How did the Meiji Constitution organize Japan's government and for what
reasons?
Tokugawa Dynasty - end in 19th century - arrival of black ships - completely closed off country - saw
everyone else as barbarians
Perry wanted to open up Japan for trade
How did the Japanese perceive Perry?
• Evil - as a monster
• Eyes are slanted - foreign Asian - someone that is completely new
• He represented all foreigners
• They recognized his military power
• His face seems stoic - unapproachable, dangerous, stressed - his face stands out
• Exaggerated his features - outlandish, make it seem like an otherworldly being
• Caricature of Perry - like a Japanese goblin
• Most Japanese men have little beard - not culturally normal - Japanese saw Perry as a barbaric,
undignified and unhygienic man
• Saw his as unworthy of making demands - wouldn't take him seriously - Japanese outrage
• Cultural shock - societal crisis - being visited by aliens
How did they perceive the Black Ships?
• Saw them as alien ships - monstrous
• Dangerous and unapproachable
• Portrayed as a sea monster
Why do you think Perry was perceived this way?
• He was making outlandish demands - saw it as rude
• Japanese already saw foreigners as people they shouldn't interact with - Perry seemed to be an
embodiment of their perceptions - they assumed their thoughts were right
What wider conclusions can we draw about Japanese sense of identity and their place in the world?
• Very isolated society at the time
• British Empire controlled 25% of the world's land mass - biggest power
• France, Germany and USA - world divided into these Western Powers
• Japan thought it was at the center of the world - monarchy lasted for 2000 years - everyone
outside were barbarians
• Entire world view put into question - became a country with no power to defend itself from
modern technology
Japan changed to protect its national identity - form of self-defense - didn't want to be colonized - total
transformation
Meiji emperor - single dynasty - focal point of power - Emperor's Role:
• A single dynasty - one family
• Male
• Descendant of sun god - living embodiment of sun god - not allowed to gaze at emperor (can't
directly stare at emperor)
• Sovereign - in charge of government - but has to govern by set of rules (rule of law, not arbitrary
power)
• Make law but has to work with Imperial Diet - Japanese Parliament
• Has power to choose who is in charge, who is in government
• Oligarchy - governed by rich, elite people - those in government come from elite class
• Not omnipotent in the eyes of Constitution - may be a figurehead
NOTES:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Second half of 19th century - Japan had fist contact with the West
Had been isolated from outside world - shield its civilization from perceived threat posed by
Christianity
Policy of the shogun - ruled country since 1192
1853 - American Naval officer, Commodore Matthew Perry - went to Japan with US steamships
Determined to get Japan to open up to US demands for trade
Japan intimidated by "Black Ships" - knew what happened to China - ruling Shogun, Tokugawa
Yoshinobu, signed Treaty of Kanagawa with USA in 1854
o China tried to resist the West
o Forced to sign humiliating treaties
Political power returned to emperor - became known as the Meiji or "enlightened" emperor
Government began modernizing Japan, dismantling feudal system and establishing limited form
of democracy
Major reforms in industry, education, fashion and especially military
Meiji government promoted national unity and patriotism
Japan's military reforms included modernizing army and adapting German military tactics - also
established new navy with British help
Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95 - Japan defeated China, positioning itself as a world power with
an empire
Treaty of Shimonoseki gave the Pescadores Islands, Formosa and Liaodong Peninsula to Japan,
recognized Korean independence and obliged China to pay a large indemnity, to open additional
ports and to negotiate a commercial treaty.
Was Japan an authoritarian state?
DEMOCRACY:
• Representative system in which ultimate authority lies with the people
• People can vote in free elections
NATIONALISM:
• Nation-state is highest form of political organization (authority) and individuals derive their true
identity as members of the state
• Rarely expressed itself as democratic forms - Germany and Italy - authoritarian
• 'Best interests' of the nation are at the heart of policy
• Loyalty to the nation is of great importance
• Usually there is a racial element - Nazi Germany
LIBERALISM:
• Product of the Enlightenment
• Greater freedom of individual from government control
• Linked to liberal-democracy
• Condemned by extreme wings of both Left and Right - individual regarded as secondary to the
group
• Arguments support individual rights
• Many authoritarian states were a rejection of liberalism
AUTHORITARIANISM:
• E.g. Cuba, North Korea, Afghanistan - arbitrary
• Power is held by a group or one person
• Decision are not subject to control from below
• Have no rule of law - decisions have to be made
• Not completely unpopular with public - govt doesn't depend on public approval
• People may have certain rights
TOTALITARIANISM:
• E.g. North Korea, USSR, Nazi Germany
• Extension of authoritarianism - extreme version
• Monopoly of power - individuals are subordinate to the state - no personal autonomy
• Complete control over all aspects - demands complete obedience from public
• Totalitarian systems of both Left and Right regard history as predetermined - societies develop
in accordance with iron laws of progress
The Meiji Constitution:
Powers
Functions
Responsibilities
Links
Emperor
Power to pick
members of Diet
Supreme authority
Complete control
of military
Appoints his own
ministers
Could propose
laws
Head of State
Opens/Closes
Parliament
Appoints ministers
and members of
Diet
To be the Divine Head
of State
To present a
representable image to
his people
Propose laws
Never really went
against Privy Council wrote the constitution
and approve Emperor's
laws - controlled access
to Emperor
Sole commander of
military
Military
Veto new bills dissolve
government
Constitution
granted them
freedom
Has control over
govt
Defense and
expansion of
Japan
Source of pride
Stabilization of the
empire
Had 2 seats in the
government
War
Voting/participating in
govt
Report to the Emperor
Government could
collapse
Privy Council allowed
their independence
Privy
Council
Approved law,
political
appointees
Controlled access
to Emperor
Consider laws
Created Meiji
made by Diet
Constitution
Provided expertise Responsible to Emperor
to Emperor heavily relied on
Allowed to disapprove
laws made by Diet
Emperor relied on Privy
Council
Diet
Parliament
Create and pass
laws
Doesn't have a lot
of say
Create laws and
send them for
consideration
Create fair and
appropriate law for
public
Laws passed onto Privy
Council
Members chosen by
Emperor
Characteristics of Japanese Government:
• Authoritarian - mostly because all the power is with the Emperor and Privy Council
• Totalitarian - not yet, but heading in that direction
• Nationalistic - everyone was loyal to the Emperor - he was worshipped and revered
• Liberal - gave men over 25 the right to vote; might be a façade to make govt seem more
agreeable to public
How did the education system promote nationalism and loyalty to the state?
Education (Economics): you want a skilled workforce to increase your country's output - the better the
educational systems are, the more powerful the state is
Control society: Education is a form of control - a way to organize society
• Young children tend to believe what they're taught
• It's what they know - effective forms of propaganda
• e.g. Nazi Germany - students were taught Nazi ideology
• e.g. Saddam Hussein - Iraq
• The state indoctrinates students with what they believe and what they want you to believe
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Modernized Japan - citizen attend school for four years
1903 - school for six years
Purpose - teach practical skills and the ability to problem-solve - instead literacy instead
People read things that criticized the state - increased awareness of govt and its policies - people
began to oppose to them
Ministry of Education - curriculum emphasized loyalty to the state, family and community
Emphasis on Japan's uniqueness - ultranationalism or radical nationalism - closely related to
fascism
Offer oneself to service of state and protection of Emperor
Teachers in training had to learn military drills and by 1920s, students learned them too
Connection between education system and military - aid in military's popularity and control of
political system
Japan was one of the first countries to introduce a modernized education system - realized that it was
the most effective way of propaganda and spread the state's ideology
Japan's aim was to teach practical skills and problem-solve. Purpose is economic; enlightenment - part
of Japan's process to industrialize and modernize - they need an educated workforce to do that.
Japan's new purpose was to indoctrinate its citizens with the state ideology - people should be loyal
to the state.
Emperor's Perspective of Why Education is Important:
• Be good and faithful subjects - be completely faithful to Japan and its ideology
• Follow traditions
• Respect the Constitution and follow laws
• Promote the state beliefs
• Develop intelligence and a moral compass
• Love Japan and it's beliefs
• Sacrifice yourself for Japan
• Be filial and affectionate towards family
• PURPOSE - To ensure the long-term survival and prosperity of the Japanese nation
• Nation:
o includes loyalty to emperor
o filial piety (respect for your ancestors)
o Preservation of Japanese tradition, values and culture
How convincing is this source about the nature of education in Japan?
• Is the source reliable?
o Very reliable - other than those things lost in translation
• Does the source have any authority on the subject matter?
o Yes - Emperor sets the policy
• Is the source comprehensive on the subject matter?
o Yes - extensive in explanation
• What is the source’s purpose? Is it to inform/ persuade/ distort?
o Inform - subtly telling people what to do
o Persuade - written in a persuasive way - manifesto - outlining what their goals should be
o Highly convincing
What factors contributed to the rise of radical nationalism?
Radical = extreme
• Only looks at the many, not the individual
• Ruling elite makes decisions
• Divine authority - head of state is treated as a God - worship concept of the state - religion
replaced by religion around state
• Shinto - Japanese national religion - ordinary dead soldiers become deities - Emperor bows to
them
Philosophies
The philosophy of Japan being a special nation with a special mission contributed to the rise of radical
nationalism. Considering how Japan was the only non-European state to conquer a European state
made Japan unique. Similarly, the head of state was considered to be divine god who descended from a
line of Gods. This indoctrinated into the Japanese people that their country was better than everyone
else. It instilled loyalty to the state within Japanese people as they were fed the idea that
Exceptionalism - Japanese monarchy was better than everyone else - had the divine right to rule over
Asia
Military
Enforcement of Japan's sovereignty
Military is exceptionally powerful - has power over the govt
The philosophy of Japan being an exceptional and special nation with a special mission contributed to
the rise of radical nationalism. One example is that it was the only non-European state to defeat a
European state in modern war. The defeat of the Russian Empire in the Russo-Japanese war in 1905
reaffirmed the philosophy that Japan was unique and that it had a special mission to remove all nonAsian dominance from Asia. This made people proud to be Japanese and reinforced loyalty to the state
and the belief that Japan was above everyone else. Another example is that the Japanese believed that
their emperor was a god. This fed a philosophy of Divine authority because the Japanese people
believed that their Emperor was above everyone else and thus they were too.
These examples left to radical nationalism because ethe winning of this war reaffirmed the philosophy
of Japanese exceptionalism and the fact that their leader was a god made Japanese people believed that
they had a divine right to rule all.
Actions of the military and its successes which changed nationalism to radical nationalism.
Japan's Special Mission
• It had an Emperor who was divine and descended from the Sun Goddess.
• It had not been conquered by European powers or the USA.
• It had an ancient history of being independent.
• The vast majority of its people were Japanese and shared a common culture and history.
• It was the only non-European state to defeat a European state in modern war
• It was a major military and industrial power by 1920 and one of the most important states at the
Paris Peace Conference in 1919, which dealt with the results of the First World War
Hirohito was now the ‘God Emperor’ of the almost 2,600-year-old nation, being the 124th in line from
the Heaven-descended ancestor called [Emperor] Jimmu. Although scholars found the early part of the
Imperial lineage dubious, not a single one of the ‘beloved subjects’ was expected to question the
‘established’ godliness of the new Ruler of Japan.
What was the impact of Japanese militarism in the early 20th century?
•
Korea
o
•
Japanese militarism - Japan invaded Korea - wanted more territory and remove China's
influence - provides them with a larger opportunity to dominate Asia
o Prevented China from growing any further
First Sino-Japanese War
o Japanese victory - reinforcement of their belief
•
•
•
Russia (Russo-Japanese War)
o Russia wanted the territories Japan had gained from China - stationed warships
o Japan wanted those territories - beginning of Japan's domination of Asia
o Russia's troops were threatening Japan's interests in those regions - tried to negotiate
o Japan attacked Russian troops in Manchuria and Port Arthur - used its strong military to
secure its territorial interests in Korea and China - neither country could protest
o Japanese militarism - led to war with Russia because Japan needed to assert its
dominance over Russia to prevent Russia's sphere of influence from growing and
including Japan.
o Existential threat to Japan - militaristic ideology - survival or death
Anglo-Japan Alliance
o Japanese militarism - won Sino-Japanese war, limited by Russia - secure position to
attack Russia and provided them with security in case Russia attacked
Treaty of Portsmouth
o Russia sued for peace after Japan's attack
o USA negotiated treaty - brought war to close
o Pursuit of global dominance - culmination of Japan being recognized as a world power
by others
Japan didn't want to be dominated by Western Powers - began to expand and modernize its military Japanese Militarism
Impact - evaluation significance of something
Anglo-Japanese Alliance - Japan and Britain helped each other in the First World War
Japan's victory of Russia was unexpected - gained recognition, beneficial for Japan's inferiority complex thought themselves to be more capable
Japan took back the territories it had lost - also Russia's railway in China
USA had an invisible empire economic - controlled market sales
How did Japan benefit from WW1?
•
•
WW1 was a turning point in history
How did the world change:
o Woman suffrage - allowed to work, wear trousers, smoke in public - be functional
members of society - gained the right to vote
• While men were fighting in war, women were working in factories
• Without their contributions, victory wouldn’t have been possible
o Four empires collapsed - Germany, Ottoman, Russia, Austria-Hungary
o Communism became the big threat
o Countries start becoming more independent
o Great Depression - economic crisis
o League of Nations created to prevent further war and maintain peace
o Secret treaties supposed to be banned - replaced with institutions, LoN
o LoN sets up rest of 20th century - UN is more improved version
o Modern economy is born - free markets - America insisted on free trade - capitalism
After WW1 Japan was:
Claim 1: WW1 propelled Japan to be recognized as a global power
• Validated by 21 demands - gained economic control over Chinese markets - Manchurian Railway
- prestige and power in the region
• More of a diplomatic victory - huge success for Japan
• Shantung - Japan gained more access into China - Britain recognized it as an helpful ally
• Paris - Japan had a say in global affairs
• Gained global parity - gaining German colonies gave credence to
• Limitations: Japan doesn't have many natural resources, relied heavily on exports/imports
o Racism - Japan was considered a secondary power - would be contradictory for
USA/Britain to consider Japan as equal
o Mandates - Japan didn't contribute as much as Britain
o Military - Japan's navy would only have 60% of what USA and Britain would have
Claim 2: Japan’s military victories in WW1 fueled the growth of radical nationalism
1a). Why, according to Source X, was Japan a threat to the stability of South-East Asia?
Japan was confident, perhaps cocky, about its victory against Russia and could possibly endanger its
nation by being impulsive. Japan faced racism from its allies, Britain and America, and may want
revenge. Japan's population was growing too fast and many of its citizens might escape to other
countries, empowering neighbouring nations. 3/3
2). With reference to its origin, purpose and content, analyze the value and limitations of Source A for
a historian studying Japanese militarism in the early 20th century? (4 marks)
SOURCE:
• Positive about Japan - Japan portrayed as powerful
• Glorifying an achievement - conquest of Port Arthur (Russian port)
• Lost the battle - gained Port anyway - didn't want to admit their loss
• Critical due to display of hand
• Japan is capable of crushing another nation
• Celebrate military success - able to take Port away from Russia
• The more powerful they are, the less likely they are to be colonized
How to write the answer
The origin of source A is…From this we can deduce that its purpose…
Therefore, the source is valuable because…For example, in terms of its content, it … (focus on facts
provided and attitudes revealed)
Nevertheless it also has some limitations in the sense that…For example, in terms of its content, it…
(focus on factual omissions and unfair prejudices)
Answer:
Origin:
• Who: Kobayashi Kiyochika - a famous painter and print-maker
• When: 1904
• Where: Meiji - Japan
• What: the source is a drawing/print of a hand representing the Japanese military - its crushing
Port Arthur
o Poster - seen in magazines, newspapers
o On walls - plastered on streets
o Propaganda books
o Part of a series of prints - to commend Japan's growing success
Purpose:
• Why: to celebrate Japan's military success over Russia
• Who: Japanese public - foreigners; they could see power of Japan
• Japan was capable of making Russian soldiers run away
• Internal use - foreign audience can't read Japanese writing
• Portrays strength of military to enforce ideas of nationalism and display their strengths over
others
Content:
• Tone: aggressive, shows Japan as superior - god-like hand (Emperor's hand)
• Exaggerated - image is one-sided
• Japan is almighty, powerful - people are scared
• Dichotomy - unequal relationship, powerful Japan crushing ant-people (Russia)
• WHY: minimized Russian resistance, wanted to be seen as a world power - overcompensating,
exaggerating victory - reinforcing ideas of supremacy
Value:
• Informs Japanese public opinion - Japanese govt trying to tell public they won, reinforcing
nationalistic ideas
o Propaganda - but highly nationalistic public opinion existed
o People proud of Japanese military victories - general public belief
• Govt censorship line Limitations:
• Not reflect public opinion - Reflects govt perception of how they won the battle - doesn't give all
perspectives
• Plays on stereotypes and exaggeration - shows enlarged military hand
o Not an accurate representation of events - lost the battle
One paragraph on value, one on limitation.
The origin of source A is 1904 Japan, where it was made by famous painter, Kobayashi Kiyochika. It is a
poster of a large hand crushing Port Arthur. From this we can deduce that its purpose was to celebrate
Japan's military success over Russia. The image shows a large hand wearing a military uniform, assumed
to be Japanese, crushing Port Arthur as small Russian soldiers run away. Hence, the print portrays the
strength of the Japanese military to enforce ideas of nationalism and display their power over others to
their intended audience, the Japanese public.
Therefore, the source is valuable because it informs Japanese public opinion, as Japan is informing the
public that it was victorious, thereby making people proud of Japanese military victories, which was the
general public belief. Although it can be seen as propaganda, a highly nationalistic public opinion already
existed. In terms of its content, the tone of the image is aggressive, depicting Japan as superior and
powerful enough to bring down a strong nation like Russia.
Nevertheless, it also has some limitations in the sense that it may not reflect public opinion, but the
government's perception of how they won the battle. It doesn't give all perspectives and plays on
stereotypes and exaggeration. For example, in terms of its content, the image is one-sided, only
displaying Japan's power. It also isn't an accurate representation of events as Japan actually lost the
Battle of Port Arthur, however the Japanese government is merely refusing to admit their defeat so as
not to lose the support of their public.
Source J is valuable because it is a primary source, which presents a first-hand account of what occurred
at the time while conveying the biased views of the Japanese people at the time. It is a poster of a large
hand crushing Port Arthur. From this, we can deduce that its purpose was to celebrate Japan's military
success over Russia. Moreover, it informs Japanese public opinion, as Japan is informing the public that
it was victorious against Russia, thereby making people proud of Japanese military victories, which was
the general public belief. Although it can be seen as propaganda, a highly nationalistic public opinion
already existed. In terms of its content, the tone of the image is aggressive, depicting Japan as superior
and powerful enough to bring down a strong nation like Russia. Additionally, it can be interpreted to
depict where the government drew the line with censorship since the source only spoke in favor of the
Japanese military, suggesting that the painter was restricted in what he was allowed to say about the
war. The origin of source J is 1904 Japan, where it was made by a famous painter, Kobayashi Kiyochika.
The image shows a large hand wearing a military uniform, assumed to be Japanese, crushing Port Arthur
as small Russian soldiers run away. Hence, the print portrays the strength of the Japanese military to
enforce ideas of nationalism and display their power over others to their intended audience, the
Japanese public.
Nevertheless, it also has some limitations due to government censorship, as it doesn't give all
perspectives and plays on stereotypes and exaggeration. The source may not reflect public opinion, but
the government's perception of how they won the battle. For example, in terms of its content, the
image is one-sided, only displaying Japan's power. It also isn't an accurate representation of events as
Japan actually lost the Battle of Port Arthur, however, the Japanese government is merely refusing to
admit their defeat so as not to lose the support of their public. It can be viewed as prejudiced
propaganda where the government leaves out details that will put them at a disadvantage with the
public, so they chose to aggressively insist that they won against Russia. Moreover, the artist's viewpoint
was limited. This poster was part of a series called "Long Live Japan: One Hundred Victories, One
Hundred Laughs" where the title itself indicates that this series was used to propagate the Japanese
military's agenda. They wanted to perpetuate their victories to expand and assert their dominance over
other countries, however, if they lost all the public support they had garnered, the nationalistic state
would face a decrease in loyalty. Thus, it is implied that the government used the artist to create an
enduring impression of the Japanese military and Japan's strength so as to reinforce radical nationalism
within Japan's population.
TAISHO JAPAN:
What were the key characteristics of the Taisho Era?
Why did Taisho democracy ultimately fail?
•
Meiji era ended in 1911 - Emperor Meiji succeeded by his son, Prince Yoshihito - Emperor Taisho
(era of great righteousness)
Strengthened
•
•
•
•
Weakened
Emperor Taisho succeeds the throne
in 1911
• Morally correct
• Justice, fairness, peace
• Superficial changes
Hara assassinated in 1921
• Major figure killed
• Lost democratic leader
• Nation becomes less
democratic
• Peaceful transition of power
• Any further reforms dangerous
Earthquake in 1923 devastated
Tokyo
• Fascist tactic
• Blamed a minority
• Right-wing ideologies
enforced
• Dangerous precedent in
politics
• Found scapegoat to explain
natural disaster
• Govt avoid responsibility
The Peace Preservation Law is
passed
• Silenced radical groups
• Restricted free speech
• Doesn't' want anyone to be
critical of govt
• Take away right to pick
group that reflects opinions
of public
•
•
•
Hara becomes Prime Minister
in 1918
• Worked for people
• First 'commoner' prime
minister
• Seat in House of
Representatives
• Could reflect opinions
of people
Kenseikai comes to power in
1924
• Civil rights, universal
suffrage
• Also negative impact
• Appearance of
democracy
Minseito is formed
• Liberal party
• Business interests
• Urban support
• Opposition to govt
• Moderate policies
• Loyal
Why did the Left fail in Taisho Japan?
•
•
Historiography - different arguments and interpretations of history
Hunter - 'lack of popular support, rife factionalism, corruption, lack of any clear political ideology
and failure to cooperate with each other to oppose antiparty elements'
o Failed because they were disorganized, selfish and were unable to garner public
support.
o Political parties - failure to cooperate, garner public support. They were selfish and had
no clear goals.
o Within parties there were different factions - infighting
o Corruption - makes govt inefficient
o No coherent goal or policy - did whatever worked at the time
•
Corruption - Peace Preservation Law - limited freedom of speech - powerful businesses, military
wanted to censor people - were afraid of a Communist revolution
JCP and JSL couldn't create a united front to support their ideology - never a threat, could never
make a political front
•
Why did these factors make Left fail?
As the political parties had no popular support, due to limited freedom of speech, it caused the Left to
fail because there was no public loyalty for their ideology and they never made an impact. Similarly, due
to corruption, with the intertwining of the zaibatsu and the government, public support decreased due
to trade unions being banned, so people lost the right to strike. The government became inefficient. Rife
factionalism, for example in the Japanese Socialist League where there was infighting, caused the Left to
fail as they couldn't present themselves in an orderly fashion to the public. This is also perpetuated by
the JCP and Socialist League being unable to cooperate. They were unable to create a united front to
support their ideology, thus were never seen as a threat and could never put their political ideas
forward.
Japanese election poster from 1928, advertising the Japanese Labor-Farmer Party (Left-Wing).
The title just reads the name of the party
How does this source support Hunter’s theory about the failure of political parties in Japan?
1. Which aspects of his theory can we link the source to? Why is it relevant?
o Lack of political ideology - the source doesn't tell the public what their objective is don't inspire people
o Rife factionalism - hammer, sickle
o Corruption - factories are chaining farmers - socialists
o Campaign was restricted - minimalistic poster with little information
o Right to campaign was blocked - corruption
2. How does the source back up Hunter’s claims? Use key images from the source
o Lack of popular support - general public feel chained by businesses - chains, factories
3. How comprehensive is the source? Is it representative of all political movements in Japan?
o
o
Not particularly comprehensive - just a single party - most Left wing campaigns were
similar
Doesn't represent all political movement in Japan
What were the economic challenges of Taisho Japan?
World War 1
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
West producers occupied with war
Less competition for Japanese
producers
Consumption of Japanese goods
increased
Unequal distribution of wealth mostly preserve of top echelons
Top = Mitsui, Mitsubishi,
Sumitomo and Yasuda
Had close ties with govt and major
political parties
1927 - Banking Crisis - Japanese
economy becoming monopolistic
Small banks went out of business,
major banks controlled country's
finances
1929 - Wall Street Crash impacted economy of USA and its
trading partners
Great Depression
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Collapse in world trade
Austerity programmed - returned
to gold standard
Exports fell - Unemployment rose
Protectionist policies - shortage
of raw materials
Rapidly growing population couldn't sustain it
Imperial expansion led to
emigration of 315,000 Japanese
citizens
More imperialistic Japan - greater
dependence on imported raw
materials
FERGUSON: protectionist measures Japan has to reassess its politics
Disillusioned pop towards radical
solutions
Corruption - lack of popular
support
HANE: zaibatsu got out of control - country
became too monopolistic - the rural
population was severely affected
Key economic concepts:
• Imports/ Exports - imports: coming in, exports: going out
• Depression - economic downturn in the business cycle - long term downturn in economic
activity
o High unemployment
o Trade decreases
o Decrease in living standards
o Hyper-inflation
o Political instability
o
•
•
•
•
Financial crunch - banks go bankrupt
Monopoly - owns 25% of the market share, a price setter
Austerity - when govt tries to reduce public expenditure - reduce govt spending, higher taxes to
reduce govt budget deficits
Protectionism - protectionist trade polices (tariffs, embargoes, quotas) - promote domestic
producers and domestic production - limiting foreign g/s
Inflation Vs Deflation - increase in average price levels - decrease in average price levels
HANE: government used the zaibatsu to increase their own military and political expansion. They didn't
invest In their own economy
• Doesn't implement regulations
• Zaibatsu wanted more wealth
FERGUSON: Imperial economy - stole resources of conquered territory, made products and exported
back to India, forced India to buy products at much higher price
• Necessity for imperial expansion
ECONOMIC CHALLENGES - INDUSTRY AND AGRICULTURE
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
WW1 had strong impact on expansion of Japanese economy - offered opportunities to develop
country's arms and export industries
West producers occupied with war - less competition for Japanese producers
Consumption of Japanese goods increased in Japan, other Asian countries, Europe and USA
1920s - production of industrial goods grew - 50% of workers still involved in primary industries
1927 - farming family income only 70% of city-office workers
o Unequal distribution of wealth - mostly preserve of top echelons
o Top = Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo and Yasuda
o Had close ties with govt and major political parties
1927 - Banking Crisis - Japanese economy becoming monopolistic
Small banks went out of business, major banks controlled country's finances
1929 - Wall Street Crash - impacted economy of USA and its trading partners
The Great Depression and its Aftermath
• Japan suffered from collapse in world trade
• Govt responded with austerity programme and deflationary measures:
o 1929 - Returned to gold standard - worsened situation
o Exports fell by 6% between 1929 and 1931
o Unemployment rose to 1 million
o Agricultural incomes slumped
o Overvalued Yen and increasing protectionism by British Empire and American markets
o Japanese came off gold standard - Yen allowed to float - no fixed exchange rate
o Govt abandoned austerity programmes - started spending on military equipment
o Shortage of raw materials - Japan was dependent on imports from Britain and American
o Japan's exports needed a strong world economy
• Weak demand in protectionist world economy adversely affected Japan
• Japan had a rapidly growing population
• 1935 to 1940 - imperial expansion led to emigration of 315,000 Japanese citizens
• More imperialistic Japan - greater dependence on imported raw materials
•
Its empire would provide resources and absorb goods it needed at some stage
Why did Taisho democracy fail in Japan?
•
•
•
Between 1925 and 1932 Japan saw successive unstable governments:
o Tanaka (resigned)
o Hamaguchi (attempted assassination, resigned)
o Reijiro (resigned)
o Inukai (assassinated)
Destabilizing factor on society, economy and govt
Govt changed by force - more significant for people
Tanaka
Hamaguchi
Reijiro
Inukai
Repressive of left wing
movements
Couldn't explain Zhang
Zoulin's assassination
Reflected weakness of
govt - resigned
Leader of Minseito
Signed London Naval
Treaty
Shot in assassination
attempt
Survived, resigned but
died
Caught up in Manchurian
incident
Couldn't stop Kwantung
Army
Japan had to go along
with popular opinion
Faced foreign criticism
Leader of Seiyukai
Criticized London
Naval Treaty
Forced to adhere to
foreign policy - rein in
military
Still assassinated by
ultra-nationalists
Hane argues ‘Inukai’s assassination was the turning point in Japan’s move towards militaristic
extremism’ (Hane, Japan, A Short History, 2015, p. 145)
How far do you agree?
• I believe that Inukai's assassination was another building block in Japan's move towards
militaristic extremism. Even though he criticized the London Naval Treaty, a treaty that the
military faction vehemently objected and believed that the govt was overstepping their
authority, he was still murdered by ultra-nationalists who wanted control. They wanted to rid
the government of corruption and for Japan to be led by the military, who were adamant to
expand and dominate their neighbors. Power of ultranationalists were unquestionable after
this. Similarly, the continuous economic crises which affected Japan made it clear that Japan
needed a strong political ideology. The military wanted control and believed they could be a
better leader, hence they were already on their way towards militaristic extremism.
• Opposite: issues already existed - it's a recurring problem - symptom of the illness - problems
compiled until democracy fell
Source A The following is taken from historian Mikiso Hane’s book Japan, A Short History (Oneworld
Publications, 2015, pp.141–42).
One of the officers arrested and put on trial for Inukai’s assassination reflected the anguish felt by many
soldiers who saw an enormous gap between the seemingly extravagant lifestyle in the cities and
impoverished lives of the peasants in rural villages. He said, "In utter disregard of the poverty-stricken
farmers, the enormously rich zaibatsu pursue their private profit. Meanwhile, the young children of the
impoverished farmers of the north eastern provinces attend school without breakfast, and their families
subsist on rotten potatoes."
• Driven by economic conditions - country was forced towards militarism
• Absolving responsibility of Emperor and govt
• Historians have political agendas
Source B: Jonathan N Lipman is a professor of history. The following is taken from his essay ‘Imperial
Japan: 1894–1945’ (2008).
Young men, both military officers and their colleagues in civilian organizations such as the Kokuryukai
(Amur River Society), expressed their nationalist passions through assassinations of politicians,
industrialists, intellectuals, and others who did not conform to their rigid standards of ‘pure Japanese’
behavior and beliefs. Prime Minister Hamaguchi was murdered at Tokyo Station in 1930, and Prime
Minister Inukai was killed in 1932. Both assassinations were perpetrated by ultranationalists impatient
with the corruption of party politics and eager for Japan to be driven by their own heroic values, which
were expressed most obviously in the military and the drive to dominate Japan’s neighbors, especially
China.
• On opposing sides during war
• Stress ideas of the ultranationalist ideology
Agree
Disagree
Ultranationalists - mostly young soldiers
Wanted to get rid of corruption (zaibatsu)
Goal was to get rid of govt - A (grievances), B
(motives)'
Resolve wealth disparity
A - main goal was to resolve wealth disparity
B - main goal was to expand and dominate
neighbors
A - focuses on inequality as main problems economic situation
B - focuses on ideology - ultranationalism, militarism
and expansionism
1. With reference to the origin, purpose, and content, analyse the value and limitations of Source A to
historians studying post-World War I politics in Japan.
2. To what extent does Source A support the reasons given in Source B for the assassination of political
leaders?
Limitations of Source A:
• Influenced by nationality, experience, politics and context
o Lived in small peasant village at 10
o Forced to live in internment camps - bias against Americans
o Learned Japanese history in school - brainwashed
• Specific, narrow focus
o Short history - summarize the Japanese history
o Makes generalized assertions - doesn't have the scope to address everything
Values of Source A:
• Are professionals or experts
o
o
•
•
Frequently studied about Japanese history in university
Has written many books on Japanese history
Benefit of hindsight which is not present in contemporary sources
Offer sources based on range of documents
o Book was republished many times after 2000 - many editions
o Book is always being improved
What were the key characteristics of the Showa Era?
•
•
•
Image 1 - about change
o Poised, clean-shaven, elegant - young, handsome
o Healthy, vigorous - fresh start - health of the realm - able to produce heir
o Military - westernized - uniform - feed into nationalism, Japan is a growing military
power
o Hand on the sword - supports military - is powerful - willing to show force - ready to
defend
o Japan willing to use force to defend themselves - hide aggressive military ideology
o Appearing as a modernizer - found Europe's ideologies appealing
o Western haircut - steering away from Japanese tradition
o Japan to be perceived as equal to the Western empire - 'We are one of you'
o Skin has been whitewashed
Image 2 - about continuity
o Traditional - almighty
o Looks older, more like a leader
o Japan is still traditional - continuity of stability, tradition
o Appeals to rural population who is more conservative
o Portrayed as a samurai warrior
o Hat - trying to conceal the fact that he has no hair
o Asian painting stye
o Looks the other way - not allowed to look him in the eye - sign of reverence
o Special shoes worn by imperial family - feet never touch the ground (not allowed) literally above you
o Religious matter - walking on ground destroys godly image - everything is exaggerated supreme power, total control
o Shoes make him taller - Japan known as short nation - monarchies - size matters - tallest
person in room to assert dominance
Image 3 - 1945
o Looks shorter, like a child - as if he's getting scolded
o Staged by McArthur - at his behest
o Head high - trying not to look intimidated - has a high status
o Posture - soldier, rigid
o Imperial palace in Kyoto
o After Japan was defeated - reflecting on his actions
o Respectful image - McArthur wearing military uniform
o
o
o
o
o
o
•
Shown as equal to other leader - not godly, not wearing special shoes - destroys image
of Emperor
Questions Emperor's teachings and strength - cult of Emperor had to be broken for
Japan to change
McArthur had to follow protocol - had to do same pose as Hirohito - changed at last
minute
Making himself look bigger, dominate image and Japan - he stands out - he's slightly
forward - aggressive stance
Emperor dependent on military occupation - gives legitimacy
McArthur campaigning to be president
Image 4
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Older, weaker - fragile
Head held high - still holds power
Frown Focus of image - nothing around him
More powerful than McArthur image
Looking above - not directly at camera
Suit is the same - not traditional - preserve peace, institution, Emperor is neutral
Clothes are blue - inviting
To what extent is the photograph valuable/limited to historians studying Hirohito?
Value:
•
•
•
•
Gives us the time frame - after WW2
Background - tells us they're in Japan - proof that something happened
Trying to show the agreement they had come to - interactions, Hirohito looks remorseful
Propaganda - paints Hirohito in a positive light - peacemaker, willing to become humble in the
name of peace
•
Changes his image - projects an image of peace - restores his reputation and public perception gets away from his war crimes
Limitations:
• Staged by MacArthur - not a sincere attempt
• Distorts bigger picture - people think
• Photographer - put focus on MacArthur - diminish Hirohito
Cultural and political ideology based on duplicity
• Presenting himself to outside world as modern world leader
• On the inside, he is a hardened, conservative traditionalist
• To protect their own interests, you have to say yes to what people say to you, to survive
Compare and contrast the views in Source C and D regarding the views of the Japanese towards
Western countries:
Similarities
Differences
•
•
•
•
Both say they need to use
Western methods
Both don't want Western power
meddling in their affairs
Both focus on humiliation faced
by Japan
Tone is similar - critical of the
West
•
•
•
C says that they need to change
their methods to Western ones
D says that Western methods
haven't worked - never be equal
C is positive about the future, there
is opportunity - D is negative, never
achieve equality
Japan was a monoculture - unified culture, affects people personal perception of themselves nationalistic identity
Source A:
Values:
•
Reflects publicly held views - excited that Japan had captured Pyongyang - very good for the
country
• Gives insight into contemporary opinion
• Personal views, motives for public actions
• Shows how individual wants his actions to be viewed - says that Japan was unlikely to win,
hence he was happy, to because Japan was superior to other nations
Limitations:
• Hindsight • Improves author's public image - public opinion was centered around being nationalistic and
reveling in Japan's victories, reaffirming Japan's military prowess
• Tone - not critical, relaying a story, reminiscent, lighthearted - doesn't reflect the atrocities of
war, reflects govt propaganda - can't use it to show what happened in the war, but displays
public opinion
• Politically influenced - nationalism was prevalent
• Overview of situation - only tells you one-side of the story, nothing about opposition or about
the war itself
• Eyewitness account - only exposed to what he was fed by the military and govt
Instability: Domestic
Upper House - Senate - advisory capacity - House of Peers
Lower House - Congress - make laws - how much taxes people have to pay - House of Representatives
•
Japan's governing system was extremely complex:
o Military authorities had direct access to the Emperor.
o The cabinet worked for the Emperor and could not be removed by the Diet.
o All ministers had to agree to a particular policy or the policy could not be enacted
o The lower house of the Diet, the House of Representatives, was responsible for taxation
and budgets and could block funding if it disagreed with policies.
o The House of Peers in the Diet often worked against the cabinet and House of
Representatives since many of its members were former cabinet members that
disagreed on policies.
o The Privy Council and its genro¯ had direct access to and communicated for the
Emperor; they had veto power over all government issues.
How did these factors make the government more unstable?
Military could overthrow the government - had too much power, weakening govt
The cabinet was not accountable to the Parliament - if they did something wrong, they couldn't
be fired - created policies that favored them only
o Decisions would be very difficult to make, makes govt look inefficient - poses an issue during
times of crises
o The government becomes inefficient because they can't do anything without the money
o Internal factionism - could disagree with policies without having a sincere reason
o Spoke for the Emperor (rare) - Privy Council could convince the Emperor - gives them power of
the Emperor
o
o
Why did this give more power to the military?
Military could persuade govt to enact policies favorable to the military
Zaibatsu on side of the military - completely invulnerable - had two seats in the govt
Govt looks weaker to public - had power to veto and could sabotage govt - veto policies that
didn't align with their views - use this to garner public support
o Military can take advantage of inefficiency - Upper House becomes
o Military could take advantage of the infighting
o
o
o
Checks and balances - branches of govt coming to an agreement
Communism:
•
•
•
•
First communist country - Soviet Union - USSR
Communism - Marxism theory o All are equal - everyone gets the same things
o Equality of outcome
o Same rights - financial and political
o All factors of production, resources, property is owned by the state - state is guarantor
of equality - distribute everything equally
How to achieve goals:
o Only way to communism is by overthrowing upper classes
o Perpetual revolution everywhere - only achieved through violence
o International movement
Communism in practice -
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Existing government structure was overthrown - destruction of religion
Private ownership was banned
The state controlled all assets
Former landowners and educated professionals were imprisoned, exiled or executed
USSR tried to spread communism throughout Europe and Asia using small groups
Majority of population still poor - but still equal
Women gained the same rights as men - but nobody had actual rights - no free speech
Bolsheviks - came to power through revolution - killed those that didn't agree
Invaded Poland - Germany and Hungary faced communist rebellions
Why was communism considered a threat to Japan and how did it strengthen the military?
• Existing govt would be overthrown - Emperor would lose power
• Ideology of Japanese would be threatened - basis of Japanese society - may have lost their
independence
• Zaibatsu would lose financial assets and be on equal footing with the peasants
• Could cause rebellions within public
• Public lost support for govt and became more vulnerable to military ideology
• Public in Japan was unemployed - communism appealed to them
• Peace Protection Law 1928 - communists were executed,
• Needed to suppress communism to oppose Soviet Union - needed the military to oppose violent
revolution
• SU bordered Manchuria, could take control of Japanese interests - SU and Japan were
competing for dominance in South-East Asia - military bolsters their own reputation because
they're the only ones who can protect Japan's interests.
Military Factions
• Toseiha - fascists - country is tightly controlled by government
o No elements of democracy
o Nazi Germany
o Everyone was loyal to the ruling party
• Sakuraki and Kodoha - radical factions
o Totalitarianism
China's Domestic Problem and their Impact on Japanese Foreign Policy
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
British control in Tibet was to protect interests in India
Russia - Natural borders with China which is easy to defend
Creating buffer zones to defend their countries and the interests in territories under their
sphere of influence
Japan - control Korea and Taiwan - control access to East China and Yellow Sea
China left with central Asian territories - most industrialized regions controlled by external
empires
End of 19th century - Imperial Race
To maintain status as a World Power - they need to conquer more territory
CHINA TIMELINE:
•
•
Key problems facing China
What was the significance of each issue (short term and long term)?
Instability: Foreign Affairs
• Regional warlords ran independent states within China's boundaries
• The Warlord Era:
o 1916 to 1928 - China faced civil war - divided into regions controlled by warlords
o Southern China - seven major warlords, Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
o Northern China - three major groups supported/opposed by smaller warlords
o Warlord Zhang Zoulin - based in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia - would become most
powerful
o Manchuria:
• Declared independence in 1922 - isolated from wars in other parts of China
• Zhang's army was substantial - captured Beijing (former capital of Qing Dynasty)
and other northern areas
• Zhang allowed Japan to continue developing railways (etc.) in Manchuria Japan's govt supported Zhang
• Japan's Kwantung Army officers (Showa Restoration) - govt's policy of allowing
Zhang a large army was wrong
• 1928 - Zhang Zoulin assassinated by Kwantung Army
• Army officers' motives had popular support - govt unable and unwilling to
punish their insubordination
o Southern China and the end of the warlords:
• Kuomintang (KMT) or Nationalist political party - united faction by increasing
Chinese nationalism
• KMT supported anti-foreign movement - made alliance with CCP - had enough
power to defeat warlords
• 1926 to 1928 - KMT conquered various warlords, broke alliance with and
attacked CCP
• Nationalists - most of China under their control
• Used Northern Expedition (military campaign) - 2.5 years, 1 million + troops
• Kwantung Army - hoped to weaken Manchuria's administration - would have to
take control to restore order
• Allow Japan to annex Manchuria - policy not supported by govt
• Zhang's successor, his son, allied with KMT and brought Manchuria back into
united China
o A newly united China:
• The results of the KMT’s Northern Expedition included the following:
▪ destruction of railways, bridges and other important components of
national infrastructure
▪ a famine in northwest China that killed between 3 million and 6 million
people
▪ isolation of China from a powerful potential ally, the communist Soviet
Union, by attacking the CCP, which was sponsored by the Soviets.
• Basic unification - China could act as a single state
• Chiang Kai-shek became Director of State Council = president
• China strengthened by economic and political reorganization
• CCP survived KMT's attack - further internal conflict
Japan's Foreign Policy Towards China up to 1931
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Foreign policy based on negotiation and working within the conflicts of international diplomacy
Japan signed various treaties - not to antagonize USA or China
Japan stationed troops to protect its interests in Manchuria - agreed to by treaties, unpopular in
Japan
Shidehara Diplomacy - Japanese Foreign Minister, Kijuro Shidehara, promoted use of diplomacy
instead of military actions
1927 - height of Northern Expedition - policy changed
Japanese preferred a weak, divided China - alarmed at success of Chiang Kai-shek and KMT
Troops sent to occupy Shantung Peninsula and support Zhang Zoulin
Hoped large Japanese force would prevent invasion of Manchuria by KMT
1927 - Positive Policy towards China adopted by Japan's govt
o Japan would treat Manchuria as a special case
o Japan was no longer interested in the international community's input regarding
Manchuria
o Foreign states couldn't comprehend Japan's needs and interests
Kwantung Army stationed in Liaodong Peninsula to safeguard investments - bordered Korea
After Zhang's assassination, army increased in size - united China might challenge Japan over
Manchuria and Liaodong
Insubordinate officers were not replaced
Believed that their policies were essential for Japan's long-term needs
Japan's govt replaced Kwantung's leadership - bring it under govt control
Manchurian Crisis occurred before new general could take charge
To what extent did Japan emerge as an authoritarian state by 1931?
An authoritarian state is defined as a system of government that puts order and obedience to the
regime above the personal freedoms of its citizens.
To be classed as authoritarian, a state has to have:
● either only one legal political party, or it limits the existence of other parties by not allowing them to
play any significant role in political life
• Power is centralized to a small group of people - there is no opposition
● a government that is not constitutionally responsible to the people and exercises political power
arbitrarily
• No rule of law - above the law, tyrannical
● a leader often chosen by/from the military following a coup.
• Not always the case - leader is quite often supported by the military
•
In general, authoritarian states have the following characteristics in common:
● Little or no freedom of speech
● No freedom of assembly (unable to hold meetings without the approval of the government)
● No freedom of movement – often, individuals need documents or even internal passports to move
around inside the country
● No freedom to travel abroad
● No independent judicial system
● All sources of information are censored
● Any opposition to the regime is harshly punished
● A leader whose popularity is reinforced by a personality cult.
How would USA's response affect Japanese foreign policy?
Short term - emboldened Japan's foreign policy - hardly a response - Japan could still trade with USA
• Had no effect on Manchurian Crisis - USA more concerned about their own trade
• Can accelerate their aggression - Second Sino-Japanese War - Pearl Harbor - Japan thought USA
wouldn't respond
Long term
• Foreign policy was working
•
•
Motivation to continue aggression
Ensured longevity of the policy
Post 1940s - motivated Japan to defeat their enemies quicker
Question 4: Using the sources and your own knowledge, explain to what extent you agree with this
statement: "The Manchurian crisis was as significant a turning point for Japan as it was for the League
of Nations"
Source G, H, I, J
Evidence of agreement
G
Evidence of disagreement
Do you trust it?
Japan able to move further
into China - only focuses on
Japan
H
Manchurian Crisis - LoN didn't
act - Japan could be more
aggressive
Italy invaded Ethiopia weakened power of League
Manchurian Crisis bigger
impact on League - couldn't
condemn Japan - others
followed Japan
I
Japan profited in the same
way from Manchurian Crisis able to conquer more
LoN - people lost faith in
league
Corfu Crisis
Inaction by League - smaller
nations lost faith kickstarted their end
J
LoN was able to set up better
economic sanctions assistance in Abyssinian Crisis
The Manchurian affair
Written by British historian assumed a mythical
source may be biased, defends
importance
British actions
LoN was able to set up
better economic sanctions assistance in Abyssinian
Crisis
What happened during the Second-Sino Japanese War?
Why did Japan want to conquer China?
• Demographic crisis
o Japan overpopulated - intended to send farmers to Manchuria
o Japan needed more living space - sent millions of Japanese to Manchuria
Economic
crisis
•
o
•
•
Facing Great Depression - overreliance on imports - imports had decreased due to
protectionism
o Gain access to natural resources/raw material
o Increase trade - controlled the ports
o Access to world's biggest market
Nationalism
o Japan becomes more superior - assert dominance
o Part of their goal to dominate all of Asia - they thought China would be better under the
rule of Japan
Militarism
o Military was key to being seen as a world power
o Link to nationalism - military pride - national identity - military had popular support
o Military taken over govt - expand their influence
There are different perspectives regarding what led to the war between the USA and Japan in the
Pacific:
•
It could be argued that from the early 1930s, Japan had planned a war with the aim of
dominating Asia. Japan’s aims in the region could only be achieved through war; therefore, war
in the region was inevitable. Japan used negotiations to delay an international response to their
expansion for as long as possible.
•
However, it could also be argued that although Japan did plan to expand its empire in Asia, war
was not inevitable. This was because Japan was willing to achieve its objectives through
negotiation. If possible, war with the major powers was to be avoided. However, if negotiation
failed, Japan needed to be prepared for war.
•
In addition, it could be argued that Japan was forced into war by the actions of the USA - and
other foreign powers. Japan had legitimate aims for the region. The USA and Britain were
determined to contain Japan.
What was the impact of the Sino-Japanese War?
Total war: government completely control economy and all information, and the public is encouraged to
work for the war, as resources are shifted towards war production.
• Govt nationalizes key resources to control society, economy - factories, food
• Public support - drumming up propaganda
• Education - nationalized - increase workforce - enlist in military, war production - tailored for
war
• Internal security (police) - fortify defense mechanisms
• Everything redirected towards war effort
What led to war with the USA?
Question 1: What was the purpose of Japan’s invasion of French Indochina?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Battle of Khalkhin - 20000 Japanese troops died - cost of resources and lives too significant abandoned strike north strategy
Prompted by Operation Barbarossa Cut off supplies to China
Access to tin, rubber, raw materials - eight air bases and two ports
‘Strike north’ and ‘strike south’ ‘Strike north’ refers to a strategy popular with the Japanese
army that favored preparing for war against the Soviet Union. ‘Strike south’ was a strategy
adopted in 1941, when the Imperial Japanese Army headed south into Indochina, Malaya, and
the Dutch East Indies while the Imperial Japanese Navy headed into the Pacific.
Invasion - new resources - biting too much, strategic mistake Japan took advantage of French colonies vulnerability - did not expect much resistance
Gain French recognition - state of war in China - a world power, pose a threat
Consequences for Japan - Japan Occupied all French Indochina, July 1941:
Japan's occupation of French Indochina caused USA to freeze all Japanese assets held in the USA,
cutting of supplies that Japan required, such as ships and oil. The USA also granted China great
financial assistance for military purchases, allowing them to increase defenses against Japan.
Other countries, such as Britain and the Netherlands followed suit, and froze Japanese assets in
their respective territories, in hopes that Japan would act less aggressive. Significant deterioration
of relations between Japan and USA - Japan gained more enemies.
There are different perspectives regarding what led to the war between the USA and Japan in
the Pacific:
● It could be argued that from the early 1930s, Japan had planned a war with the aim of
dominating Asia. Japan’s aims in the region could only be achieved through war; therefore,
war in the region was inevitable. Japan used negotiations to delay an international response
to their expansion for as long as possible.
● However, it could also be argued that although Japan did plan to expand its empire in Asia,
war was not inevitable. This was because Japan was willing to achieve its objectives
through negotiation. If possible, war with the major powers was to be avoided. However, if
negotiation failed, Japan needed to be prepared for war.
● In addition, it could be argued that Japan was forced into war by the actions of the USA.
Japan had legitimate aims for the region. The USA and Britain were determined to contain
Japan.
• It needed an empire - everyone has one
• USA cut off supplies - aided China
THE TRIPARTITE PACT
•
Objectives of Tripartite Pact
o To control regions they believe they are entitled to - more than they have now
o Establishing regional dominance - Europe and East Asia
o Land isn't divided fairly and that creates conflict
o Peoples concerned - based on race
o "Calculated" - calculations of people, division of resources
o Willing to include countries with similar ambitions
o Ultimate goal - world peace - mutual prosperity for each other
o New order - making plans to divide up world
• ARTICLE 1 - Japan recognized leadership of Germany and Italy - new order in
Europe
▪ Japan not allowed to have any claim over Europe
• ARTICLE 2 - Germany and Italy recognized leadership of Japan - new order in
East Asia
▪ Germany and Italy not allowed to make any claim over East Asia
• ARTICLE 3 - Assist each other politically, economically, militarily if attacked by
other World Power
▪ Military alliance - to deter other countries - attack my ally, I attack you
▪ Japan needs oil - Germany trades with Japan - key economic ally
▪ Propaganda - shared vision - treaties with other nations = diplomatic
weight
• ARTICLE 4 - Joint technical commissions will meet without delay
▪ Agreeing to set up teams to discuss how they will act upon their vision
• ARTICLE 5 - Pact doesn't affect any of their relations with Soviet Union
▪ Germany and SU - Nazi-Soviet Pact - allies - divide Poland between them
▪ Japan and SU - conflict over Manchuria
• ARTICLE 6 - Will become valid upon signature - effective for ten years
▪ Interests may not align in ten years
▪ In ten years, they would have achieved their goals - setting a deadline
1. Is the source deceptive?
o Yes, to an extent - lack of clarity, implications that are made, but not expanded upon ulterior motives not clear
o Makes it seem like they're doing something legitimate - seems like a force for good
o Want peace on their own terms
2. Is the source biased?
o Not to a great extent
o Biased towards their own goals
3. How useful is the source?
o Makes their goals, desires clear
Why did Japan go to war with USA in 1941?
•
The USA had expressed their desire not to go war, causing Japan to underestimate USA's will to
fight. Japan used the Hull Note as an excuse to act on its already prepared plan to fight Japan,
whilst misunderstanding USA's intentions