor. which varied between 100 and 164 ft (30 and 50 m). Figure 11,75. The ginler support reactions were thus applied in the region of the piers, and the cantilever stabilitv was ensllred bv the launch­ ing girder itself. This stabilizing device can be seen to the left of the central support in Figure 1L75. The segments were supplied 1)\ a special eight­ wheeled tractor Illoving along the top slab. Figure 11.76. :\ special de\'ice llsed to unload and store the seglllents hrought ·bv the tractor freed the lat­ ter and remo\ed the suppl\' ()f segments from the erection critical path. The c\cle of segment place­ ment and girder ;td\'ancelllent is represellted in Figure :3.9~~. The next pier segmellt was placed during the sallle phase as the tvpical segments. About two spalls were cOllStl'llcted each week- Anoll.,.{CI Jtw/l/aloj COl/tTell' i'raf'Iif'!', Part 1, Allleri­ can Concrete Institute, Detroit, 197~I, :{, "Proposed Recolllmendatiolls for Se~lllelltal COll­ structioll ill Prestressed Concrete," Fl P COllllllis' sioll-I'refabricuioll. 3d Orall, Scptclllher I(li7. 'l 4. "Recolllillenc!ed Practice for Se~lllelltal Const rlletioll ill Prestressed Concrete," Report bv COJlllllinee 011 Se~Jllelltal COllstl'llLtioll. jOIlrt/([1 oj 1/[1' Prnlrt'lS/,d Co/Ur!'ie 1lI"Iilllil'. Vol. :!O, ::\o.:!. ,\/arch-.\pril 197'i. .'). Anoll .. PCI PO.l/-TfIlsifJllillg ,\1([1/11([1. Prestressed crete Institute. Chicag-o. 1972. fi. :\!lOIl .• COI1­ PTI PosI.Tensioning .\lfll/wd. Post-Tensioning Phoenix. Arizolla. 1970. r Ilslit ute. 7. T. J Ikzouska, Field III'I}('!'/ioll of Grollieli Po,II­ T!'IIt/olls. Post-Tensioning- Illstitute. Phoenix. :hizOIl;l, \fa rch 1977, T!'IIsiouillg 'r' I 12 Economics and Contractual A·spects 0,[ SegJnental Construction 12.1 iI " 12.1 Bidding Procedures A bridge design ~hould 011 principle be economical awl as a practicalll1atter must fall within budgetary rest nctiolls of a particular project. The economic "moment of truth" for a given bridge design occurs when hids are recei\'ed and evaluated, III a hasicallv stable economy where material and lahor costs are predictable within relativelv small fluctuations, the selection of structure t\'pe and materials is reiali\'Cly straightforward. This situa­ tion prevails when the time required fe)r the design is relativelv. short and thus is not affected by eco­ Ilomic cycles, or, if the design time is relatively long, the economic cycles are mild. In an inflation­ an ecollomy there is no economic stability, and de­ signers are hard put to make rational choices, as they have no control over economic parameters that can influence their design decisions. In short, the problem is whether economic assumptions made during the course of design are valid at the time of bidding. , 518 12.2.5 12.2.6 12.2.7 12.2.8 12.2.9 12.2.10 BIDDING PROCEDURES 12.1.1 Single Design 12.1.2 Design and Build 12.1.3 Value Engineering 12.1.4 Alternate Designs 12.1.5 Summary Remarks on Bidding Procedures ]2.2 EXAMPLES OF SOME INTERESTING BIDDINGS AND COSTS 12.2.1 Pine Valley Creek Bridge, California 12.2.2 Vail Pass Bridges, Colorado 12.2.3 Long Key Bridge, Florida 12.2.4 Seven Mile Bridge, Florida 12.3 Zilwaukee Bridge, Michigan aine Avenue Bridge, Indiana Napa River Bridge, California Red River Bridge, Arkansas North Main Street Viaduct, Ohio Summary of California's Experience INCREASE IN EFFICIENCY IN CONCRETE BRIDGES 12.3.1 12.3.2 Redesign of Caracas Viaducts, Venezuela Comparison between Tancarville and Brotonne Bridges, France REFERE.">lCES Orn'ioLlsh, the design and the bidding (tender­ ing) of a project are closeh related. Contractual bidding procedure!> \'ar~' from countn 10 countrv, and current economic pressures are leading to changes in these procedures. The various bidding methods used in \'arious countries can be broadlv categorized (with sOl11e possible variations) as fol­ lows: (I) single design. (2) design and build, (3) \alue engineering. and (4) alternate designs. 12. Ll S/.\'GLE DES/G.\' Heretofore, single design was the major method used in :\orth America and Great Britain. In this method, in general, design drawings prepared for bid are very detailed, to the extent that even the length and other dimensions of every reinforcing bar may be given. The bidding period is followed by a tight construction schedule. The contractor bids and executes the project in strict accordance with the bidding documents, No variation from the documents is allowed unless an error in design is Bidding Procedures discovered, or a specific detail proves impractical to consummate, or geological perturbations are dis­ covered that differ from what was assumed in de­ sign and delineated in the contract documents. These changes are authorized by a change order, and if there is an increase in cost the contractor is paid an "extra." This system worked well for many years when the economy was fairly stable and predictable and when economic changes were gradual over an ex­ tended period. Its disadvantage is its lack of flexi­ bility to accommodate a n inflationary economy, sudden price changes in materials, a rapidly ad­ vancing technology, and the current emergence of specialty contractors with unique equipment or skills, proprietary designs, and patented construc­ tion methods. Its biggest advantages are ease in administering the contract and absolute control over the final design. 12.1.2 DESIG,V A,VD BUILD In some European countries. by contrast, bid documents are prepa.red with the intention that the contractor will prepare' and submit his own detailed design for the project. Thus, bid plans will be more general and, for a bridge, may show only span lengths, profile, and typical sections. The cnntractor may then refine the original design or submit an alternate design of his own choice, the responsibilitv for producing the final design and details being his rather than the engineer's. This procedure allows the contractor to use any special equipment or technique he may have at his dis­ posal. For example, a cast-in-place concrete box may be substituted for a steel superstructure where the contractor has special know-how in concrete construction, or the change may be less drastic and involve onlv a reduction in the number of webs in a box girder. Verification of the adequacy of the contractor's final design is generally carried out by a "proof en­ gineer" who is retained by the owner or is on the owner's engineering staff. In 'order to minimize disagreements between the contractor and the proof engineer, European codes have been made very specific. As a result, European contractors usually maintain large in-house engineering staffs, although they may also use outside consultants. The outcome apparently is a savings in construc­ tion cost, achieved by the investment of more de­ sign' time and effort than in the single-design method. 519 The advantage of the design-and-build method is that in an atmosphere of engineering competi­ tion, innovative designs and construction practices advance very rapidly. The state of the art of de­ signing and constructing bridges advances in re­ sponse to the need for greater productivity. The disadvantage is the lack of control over the selec­ tion of the type of structu re and its design. There is some concern, too, that quality of construction may suffer as a consequence of overemphasis on pro­ ductivity and initial cost. However, the contractor is usually required to produce a bond and guaran­ tee his work over some period of time, and anv de­ fects that surface during this period have to be re­ paired at his expense. Whether such a system could be adopted in the United States is debatable. 12.1.3 VALUE ENGI,VEERING Value engineering is defined by the Society of American Value Engineering as "the systematic application of recognized techniques which iden­ tify the function of a product or service, establish a value for that function, and provide the necessary function reliability at the lowest overall cost. In all instances the required function should be achieved at the lowest possible life-cycle cost consistent with requirements for performance, maintainability, safety, and esthetics."l In 1962 the concept of value engineering be­ came mandatory in all U.S. Department of Defense armed services procurement regulations (ASPR). Before this time value engineering had been applied to materials, equipment, and systems. The advent of ASPR provisions introduced value en­ gineering concepts to two of the largest construc­ tion agencies in the United States-the U.S. Anny Corps of Engineers and the U.S. ~avy Bureau of Yards and Docks. Soon thereafter the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and the General Services Adminis­ tration (GSA) adopted and inserted value en­ gineering clauses in their construction contracts, and the U.S. Department of Transportation estab­ lished a value engineering incentive clause to be used by its agencies. Several value engineering clauses (or incentive clauses) are in use today by many agencies. In gen­ eral, they all have the following features l : 1. ,f A paragraph that defines the requirements of a proposal: (a) it must require a change to the contract and (b) it must reduce the cost of the contract without impairing essential functions. I I 520 2. :\. 4. !), Economics and Contractual Aspects of Segmental Construction .~ hdocllIIlenlalion'1 paragraph that ilelnizes the information the contractor should furnish with each proposal. It should be comprehen­ sive enough to ensure quick and accurate evaluations, detailed enough to reflect the contractor's confidence in its practicabilitv, and refined to the point where implementation will not cause undue delay in construction opera­ tions. Careful de\'e\opment of this paragraph and meticulous adherence to its requirements will preclurle scatter-shot proposals bv the contractor and burdensome review bv the agencv. :\ paragraph on "submission." This paragraph details the procedure for submiual. A paragraph on "acceptallce," which outlines the right of the agency to accept or reject all proposals, the notification a contraClor may expect to receive, and appropriate reference to proprietary rights of accepted proposals. paragraph on "sharing," which cOlltaills the forl1lula ror determining the contract price a!ijustlllent if the propo.sal is accepted alld sets forth the percentage of sayings a contractor lIlay expect to receive. :\ As generally practiced by highway agencies III the United States, a value engineering proposal lIlllst indicate a "substantial" cost savings. This is to pn>clude minor changes such that the cost of pro­ cessing offsets the savings to be gained. SOll1e other reasons for which a value engineerillg proposal llla\' be dellied are as follows: Technical 11OlIcOllIpliance. Delay ill construction such that the cost saYlllgs would be subst alllialiv nullified. Proposed change would require resubmission of tlIe pn~jeCl for any number of \'arious permits, slIch as environmental impact statement, wetlands permit, and navigation requirements. Resubmis­ sion would in all probability delay construction anrl II ulli fy any cost savings. Savings resulting from a value engineering pro­ posal are generally shared equally by the agency and the contractor, after an allowance for the con­ tractor's development cost, the agency's cost in processing the proposal, or both. As practiced in the United States, all cOntractors must bid on the design contained in the bid documents, and only the low bidder on the base bid is allowed to submit a \'alue engineering proposal. This is, of course, value engineering's biggest disadvantage. Ally !lumber of contractors rnav have more cost­ effective proposals that they' are not allow'ed to submit because they were not low bidder on the base bid, Its advantage is that to some degree it aI­ lo\\'s contractor inno\,<ttioll to be introduced. 12,1.4 ALTER.\'ATF /)ES/(;\'S Alternate designs, as it is developing ill the United States, basically is an attempt to produce a hybrid sYstem cOllsisting of the besl elements of the single-design and the design-and-build methods. It attempts to accomplish the following: Retain for the authorizing agency cOlltrol over the "t\Ve selection" of the structure and it~ design Provide increased competition bet ween lIIaterials (structural steel versus concrete or prestressillg 5t ralld verSll s hal'S) or const ruet ion proced 1I res (cast-in-place VerSlIS precast segmental or halallced cantilever versus increlllelltal launchillg-, and so OIl ) Pn)"i de COlI t raet or fkxi bi Ii t y (const ruct ion proce­ dures, methods, and/or expertise) This met hod has de\'eloped, wit h encouragement from the Federal H)gh way Ad millist ration, as an <lIlti-inflationarv measure iO COl II Ilat dramatic in­ creases in highway construction costs. A technical Aclyisorv Z published by the Federal Flighway Ad­ ministration stales: Balw..'>!' offluc/ualillg I'col/ollli( (of/diIIOIlS, II Isfdl Ihlll mulliplp rr/Jl'litizll' SflaW, IOllg .1/11/11\ or ml1jor hndg!'s, or where Ihere is 1111 ('xlnuled /)aiod of design from (011­ (1'/lllOn of IiiI' /lmjerl 10 (J ),I'I('(J,\CfOT hids, Ihere CI1II he I/O (LISUrIJllC(, /lri«(' slabilily /1)1' (l parlilll/aJ' malnial or (ollslruc/ioll mel/wr/olof-',," Wilh allerllal!' des ig 11.1, no Il/al/a how lite ('COllOm), rhallges, lfIore del'lgns 111'1' m'oi/­ aille at IiiI' lime of fn'r/ding thai are tike/,,' 10 lie SlIill'd 10 Ihe ml or /)revailing ('col/Olnir (ollditiolls. General recommendations regarding alternate designs from the same document2 are as follows: 1. To receive the most economical construction between basic structural materials, consistent with geographic, environmental, ecological or other site restrictions, there should be maximum opportunity for competition he­ tween structural steel and concrete. Bidding Procedures 2. \Vithin environmental, aesthetic, site, and other constraints. the plans and bid docu­ ments should show or otherwise indicate what alternative types of structures will be allowed or considered. The contractor should be al­ lowed the option to bid any designated alter­ native design that is consistent with the con­ tractor's expertise, available equipment, and so on. 3. Bid documents and the contract plans should clearly indicate the design criteria and what type of alternative designs andlor con tractor options will be acceptable. Determination of practical and economical alternatives and/or contractor options should be developed in the preliminarv design. 4. Bid documents should be considered as "open" documents in regard to construction method, erection systems, and prestressing systems. 5. Consistent design criteria should be used for alternatives; for example, if load factor de­ sign is llsed, it shollid be used for all alterna­ tives. 6. Span lengths should be identifled on the contract plans. However, other than where pier locations are constrained by physical and geological conditions at the site, consideration should be given to allowing a tolerance in pier location lo avoid placing a particular alterna­ ti\'e at an economic disadvantage. For exam­ ple, in a typical three-span structure, the side span should be approximately HO percent of the center span for structural steel, 70 per­ (ellt for conventioll;;! cast-in-place concrete 011 falsework, and 65 to 70 percent in seg­ lllellt~ll balanced cantilever cOllstruction. 7. 'To avoid an economic disadvantage lO a par­ ticular Sli perstructure alternative. alternative substructure designs mav be required. Limi­ tations Oil the substructure, such as allowable axial load and moment, should be clem'lv identified on the contract plans. ' 8. Where specific design requirements are not covered by the ;\merican Association of State Highwav and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Bridge Specifications, the con­ tractor should be allowed to use other recog­ nized codes and standards where applicable. However, the alternative design should document where these provisions are to be 'used, why the AASHTO requirements do not 9. 10. 11. 521 apply, and which articles of the substituted code or standard are to be used. Such provi­ sions should be subject to approval by the en­ gineer and appropriate agencies. Prebid conferences are to be encouraged as a means of communication between the en­ gineer, high way agencies, and contractors. In order to allow a contractor adequate time to investigate the various alternatives and prepare plans, it is recommended that the advertising time be commensurate with the size and complexity of the project with a minim.um of 60 days. In order to allow adequate review and checking of the low bidder's proposal, award of contract should be extended commensu­ rate with the size of project. Specific recom mendatiom/ regarding prestressed concrete alternates are as follows: To increase the competition in post-tensioned concrete construction, it is recommended that plans and other bid documents allow cOllven­ tional cast-in-place Oil falsework, precast pre­ stressed span units, and segmental construc­ tiOll or combinations thereof. 2. Segmental construction should· allow the fol­ lowing at the contractor's option: a. Precast or cast-in-place segmental COll­ struction. b. An\' of the post-tensioning ,>vstems-that is, strand, WIre, or bars or combinations thereof. c. :\nv of the following construction methods: balanced cantilever, span-bv­ span, progressive placing, incremental launching, or combinations thereof. d. Exterior dimensiolls 0(' the cross section should be fixed, At the cOlltractor's option, the thickness of wehs and Hanges 111;1\' be \'aried to accommodate proposed con­ struction and erection methods a nel post-tensioning systems, provicl ing that any changes in the dead weight, shear, and so on are accommodated in the design. 3. The contract plans should indicate the maximum and minimun final prestressing force (Pf ) and moment (Pf X e) required, after all losses, for the final condition of the structure -that is, dead, live, impact, and all superim­ posed loads. Any increase in prestressing force 1. 522 4. 5. G. Economics and Contractual Aspects of Segmental Construction requirements as a result of the method of con­ struction, election, or type of tendon system should be evaluated at the shop drawing stage. Changes in eccentricity of prestress should be accompanied with appropriate changes in pre­ stress force to produce the same minimum compressive stress due to prestress. The minimum prestress force should be such that under any loading condition, both during and after construction, stresses will be within allowable limits. Consideration should be given to secondary moments due to prestress, redis­ tributed moments due to creep, and stresses resulting from thermal gradient (between the top and bottom of the girder and between the inside and outside of webs). Contractor revisions to contract plans, with supporting calculations, should be submitted to the ellgineer for apprO\·al. 12.1.5 SU,HMARY REMARKS ON BID])].\'(; P1WCEDURES All or the bidding procedures described above have one thing in common: they all attempt to produce the lowest initial cost by competition in construction and/or design. All of the last three approaches (design-and-build, value engineering, and alternate designs) require decisions based on comparisons or basic structural materials, structure types, construction methods, and so on. This im­ plies that the basic premise in the selection process is equivalency-comparable service, performance, and life-cycle cost of the facility. Life-cycle costs refer not only to initial cost, but also to maintenance and any rehabilitation costs during the life of the structure. True cost of the project must be considered. What may be initially least expensive may in the long run, when future costs are accounted for, be actually most expensive. Some newer structure types and designs are at the fringe of the state of the art and have only been used in the United States within the last decade or less. Thus, an adequate background of experience is unavailable to evaluate life-cycle costs. The esti­ mation of life-cycle costs may be difficult in many cases, such as for new and progressive bridge de­ signs. Functionally, alternative structures are de­ signed to the same criteria. Only years of opera­ tjonal experience can provide the data base for reasonably estimating life-cycle costs and thereby true equivalency in design insofar as cost is in­ volved. However, the problem of adequacy of data does not diminish the importance of the question and the need to attempt to answer it. Allother anti-inflationary measure lIsed in l't:cent years is that of stage construction. This concept may take one of two forms .. Major structures, be­ cause of their size, lend themselves to stage construction-that is, separate substructure and superstructure contracts. Usually several years will elapse between bidding and awarding of the sub­ structure contract and the superstructure contract. The economic superstructure span range for dif­ ferent alternative types and materials is a variable. In this form of stage construction the substructure is let first; thus the spans for the superstructure de­ sign become fixed. This mayor may not impose an economic disadvantage to specific superstructure alternates. The substructure must be designed for the largest self-weight superstructure alternati\·e, which mayor may not be the successful super­ structure alternative. It appears that this form of stage construClion maybe to some extent self­ canceling or counterproductive to cost savings. \Vith a total alternative design package, the sub­ structure (foundation, piers, span arrangement) can also have alternatives commensurate with the superstructure alternatives. The other form of stage construction concerns a large project. containing many bridges, that is sub­ divided for bidding purposes into a number of smaller prqjects. Its f>rimaq,' purpose is to encour­ age small contractors by pn)\iding pn~jects of manageable size, thus increasing competition. However, certain construction techniques, by vir­ t ue of the investment in sophisticated casting or erection equipment, require a certain volume of work to amortize the equipment and be competi­ tive. Depending upon the size of the subdivided contract, this form of stage construction in some instances may also become counterproductive. The value engineering concept can be divided into two major areas of application: during design and during construction. Value engineering pro­ cedures in the design stage may result in very specific recommendations based on a certain set of assumptions at a particular point in time for the design. If conditions change during the interval between the design decision and the actual con­ struction, which can be several years, conditions on which the assumptions were based may have changed. Such changes could make the original value engineering decision incorrect. The alterna­ tive design concept, on the other hand, does not make all such specific design decisions at an early Examples of Some Interesting Biddings and Costs stage but retains some options in order to allow a later response to changed conditions. Therefore, there is an apparent incompatibility between the application of value engineering principles in the design stage and the concept of alternative designs for bidding purposes. However, the concept of value engineering is a powerful tool and can be made compatible with the concept of alternative designs if its principles are used to determine whether a given project should require alternative designs and, if so, what structure types should be considered as equivalent alternates. 12.2 12.2.1 Examples of Some Interesting Biddings and Costs PISE VALLEY CREEl\. BRIDGE, CAUFORSIA The Pine Valley Creek Bridge (Section 2.7) was the first segmental bridge in the United States to in­ corporate the concept of value engineering (cost­ reduction incentive proposal) in the bidding docu mellts. The origi nal design assu med cast-in­ place balanced cantilever construction with the prestressing force (P f ) ;ind nHllllent (Pf X e) based on strand capabilities. Project plans developed by CALTRA:--JS re­ quired construction of the cantilever~d sections at piers 3 and 4 before those at piers 2 and 5 (refer to Figure 2.40). Because of rigid specification re­ quirements for the protection of the valley slopes, TABLE 12.1. the contractor was faced with a difficult and costly erection procedure. At least one cable way span­ ning the entire valley would have been required to transport men and material to appropriate loca­ tions during the construction procedure. Complete site installations on both sides of the valley would have been required, which were accessible only with a great deal of difficulty. The superstructure design alternative submitted under this proposal employed the Dywidag system, which included the following: (1) use of the threaded-bar system especially suited to segmental construction, (2) increased prestress-force eccen­ tricities, since most longitudinal prestressing bars could be placed and anchored in the slab, (3) diagonal prestressing in the webs to cater to the shear stresses, and (4) a modification in construc­ tion sequence so as to work from piers 5, 4, 3, anci 2, Figure 2.44. Changes proposed under the value engineering clause are summarizied in Table 12.1. Total sav­ ings as a consequence amounted to $382,000.:1 12.2.2 Structural svstem Concrete stresses: Construction Tension Concrete shear VAIL PASS BRIDGES, COLORADO The Vail Pass structures are part of Interstate 1-70 near Vail, Colorado, in an environmentally sensi­ tive area. Environmental considerations played a dominant role in the selection of the bridge types and the design thereof. Another factor considered was the relatively short construction season at the high elevations of the sites. L Pine Valley Creek Bridge, Value Engineering Proposal Original Construction sequence 523 CRIP Long cantilevers before shorr to minimize creep ..ls Cantilever for D.L., continuous for L.L. + added D.L. :\0 Redistribution Reverse to facilitate constr. from abutment 0.-1f;. 3vr:. o "63" .\CI, mild steel Slab designs .\.\SHTO loads, method and distribution reinf. Hinge Two diaphragms Savings estimated $ 88,0()() Conti n uous for all loads Full redistribution 0.55/;. Pri nci pal stresses diagonal prestress A.\SHTO loads with "Hornberg" graphs, no distri bution rei nf. No diaphragms $228.000 22,000 22,000 22,000 $382,000 r ~ Economics and Contractual Aspects of Segmental Construction 524 Of the 21 bridge structu res in this project, 17 were designed and bid on the basis of alternative designs. One alternative design considered trapezoidal steel hox girders composite with a con­ crete roadway flange. The other alternative design was for precast concrete segmental box girder de­ sign, with the Federal Highwa\ Administration re­ quiring that the contractor be given the option of cast-in-place segmental construction. At two locations, the site constraints were such that thev were bid without alternatives as steel box girders. Two other locations required 80 ft (24 m) long simple-span underpass structures to provide lor wildlife migration. These structures were built of cast-in-place concrete box ~irder construction. The remaining 17 structures were completelv de­ signed and detailed for the two alternatives, one in structural steel and the other in precast concrete segmental (with a coni ractor option of providing a cast-in-place segmental design). Spans varied in nUIIIber from t\\"o 10 five and ill length frolll 30 to :260 ft (9 to 79 111). Table 12.2 tabulates the five contracts that in­ volved the 17 hridges hid 011 the basis of alternative designs and lists them in the order in \\'hich the} were hid. 4 Approximately a year elapsed between the lettillg of the first and last COlllracts. Although considerable differences in bid prices are shown in individual projects, for the lotal pn~ject there is less than $80,000 difference oul of an approximate total cost $17 million, or less than 0.5% dif­ or TABLE 12.2. ference in bid prices for the alternatives. Precast segmental was the low bid on project I and cast­ in-place segmental was the low bid on project 4. Based upon length (width was constant), the seg­ mental concept was successful in approximately 60o/c of the total project. The consultants, I nternational Engineering CompanY, Inc., estimated that the additional cost 10 produce alternative designs \vas about 2.So/c of construction cost. It is difficult to estimate what savings were achieved by bidding alternative de­ signs rather than· a single design; however, overall sa\'jngs of 7 to 10% of Ihe construction costs ale not unreasonable. 4 12.2.3 LOXG;..,:n BRlJ)(;E. FlDUlJ)A The Long Kev Bridge in the Florida ~eys was hid lit ilizi ng t he concept 01' alternate designs. Fou r complete sets of contract plans were prepared for the alternative construction schemes indicated in Table 12.3. Plans for the AASHTO precast, pre­ tensioned I girders were prepared by the Florida Department of Transportation. Plans for the three basic precast segmental schemes were prepared by the state's consultant, Figg and \luller Engineers, Inc. III the prciiminan design stage three methods or segmental COllst ructioll were considered lor this pn~ject: balanced cantile\er, span-by-span, and pl'Ogressi\e plat-ing. The progressi\e placing Results of Alternative Bids, Vail Pass Bridges TOlal Proj. Hridge :":0. :":0. 4 5 Totals F-II-AX F-I I·:HV F·II-A\, F-II-.\C F-12·AK F-12-A\1 F-12-:\:": F-12-AO F-12-AI' F-II-AP F-II-AO F-II-A:\' F-II-A:>'1 F-II-AL F-II·AK F-12-AT F·12-AS :..: o. Spa I1S 4 5 4 4 3 2 3 ~-I :-i 3 2 4 4 4 3 4 4 Length (It ) Length (it ) Low Steel Hid Cost IF!". Steel Low Connete Bid Cost/Ft 2 , COllcrele 7'27 880 6YO 668 220 240 350 368 600 2965 S5,992.155 $48.12 1778 $3,777,549 $50.59 $4.111,170 $55.05 $994.347 $44.50 $1,053,364 $47.14 2448 $4,257,771 $41.41 $4,108,057 $39.96 1452 9175 $2,29S,409 $17,320,231 $37.69 $44.95 $2,598,938 $17 ,39S,84 7 $42.62 $45.15 $44.39 310 222 740 744 514 450 726 726 Examples of Some Interesting Biddings and Costs TABLE 12.3. 525 Long Key Bridge, Alternatives Substructure Su pers t rucw re Precast Piles Drilled Shalts A B C D F H Precast I!;irders, .\,\SHTO Segllle n tal: Span bv span, V piers Span by span, vertical piers Cantilever, \'ertical piers First option. slab reinforcing E G RIC epoxy coated Pretensioning Cast.-in-place conventional Precast (never integral) Second option, barrier curbs method was discarded because it was felt to be (at the lime) too new for acceptance in L' .S. practice. It was later introduced on the Linn Cove Bridge in :--Jorth Carolina. The basic difference in the two span-by-span alternatives for the Long Key Bridge is in the pier configuration: V piers or vertical piers, Aside from the const ructioll alternatives and pier t.-pes, the contractor was offered the option Oil all segmemal alternatives of transversely rein­ forcing the top flange' either~ with epoxy-coated conventional reinforcing steel or by transversely pretensioning with ~ ill. (1~.7 mm) diameter strand. Further, he had the option on all segmental alternatives of either precasting or casting in place the traffic barriers. The contractor also had the option of casting the segments rightside lip or upside down. Casting the segments upside down was intended to facilitate transversely pretensiol1ing the top Bange. How­ ever, since no waterproof membrane or wearing surface was specified, the top flange surface of the deck was required to have a grooved or tined sur­ face for sUd resistance. If the segment v.rere cast upside down, then, the form would be required to produce the desired texture. Specifications were left open such that strand or bar prestressing ten­ dons could be bid. All conventional steel rell1­ forcement was required to be epoxy coated in all alternatives. The eight basic alternatives for this project pro­ duced bids from eight contractors, as indicated in Table 12.4. :--Jote that there were six bids for the span-by-span method, one for the balanced can­ tilever method, and one for the precast preten­ sioned AASHTO I girders. The low bid in precast segmental was $2.6 mil­ lion less than the AASHTO I-girder bid. Low bid was for the span-by-span alternative with precast V TABLE 12.4. Bid Rank Long Key Bridge, Bid Tabulation A!ternati\'e Chosen Relative Bid D F F F B F F H 1.0000 1.0225 1.0539 I .0911:) 1. I 7:11 1.1HH 1.2557 1.306:) 2 :) -t :i () 7 H piers and drilled shaft foundations. The contractor elected to precast the segments near the project site and cast the segments rightside up, using trans­ verse prestressing in the top flange. He slip­ formed the cast-in-place barriers after segment erection. Further, he elected to move the scaffold­ ing trusswork from span to span by using a barge-mounted crane as opposed to having the falsework trusses mOllnted on barges. Table 12.5 presents a cost analvsis of the low bid as compared with the AASHTO pretensionecl 1­ girder alternative." TABLE 12.5. Long Key Bridge. Cost Analysis of the Low Bid and the AASHTO I-Girder Bid Sp<ln-bv-Span Segmental Precast AASHTO I Girder TOl,d cost" $26.63/h~ Su perstructure cost Substrnctllre cost Segments erected Total bid Total area :$2 I. 43 1ft2 $30.95Iftl :$23.59/ft2 :$ 5.20/ft2 $19.16Ift 2 515.307,375.91 468,30 I ft2 $17.956,538.75 470,277 ft Z "The mobilization bid items were proportioned to the structural items in all cases. The Florida Department of Transportation estimate was $14,550,000. Economics and Contractual Aspects of Segmental Construction 526 TABLE 12.6. Seven Mire Bridge, Alternatives Substruct ure SuperstrucLUre Precast Piles Drilled SlJafts A B C E D F Precast AASHTO I-girders Segmental: Span-by-span, vertical piers Cantilever, vertical piers First option, slab reinforcing RIC epoxy coated Pretensioning Cast-in-place conventional Precast (n~ver integral) Cast-in-place conventional Precast Second option, barrier curbs Third option, box piers 12.2.4 SEVEN MILE BRim;};, FLORIDA Seven Mile Bridge in the Florida Keys had the same basic alternatives as Long Key Bridge, except that the span-by-span with V piers was eliminated and the contractor had the further option for the vertical piers of casting in place conventionally or precasting, Table 12,6. Six bids were received, with all bidders se­ lecting alternative D, Table 12.7. Low bid was $44,986,942.31. There were no bids for the AASHTO I-girders. The low bidder optioned to reinforce the top slab with conventional reinforce­ ment, epoxy coated; to cast the barrier curb in place; and to precast segmental box piers. The low bid included $5,128,600 for waterline, roadway approaches, and navigational requirements. Anal­ ysis of the bid items revealed a superstructure cost of $23.22/ft2 and a substructure cost of $5.68/ft2 , resulting in a $28.90/ft 2 total cost. The Florida Department of Transportation estimate was $52 million ($7 million higher than the low bid). 12.2.5 ZILH'AUKEE BRIDGE, ,\1/CHIG,4N This structure was designed with ailernatives of steel plate girders and precast segmental concrete box girder. Bids were first taken in November ] 978, Table 12.8. The engineer's estimate for the concrete alternative was $60,609,614.30 and for the steel alternative $71,3] 6,854.90. On the basis that the low bid of $80,999,445.50 was 33% higher than the estimate, the bids were rejected. The design underwent revision, and the bid documents allowed tbe contractor to make design and prestressing system changes under a "cost re­ duction incentive," and an escalation clause was introduced. The pr~ject was rebid in August] 979 (nine months later), Table 12.9. The engineer's es­ ti mate was $71,645,661.50 for the concrete alter­ native and $71,965,516.70 for the steel alternative. The low bid of $76,787,252.65 was 7% over the estimate-5% below the previous low bid. By re­ bidding the pi oject (after nine months of inflation) a savings of $4.2 million was achieved. TABLE 12.8. TABLE 12.7. Bid Rank 2 3 4 5 6 Seven Mile Bridge, Bid Tabulation Alternative Chosen Relative Bid D D D D D 1.0000 1.0214 1.0768 L1404 1.2297 1,2556 D Bid Rank I 2 3 4 5 6 Zilwaukee Bridge, Ranking of First Bids Relative Bid Alternative 1.0000 1.0115 1.0562 1.0816 1.1 071 1.1375 Concrete Concrete Steel Concrete Steel Steel 527 Examples of Some Interesting Biddings and Costs TABLE 12.9. Bid Rank 2 3 4 :) 12.2.6 Zilwaukee Bridge, Ranking of Second Bids Relative Bid Alternative I.(JOOO 1.0798 1.0829 1.1231 1.1501 Concrete Concrete Concrete Sleel Steel CUSi:' .4VEXUE BRIDGE, ISDIANA The Cline Avenue bid documents were very liberal towarcl redesign, with the bidder only having to in­ form the state of the intention to redesign at bid opening. As designed, the plans and specifications provided the option of a steel plate girder or pre­ cast segmental box girder structure. The structure was redesigned as cast-in-place on falsework, pre­ stressed concrete box girder, except for the main channel spans which are cast-in-place segmental. rhe steel option was a composite load factor de­ sign. The low concrete bid was for $53,545,770.55 with the engineer's estimate being $53,560,259.78. Relative bids are listed in Table 12.10. 12.2.7 SA.P..!. RIVER BRIDGE, CAUFOR.Vl.4 The Napa River Bridge (Section 2~ 11) is another example of the lise of alternative designs. For this prc~ject. because the lower structure height made falsework feasible, bid documents were prepared for three alternati\'e schemes: Alternative C used a transverse prestressed deck in order to reduce the number of girders. Strong competition was expected from the steel industry, as this site is readily accessible by water from the yards of two major fabricators. However, the low bidder, G. F. Atkinson Company, selected alterna­ tive C and cast the bridge generally in half-span segments on falsework to the ground as a series of balanced T's. About 60 ft (18 m) of the 250 ft (76 m) span over the navigation channel was con­ structed in three segments on falsework suspended from the cantilevered boxes on each side." There were six other bidders, of which only one bid the steel alternative and none bid alternative A. Relative bids are listed in Table 12.11. The first six bids were for alternative C, and the last and highest was for alternative B. 12.2.8 This is a seven-span structure with five imerior spans of 210ft (64 m), end spans of 135 It (41 m), and a roadway width of 32 ft (9.75 m). Estimated cost was $3.3 million. Eight bids were received, six in structural steel and Iwo for concrete segmental. Bids ranged from $3.22 to $4.89 million. The con­ crete segmental was completelv open as to the method of construction (both concrete bids were based on the incremental launching method). Rel­ ative bids are listed in Table 12.12. TABLE 12.11. !\. Conventional continuous cast-in-place box girder bridge Bid Rank B: Trapezoidal continuous structural steel box girder bridge 2 3 4 C: Cantilever prestressed segmental concrete bridge with either precast or cast-in-place segments, and erection either bv the balanced cantilever method or on falsework Because of poor fOll ndation material and a readily available aggregate su pply, all alternatives used lightweight concrete in their superstructures. TABLE 12.10. Bid Rank 2 3 ~ Cline Avenue Bridge, Ranking of Bids RED RIVER BRlDGE, A.RI\.ANSAS Napa River Bridge, Ranking of Bids Relative Bid 1.0000 1.00~H I. I ~ !i'l I. I H:I 7 :) 1.~7h5 6 7 1.-{:lll5 1.5:!IO TABLE 12.12. Bid Rank Relative Bid Alternative 2 3 4 1.0000 1.0252 1.0596 Concrete Steel Steel 6 7 8 5 Red River Bridge. Ranking of Bids Relative Bid Alternative LOOOO 1.1437 1.2685 1.2800 1.3099 1.3229 1.4267 Steel Steel Steel Steel Concrete Concrete Steel Steel 1.5175 Economics and Contractual Aspects of Segmental Construction 528 Structural steel prices \'aried from a low of $O.65/Ib to a high of $O.9:1/Ib \\'ith an a\'erage of $0.78/lh. Structural steel prices in Arkansas for this t \'pe of const ruction had pre\'iOllsly been i 11 the range of $0.80 to $O.85I1b. The low bid price of $O.6S/lb represents a reduction of approximateh­ 19 to 2:17£-. All steel prices were for domestic steeL Note that the bid prices included the demolition of the existing bridge. If this item were deleted, the bidding would be rearranged as illciicated in Table 12.1 :1. The IUIllp-sum price for the concrete super­ structure was, for the low cOllcrete bicider, $~H.3i/ hZ. which cOlllpares fan)rabl\' with the Keys bridges ill Florida. However. this price was 110t cOl1lpetitive. Cndoubtedl\, there are numerous reasolls why. One m;1\' he that there was no pre­ castillg plant within sufficient distance of the site, and thus the (ost of shipping the seglllellts ma\' ha\'e beell prohihitive. The project was not large ClloUgiJ to attract contractors with the expertise to set up a precaslillg operation at the site. The two cOllcrete seglllelllal hids recei\'ed were based 011 ill­ crclllcl1tallaunching, and evideIIlI\' the proiect was Ilot large ellough to a<iequateh' amortize t he cost of the casting hed aud launching equipmellt on this project to make the method cOlllpetitive. 12.2. 'J .VOFOII .HAI:\, STRFl':T ~submilled, three optional concrete redesi~ns were bid. As designed, the plans and specifications pro­ vided the option of a steel plate girder or precast segmental box girder structure. Rici documents were quite liberal for redesign but requireci quite a hit of cietail with the hid docillnents. The winning bid was steel girders, as desiglleci, priced at about $R7!fi2 without one abutment, which was to be con­ structeci under another contract. The steel girders were a noncomposite, working-stress design. The approximatelv 15 mil­ lion pounds of A5RH structural steel was bid at SO. 7 5!1b. It shoulci be noted that aciditional sa d ngs in steel could have been accolllplished ,,·ith a com­ posite design. Tahle 12.14 is a reiatiH' summarv of the eight bids. Note that the low concrete hid was ollh· 3.7(lc abo\'e the low bid, which indicates the co'mpetiti\,e­ ness. 12.2.10 SC.\1.HAR}' OF C.,/UFO!?X!A·5., 1-:XPfJUF,XCE California\ experience with a cost reduction in­ cewive proposal (CRIP) (\';!luc el1~illeerilJg) and alternative designs for projects in\'olving segmen­ tal construction is sUll1marized in Table 12.15. 6 ,'",mucr, ON f() 12.3 The low hid 011 this project was $25,715,733.00, as compared with the ellgineer's estimate of $2~,2()O,OOO. Probahly a llIajor reason why the 1m\' hid was 127r under t he en gi neer's estimate was the cOlllpetition offered In the two plan alternative de­ signs ill concrete and structural steel, resulting in a minimulll savings of at least $3,500,000. The com­ petitive situation was further enhanced by allowing bidders to propose additional optional designs. Alt hough no additional steel optional ciesigns were Increase in Efficiency in Concrete Bridges As stated ill previous charitCl's, prestressed con­ crete segmental bridges ha\c extended the prac­ tical and competitive economic span range of concrete bridges. An interesting comparati\'e exercise is to look back at bridges built in the past anc! evaluate them in the light of presenl­ ciaI' de\'elopments. TABLE 12.14. TABLE 12.13. Bid Rank" 4 :! H :~ :'> 6 7 Red River Bridge, RerankingofBids Relative Bid Alternative 1.0000 1.1147 Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel Concrete Concrete Steel 1.l6:!O 1.2841 1.3379 1.3919 1.40:'>4 1.:'>276 "Ranking corresponds with lhal presented in Table 12.12. Bid Rallk 2 3 4 Relative Bid 1.0000 1.0370 :> 1,()40 I 1.0579 1.0884 6 1.1128 7 8 1.1508 1.4099 North Main Street Viaduct, Ranking of Bids Alternative Sleel alternative as per plan Redesign concrete alternative Steel alternative as per plan Concrete alternative as per plan Steel alternative as per plan Steel alternative as per plan Redesign concrete alternative Redesign concrete alternative TABLE 12.15. Length!:'I!ax. Spall (ft) Date Bid Summary of California's Segmental Prestressed Bridge Experience Bridge Design AlterllatiH:' Provided Cost-Hndge Work Olll)" Remarks ------~--------------------~. 21i2 Pine \. alley Creek I iOO/-I:JO S H.2 \\ = S69/1t2 A. Camilel'er prestressed concrete scgrnenlal nox girder with either: I, Prestressed rock anchor I()()tings" 2. :'v!ined rock shaft CR I P hy contractor re­ I'ised superstnldllre de­ sign and cOllstruct;oll Se­ quence. Savings to slale, Sl9I,OOO, foundatioll '1172 SI27 1111 (ind, S]2,0 :'II prol'. lor future widelling) Stanislaus River at ~e\\' '(clones A. Cantilever prestressed t:oncrelC segrnenlal B. box girder Sth'Clllral steel box g-inlcr(J Both with either: I, Prestressed rock Seven contractors bid steel and t\\'o hid concrele \.1>'..1 separated lo\\' sleel and low concrete. anchor footiugs :).:"i:\ h'l Riln BL ;llld Overhead 1:IK71:\ 10 S;i.O :'1 = S:I'i lit" ,.\, 2, :'v(illed shaft f'H1mlatiolls <I Colll'emiollal t\\'in t \\'o-cel] cast-ill-place preslressed concrete hox girdep; I Ie 71 :\"I'a RiltT :\;'1"1 .li .\. COil vel1l iOllal si x -celi cast-ill-place pre­ stressed box girder I'., Struclli ral steel bo:., girder Cantilever prestressed C. CRll' lllodilied design to single-cell hoxl's. 'ttx. f:d"'I\'ork height 92 i't ::. Salings to statc', S I l2,M2 L Sj" 01 ,el'('!] h"lders chos(' C. Fal.s<,work heights lar­ ied Irom ti! 10 1:12 IL se;~me11lal COJJcrete se)..{lllL'lltal \117;-) Colorado River ;1[ 7.1 \1 S:I lilt' .\. Y1I1ll;1 two-cd I box ginkr" Segmental pre­ 'it rc'O,'icd concrete sin:-\Ie cell h"" wilh criteria pro"ided to COllven to cantilever 12:7(; S2.1; \1 Cu"dalupe S2Kilt' A. COlll'emi()llal sel'Cll­ I'., cell prest ressed con­ tTCle hox II .\ four-cell pre­ Riler at S;lll JOS(' stressed box dcsig-tH2d I'DI' segmclItal Cllll­ <:alltilel'er cOllslructioll ('oll,icie!'ed I,,' lOllt rannr bUI Hot lIs('d bccau,,<, cot)­ tfado!' 0\\ lled ade'lU<lll' "'1)plv ['a"ework, \l;lX. falst'work height 70 It ~ or \(axilllllm lalsework height ,HJ l't ()\ er a ,,'aSOl!­ alII, dry ril'er. COlltr;Wl()r lnexpl:'rlt'tlccd iIi '\('f{Illt"ll­ Lal ('()t1strllctioll, SIl"llClion 3,76 S;m .Jo;''luiu 'HO Id(j() STU \1 ,\. Pn:strl'ssed Cllnerele with three main ,'pallS designed t(lI' call­ tilel'er seg'lllemal COll­ struction and 20 300 I't ~,pproach spallS de­ signed ['or segmelllal construction with provisions to modify B. Structll ral steel welded plate girders (unpainted A-588) wi th 29 200 It ap­ proach spans" Same as :\ with 200 ft approach spans River ;u ,\llti­ oell .-\I1I;\'e bidders ,ito,,' 'IVl'l. L()wer-thalhllltilil"lte,1 (rorl'i~J)1 .,tel'l prices pre­ I';liled. to cantilel'cr C, 529 530 Economics and Contractual A.fpects of Segmental Construction TABLE 12.15. Date Bid Bridge II7K San Francisco Bay al Dumbarton (ap­ proach spans) Length/Max. Span (n) Cmt-BJ-idge Wmk Only 46501150 $24.3 M = $59/ft2 (Cimillillni) Design Allel'nalin~s Pnwided A. B. C. "Select('d by 123.1 Im\ I\luch bidder interest in all choices during prebid stage. Final results: ,e\en chose A. one chose C. Some uncertainties about nileria provided in B. 1)I(lder. /a,f)J,.'iIGS OF C·IR.4CAS VIADUCTS, l'ESEZl.TLA Tlte Caracas Viaducts in Venezuela (Chapter 8) were completed in )952, approximately thirt~ rears ago. If these viaducts were built today, the chosen strtlclure would probably be very differ­ ent from that chosen at the time after exhaustive feasibility studies. III 1973 these structllres were ree\'alua;ed ill terms of the more conventional halanced cantilever method of girder construc­ tion. Figures it~~O and 8.31 compare the actual project COllst rutted in 1952 with possible alter­ native designs in 1973 and 1975. The three-arch­ rib and eight-beam superstructure would be re­ pl;tced by a variable-depth twin box section (cantilever construction using precast segments) Sllppol'\C'd 011 slip-formed piers. Today, with the same span arrangement consid­ ered in '1973, possible alternatives might be a single two-cell box similar to that used in the Kipapa Stream Bridge, or a ribbed single-cell box as in the V(~jle I-Jord Bridge, Figures 4.24 and 4.22, respec­ tively. This approach would require only single shaft piers. 123.2 Precast delw girders" Twin single-cell pre­ stressed box gJrders designed for seg­ mental constructJon with criteria for rede­ sign for canlileH'ring or launching Structural steel hox girder R('mark~ Tancan'ille Bridge designed in ) 956 incorporating a 2000 it (6 10m) span steel suspension bridge Brotonne Bridge designed in 1973 incorporating a 1050 ft (320 Ill) span concrete stayed "bridge These two structures are oilly 20 miles (32 km) apart and are located in very similar surroundings topographically and geotechnicalh (see Figures 12.1 and 12.2). On the left bank, a flat expanse of meadows and fields requires a long approach viaduct to reach the desired altitude of the main crossing above the navigation channel, while a deep formation of soft soil overlying the load-bearing strata requires deep pile foundations. On the right bank, the limestone cliff extends close w the river bank and calls for only a short transition bet\.\'een the main river span and the approach highway. The comparison pre­ sented here pertains only to the left-bank approach viaduct of each structure, although interesting comments could be made also on the relative char­ acteristics of their other parts. The Tancarville approach viaduct has eight 164 ft (50 m) spans, having five 140 ton (127 mt), 10 ft CO.HPARISO!\' BETH'EEI\' TA,VC4RVILLE AND IWOTOY\'F, BRIDGES, FRANCE Progress is made slowly through accumulated ex­ perience, and it is worthwhile to look back pe­ riodicallv and try to measure such progress. With this in rr;ind, and as a conclusion to this chapter, a comparison is offered between two similar con­ crete 5t ructures separated in time by seventeen vears. , As mentioned in Section 9.8, the Seine River between the maritime inland harbor of Rouen and the English Channel is now crossed twice by two outstanding structures: FIGURE 12.1. Tancarville Bridge, aerial \'iew the south\\'est showing left bank approach viaduct. 531 Increase in Efficiency in Concrete Bridges FIGURE 12.2. Bmlollne Ihidt-;c. aerial vicw from the southwest sh(m ing left bank ap­ proach viadlH \. deep precast ginlers in each span, Figures I :l.:> and I :lA. Piers are fOllfHthl on precast con­ crete piles and were cast ill place with a box section. When the design was prepared. it represented the most advanced technolog\' ill terms of lise of matc­ rials. rhe elastic stabilit v of these very long, slender precast ginlers was even the occasion of interesting illllO\'at ive st tidies. COllst ruct iOll methods were also far from conventional. .\11 gi rders were prefabricated in a vanl located at the original ground level. ~I()\illg and lifting op­ eratiotls for one girder (see Figure 12.5) included: (3 m) Placing hrirdt;'r 011 dollies, lIlo\'ing in two perpell­ dicular directiolls to bring it at the foot of the sup­ porti ng piers FIGURE 12.3. Hoisting girder along the piers with special steel rigs, Figure 12.6 Placing girder on top of the pier with the rotating arm of the special rig, Figure 12.7 Transverse displacement of girder tion to its final posi­ Suspension of the girder at both ends was achieved by the means of special cantilevers to provide the highest safety against lateral buckling during lift­ ing operations of such slender girders, Figure 12.8. The project was carried out smoothly and com­ pleted successfully a long time ahead of the other contracts for the entire crossing. Fifteen years later. the same problem of safelv and economically building an aesthetically pleasing Tancaryille Bridge, elevation of approach spans. 532 Economics and Contractual Aspects of Segmental Construction 43'-10" 40'-10" 4'-0" i· '. l..k;W -.. 9)' .... 1 ~i 4'-0" 'I'," ..... ., -., 7'-5" .. .1, i . .~ '-1 r I I I P . , .. It ~ V'L.-": ~'\ ~y 11'-4' 11'-4" 4'-0" ,. ~ ~ : 4'-0" ::-:-::-:: W~, L:.o:l~ P 11'-4' .1 I .1 11'-4' FIGURE 12.4. Tancan'ille Bridge, typical cross section of approach spans. FIGURE 12.5. Tancarville Bridge, lifting one precast girder for the approach spans. TABLE 12.16. approach viaduct for the Brotonne crossing was solved with very different methods, both of design and construction. The light single box section se­ lected for the stayed structure was also used for the approach spans. Precast piles were replaced in the foundations by cast-in-place slurry load-bearing walls. Box piers were slip-formed instead of incre­ mentally cast in successive lifts. The superstructure was cast in place in balanced cantilever with travel­ ers, Figure 12.9. Today precast segments would probably be preferred, although the characteristics of the deck would remain substantially unchanged. A comparison between quantities of materials per square foot of deck appears in Table 12.16. The savings in concrete volume of Brotonne over Cost Comparison Between Tancarville and Brotonne Approach Viaducts Tancarville, 1956 (Adjusted 1973) 1. 2. 3. Quantities (per ft2) (super- and substructure) Concrete (yd 3 ) Reinforcing steel (Ib) Prestressing steel (I b) Labor (hr/ft 2) Cost ($/ft2 ) Labor Materials Equipment, plant, and job overhead Su bcontracts Design, overhead and fee 4. Tolal 0.14 Brotonne, 1973 6.4 4.1 0.11 14 3.1 1.6 14.20 6.90 15.70 3.70 12.90 5.60 6.30 5.00 4.20 4.20 11 $53.40 -- $25.30 Increase in Efficiency in Concrete Bridges 533 0' P'ltt~ jTop -----­ ..._ _ ~.~~v ~ ~ -r­ LOW1!:R ~L.OCl<$ ;---~- , I ~- bi .'1 "I I --t FIGURE 12.6. spans. fancarville Bridge. equipment for lifting precast girders in approach Tancarville is justified only by the fact that minimum weight was vital for the concrete stayed bridge and was maintained in the approach spans. Weight of prestressing steel is approximately half because the deck is continuous at Brotonne and the box section is more efficient than the I-girder sec­ tion. More important, however, is the comparison of costs and the components thereof, Table 12.16 and Figure 12.10. One is struck by the total labor re­ quirements for both sub- and superstructure: Tancarville Brotonne ~---.----.------.----~.----. PLACinG GIRDE.R on PIER FIGURE 12.7. Placing precast girder over pier cap. 4.1 hr/ft 2 1.6 hr/ft 2 In the 15 years that elapsed between the two proj­ ects, the combination of design improvements and more efficient construction methods allowed the labor to be divided by 2.5. A similar trend has been observed in other fields. For example, a complete survey of all hydroelectric 534 Economics and Contractual Aspects of Segmental Construction 60 $53.40 50 CAMTIL.f:VER 12,90 .t:: 40 3.70 II Q; C. <f> 30 15.70 .E .., $25.30 ~ u I \r+-:::~ 20 4.20 4.20 6.90 5.00 10 6.30 14.20 5.60 0 I,.A"~t::I"'L. 5ADQ..L.~~.-t'+....~... Tancarville Brotonne (readjusted 19731 (1973) FIGURE 12.10. Cost comparison bet \\'een rancanille and Brolonn<:' approach yiaduCls. (:'» Desigh o\crhead and fee. (4) subcontracts. C1) equipmcnt. plallt. and site O\'crhead. (;!) materials. (I) labor. DOLLI~& Df!:TAIL Of" GIRDER SUSPEHS10H FIGURE 12.8. Lifting de\'ice at precast girde,- ends. 0:: <1 LLl >­ 50 o:x;­ ( , , ~.-'* , -i(: l, '. -: I "~",' YEAR FIGURE 12.9. Brotonne Bridge. cantilever construc­ tion of superstructure of approach spans. FIGURE 12.11. Increase of productiyil\ on power projects in France, projects carried out by French Electricity between 1950 and 1970 showed that the annual value of in­ vestment for each worker was multiplied by 2 without allowance for inflation and by 3 including inflation, Figure 12.11. Cost wise the true gain would be somewhat less significant, because labor rates have constantly increased faster than material rates. The comparison between other items of the cost breakdown of Tancarville and Brotonne is equally instructive. Material costs are almost equal, in­ cluding the value of subcontracts (pile foundations References and roadway work in both projects). The essential differences are seen in the two following areas: Equipment, plant, and job overheads: reduced from $15.70 at Tancarville to $5 at Brotonne. This difference is due essentially to increased efficiency in management but also to a climate of fierce com­ petition. Design, overheads and fees: reduced from $12.90 for Tancarville to $4.20 for Brotonne. The same two reasons explain this drastic reduction, which also reflects the change in the overall operation of large construction companies during the last twenty years from family-owned or controlled craftsmen such as building contractors to modern management industrial companies. When Eugene Freyssinet designed his Plougastel Bridge masterpiece (see Chapter 8), he was per­ sonally involved in the project for more than three years and probably involved in little else. One generation later, an experienced engineer would have to control or at least participate in many dif­ ferent projects during the same period. In summary, the c6mpari~~on of costs between Tancarville and Brotonne approach viaducts with prices of both projects reduced to 1973 levels is: Tancarville Brotonne $53.-tO!rt 2 $2S.30/fr 2 Both projects were bid completely on a design­ and-build basis and awarded to the lowest bidder. The above costs are a true picture of the technol­ 535 ogy and of the level of prices for the two respective periods. To estimate both projects at the level of today's prices (1980) it would be necessary to multiply the labor rates by 2.3 and the materials and equipment rates by 1.7. References 1. "Guidelines for Value Engineering (VE)," prepared by Task Force 19, Subcommittee on New Highway Materials, AASHTO-AGC-ARTBA Joint Coopera­ tive Committee. 2. "Alternate Bridge Designs," FHWA Technical Advi­ sorv T5140.12, December 4, 1979, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C. 3. Richard A. Dokken, "CALTRANS Experience in Segmental Bridge Design," Bridge Noies, Division of Structures, Department of Transportation, State of California, Vol. XVII, No.1, :Yfarch 1975. 4. A. B. Milhollin, and C. L. Benson, "Structure Design and Construction on the Vail Pass Pnuect," Trans­ portation Research Record 717, Transportation Re­ search Board, :-Iational Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1979. 5. James M. Barker, "North American State of the Art Current Practices," Prestressed Concrete Segmental Bridges, Structural Engineering Series No.6, Fed­ eral High\\"ay Administration, Washington, D.C., August 1979. 6. Donald W. Alden, "California's Experience with Cost Saving Contracting Techniques," Prestressed Concrete Segmental Bridges, Structural Engineering Series No. 6, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., August 1979. 13 Future Trends and Developments INTRODUCfION MATERIALS 13.2.1 Prestressing Tendons 13.2.2 High Strength Concrete 13.2.3 Fiber Reinforced Concrete 13.2.4 Polvrner Concrete 13.2.5 Co~posite Concrete Materials 13.2.6 Material Limitations 13.3 SEGMENTAL APPUCATION TO BRIDGE DECKS 13.4 SEGMENTAL BRIDGE PIERS AND SUBSTRUCTURES 13.1 13.2 13.1 1ntroduction As observed in previous chapters, prestressed con­ crete segmental bridges have extended the practi­ cal and competitive economic span range of con­ crete bridges. The Bendorf Bridge in Germany (Section 2.2) constructed in 1964 with a navigation span of 682 ft (208 m) was a monumental achieve­ ment. Because of economic differences bf'tween Europe and the Cnited States (primarily the ratio of labor cost to material cost) it was not until the early 19705 with the JFK Memorial Causeway (Section 3.10) with a span of 200 ft (61 m) and shortly therafter the Pine Valley Creek Bridge (Section 2.7) with a span of 450 ft (137 m) that segmental construction was introduced in the Lnited States. Today these spans are somewhat commonplace when one considers the Three Sis­ ters Bridge (Section 1.10). the Koror-Babelth uap Bridge (Section 2.12), and the Houston Ship Channel Bridge (Section 2.14), with spans of750 ft (229 m), 790 ft (241 m), and 750 ft (229 m), re­ spectively. When combined with the cable-stay concept, spans increase to 981 ft (299 m) for the Pasco-Kennewick Bridge. 1050 ft (320 m) for the Brotonne Bridge. and 1300 ft (396 m) for the Dame Point and Ruck-A-Chucky Bridges. 536 13.5 APPUCATION TO EXISTING OR NEW BRIDGE TYPES 13.5.1 Overpass Structures 13.5.2 Arches, Trusses, Rigid Frames 13.5.3 Wichert Truss 13.5.4 Stress Ribbon Bridges 13.5.5 Space Frame Bridges 13.6 SL'MMARY REFERENCES In earlier years these spans for concrete bridges would have been considered incomprehensible and certainly not economical. The fact that they have become achievable. -only within the last decade. stands as a testimonial to 'rapid technological ad­ vances and to the courage and vision of those engi­ neers who participated in this development. In the United States as of November 1980, 19 segmental bridges had been completed and there were 16 under construction. 22 in design, and 29 under slUdy-a total of 86 bridges. We may con­ clude that segmental prestressed concrete con­ struction is a viable concept for highway bridges and that there are no known major problems to inhibit its use. \Vhat, then, is the potential for seg­ mental bridge construction in the 1980s? This chapter will look at this potential in terms of new or improved materials, potential application in bridge decks, piers, and substructure, and application to existing or new bridge superstructure types. 13.2 Materials During the nineteenth century timber, stone, and masonry were the common materials for bridge construction. Then iron, steel, concrete, and rein­ Materials forced concrele emerged successively as favorite materials. culminating in the twentieth century with prestressed concrete. The present materials used in bridge construction have some or all of the following disadvantages: weight. cost. or inherent weaknesses in one form or another. In the recent past. development of improved bridge systems has evolved primarily by more exact methods of cal­ culation made feasible by the electronic computer or by innovative bridge systems such as the cable­ stayed and segmental types of bridges. Intensive development of the materials themselves has barely begun. 13.2.1 PRESTRESSI,Vc TE.VDO.VS Until recently. corrosion of prestressing tendons has caused few problems and little concern. How­ ever, with the advent of segmental construction and transverse prestressing on the top flange, an increasing concern has been expressed about the potential deterioration of the tendons resulting from their closeness to the deck surface and expo­ sure to the action of de-icing chemicals. Current methods of alleviating this concern are the use of polyethylene ducts or the pOssibility of epoxy coat­ ing the duct, epoxy coating post-tensioning bar tendons, alld possibly epoxy coating the prestress­ ing strand. A research effort is required to deter­ mine the production feasibility and cost; the effect, if any, that nonmetallic coatings might have on the bond of strand to concrete; and the compatibility of strains between the coating and the tendon. An­ other potential method uses individual unbonded strands with successive coatings of teflon, a corro­ sion inhibitor, and polypropylene, Figure 13.1. An old idea that may need to be resurrected is that of using glass fibers for prestressing. This material was being investigated in the I950s, I but for either technical or economic reasons it never reached fruition. There were problems of chemical reaction of the glass fibers with the cement; how- "'7' 537 ever, Owens-Corning Fiberglass Corp. has de­ veloped a coating for glass fibers for fiber­ reinforced concrete. Perhaps this coating could be used for a glass fiber prestressing strand. An ulti­ mate strength of 400 ksi (2758 MPa) and a low modulus of elasticity ranging from 6000 to 10,000 psi (41 to 69 MPa) might be expected. The high strength and low modulus would indicate a low percentage of prestress losses-a decided advan­ tage. The high strength would produce, for a given required prestress force, fewer or smaller tendons. th us reducing congestion. Smaller tendon sizes would reduce web thickness, thus reducing dead weight an'd prestress force requirements, and so on. Obviously. suirable end anchorages would have to be developed. 13.2.2 HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE Early prestressed concrete designs were based on 3000 psi (20.7 MPa) strength concrete. As knowl­ edge of concrete properties and quality control in­ creased, it became more feasible to use a 6000 psi (41.4 ~[Pa) strength concrete for man y prestressed concrete structures. In the Pacific Northwest an 8000 psi (55.2 ~IPa) strength is readily and routinely available. Use of such concrete has per­ mitted the design of longer-span, lighter-weight concrete structures. Within the past few years it has been found that strengths of 10,000 psi (68.9 MPa) and higher can be obtained where special attention is given to (I) selecting the constituent materials, (2) propor­ tioning the concrete mix, and (3) handling, plac­ ing, and curing the concrete. It has recently been demonstrated that the appli­ cation of ultrahigh-strength concrete is not on Iv practical but also economically feasible. High­ strength concrete, 9000 to 11,000 psi (62 to 75.8 MPa), has been used in the columns of five high­ rise buildings in Chicago. The concrete was pro­ duced in a local ready-mix plant and trucked to the Bonded low friction 7 Wire prestressing Slra 'T'''oo) Polyproplylene covering FIGURE 13.1. Corrosion-resistant strand tendon. 538 Future Trends project site. An economic study for a short tied column indicated that the cost per foot varied with the concrete strength and steel percentage as fol­ lows: $15.50 for 9000 psi (62 MPa) concrete and 1% steel compared to $39 for 4000 psi (27.6 MPa) concrete and 8% steel. Over the past five to ten years considerable re­ search has been conducted on high-strength con­ crete, dealing primarily with selecting materials, developing concrete mix design criteria, and de­ termining basic physical properties of the con­ cretes. Very little, if anything, has been done regarding the implementation of high-strength concretes, especially in bridge structures. In an interim report,2 "Applications of High Strength Concrete for Highway Bridges," pre­ pared by Concrete Technology Corporation for the Federal Highway Administration, a segmental bridge segment at a pier was redesigned with high-strength concrete. The purpose was to de­ termine to what extent the thickness of the lower flange could be reduced, and in turn what effect this reduction would have on the overall moments. For purposes of this study, the Shubenacadie Bridge in Nova Scotia (Section 2.15.4) was selected as a design example. Overall dimensions of the bridge are shown in Figure 13.2. It has a 700 ft {r A r ..l an~ Developments (213.4 m) main span and 372 (l13.4 m) side spans. The bridge was constructed with a 5000 psi (34.5 MPa) concrete strength and used It in. (32 mm) diameter Dywidag bars for post-tensioning." For the analysis, the top flange was assumed to be uni­ form and I Ii in. (292 mm) thick. The bottom flange was assumed to taper uniformly from its thickest point at the su pport piers to 6 in. (152 mm) at midspan. The centroid of the prestressing force r4a.' assumed to be located 5/ in. (146 mm) below the top of the section-that is, centered in the top flange. AASHTO Bs 20-44 was used for loading, as in the actual bridge. Prestress force was provided by It in. (32 mm) diameter Dywidag bars with a minimum yield stress of 150 ksi (1034 ,MPa). These bars were as­ sumed to provide 104 kips (0.46 MN) of final pre­ stress force each. This assumes a jacking force of 70% of the minimum yield strength and 20 ksi (137.9 'MPa) losses. Maximum allowable compres­ sive stress in the concrete was assumed to be O.4f~, and an allowable tensile stress was assumed to be zero. Significant benefits were found in the use of high-strength concrete to reduce the thickness of the lower flange. As shown in Figure 13.3, the total flexural prestress demand is reduced by approxi­ ELEVATION =t= 35'. 35'· 6" I L.. 6~ ll'lillhv I I'· 2" 1'.2" I I I 20'·0" .., ~ SECTION B-B M I I , • 1/ 20'.0" .1 ~ , I 6" SECTION A-A FIGURE 13.2. Shubenacadie Bridge. B Materials 539 36,000 B 35,000 -0 .9: "" ':": "' o ...J 34,000 .2 ~ '" .t 33,000 2'-6" Deflection 1'-6" 32.000 FIGURE 13.4. 31,000 5 6 8 9 10 Concrete strength SKI FIGURE 13.3. Variation of prestress force with con­ crete strength-Shubenacadie Bridge. mately 10% as a result of the red uced dead load, The optimum lower flange thickness is about 1 ft 8 in. (508 mm), obtained at 8 ksi (55 MPa) concrete strength, 13.2.3 FlBER-RFLVFORCED CONCRETE A relatively new material that has not yet seen much application in structures is fiber-reinforced concrete. Fibers have been used to reinforce brittle materials since ancient times; straws were used to reinforce sun-baked bricks, horsehair was used to reinforce plaster, and more recently various fiber:> have been used to reinforce Portland cement. 3 A state-of-the-art report 1 prepared by ACI Commit­ tee 544 defined fiber-reinforced concrete as "con­ crete made of hydraulic cements containing fine or fine and coarse aggregates and discontinuous dis­ crete fibers." Schematic load-deAection diagram. Several types of fibers along with several of their properties are listed in Table 13.1.3,1 As can be seen, fibers have been produced from steel, plastic, glass, and natural materials in various shapes and sizes. Two stages of behavior in the load-deformation curve have been generally observed when fiber­ reinforced concrete specimens are loaded in flexure. The load-deformation curve may be con­ sidered as approximately linear up to point A in Figure 13.4. Beyond this point the curve is significantly nonlinear, reaching a maximum at point B, The load or stress corresponding to point A has been called first-crack strength, elastic limit, or proportional limit, while the stress corresponding to point B has been termed the ultimate strength. Two theories have been suggested for predicting the first-crack strength of fiber-reinforced con­ crete: the spacing concept and the composite-materials concept. The spacing concept attempts to explain or determine the first-crack strength by a crack-arrest mechanism derived from the field of fracture mechanics. The basic mechanism that controls the TABLE 13.1. Typical Properties of Fibers Young's Modulus ( 103 ksi) Cltimate Elongation Type of Fiber Tensile Strength (ksi) Acrylic Asbestos Cotton Glass Nylon (high tenacitv) Polyester (high tenacity) Polyethylene Ra yon (high tenacity) Rock wool (Scandinavian) Steel 30-60 80-140 60-100 150-550 110-120 105-125 100 60-90 70-110 40-600 0,3 12-20 0.7 10 0.6 1.2 0.02-0.06 1.0 10-17 29 25-45 0.6 3-10 1.5-3.5 16-20 II 13 10 10-25 0.6 0.5-35 Specific Gravity l.l 3.2 1.5 2.5 1.1 1.4 0,95 1.5 2.7 7.8 540 Future Trends an~ Developments WITHOUT FIBERS •WITH FlBERS Section A-A FIGURE 13.5. Schematic or arrest mechanism. first-crack strength depends primarily on the spacing of the fibers." The crack-arrest mechanism for fiber-reinforced concrete, as presented by Romualdi and Batson,6 can best be described with the aid of Figure 13.5, which represents a mass of concrete in tension. The reinforcement consists of a rectangular array of rods at a spacing 'A and located parallel to the direction of tension stress. At some interior loca­ tion an internal flaw exists in the form of a flat disk-shaped crack. The basic rationale is illustrated by section A-A, which is a side view of an internal crack between two fibers. I n the presence of a gross stress the ex­ tensional strains in the vicinity of the crack tip, by virtue of the stress concentration, are larger than the average strains. These strains, however, are re­ sisted by the stiffer fiber, and there is created a set of bond forces (assuming that the bond between the mortar and the steel is intact) that act to reduce the magnitude of stresses at the crack tip. Under proper conditions of fiber spacing and diameter, an internal flaw could be prevented from prop­ agating tojoin up with other flaws into microcracks which then join with other microcracks to form macrocracks. The basic philosophy is that if the internal flaws can be locally restrained or retarded from extending into adjacent material, thereby re­ straining crack propagation, the tensile-strength characteristic of the concrete is improved. The crack-arrest mechanism in bending may be idealized as indicated in Figure 13.6. When a criti­ cal strain is reached, the beam cracks; unlike the nonreinforced beam, however, the cracks do not propagate through the beam but are arrested by the fibers that span the cracks. FIGURE 13.6. bending. Idealized crack-arrest mechanism III The composite-materials concept hypothesizes that the properties of fiber-reinforced concrete, in· eluding the first-crack strength, can be. predicted from the individual properties of matrix and fibers. It assumes that fiber-reinforced concrete can be analyzed as conventional reinforced con­ crete, the main difference being that the rein­ forcement is shorter, thinner, and randomly dis­ tributed. Table 13.2 summarizes the improvement of the properties of a steel-fiber-reinforced concrete as compared to plain concrete. 3 13.2.4 POLYMER CONCRETE Concrete produced with Portland cement and air­ entraining agents can contain approximately 13% voids, which are interconnected and distributed throughout the mass. When this concrete is heated to drive out the chemically unbonded moisture and TABLE 13.2. Concrete Reinforced with U.S.S. Fibercon Steel Fiber Properties Compression Flexural modulus of rupture Tensile strength I mpact strength Crack and spall resistance Fatigue strength to 2 million cycles Abrasion Shear and torsional strength Corrosion resistance Freeze-thaw Conductivity (thermal and electrical) Approx. I mprovement over Plain Concrete 10-30% 70-300% 50-300% 150-1000% 70-300% 100% 30% 50-300% Good as or better Good as or better Conducts both Materials 541 TABLE 13.3. Summary of Properties of Concrete-Polymer Material Property Compressive strength (psi) Tensile strength (psi) Modulus of elasticity (psi) Modulus of rupture (psi) Flexural modulus of elasticity (psi) Coefficient of expamion (in.!in. OF) Thermal conductivity at 73°F (23°C) (BTu/ft-hr-OF) Water permeability (ft/yr) Water absorption (%) Freeze-thaw durability: Number of cycles Percent weight loss Hardness-impact ("L" hammer) Corrosion by 15% HCI (84-dav exposure), % weight loss Corrosion by sulphates (300-day exposure), % expansion Corrosion by distilled wa~er then impregnated with a chemical monomer, such as methyl methacrylate CM~lA), and irradiated with gamma rays, some startling changes in its properties are produced, Table 13.3. 7 Tensile and compressive strength are almost quadrupled. Modulus of elasticity is increased by a factor of 1.8 and modulus of rupture by more than 3.5. A com­ pressive stress-strain curve for this material shows complete linearity up to more than 75% of failure load, Figure 13.7. 7 Thus far, research with this material has aimed toward its application in bridge decks. Problems in polymerizing large units such as bridge segments have yet to be solved. Practical resolution of these problems could offer a tremendous advantage for concrete structures. Concrete Control Specimen (Type II Cement) Concrete with up to 6.7 Weight % Loading of Polymeth yl Methacrylate, Co-60 Gamma Radiation Polymerized 5,267 416 3.5 x 10 6 739 4.3 x H)6 4.02 X 10- 6 1.332 20,255 1,627 6.3 x 10 6 2,637 6.2 x 106 5.36 X 10-6 1.306 6.2 X o 10-4 5.3 0.29 590 26.5 32.0 10.4 2,420 0.5 55.3 3.6 o 0.144 Severe attack No attack 18 16 Impregnated CP concrete 5.4 wt %MMA 14 12 E = 5.5 ;;; X 106 Cl. o 10 0 0 ~ ~ 8 Unimpregnated CP concrete Ul 6 4 13.2.5 COAIPOSITE CONCRETE MATERIALS 2 Assuming that the materials previously discussed can be developed to a point of practical usage, what improvement in properties might be expected if these materials were combined? Sukiewicz and Vir­ 0la8 have presented flexural-load-versus-deflection data for concrete and composite materials, Table 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 Compressive strain (m,croinchesiinch) FIGURE 13.7. Compressive stress-strain .curve for MMA-impregnated concrete. 542 Future Trends and Developments TABLE 13.4. Relative Load Versus Relative Deflection Approx. Relative Max. Load Plain concrete Steel-fiber reinforced Polymer impregnated Pohmer impregnated and steel-fiber reinforced Approx. Relative Midspan Deflection at Max. Load 5 18 20 100 5 20 13 105 13.4. It is obvious that a vast improvement in be­ havior and toughness can be expected. 13.2.6 MATERIAL LIMITATIONS With improved material properties, not only would structures become lighter but also the depth of superstructure and thickness of individual ele­ ments would be reduced. There are some practical limitations, however, as to how much the thickness of a web, for example, may be reduced. The prac­ tical limitations of placing the concrete in the forms and of congestion of supplemental reinforcement and prestressing tendons must still be considered. To some extent this could be alleviated by the use of external tendons, as implemented in the Long Key Bridge in Florida, Figure 6.53. This also has the advantage of reducing the complexity of fabri­ cation for precast segments. Perhaps a more important limitation in using materials with improved properties is that at some point in the design, stress no longer becomes the controlling criterion. Deformations, both global and local, may govern. Because of the reduced section required from a strength point of view, there may be more concern not only with flexibility of the structure in a global sense but also with the possibility of web buckling and limberness of the deck slab. 13.3 Segmental Application to Bridge Decks -prestressing has been used to a greater extent in the construction of segmental bridges-to provide greater load capacity and load distribution for large overhanging flanges and between adjacent single-cell box girders. Although a few bridge designs have included transverse prestressing, much greater use could be made of it for more economical bridge structures. For replacement of the decks on existing bridges, precast prestressed concrete segmental construc­ tion offers great advantages, only some of which can be associated with identifiable costs. As with the segmental box girder, a full-depth segmental panel bridge deck may be precast in short segment lengths longitudinally and may be full deck width or partial deck width, Figure 13.8, depending on the width of deck required for a particular application. Also, in addition to the transverse prestressing, segmental bridge decks may be conceived as having expoxied transverse joints and longitudinal prestressing. A transversely prestressed segmental fuil-depth panel bridge deck, Figure 13.9, has been proposed by T. Y. Lin International as an alternative design for SR 182, Columbia River Replacement Bridge, in the state of Washington. This proposal has the following features: 1. 2. 3. I\ Pru:ast full-depth panels of lightweight con­ crete to reduce dead load. Transverse prestressing to achieve large can­ tilever overhangs and ·thus economies in the superstructure. Attachment of the panels to the superstructure with shear studs in block-outs of the panel to achieve composite action with the superstruc­ ture. \_---1 t J f )J 1\ \ ...... ,..T a [ 1\ To date, there has been very little use of precast­ ing, prestressing, and segmental construction for bridge decks. Transverse prestressing has been used in the top flange of large, Gist-in-place on falsework, concrete box girders. Lately, transverse ] I I I I FIGURE 13.8. Deck configurations. a 4 Segmental Bridge Piers and Substructures 62'· O' 18',6" 18' 6'" ] ~! ~ :: 543 made to act compositely by means of shear-transfer devices placed at regular intervals through block­ outs cast into the deck. To date, the incremental launching method has been implemented for the construction of ten bridge decks in Switzerland. IO • 11 ~ ~ ---~ 13.4 Segmental Bridge Piers and Substructures FIGURE 13.9. SR-182 Columbia River Bridge. --t. Longitudinal prestressing of the deck to maintain a compression across the transverse joints. Another segmental method of constructing a bridge deck is a transfer of technologv from the incremental launching of segmental box-girder bridges. H• w. 11 This methodology, as applied to bridge decks, has been pioneered in Switzerland alld consists of the following operations: 1. 2. :~. --t. The casting of a convenient segment lengt h of bridge deck behind an abutment, Figure I:LIO, or at midlength,of the bridge, Figure 13.11, whichever is more convenient. Segmet.t length is normallv 65 to 80 ft (20 to 25 m). The jacking forward of the segment, Figure L}.12, onto the flanges of the steel super­ structure, Figure 13.13, thus freeing the cast­ ing bed. Preparing the casting bed for concreting the next segment. Repeating the c'ide until completion of the bridge cleek. The finished deck, therefore, consists of seg­ ments that have been incrementall\' cast and lon­ gitudinallv launched. As in conventional structures the deck is attached to the SlI perstructure and Piers do not have to be massive solid cross sections; a tubular cross section may be more effective and more economical. In the U nitecl States it is gener­ ally felt to be more economical to cast a solid pier. However, for tall piers the economics of solid-pier casting should be evaluated against the cost of the additional de