1517 Media
Fortress Press
Chapter Title: Mexico
Book Title: The Histories of the Latin American Church
Book Subtitle: A Handbook
Book Author(s): JOEL MORALES CRUZ
Published by: 1517 Media; Fortress Press
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9m0t2k.24
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Mexico
2:13:1: Demographics
Official name
United States of Mexico (Estados Unidos Mexicanos)
Capital
Mexico City
Government
Federal republic with executive, legislative, and judicial branches
Divisions
Thirteen states and one federal district
National holidays
February 5—Constitution Day
March 21—Benito Juárez’s Birthday
September 16—Independence Day (1810)
November 20—Revolution Day
Population
112,336,538 (2010 Census)1
Ethnic makeup
Mestizo—60 percent
Indigenous (Nahua, Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, Otomí, Totonac)—30 percent
White—9 percent
Other (Afro-Mexican, Arab-Mexican, Asians)—1 percent
Language
Spanish—98.4 percent
Indigenous (68 government recognized Amerindian languages)—6.5 percent
1. “Resultados definitivos censo de población y vivienda, 2010,” Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía,
Comunicado no. 58/11, March 3, 2011, http://www.inegi.org.mx/inegi/contenidos/espanol/prensa/Boletines/Boletin
/Comunicados/Especiales/2011/marzo/comunica.pdf.
383
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384
TH E H ISTO R IES OF TH E L AT I N A M E R I C A N C H U R C H
Religion2
Roman Catholic—83.9 percent
Protestant—7.6 percent
Historic/Mainline Protestant—0.7 percent
Pentecostal/Evangelical—6.9 percent
Adventist—0.5 percent
Jehovah’s Witnesses—1.4 percent
Latter-Day Saints—0.2 percent
Other—0.14 percent
None—4.7 percent
Not specified—1.5 percent
2:13:2: Timeline
Date
Christianity
Social-Political and Cultural Events
10000 bce
Corn cultivated.
1200 bce–
300 ce
Olmecs form the first Mexican civilization.
250–900 ce
Mayan Age reaches its height.
1325
Aztecs (Nahua) found Tenochtitlán (present-day Mexico City).
1440–1487
Aztec power expands.
1519
HERNÁN CORTÉZ lands in present-day
Veracruz.
1521
Tenochtitlán falls to the Spanish and
their Indian allies; colony of New Spain
established.
1524
Arrival of the “12 Apostles,” Franciscan friars, initiates the evangelization of Mexico.
1526
Dominican friars arrive, emphasizing the
importance of teaching in the conversion of
the natives
1528
Arrival of the first bishop to Mexico, JUAN
DE ZUMÁRRAGA.
2. “Panorama de las religions en México, 2010,” Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía, 2011, based
on the 2010 National Census of the Population, http://www.inegi.org.mx/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi
/productos/censos/poblacion/2010/panora_religion/religiones_2010.pdf.
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M exico
1529
The Franciscan friar and ethnologist BERNARDINO DE SAHAGÚN arrives in New
Spain.
1530
385
.
Antonio de Mendoza becomes first viceroy.
1531
Apparition of Our Lady of Guadalupe to the
Indian JUAN DIEGO CUAUHTLATOATZIN.
1533
Augustinian friars arrive.
City of Puebla founded.
Franciscans found the College of Santa
Cruz de Tlatelolco to train an indigenous
priesthood.
1538
VASCO DE QUIROGA takes office as bishop
of Michoacán and implements a program of
evangelization based on ideas from Thomas
More’s Utopia.
1539
1540
The first printing press in the Americas set
up in Mexico City.
First convent founded in Mexico City by
Conceptionist nuns.
1542
1545
Charles I issues the New Laws to protect
the Indians.
BARTOLOMÉ DE LAS CASAS becomes
bishop of Chiapas and orders that any colonists holding Indians as slaves be denied
the sacraments.
1551
University of Mexico founded.
1555
First Provincial Council of Mexico is convened to discuss clerical reform, the evangelization of the Indians, construction of
hospitals and schools, and the limits of
diocesan jurisdiction.
1565
The Second Provincial Mexican Council
meets to implement the reforms of the
Council of Trent.
1571
The Inquisition established.
1572
The Society of Jesus arrives.
1573
Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City
constructed.
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386
TH E H ISTO R IES OF TH E L AT I N A M E R I C A N C H U R C H
1585
Third Mexican Provincial Council convenes
to enact a code of canon law for New Spain
and commission works to improve evangelism and pastoral care.
1596
FELIPE DE JESÚS DE LAS CASAS, a Franciscan missionary, is crucified in Nagasaki,
Japan.
1628
Luis de Carabajal, conqueror of Monterrey
and first Jewish author in America, executed.
JUAN GUTIÉRREZ DE PADILLA appointed
maestro de capilla (Kappelmeister) of the
Cathedral of Puebla.
1637
MARÍA DE JESÚS TOMELÍN Y CAMPOS,
Conceptionist nun and mystic, dies.
1640
JUAN DE PALAFOX Y MENDOZA arrives in
Veracruz to take office as bishop of Puebla.
1649
Luis Laso de La Vega publishes the Huei
tlamahuiçoltica (The Great Event), a treatise
in Nahuatl based on sixteenth-century manuscripts of the apparition of Our Lady of
Guadalupe. It contains the Nican mopohua
(Here Is Recounted), which has become the
standard version of the story.
1669
Juana de Asbaje enters the Hieronymite
Order as SOR JUANA INÉS DE LA CRUZ and
begins an illustrious writing career.
1680
Popé’s Rebellion touches off the Pueblo
Revolt in the present-day US Southwest.
1683–1711
EUSEBIO KINO explores and founds missions from Baja California to the Sonoran
Desert in present-day Arizona.
1691
SOR JUANA INÉS DE LA CRUZ writes the
Reply to Sor Filotea, defending a woman’s
right to study the sciences, the arts, and
theology.
1700
Zapotec Christian Indians Juan Bautista and
Jacinto de los Ángeles are martyred by their
fellow tribe members.
CARLOS DE SIGÜENZA Y GÓNGORA,
scholar, dies.
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M exico
1748–1767
Jesuits try to replace Scholastic philosophy
with the scientific method. They would distinguish themselves in the study of mathematics, astronomy, botany, history, and
archaeology.
1754
Pope Benedict XIV declares Our Lady of
Guadalupe the patroness of New Spain.
1765
Charles III names FRANCISCO FABIÁN Y
FUERO as archbishop of Puebla.
1766
FRANCISCO ANTONIO DE LORENZANA is
appointed archbishop of Mexico.
1767
Jesuits expelled from Spanish America
under orders of Charles III.
1768
387
Indians riot after the expulsion of the
Jesuits.
Silver discovered in Guanajuato.
MIGUEL CABRERA, painter, dies.
1769–1782
Franciscan friar JUNÍPERO SERRA establishes a series of missions in what is now
the state of California.
1771
FRANCISCO ANTONIO DE LORENZANA and
FRANCISCO FABIÁN Y FUERO convene the
Fourth Mexican Provincial Council to update
church governance and reform pastoral
care and piety along Catholic Enlightenment
lines.
1780
FRANCISCO XAVIER CLAVIJERO, The Ancient
History of Mexico
1794
FRAY SERVANDO TERESA DE MIER delivers
a controversial sermon on Our Lady of Guadalupe that asserts a Mexican Christianity
independent of Spanish colonialism. He is
exiled for ten years.
Antonio López de Santa Anna is born.
1810
Father MIGUEL HIDALGO Y COSTILLA rallies
the Indians and the poor under the banner
of Our Lady of Guadalupe.
Father MIGUEL HIDALGO Y COSTILLA
begins the War of Independence against
Spain.
1811
Father JOSÉ MARÍA MORELOS Y PAVÓN
assumes leadership of the insurrection.
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388
1821
TH E H ISTO R IES OF TH E L AT I N A M E R I C A N C H U R C H
Mexican bishops meet and declare that the
royal patronage has ended, that only the
pope can concede its power to the national
government, and that, in the meantime, the
power of naming bishops reverts to the
diocese.
Plan of Iguala enacted.
1823
Clergy participate in the Constituent Congress to shape the constitution.
Yucatán remains when Central America
secedes.
1824
The strongly federalist constitution recognizes the Catholic Church as the sole legal
religion.
Guadalupe Victoria takes office as first
Mexican president.
Nuns invent chiles en nogada.
Mexico gains independence from Spain.
Central America breaks from Spain and is
annexed to Mexico.
Under new constitution, the government
assumes the exercise of patronage.
1825
Pope Leo XII refuses to recognize Mexican
independence; FRAY SERVANDO TERESA
DE MIER calls for the formation of a
national church.
1827
JAMES “DIEGO” THOMPSON, with the support of Mexican Liberals including José
María Luis Mora, arrives to establish new
schools using the Bible as a teaching tool.
He is forced to leave in 1830 because of
death threats.
1831
As the pope refuses to recognize Mexico’s
rights of patronage to fill the need for bishops, the government of Anastasio Bustamante grants the Mexican clergy the right
to elect their own priests.
Legislator Vicente Rocafuerte unsuccessfully lobbies for separation of church and
state and the establishment of religious
freedom.
1834
Mission assets seized and secularized by
the state.
Liberals attack church-controlled education.
1835
Texas Revolution begins.
1836
Pope Gregory XVI recognizes Mexican independence but does not cede the powers of
patronage to the state.
Las Siete Leyes restores a centrist government under Antonio de Santa Anna.
1846–1848
Catholic Church resists efforts of the state
to seize its assets to fight the war against
the United States.
Mexican-American War results in the loss of
more than half of Mexico’s territory to the
United States.
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M exico
1853
E. C. Nicholson begins a Bible study group,
the Mexican Catholic Apostolic Society,
in the state of Chihuahua that uses the
Episcopal Book of Common Prayer as a
devotional.
1854–1872
MELINDA RANKIN begins ministry along the
border and to Monterrey.
1855–1857
389
Reform Laws curtail the power of the Catholic Church.
1855
Bishop of Puebla PELAGIO ANTONIO
Freedom of religion promulgated.
LABASTIDA Y DÁVALOS is accused of using
church funds to foment rebellion. He is
exiled to Rome.
1857
A new, Liberal constitution is approved
but is opposed by Conservatives and the
Catholic Church. Some bishops threaten
excommunication on anyone supporting it;
some parish priests break ranks and back
the constitution.
1858
Benito Juárez appointed president when the
former officeholder resigns.
Benito Juárez elected president in his own
right.
1858–1861
The Catholic Church helps fund the Conservative cause against Juárez.
The Wars of Reform pit Conservatives
against Liberals.
1859
MANUEL BERMÚDEZ, Enrique Orestes,
Rafael Díaz Martínez, and Francisco Domínguez form the core of the Consitutionalist
Clergy who support the new government
and seek to reform the Catholic Church.
Melchor Ocampo, a Liberal politician, tries
to secularize marriage.
1861
Father Ramón Lozano founds the Mexican
Apostolic Church; it becomes part of the
efforts of the Consitutionalist Clergy.
Melchor Ocampo executed by
Conservatives.
A German Lutheran Church begins work
among expatriates.
1862
1863
French, British, and Spanish troops land at
Veracruz to force payment of debts owed.
French army invades Mexico; Battle of
Puebla fought.
Archbishop LABASTIDA seeks restoration of
church rights from the French.
French capture Mexico City.
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390
1864
TH E H ISTO R IES OF TH E L AT I N A M E R I C A N C H U R C H
Catholic hierarchy supports the enthronement of Maximilian but are later disillusioned by his refusal to abolish freedom of
religion and reinstitute church privileges.
Mexican Conservatives and French forces
crown Austrian archduke Maximilian von
Hapsburg emperor of Mexico.
Constitutionalist Clerics seek financial assistance and the ordination of a bishop from
the Episcopal Church in New York City.
James Hickey (American Bible Society)
begins a Baptist church in Monterrey.
1867
Dominican preacher MANUEL AGUAS
converts to Protestantism and takes over
leadership of the Mexican Apostolic Church,
now renamed the Mexican Church of Jesus;
the Episcopal Church establishes formal ties
with them.
1869
First Anglican/Episcopal services held by
English-speaking nationals.
1871
Society of Friends (Quakers) arrive.
1872
Congregationalists begin mission work.
Maximilian executed; Juárez reestablishes
the republic.
Benito Juárez dies.
Northern Presbyterians arrive.
1873
Southern and Northern Methodist missionaries are sent to Mexico.
Separation of church and state, civil marriage enacted.
1874
First Mormon missionaries arrive.
Congress enacts laws restricting public religious services and religious instruction in
schools.
Southern Presbyterians evangelize in Matamoros, Tamaulipas.
1876–1911
State conciliates with the Catholic Church
(new provincial councils created, seminaries
grow, religious orders return, Catholic social
congresses held).
1880
Southern Baptists begin sending
missionaries.
1885
Mormons fleeing persecution in the United
States establish colonies in northern
Mexico.
1888
First General Evangelical Assembly reunites
Protestant leaders to discuss Protestant
unity and evangelistic strategies.
Porfirio Díaz rules as dictator.
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M exico
1891
391
Tomochic Revolt in Chihuahua inspired by
“Santa Teresa,” a folk healer.
Paris fashions introduced.
1892
Church of the Brethren is established in
Veracruz.
1895
Disciples of Christ
Our Lady of Guadalupe crowned.
1896
Fifth Mexican Provincial Council focuses on
the administration, discipline, and polity of
the Catholic Church.
1897
Second General Evangelical Assembly in
Mexico City emphasizes organizational
structures of the Protestant churches, a
new translation of the Bible, and harmony
between missionaries from the various
denominations.
An independent evangelical Mexican church
is formed as a protest against the economic
and political control of the American missionary agencies. It later gains the support
a schismatic Catholic bishop, Eduardo Sanchez Camacho, who denies the apparition
of Our Lady of Guadalupe.
1902
YMCA opens in Mexico City.
Yaqui Indians massacred by federal troops.
1903
National Baptist Convention of Mexico
organizes in Mexico City.
Teatro Juárez, Guanajuato
Church of the Nazarene
1906
The Mexican Church of Jesus incorporated
into the Mission of the Episcopal Church.
First National Eucharistic Congress held in
Guadalajara, Jalisco.
1910–1920
Many Protestants support and aid the insurgents during the Mexican Revolution.
Mexican Revolution
1914
Pentecostal convert ROMANA CARBAJAL DE
VALENZUELA returns to Mexico and founds
the Apostolic Church of the Faith in Christ
Jesus.
President Venustiano Carranza intends strict
enforcement of Reform Laws.
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392
1917
TH E H ISTO R IES OF TH E L AT I N A M E R I C A N C H U R C H
First Assemblies of God churches established by Henry C. Ball, Sunshine Marshall,
and Alice Luce.
New constitution severely limits the power
and presence of religious organizations in
public life.
A comity agreement between some of
the American Protestant denominations
designed to eliminate competition and overlap of mission efforts stirs resentment when
congregations find themselves transferred
from one denomination to another; some
congregations, having not been consulted,
refuse.
US General John Pershing fails to capture
Pancho Villa.
Diego Rivera studies cubism in Paris.
United Evangelical Seminary founded.
1918
Catholic Confederation of Labor founded.
1919
Emiliano Zapata assassinated.
Muralist movement begins.
1921
Swedish Free Mission evangelists Axel and
Esther Anderson, begin work in San Luis
Potosí resulting in several autonomous Pentecostal churches including the Independent
Evangelical Church of Mexico, the Independent Pentecostal Christian Church, and the
Independent Pentecostal Fraternity.
1922–1926
Twenty thousand Canadian Mennonites
migrate to northern Mexico.
1922
First Lutherans begin evangelistic work
among Mexicans.
RODOLFO OROZCO founds one of the first
Assemblies of God churches.
1923
Pancho Villa dies in an ambush.
1924
Second National Eucharistic Congress held
in Mexico City.
Government begins land distribution
program.
1925
JOSÉ JOAQUÍN PÉREZ BUDAR founds the
Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church.
Popocatepetl volcano erupts outside of
Mexico City.
Reformed Church in America takes over
evangelistic work among the Indians in Chiapas from the Presbyterians.
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M exico
1926–1929
In reaction to anti-Catholic measures, people in western states take up arms with the
cry of “¡Viva Cristo Rey!” (Long live Christ
the King!).
1926
Light of the World is founded by AARÓN
(EUSEBIO) JOAQUÍN GONZÁLEZ.
393
Plutarco Calles enacts extreme anti-Catholic
legislation; Cristero War claims ninety thousand lives.
Archbishop Mora y del Río repudiates anticlerical articles of the constitution.
1927
Jesuit priest MIGUEL AGUSTÍN PRO
executed.
Congress opens land to foreign investors.
1929
The Assemblies of God in Mexico is
organized.
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)
founded.
Catholic Action founded.
Silver arts renaissance in Taxco.
Methodist Church of Mexico established.
Sale and display of alcoholic beverages
banned during patriotic holidays after assassination attempt on the president.
1930
The Church of God in the Mexican Republic splits from the Assemblies of God.
Valente Aponte González splits from the
Church of God in the Republic of Mexico,
begins the Movement of Independent
Evangelical Pentecostal Churches.
1934
Salvation Army
Lázaro Cárdenas elected president.
Fine Arts Palace inaugurated.
1935
1936
Nationalization of religious properties
decreed.
In a pastoral letter, bishops urge Catholic
parents not to enroll their children in the
public schools where they might be indoctrinated in atheism and socialism.
1937
Papal encyclical encourages Mexican clergy
to engage in social service.
1938
Bishop Rafael Guizar Valencia, who had
risked his life to serve the wounded and
sick during the Cristero War, dies.
1940
President Ávila Camacho professes his
Catholic faith.
1941
Legion of Christ founded by Marcial Maciel.
President Cárdenas begins to temper
anticlerical language and conciliate with
Catholics.
WILLIAM CAMERON TOWNSEND founds
Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Petroleum reserves nationalized.
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394
1943
TH E H ISTO R IES OF TH E L AT I N A M E R I C A N C H U R C H
Church of the Foursquare Gospel
Parícutin volcano forms in Michoacán.
Light of the World Church begins partnership with ruling PRI party providing crowds
at political events and votes in exchange for
favors.
1946
Assemblies of God reports persecution of
their members, including fifty-nine deaths.
Diego Rivera, Dreams of a Sunday in the
Alameda Central,
Evangelical Covenant Church begins evangelistic labors along the border.
1947
National Presbyterian Church of Mexico
formed.
1949
Opus Dei begins work in Mexico.
Carlos Santana, musician, born.
Missionaries of Guadalupe founded.
1950
Octavio Paz, Labyrinth of Solitude
1952
Adolfo Ruiz Cortines elected president.
Mexican Folkloric Ballet founded.
1954
1957
Frida Kahlo, artist, dies.
Cursillo movement introduced by Francisco
Suárez and Eduardo Bonnin.
Miguel Covarrubias, muralist, dies.
Mexican Lutheran Church organized.
1959–2000
SAMUEL RUIZ serves as bishop of Chiapas.
1962
1963
Carlos Fuentes, Death of Artemio Cruz
María Guadalupe García Zavala, founder of
a religious order, dies.
Soldiers kill leader of coffee farmers in El
Ticui.
Remedios Varo, artist, dies.
1964
Consortium of Protestant schools, Theological Community of Mexico, founded.
1966
Mexican Bible Society established.
1968
SERGIO MÉNDEZ ARCEO, bishop of Cuernavaca, seeks to have the Mexican Conference of Bishops investigate the Tlatelolco
Massacre.
1969
Popular Volkswagen Beetle begins
production.
Police and army personnel fire upon a
peaceful student demonstration at the Plaza
de Tlatelolco.
Mexico City hosts the Summer Olympics.
First National Theological Congress initiates
liberation theology in Mexico.
Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Church
(Mexico)
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M exico
395
1971
ALFONSO NAVARRO CASTELLANOS leads
the Roman Catholic Charismatic Renewal in
Mexico.
1972
A diocese of the Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church converts en masse to form the
Orthodox Church in America Exarchate of
Mexico.
1973
New Jerusalem Community founded in the
state of Michoacán.
1975
Argentine-born philosopher, theologian, and First UN Women’s Conference held in
historian ENRIQUE DUSSEL settles in Mexico Mexico City.
after a paramilitary group bombs his home.
1976
José López Portillo elected president.
Paramilitary group attacks student
demonstrators.
Six hundred die in an earthquake in central
Mexico.
New Basilica of Guadalupe built.
1978
Christian Apostolic Church of the Living
God, Column and Pillar of Truth
Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlán discovered.
Latin American Council of Churches
founded in Oaxtepec.
1979
Pope John Paul II visits for first of five times
(also 1990, 1993, 1999, 2002).
Latin American Bishops Conference
(CELAM) meets in Puebla.
Mexican Apostolic Catholic Church
founded by an excommunicated Roman
Catholic bishop.
1982
1984
Mexico’s debt crisis begins; oil market
collapses.
Presbyterian Reformed Church of Mexico
splits from the National Presbyterian
Church of Mexico.
1985
Earthquake in Mexico City kills ten
thousand.
1988
Jesuits found Miguel Agustin Pro Human
Rights Center.
1992
SERGIO MÉNDEZ ARCEO, bishop of Cuernavaca, dies.
Anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution amended, granting religious groups
legal status and greater liberties.
Like Water for Chocolate, film
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396
1993
TH E H ISTO R IES OF TH E L AT I N A M E R I C A N C H U R C H
Juan Jesús Posadas Ocampo, archbishop of
Guadalajara, assassinated; investigations
are divided as to whether he was caught in
the crossfire between rival drug gangs or
was the victim of a targeted government
assassination.
Diplomatic relations with the Vatican
resume.
Independent Pentecostal Fraternity
organized.
1994
The Mexican-US Apostolic Catholic Traditional Church is organized by David Romo
Guillén and becomes known for its veneration to Santa Muerte.
Zapatista Rebellion in Chiapas calls for
indigenous rights. Bishop SAMUEL RUIZ
mediates a ceasefire the next year.
1995
The Episcopal Mission Church gains autonomy as the Anglican Church of Mexico.
Ernesto Zedillo elected president.
Alliance of Presbyterian and Reformed
Churches in the Republic of Mexico forms
to encourage cooperation and unity
between member churches.
United States loans Mexico $20 billion to
assist its economic crisis.
1996
The Metropolis of Mexico, Central America,
Columbia and Venezuela, and the Caribbean
Islands is established in Mexico City as an
eparchy (diocese) of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.
Carlos Fuentes, A New Time for Mexico
1998
Moises Padilla kidnapped and tortured
for his criticism of the Light of the World
church and its leadership.
Bishop SAMUEL RUIZ resigns as mediator
in talks with Zapatistas, citing government
interference.
1999
Harassment and persecution of evangelical
Christians by indigenous leaders and local
Catholics increases in the state of Chiapas.
Students at the National University in
Mexico City go on strike to protest fee
increases.
2000
Pope John Paul II canonizes twenty-five martyrs of the Cristero War.
Vicente Fox is elected as the first president since 1938 who does not belong
to the dominant PRI party. He is the first
modern president to pray at the Basilica of
Guadalupe.
Raul Vera becomes bishop of Saltillo, Coahuila, where he will denounce government
corruption and organized crime, support
human rights, and advocate for gay rights.
In return he receives death threats, government opposition, and the pressure of ecclesiastical censure.
NAFTA is signed.
Thousands evacuated around Popocatepetl
as it erupts.
Amores Perros, film
Third National Eucharistic Congress held in
Mexico City.
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M exico
2001
397
Enriqueta Romera erects a statue of Santa
Muerte in her home’s storefront window in
the Tepito barrio of Mexico City, triggering a
popular public devotion.
Felipe Calderón elected president.
2002
Pope John Paul II canonizes JUAN DIEGO
CUAUHTLATOATZIN, making him the first
indigenous American saint.
Juan García Esquivel, musician, dies.
2004
Guadalajara, Jalisco, hosts the Forty-Ninth
International Eucharistic Congress.
2006
Marcial Maciel, Legion of Christ founder,
ordered by the Vatican to retire amid sexual
misconduct allegations.
2007
The Anglican archbishop of Mexico publically supports same-sex blessings and the
ordination of lesbians and gays.
2008
Fourth National Eucharistic Congress held in
Guadalajara, Jalisco.
Reforms grant autonomy to indigenous
peoples.
Rodolfo Morales, artist, dies.
Felipe Calderón begins offensive against
drug cartels.
Mexico’s Supreme Court finds no legal
impediment in the constitution to abortion.
2009
The Mexican military systematically destroys
roadside altars dedicated to Santa Muerte
in its ongoing war against drug cartels.
2010
Same-sex marriage legal in Mexico City; the
Supreme Court rules that same-sex marriages must be recognized nationwide.
2012
Pope Benedict XVI visits Mexico.
Enrique Peña Nieto elected president.
The National Presbyterian Church of Mexico breaks ties with the Presbyterian Church
(USA) over the latter’s decision to ordain
gays and lesbians.
Government forces face off against the
New Jerusalem Community in the state of
Michoacán over the issue of children’s right
to a public education.
Chavela Vargas, singer, dies.
2013
The Vatican approves the official use of
Tzotzil and Tzeltal, two Maya languages,
for Mass and other rituals in the state of
Chiapas.
2014
Legionnaires of Christ denounce their
founder, Marcial Maciel.
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TH E H ISTO R IES OF TH E L AT I N A M E R I C A N C H U R C H
2:13:3: Church and State
During the War of Mexican Independence, many bishops, who owed their position to the Crown,
fled Mexico, leaving a hierarchical vacuum that was further complicated by the refusal of the
papacy to recognize the newly independent county. As the nation sought its constitutional footing,
the issue of patronage again reared its head: did it revert to the papacy or did it now become a
national patronage whereby the sovereign Mexican state would hold the power to appoint bishops to their sees? A few, such as FRAY SERVANDO TERESA DE MIER, advocated the formation
of a national Catholic Church in the face of papal stubbornness. The matters involved during this
period in part gave rise to the Conservatives, who sought to maintain the traditional rights and
privileges of the Roman Catholic Church, and to the anticlerical (though not antireligious) Liberals, influenced by the French Revolution, who tried to dismantle those privileges in the interest of
a federalist government entering the modern age. The Constitution of 1824 protected the status
of the Catholic Church as sole recognized religion and preserved ecclesiastical rights. However,
it also added that the federal government had the power to establish concordats with the pope,
grant or refuse promulgation of papal bulls, and exercise national patronage. In short, the Mexican government assumed unto itself the privileges of the patronato—a role that Pope Leo XII
refused to acknowledge. Nonetheless, despite the reservations of some over certain anticlerical
clauses in the constitution, and despite occasional clashes with parish priests who opposed the
constitution, church authorities proceeded in their alliance with the Liberal government. During
the Conservative presidency of Santa Anna, the claims to patronage were retracted, and the Vatican finally recognized the Mexican nation in 1836.
The victory of the Liberals in the aftermath of the Mexican-American War and the rise of
Benito Juárez to the presidency ushered in a new and antagonistic era in church-state relations.
Between 1855 and 1857, the Reform Laws were enacted that severely curtailed the power and
wealth of the church:
•
•
•
Ley Juárez (1855) placed strong conditions on military and ecclesiastical courts, allowing these to have jurisdiction only over military and ecclesiastical cases. Members of the
army or the clergy accused of violating civil or criminal law would stand trial in federal
or state court.
Ley Lerdo (1856) prohibited civil and ecclesiastical institutions from owning or administering property not connected with their day-to-day functions. This meant that the church
could maintain its houses of worship, seminaries, and other buildings but had to divest
itself of properties such as rural estates. The government had no plans to take the land;
they were to be sold and the owner could keep the profit.
Ley Iglesias (1857) was the first law directed specifically at the church, prohibiting it from
charging high fees to administer the sacraments. It also prohibited the church from using
the state to collect tithes. The poor would receive the sacraments freely while those who
could afford to do so would pay a modest fee.
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Additionally, in January 1857 the government issued a law secularizing the powers of the registry,
taking the recording of births, marriages, and deaths out of the hands of the church and placing
them into those of the state.
These reforms were enshrined in the 1857 Constitution. It did not include an article establishing the Roman Catholic Church as the state religion. It did not provide for freedom of religion
either, but its silence broke the spiritual monopoly of the Catholic Church and opened a back door,
as it were, for other faiths. Most bishops opposed it, some threatening to excommunicate any person who supported it. A number of parish priests did, nonetheless, support the constitution, and
some of these, under MANUEL BERMÚDEZ, eventually sought to create a reformed, national
Catholic Church. On July 12, 1857, the Juárez government confiscated all church properties, suppressed religious orders, and empowered the state governors to designate which buildings could
be used for religious services. The result was a civil war fought between 1857 and 1860.
The long dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz from 1876 to 1910 brought about conciliation with the
Catholic Church. The 1857 Constitution remained in effect but was honored more in the breach
than in the observance. As a result, new provincial councils and congresses on social issues were
held, religious orders returned, new religious schools opened, and the number of priests increased.
The 1917 Constitution, drafted and approved during the Mexican Revolution, institutionalizes many secular reforms and is the first such document in the world to spell out social rights.
When it comes to religion it delineates a strict separation between the church and the state:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Article 3 stipulates a secular education “free of any religious orientation.”
Article 5 forbids the establishment of monastic orders.
Article 24 guarantees the freedom of religion “provided they do not constitute an offense
punishable by law.” It also restricts public worship to places of worship “which shall at
all times be under governmental supervision.”
Article 27 states that religious organizations cannot own property and that all places of
public worship are the property of the nation.
Article 55 forbids clergy from being elected to congress.
Article 130 states that “Congress cannot enact laws establishing or prohibiting any religion.” However, it also declares that local legislatures can limit the number of clergy,
all clergy must be Mexican citizens, and clergy are forbidden from criticizing the state
or participating in politics. It also states that religious publications cannot comment on
public or political matters. To further maintain the separation of religion from politics,
political organizations cannot be associated with a religion nor can political meetings be
held in a place of worship. Religious professionals are denied the right to vote. Places of
worship must be registered with the state, and they must all have an official who assures
compliance with the law.
Throughout the late 1920s and 1930s, various federal and state administrations sought
to enforce the constitution’s stipulations and restrict religious bodies, particularly the Roman
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TH E H ISTO R IES OF TH E L AT I N A M E R I C A N C H U R C H
Catholic Church. President Calles, in particular, added his own legislation, known as the “Calles
Law,” in 1926. These provisions provided specific penalties for priests and individuals who violated the constitution’s more general religious edicts. Church property was seized, foreign priests
expelled, and religious schools, monasteries, and convents closed. The Catholic hierarchy and
religious groups and individuals sought to peacefully resist the new laws in an effort to have
the constitution amended through boycotts and a suspension of religious services. Soon, federal troops and armed resisters clashed in western Mexico, resulting in the bloody Cristero War
(named for the battle cry of the rebels, “¡Viva Cristo Rey! ¡Viva la Virgen de Guadalupe!” (Long
live Christ the King! Long live the Virgin of Guadalupe!). The Cristero War ended in 1929 with
an agreement between interim president Emilio Portes Gil, the Catholic hierarchy, and the United
States ambassador to Mexico. The settlement maintained the constitutional laws but granted the
church three concessions:
•
•
•
Religious instruction in the churches would be allowed.
Only priests named by their superiors would be required to register with the state.
The church would recover the right to use its properties.
In 1992 the anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution were reformed. Church and state are
considered separate entities, and religious reasons cannot be used as a pretext to avoid complying
with secular laws. All religious groups have been granted legal status. The new revisions require
religious organizations to register with the government in order to operate legally. Religious
groups have been allowed some limited property rights. Places of worship constructed after 1992
belong to the entities that built them. In addition, restrictions on the number of religious ministers
in the country were lifted. Private religious schools are now lawful, and while religious organizations may not own or operate television or radio stations, they can petition the government to
air religious broadcasting. Additionally, groups may hold public religious services by requesting
permission from the authorities. Religious ministers are permitted to vote.
Roman Catholics were instrumental in overthrowing seventy years of rule by the Institutional
Revolutionary Party (PRI) in favor of Vicente Fox from the conservative Catholic National Action
Party (PAN) in 2000. Fox became the first president since the formation of the PRI in the 1930s
to both proclaim himself a Catholic and also visit the Basilica of Guadalupe during the election
cycle. Responding to critics who accused him of blurring the line between church and state, Fox
met with Jewish and evangelical Protestant leaders and reaffirmed his commitment to religious
pluralism.
2:13:4: Ecclesiastical Provinces of the Catholic Church
Acapulco, Guerrero (Diocese 1958; Archdiocese 1983)
Antequera, Oaxaca (Diocese 1535; Archdiocese 1891)
Chihuahua (Diocese 1891; Archdiocese 1958)
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Durango (Diocese 1620; Archdiocese 1891)
Guadalajara, Jalisco (Diocese 1548; Archdiocese 1863)
Hermosillo, Sonora (Diocese 1779; Archdiocese 1963)
León, Guanajuato (Diocese 1863; Archdiocese 2006)
México (Diocese 1530; Archdiocese 1546)
Monterrey, Nuevo León (Diocese 1777; Archdiocese 1891)
Morelia (Diocese 1536; Archdiocese 1924)
Puebla de los Angeles (Diocese 1525; Archdiocese 1903)
San Luis Potosí (Diocese 1854; Archdiocese 1988)
Tijuana, Baja California (Diocese 1874; Archdiocese 2006)
Tlalnepantla, México (Diocese 1964; Archdiocese 1989)
Tulancingo, Hidalgo (Diocese 1863; Archdiocese 2006)
Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas (Diocese 1964; Archdiocese 2006)
Xalapa, Veracruz (Diocese 1863; Archdiocese 1962)
Yucatán (Diocese 1561; Archdiocese 1906)
2:13:5: Autonomous Churches
Anglican Church of Mexico (Iglesia Anglicana de México, IAM): This denomination began as a mission of the Episcopal Church to English-speaking residents in Mexico. Since 1906 the Mexican
Church of Jesus was incorporated into it, establishing parallel English and Spanish congregations.
It gained independent status as a member of the Anglican Communion in 1995.
Apostolic Church of the Faith in Christ Jesus (Iglesia Apostólica de la Fe en Cristo Jesus, IAFCJ):
The oldest and largest Oneness Pentecostal denomination, it was begun in 1914 by ROMANITA
CARBAJAL DE VALENZUELA, a convert to Pentecostalism during the Azusa Street revivals in
Los Angeles. The Apostolic Assembly has sent missionaries throughout Latin America and the
United States.
Assemblies of God in Mexico (Asambleas de Dios en México, ADM): Assemblies of God evangelists
had labored in Mexico and on the border between Mexico and the United States throughout the
late 1910s. However, one of the first permanent congregations was founded in 1922 in Monterrey by RODOLFO OROZCO. The Assemblies of God in Mexico was formally organized seven
years later. During the next several decades, the church faced internal and external challenges in
the form of schisms and persecution led by local Roman Catholic leaders. Since the 1960s it has
grown under native leadership and now administers over two dozen Bible schools to serve over
three thousand congregations.
Christian Apostolic Church of the Living God, Column and Pillar of Truth (Iglesia Apostólica
Cristiana del Dios Vivo Columna y Apoyo de la Verdad): This communitarian group now claims fifty
thousand members throughout Mexico. The main community, consisting of about four hundred
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families and known as “Jerusalem Province,” is located near the city of Cuernavaca. It was
founded by Francisco Jesús Adame Giles in 1978 in response to a vision he received calling him
to announce the kingdom of God. Adame claims control over his followers’ spiritual, economic,
and social lives.
Church of God in the Mexican Republic (Iglesia de Dios en la República Mexicana, IDRM): This
Pentecostal church was formed in 1930 by David Ruesga in response to frustration over the
excessive influence of US missionaries in the Assemblies of God in Mexico. In 1940 the church
established ties with the Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee), but another split in 1946 resulted
in the formation of the Full Gospel Church of God. The IDRM has a hierarchical structure, is
socially conservative, and espouses a dispensational, premillennial theology.
Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Church (Mexico) (Iglesia Evangélica Luterana Confesional
[México], IECLM): This group emerged from the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod in 1969
and is a member of the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference.
Independent Pentecostal Fraternity (Fraternidad Pentecostés Independiente, FPI): This confederation of autochthonous Pentecostal churches is composed of eight church associations and traces
its origins to the efforts of evangelists Esther and Axel Anderson. That so many autonomous
Pentecostal churches have arisen from the Anderson mission is ascribed to the congregational
nature of their church government that allows for different interpretations and variations within
the same tradition.
Light of the World (Luz del Mundo): This conservative Pentecostal church was founded in Guadalajara by EUSEBIO (AARÓN) JOAQUÍN GONZÁLEZ in 1926 as the result of visionary experiences. They are restorationists, believing that God has called them to restore primitive Christianity
and that other traditions have fallen away from the teachings of Jesus. They have sent missionaries to Europe and Africa. Beginning in the 1943, the church developed a close relationship with
Mexico’s ruling political party, PRI. In exchange for favors, church members would fill political
events and stuff ballot boxes during elections. The church is now led by González’s son Samuel
Joaquín Flores, who is regarded as God’s apostle on earth. In recent years there have been allegations of sexual abuse and financial mismanagement against Flores. Divisions within this movement have resulted in splinter groups, the Church of the Good Shepherd (1942) and the Church
of Jesus Christ (1965), founded by González’s son Abel Joaquín Avelar. The beliefs and practices
of these two groups are similar to that of the Light of the World.
Methodist Church of Mexico (Iglesia Metodista de México, IMM): This body comes from the nineteenth-century missionary efforts of the Methodist Episcopal Church and the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South (now the United Methodist Church) and became independent in 1930. The IMM
maintains an ecclesiastical presence throughout most of the country. It has a university, two theological seminaries, and over one hundred centers of theological studies by extension. Committed
to social justice in the communities where it is located, the church administers twelve schools from
nursery to high school, hospitals, clinics, orphanages, social centers, and two homes for the elderly.
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Mexican Apostolic Catholic Church (Iglesia Católica Apostólica Mexicana, ICAM):3 ICAM is also
known as the “Church of Mr. President” because it recognizes the Mexican president, not the
pope, as the highest spiritual authority. The church was founded by former Catholic bishop Eduardo Dávila de la Garza in response to an incident stemming from the alleged miracle of a bleeding Communion host that was reported to have taken place at his parish in Mexico City in 1978.
Dávila reported the matter to his superiors in Mexico and the Vatican who ordered him to burn
the wafer. For his refusal to carry out the order, Dávila and the twelve priests under him were
excommunicated; the new church was established in the same Catholic parish Dávila previously
supervised. This led to the arrest of José Camacho Melo, Dávila’s second-in-command (Dávila
died in 1985), for failing to turn over the property to the Roman Catholic Church.
Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church (Iglesia Católica Apostólica Mexicana, ICAM): Established by schismatic priest JOSÉ JOAQUÍN PÉREZ BUDAR in 1925, ICAM was supported by President Plutarco
Calles, who sought to challenge the power of the Roman Catholic Church by creating a national
church. Though retaining most Catholic dogma, it is a national church separate from Rome—clerical celibacy was abolished, the Mass is in Spanish, religious services are free, and the laity is allowed
to interpret the Bible for themselves. In 1972 a diocese of the Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church
converted en masse to form the Orthodox Church in America Exarchate of Mexico.
Mexican Church of Jesus (Iglesia Mexicana de Jesús): This church was begun by MANUEL BERMÚDEZ, Enrique Orestes, Rafael Díaz Martínez, and Francisco Domínguez—priests who supported the liberal reforms undertaken by President Benito Juárez and the 1857 Constitution. In
1864 they sought financial assistance and the ordination of a bishop from the Episcopal Church
so as to remain within apostolic succession. Relations with the Episcopal Church drew closer with
the conversion of Dominican preacher MANUAL AGUAS in 1867. The Church of Jesus became
part of the mission of the Episcopal Church (USA) in 1906. See!Anglican Church of Mexico.
Mexican-US Apostolic Catholic Traditional Church (Iglesia Católica Tradicional Mexicana-Estadounidense): This controversial church known for its veneration of Santa Muerte was founded by selfappointed bishop David Romo Guillén in 1994. From the 1960s through the 1980s Romo had
been involved with several traditionalist Catholic groups after the Vatican II reforms. He applied
to the Mexican government to register his church, but his request was not granted until 2003 and
then was revoked in 2005, possibly as the result of pressure from the Roman Catholic Church.
Services at the church are derived from the Catholic Mass including Communion, the use of the
rosary, and so on. The church is distinct in the centrality of Saint Death. Romo led processions of
the figure throughout the Tepito neighborhood in Mexico City and elsewhere, partially as a means
to draw worshippers from competitors who also seek to represent the image. In January 2011
3. Technically, the Mexican Apostolic Catholic Church and the Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church carry the
identical name in Spanish (Iglesia Católica Apostólica Mexicana) even though there is no genetic relation between the
two church bodies. I have chosen to switch the middle identifiers in this book as a way to distinguish between them.
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TH E H ISTO R IES OF TH E L AT I N A M E R I C A N C H U R C H
he and several followers were arrested on charges of kidnapping and money laundering. Romo
himself was convicted of aiding the kidnapping ring.
Movement of Independent Evangelical Pentecostal Church (Movimiento Iglesia Evangélica Pentecostés Independiente, MIEPI): formed by Valente Aponte González in 1930 when he split from the
Church of God in the Mexican Republic, the church is highly authoritarian, prizing uniformity
and excommunicating doctrinal and moral offenders. Its followers believe that they alone form
the true church and as a result are hostile to outsiders and refuse to participate in inter-Pentecostal
organizations.
National Baptist Convention of Mexico (Convención Nacional Bautista de México, CNBM): The
formal Baptist presence in Mexico dates from 1864 when American missionaries first established a church in the city of Monterrey. During the next four decades, American and Southern
Baptists continued to send workers until, by 1901, there existed about eighty congregations The
CNBM is the oldest and largest Baptist group in Mexico, organized in 1903 to unite the various
Baptist mission churches and transition their leadership from foreign missionaries to national
pastors and to enable congregations to come together in common causes. The Baptist effort,
led by the convention, experienced modest growth until 1910. The challenges of the Mexican
Revolution served as a mixed blessing for all Protestant groups: the separation of church and
state and similar reforms benefited the evangelicals, but native suspicion of all things Protestant,
especially after the failed US intervention of 1916, increased episodes of xenophobia and persecution. From the 1920s forward, the Baptist churches came increasingly under the control of
the convention, thus allowing native leaders themselves to direct the Baptist effort. In the 1970s
the missionary efforts of the Southern Baptist Church became fully integrated into the CNBM,
allowing the work to advance harmoniously and expand through evangelism. Presently, the
CNBM is engaged in a variety of ministries, including theological education, missions, publication, and charitable work.
National Presbyterian Church of Mexico (Iglesia Nacional Presbiteriana de México, INPM): The
National Presbyterian Church of Mexico was formally organized in 1947 out of the missionary
efforts of the Presbyterian Church USA (Northern Presbyterians) and the Presbyterian Church US
(Southern Presbyterians) that began in 1872. One of the larger Protestant churches in Mexico, it
includes over six thousand congregations and over 2.8 million members.
New Jerusalem Community (Nueva Jerusalén): This apocalyptic community was established in the
state of Michoacán in 1973 by a parish priest, Nabor Cardenas (Papá Nabor), in response to messages from the Our Lady of the Rosary to an elderly woman, Gabina Sanchez, nicknamed “Mamá
Salomé.” Recently they have been involved in clashes with the government over their refusal to
permit children to attend mandatory public school.
Presbyterian Reformed Church of Mexico (Iglesia Presbiteriana Reformada de México, IPRM): This
is the larger of the two groups that divided from the National Presbyterian Church of Mexico in
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1984 over the issue of missionary leadership to form the IPRM and the Independent Presbyterian
Church. Leadership in the denomination is trained at the John Calvin Theological Seminary in
Mexico City and three Bible institutes in Mexico City, Yucatán, and Tabasco.
2:13:6: Major Religious Festivals
January 6
Epiphany (Three Kings’ Day)
March-April
Holy Week
May 3
Festival of the Holy Cross
Removed from liturgical calendar in 1960 but common throughout much of Latin
America, this springtime festival was first celebrated by the Spanish on the island
of Cozumel, originally named “Santa Cruz Island.” Presently, the day is observed in
Mexico primarily by construction workers, masons, and other builders. Decorated
altars are prepared, and crosses, sometimes adorned with flowers, are placed at the
highest point of a construction project as a focus of faith to protect builders from
danger. Local foods and drink make this a celebratory day.
November 1–2
All Saints’ Day and All Souls’ Day (Day of the Dead)
December 12
Our Lady of Guadalupe
This celebrates the anniversary of the apparition of the Virgin Mary to JUAN DIEGO
CUAUHTLATOATZIN in 1531. In addition to the millions of pilgrims who converge
on the Basilica of Guadalupe in Mexico City (the most visited pilgrimage site outside
of Rome), other Latin Americans and Mexicans of the diaspora observe this day
worldwide.
December 16–24
Las Posadas
Recalling the New Testament story of the journey to Bethlehem, celebrants meet
each night to follow children who are dressed as Mary and Joseph, shepherds, and
angels as they go from place to place singing traditional carols to ask for, and be
denied, shelter. Eventually, the crowd finds welcome in a home or other building.
They sing songs, recite the rosary, and enjoy traditional foods and a piñata.
December 25
Christmas
2:13:7: Popular Devotions
Cristo Aparecido
The “Appeared Christ” is a sculpted figure of Christ dead on the cross dating from 1543. It is a
popular devotion among the indigenous people in the town of Totolapan in the central state of
Morelos.
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TH E H ISTO R IES OF TH E L AT I N A M E R I C A N C H U R C H
Christ of Chalma
The Christ of Chalma is a statue of the crucified Jesus dating from 1537. According to one tradition, Augustinian friars discovered an image of the god Oxtoteotl in a local cave, but when they
returned to destroy it, it had transformed into a figure of Jesus. Many believe that this is a perfect
example of the replacement of traditional deities with Catholic images in order to facilitate the
conversion of the Indians. The statue was venerated in the cave until 1633 when a sanctuary was
built for it nearby. It is the second-most-visited pilgrimage site in Mexico. (Feast day: July 1)
Jesús Malverde
This legendary outlaw, supposedly dating from the early 1900s, has attained a Robin Hood status.
Considered a narco-saint, he is often patronized by outlaws and drug traffickers.
Niño Fidencio
Born José de Jesús Fidencio Constantino Síntora (1898–1938) in Nuevo Leon, he is revered as a
saint and healer. After 1921 he reportedly began to cure people of infirmities, including the president of Mexico in 1928. He is not recognized by the Catholic Church. (Celebrated on March 19)
Juan Soldado
A convicted murder and rapist, Juan Soldado became a folk hero and saint in northwestern Mexico and southwestern United States. Devotees claim that he was framed for the crimes and aids
those dealing with criminal problems, facing family matters, or crossing the Mexico-US border.
He is not recognized by the Catholic Church.
Our Lady of Guadalupe
The Virgin Mary appeared as a dark-skinned native woman speaking in Nahuatl to JUAN DIEGO
CUAUHTLATOATZIN on Tepeyac hill in modern Mexico City on December 9 to 12, 1531. She
is patron saint of Mexico, patroness of the Americas, empress of Latin America, and protectress
of Unborn Children. Her devotion was controversial at first, thought by Franciscans to be a ruse
to disguise the worship of traditional gods. However, throughout the colonial era her popularity increased, especially after her intercessions saved Mexico City from floods in the seventeenth
century. She became the focus of Creole identity and pride before the wars of independence and
later was the symbol of the insurrection led by MIGUEL HIDALGO against the Spanish. Declared
patron of New Spain in 1754 and queen of Mexico in 1945, Guadalupe has become synonymous
with Mexican identity. Miraculously imprinted on the cloak of Juan Diego, her image is housed in
the New Basilica of Guadalupe in Mexico City where millions of pilgrims visit her every December. (Feast day: December 12)
Our Lady of Remedies
This statue of the Virgin Mary arrived in 1519 with the Spanish conquistadors and is housed in
Cholula, Puebla. Though she is associated with the Spanish conquests, for natives the resemblance
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of the crescent moon on which she stands with the maguey plant points to the life-sustaining
power of God.
Our Lady of San Juan de los Lagos
The most popular Mexican image of Mary after Guadalupe, her devotion dates from the seventeenth century. Celebrated late January or early February.
Saint Philip of Jesus
Saint Philip of Jesus was a Mexican missionary and martyr; he is the patron saint of Mexico City.
(Feast day: February 5)
Santa Muerte
A controversial folk devotion to Saint Death, it has roots in indigenous religion and European
representations of the Grim Reaper. It is unofficial and unapproved by the Roman Catholic
Church. There is evidence of an underground devotion to Santa Muerte dating from the late eighteenth century, but it was not until the 1990s that the cult came above ground. In 2001 Enriqueta
Romera erected a statue of Saint Death in her home’s storefront window in the Tepito barrio of
Mexico City, triggering a popular public devotion in this very poor and violent neighborhood.
The devotion is often associated with criminals and narco-traffickers, though in actuality it is
widespread in every social stratum. As the personification of death, she is hailed as nonjudgmental
and impartial, often regarded as a saint of last resort when petitions to Christ or the Virgin go
unanswered.
Santo Niño de Atocha
Santo Niño de Atocha is a popular devotion depicting the child Jesus as a pilgrim. It dates from
the Spanish Reconquista. Legend states that in Mexico the child saved the lives of trapped miners.
Virgin of Juquila
This small figure of Mary of the Immaculate Conception in the town of Santa Catarina Juqila,
Oaxaca, was brought over from Spain by a friar and given to a local native. In 1633 the village
and church in which she was housed burned down but the figure was found undamaged, except
that her white skin and blonde hair had become dark, reflecting her devotees. (Feast Day: December 8)
Virgin of Zapopan
This statue of the Virgin Mary in Zapopan, Jalisco, was created in 1541. She is invoked in cases of
water shortages. From June 13 to October 12 her image is taken throughout the churches in the
city of Guadalajara, traveling in festive procession to the Cathedral of Guadalajara before returning to Zapopan. She is patroness of the State of Jalisco.
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2:13:8: Saints and Blesseds
Saints:
Aleman, Rodrigo Aguilar (1875–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Alvarado, Atilano Cruz (1901–1928): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Bermudez, David Galván (1881–1915): Priest and martyr (Feast Day: January 29)
Cortés, Agustín Caloca (1898–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Delgadillo, Jenaro Sánchez (1886–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin, Juan (1474–1548): Received the vision of Our Lady of Guadalupe (Feast
day: December 9)
García, Margarito Flores (1899–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: November 12)
García Zavala, María Guadalupe (1878–1963): Cofounder, Congregation of the Servants of Saint
Margaret Mary (Feast day: June 24)
González, Toribio Romo (1900–1928): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Hurtado, José María Robles (1888–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Jara, Cristóbal Magallanes (1869–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Lara, David Roldán (1907–1926): Martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Las Casas, Felipe Jesús de (1572–1597): Missionary and martyr; patron saint of Mexico City
(Feast day: February 5)
Madrigal, Justino Orona (1877–1928): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Magallanes, Mateo Correa (1866–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Maldonado, Pedro de Jesús (1892–1937): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Mendoza, Julio Álvarez (1866–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Montoya, Jesús Méndez (1880–1928): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Mora, Miguel de la Mora de la (1874–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Morales, Manuel (1898–1926): Martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Puente, Salvador Lara (1905–1926): Martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Ramírez, Pedro Esqueda (1887–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Robles, Tranquilino Ubiarco (1899–1928): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Rosales, Román Adame (1859–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Sáinz, Luis Batis (1870–1926): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Salazar, Sabas Reyes (1883–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Valencia, Rafael Guízar (1878–1938): Bishop of Veracruz (Feast day: June 6)
Varela, José Isabel Flores (1866–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Velasco, David Uribe (1888–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War (Feast day: May 21)
Venegas, María de Jesús Sacramentado (1868–1959): Founder, Daughters of the Sacred Heart of
Jesus (Feast day: July 30)
Yermo y Parres, José Maria de (1851–1904): Founder, Religious Servants of the Sacred Heart of
Jesus and the Poor (Feast day: September 20)
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Blesseds:
Acosta Zurita, Ángel Darío (1908–1921): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War
Ángeles, Jacinto de los (1660–1700): Indigenous martyr
Bautista, Juan (1660–1700): Indigenous martyr
Castillo, Elías del Socorro Nieves del (1882–1928): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War
Child Martyrs of Tlaxcala Cristóbal (d.1527), Antonio (d.1529), Juan (d.1529)
Flores, Anacleto González (1888–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War
Gutiérrez, Bartolomé (1580–1632): Priest, missionary, martyred in Japan
Huerta Gutiérrez, Ezequiel (1876–1927): Martyr of the Cristero War
Huerta Gutiérrez, Salvador (1880–1927): Martyr of the Cristero War
Larios, Leonardo Pérez (1883–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War
Laurel, Bartolomé Días (1599–1627): Indigenous Franciscan medic and missionary, martyred in
Japan
Loza, Miguel Gómez (1888–1928): Martyr of the Cristero War
Orozco, María Vicenta Chávez (1867–1949): Founder, Congregation of the Servants of the Poor
(Servants of the Holy Trinity and the Poor)
Padilla Gómez, Luis 1899–1927): Martyr of the Cristero War
Palafox y Mendoza, Juan de (1600–1659): Bishop of Puebla, interim archbishop of Mexico
Prado, Sebastián de Aparicio (1502–1600): Franciscan friar
Pro Juárez, Miguel Agustín (1891–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War
Rangel Montaño, José Trinidad (1887–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War
Río, José Luis Sánchez del (1913–1928): Child martyr of the Cristero War
Serra, Fray Junípero (1713–1784): Priest and missionary
Servín, Luis Magaña (1902–1928): Martyr of the Cristero War
Solá y Molist, Andrés (1895–1927): Priest, martyr of the Cristero War
Vargas González, Jorge (1899–1927): Martyr of the Cristero War
Vargas González, Ramón (1905–1927): Martyr of the Cristero War
2:13:9: Biographies
Aguas, Manuel (d. 1872): Physician, professor of theology and philosophy, former Dominican
priest, and early Protestant leader. As a gifted orator he served as preacher to the archbishop at
the Metropolitan Cathedral in Mexico City. In 1867, while reading Protestant literature in an
effort to challenge Protestantism, he was converted and aligned himself with Episcopal clergyman
Henry Riley and the Mexican Church of Jesus, taking over their leadership and healing its internal
divisions. Aguas took on a more confrontational tone before the Catholic Church, writing tracts
attacking it, challenging priests to debate, and defending evangelical Protestantism; he also disassociated the movement from Juárez’s Liberal government, bringing it closer to the mission of the
Episcopal Church. His efforts were questioned by Church of Jesus founder Enrique Orestes, who
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criticized Aguas’s belligerent tone as harmful to Catholic-Protestant relations and accused him of
selling out “poor” Mexico for the “rich and powerful” United States.
Arceo, Sergio Méndez (1907–1992): Bishop of Cuernavaca (1952–1982), human rights activist, and theologian. Graduated from the Pontifical Gregorian University of Rome, Arcea was
ordained in 1934 and served as professor of history and philosophy. As bishop, he renovated the
cathedral in Cuernavaca and attracted parishioners through his personality, sermons, and innovations, including the “Mariachi Mass.” Arceo supported the reforms of Vatican II, particularly
those that encouraged the study of the Bible, empowered the laity, and promoted the application
of the gospel in the particular contexts of its followers. Arceo’s advocacy for the destitute and
marginalized, including his use of Marxist social analysis, isolated him from fellow bishops, most
of whom were conservative. From the late 1960s onward he was successful in implementing the
growth of base ecclesial communities in his diocese. An advocate of burgeoning liberation theology, Arceo was the only Mexican prelate to attend the 1972 Christians for Socialism conference
in Chile, made up of Protestants and Catholics who sought to find common ground between
Christianity and socialism. Actions such as his denunciation of US intervention in Vietnam and
Central America and the Cuban embargo, as well as his protests against the military dictatorships
of Latin America and his support of the Nicaraguan Sandinistas and Fidel Castro’s rule, earned
him the nickname “Red Bishop” and an investigation by the FBI. Shortly after his retirement, Pope
John Paul II sought to reverse Arceo’s work by appointing conservative bishops.
Bermúdez, Manuel (d. 1867): Liberal priest turned schismatic “Constitutionalist Father.” Supporting the reforms undertaken by the Juárez government and frustrated by the Catholic hierarchy’s seeming corruption, Bermúdez, along with several other priests, broke with their superiors
and endorsed the 1857 Constitution that enshrined the anticlerical Laws of Reform. In 1859 he
and the others sought, in the words of one early leader, to create a “reformed church, intended
to be national, liturgic [sic], and having its foundation laid in the Scriptures and its Apostolic
pattern.” Bermúdez was among the leaders of this group, later known as the Mexican Church of
Jesus, who sought after a connection with the Episcopal Church in the United States, both for
financial support and legitimate apostolic succession.
Cabrera, Miguel (1695–1768): Mexican painter during the viceroyalty of New Spain. Among
Cabrera’s most famous paintings is the portrait of SOR JUANA INÉS DE LA CRUZ now in the
National History Museum in Mexico City. In 1752 he was given access to the image of Our Lady
of Guadalupe to make three copies: one for the pope, one for the archbishop, and a third to use
as a model for further copies. This resulted in a famous painting of the icon, popularly known as
the Maravilla Americana (American Marvel).
Castellanos, Alfonso Navarro (1935–2003): Member of the Congregation Missionaries of the
Holy Spirit; leader of the Charismatic Renewal movement in Mexico; theologian, evangelist,
speaker. Ordained in 1962, Castellanos returned to Mexico after studying in Europe and serving
in Peru. He developed courses in spiritual formation that led to the development, in 1980, of the
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Integral System of Evangelization (SINE), a catechetical program for evangelistic and pastoral
care. It is widely used throughout Latin America as a means of re-evangelizing nominal Roman
Catholics.
Clavijero, Francisco Xavier (1731–1787): Jesuit scholar and historian from the state of Veracruz.
Clavijero spent his life learning about indigenous cultures and later, as a professor at the College
of San Gregorio, devoted himself to studying Aztec books and codices dating from the Spanish
conquest. After the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 he relocated to Italy and, in an effort to educate Europeans on the culture of indigenous Americans, wrote the ten-volume Ancient History
of Mexico in 1780. He presents the pre-Columbian Americans as peaceful, good, and worthy of
admiration. This and other works rely heavily on original sources; his work is regarded as a precursor to modern historical scholarship.
Cortéz, Hernán (1485–1547): Spanish explorer; leader of the expedition that led to the collapse
of the Aztec Empire, thus bringing large parts of mainland Mexico, now renamed New Spain,
under the rule of Castile. As conqueror, he was horrified at Aztec religious practices, particularly human sacrifice, and sought to convert the emperor, Moctezuoma, to Catholicism through
entreaty and by supplanting indigenous gods with Christian symbols. As governor of New Spain,
he built churches on the ruins of Aztec temples and sponsored the evangelistic efforts of the religious orders.
Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin, Juan (1474–1548): Indigenous Mexican convert to Catholicism who,
in 1531, saw the apparition of Our Lady of Guadalupe on Tepeyac hill in what is now Mexico
City. There have been doubts expressed about his historical existence, but the Codex Escalada,
purportedly from 1548 and made public in 1995, records his existence and the apparition story.
Testing on the parchment thus far has confirmed a sixteenth-century origin.
Dussel, Enrique (1934–): Philosopher, theologian, and historian. Born in Argentina, Dussell
received a doctorate in philosophy from the Complutense University of Madrid, a doctorate in
history from the Sorbonne, Paris, and a license in theology from Paris and Münster. Forced to
leave his native Argentina for political reasons, Dussel settled in Mexico. He is now professor
of philosophy at the Metropolitan Autonomous University in Mexico City. He is known as a
founder of the philosophy of liberation that seeks to develop an ethic of liberation within the
Latin American rather than European context. Toward that end he was a founder and is the
current president of CEHILA. He has served as general editor and contributor to several exhaustive works on the topic that seek to develop an interpretation of history from the vantage of the
marginalized. For Dussel, philosophy and history can serve as valuable tools in the struggle of the
poor toward liberation.
Fabián y Fuero, Francisco (1719–1801): Spanish prelate representative of the Catholic Enlightenment; appointed bishop of Puebla (1764–1773) by Charles III. As bishop, Fabián y Fuero sought
to organize the administration and finances of the diocese, promote ecclesiastical discipline, root
out superstitious practices, and reform worship so as to emphasize spiritual meaning rather than
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baroque excess. In addition, he published a catechism in response to the Fourth Provincial Council, founded a library, supported the foundation for an academy of literature, endowed professorships, and established a college for Indian youth. He also served as archbishop of Valencia, Spain
(1773–1794).
González, Aarón (Eusebio) Joaquín (1896–1964): Founder of the Light of the World church.
While a soldier during the Mexican Revolution he converted to Oneness Pentecostalism and
left the military, seeing it as incompatible with his new faith. He experienced a series of visions
instructing him to go to Guadalajara, the new holy city, and later to restore the original New
Testament church, since lost, under the name “Aaron.” The first church of the Light of the World
opened in 1934. In 1955, partly as the result of a schism in the church and accusations of sexual
impropriety, González founded a new mother church and a new community for the movement in
the outskirts of Guadalajara, providing health, educational, and other services.
Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel (1753–1811): Priest and father of Mexican independence. Extremely
well-educated, even for his time, Hidalgo’s studies of French and Italian in addition to traditional
subjects allowed him to access works of Enlightenment authors. Ordained to the priesthood in
1778, he served as professor and later treasurer and dean of the Saint Nicholas College but was
ousted as a result of financial mismanagement. He was brought before the Inquisition for unorthodox religious ideas, reading banned books, and drinking and eating “to excess.” He became a
parish priest in Dolores, Guanajuato in 1803, then handed over operations of the parish to others while he devoted himself to promoting economic ventures for the poor. Hidalgo was part of
literary societies that debated and circulated Enlightenment ideals, was known for welcoming
Indians and mestizos to his social events, and fathered several children. In the light of Napoleon’s
usurpation of the Spanish throne, he became part of a group planning a revolt against the colonial
government. Warned of a betrayal in their midst, Hidalgo gave the famous cry for independence,
the Grito de Dolores, on September 15, 1810. Using as a standard the image of Our Lady of
Guadalupe, he led an insurrection of armed Indians and peasants throughout central Mexico.
Defeated and captured by royalist forces, Hidalgo was executed June 26, 1811.
Inés de la Cruz, Sor Juana (1648–1695): Scholar, poet, polymath, nun. Born Juana Inés de
Asbaje, she learned to read at age three and knew Greek, Latin, and Nahuatl by adolescence. She
was also lady-in-waiting to the vicereine. Not wishing to be married and desiring independence
for her studies, Juana entered the Hieronymite convent in 1669. Here she embarked on a long and
illustrious writing career, protected by the new viceroy and vicereine from church officials who
believed that her studies were unbecoming a nun. Hailed in her lifetime as the “Tenth Muse” and
the “American Phoenix,” she wrote a number of notable works in addition to her poems, plays,
and carols. Among them are the following:
•
•
“Hombres necios que acusáis . . .” (Silly you men, who accuse . . . , 1680): A well-known
poem attacking the hypocrisy of men in their relations toward women.
First Dream (1685): A metaphysical exploration of the self’s pursuit of knowledge.
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The Divine Narcissus (1690): A sacramental play to be performed in Spain whose prologue defends the integrity of pre-Columbian religion.
Reply to Sor Filotea (1691): A response to her pseudonymous critics, partly autobiographical, defending a woman’s right to an education and even to study and comment on
theology.
Deprived of the viceroy’s protection after he was recalled to Spain, she renounced her writings
and sold her four-thousand-volume library, perhaps under pressure from the archbishop (though
a recently discovered document indicates that she may have sold her library voluntarily to help the
poor during a time of crisis). She died during a plague outbreak in 1695. In her cell were found
a number of recent poems, indicating that she had intended to again take up her pen. Remains
discovered in 1978 in a mass grave at the site of her convent (now a university) point towards
belonging to her but are undergoing DNA testing.
Kino, Eusebio: See!LATINOS IN THE UNITED STATES!BIOGRAPHIES.
Labastida y Dávalos, Pelagio Antonio (1816–1891): Professor of canon law, bishop of Puebla,
and, later, politician. After Mexican Independence he opposed the Liberals and aligned himself
with Conservatives. He was consecrated bishop of Puebla in 1855 after the Conservatives took
power under Santa Anna. When the Liberals regained control, Labastida was accused of using
church funds to support a revolt; he was exiled to Europe in 1856 and again in 1857 when he was
ordered to return to Mexico by the pope. While in Europe he participated in the plan to install
Maximilian of Austria as emperor of Mexico during the French occupation. Labastida was named
archbishop of Mexico in March 1863 but returned to Europe in 1867, disillusioned that under
Maximilian the Reform Laws were still in place and freedom of religion continued. He attended
the First Vatican Council in 1869 and 1870 then was permitted to return to Mexico by Benito
Juárez in 1871. During the presidency of Porfirio Díaz, Labastida moderated his tone in critiquing
the government and encouraged believers to participate in the civic life of the nation, thus aiding
the conciliation between the church and state and allowing him to bring church administration
up-to-date and to found pious societies.
Las Casas, Bartolomé de: See!DOMINICAN REPUBLIC!BIOGRAPHIES.
Las Casas, Felipe de Jesús de (1571/72–1597): Franciscan missionary. Born in Mexico City of
Spanish immigrants, he was sent to the Philippines on a business trip by his father. He later joined
the Franciscan order, taking his vows in 1594. On his way to Mexico to be ordained to the priesthood, a storm deviated his ship to Japan. At this time the Japanese emperor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, was antagonistic to the Christian missionary presence. Las Casas was among the twenty-six
Martyrs of Japan to be crucified in Nagasaki. He was canonized in 1862 and is the patron saint
of Mexico City.
Lorenzana, Francisco Antonio de (1722–1804): Archbishop of Mexico (1766–1772) and intellectual representative of the Catholic Enlightenment. As archbishop, Lorenzana sought to reform
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piety, attacked superstitious practices, and prioritized the spoken word in sermons and catechesis
over visual imagery and emotional display. He also founded charities and convened the Fourth
Provincial Council. In the struggle between the Jesuits and the royal power, Lorenzana supported
the expulsion of the order. He oversaw the compilation of native language grammars and collections of Aztec artifacts, as well as curiosities from the natural world. During the later decades of
his life he served as cardinal-archbishop of Toledo, Spain (1772–1804).
Mier, Fray Servando Teresa de (1765–1827): Dominican friar and priest; noted preacher. On
December 12, 1794, he preached a sermon before the viceroy and other notables claiming that
Our Lady of Guadalupe had not appeared to Juan Diego as traditionally held but that he merely
rediscovered the miraculous image that had been imprinted on the cloak of Saint Thomas the
Apostle who had evangelized the Americas in the first century. This claim undermined the entire
Spanish colonial enterprise, which had been justified on the basis of the evangelization of natives.
Fray Servando was exiled to Spain for ten years. While in Europe, sometimes as a free man and
other times as a fugitive, he left the Dominican Order, became a secular priest, and supported
Latin American independence. On his return to Mexico he was arrested, escaped, and fled to
Philadelphia until Mexican independence was established. Becoming part of the First National
Congress, Servando opposed the empire under Agustín de Iturbide. He was imprisoned again but
escaped. As a member of the Second National Congress, Fray Servando championed a moderate
centrist government and, in the absence of papal recognition of an independent Mexico, suggested
the formation of a nationalist Catholic church. His memoirs, covering 1795 to 1805, were first
published in 1876.
Morelos y Pavón, José María (1765–1815): Priest and Mexican insurgent. Born of African,
Spanish, and indigenous roots in Valladolid (now Morelia), Michoacán, Morelos began studying
for the priesthood in 1790 where he met MIGUEL HIDALGO Y COSTILLA; he was ordained
a priest in 1799. Upon learning of the Hidalgo insurgency he joined them in October 1810 in
Indaparapeo, Michoacán, where Hidalgo commissioned him to raise troops in the south. After
Hidalgo’s execution, Morelos became the leader of the rebellion, gaining several victories including Acapulco and Oaxaca. In November 1810 Morelos abolished slavery and the caste system. He
convened the Congress of Chilpancingo in 1813 that formally declared Mexican independence.
Taken prisoner by royalist forces, he was defrocked and executed by firing squad.
Orozco, Rodolfo (1891–1991): Founder of the Assemblies of God in Mexico. Born in Nuevo
León, Mexico, Orozco came to the United States as a migrant worker, converted to Pentecostalism in 1915, and began working as an evangelist among Mexican Americans in Texas. In 1918 he
was officially ordained an evangelist by the Assemblies of God. He returned to Monterrey, Nuevo
León, in 1922, began working with Mexican Pentecostals there, and founded the first Assemblies
of God church. When the Mexican work became independent of the United States, becoming the
Assemblies of God in Mexico, Orozco assisted its institutional development—serving as superintendent and founding churches and an all-women’s Bible institute.
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Padilla, Juan Gutiérrez de (ca. 1590–1664): Composer. Born and educated in Málaga, Spain,
Padilla served in several cities in Andalucía before immigrating in 1622 to New Spain, where
he began working at the Puebla Cathedral, still under construction. In 1629 Padilla became its
maestro de capilla (chapel master, or Kapellmeister), responsible for the whole of the cathedral’s
music program including teaching the singers and instrumentalists. Padilla provided the church,
which had a choir considered the best in Spain’s colonies, with a wide range of music from Latin
masses and special litanies to villancicos set to the popular music and vernacular dialects of the
Indians, Africans, European immigrants, and others who populated the city. Padilla was wellknown for taking traditional forms and enlivening them with the sounds and rhythms of the New
World. Perhaps to the envy of struggling church musicians today, Padilla’s work was aided and
enhanced by the personal and financial support of the bishop of Puebla, JUAN DE PALAFOX Y
MENDOZA.
Palafox y Mendoza, Juan de (1600–1659): Bishop of Puebla (1640–1654), viceroy of New
Spain (June–November 1642). Born in Navarra, Spain, Palafox studied law, served on the Council
of the Indies that administered New World affairs, and was named visitor-general of New Spain
and bishop of Puebla in 1639. As bishop he believed in the colonial mission of the Spanish Crown;
he sought to improve colonial administration, founded schools and colleges, donated his personal
library of five thousand books on science and philosophy to a seminary, protected the Indians
from violence and forced conversion, supported the construction of churches and the music programs at Puebla Cathedral, and used the Inquisition to ferret out crypto-Jews. As a loyal regalist,
he accused the viceroy of supporting Portugal over Spain and had him deposed, becoming viceroy
for five months. Palafox came into conflict with the Jesuit Order, but his contentiousness resulted
in being recalled to Spain in 1649. King Charles II petitioned for his canonization in 1694. The
case was stalled in 1777 until Pope John Paul II reopened it. Palafox was beatified by Benedict
XVI in 2011.
Pérez Budar, José Joaquín (1851–1931): Schismatic priest; founder of the Mexican Catholic
Apostolic Church. Born on Oaxaca, Pérez entered the priesthood in 1881 after the death of his
wife. Pérez was jailed several times due to conflicts with civil and church authorities. He began
to associate with members of schismatic churches, including the Mexican Church of Jesus. In
1925 he founded the Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church in Mexico City. Though retaining most
Catholic dogma, it was a national church separate from Rome: abolishing clerical celibacy, holding the Mass in Spanish, providing religious services for free, and allowing the laity to interpret
the Bible for themselves. Pérez sought out and received the support of President Calles, who was
seeking to disrupt the Roman Catholic Church. During the period of church-state conflict leading to the Cristero War, attendance at the Mexican Catholic Church increased and the church
spread, in part due to its free services and sacraments. It continued after Perez’s death, though in
1972 one of the diocese converted en masse to form the Orthodox Church in America Exarchate
of Mexico.
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Pro, Miguel Agustín (1891–1927): Jesuit priest and martyr of the Cristero War. Born in Guadalupe, Zacatecas, to a mining family, Pro entered the Jesuit novitiate in 1911 where he was
well-known among his superiors and companions both for the seriousness of his spirituality
and for his playful nature. He studied in Granada, Spain, and was ordained a priest in Belgium in 1925. Pro returned to Mexico during the time of President Calles’s suppression of the
Roman Catholic Church and became part of the underground church visiting small groups,
often in disguise, and administering the sacraments. After a failed assassination attempt on
ex-president Obregón, Pro and his brothers were arrested in Mexico City despite evidence of
their innocence. President Calles himself ordered the execution on November 23, 1927, and Pro
was killed by firing squad while he held his arms in a cruciform position and shouted, “Long
live Christ the King!” Calles had the execution photographed as a means to intimidate the
Cristeros. Undaunted, a reported sixty thousand people arrived for his funeral. Miguel Pro was
beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1988.
Quiroga, Vasco de (ca. 1477–1565): First Bishop of Michoacán. Born in Spain, Quiroga studied law and theology; he served as judge in the second Audiencia of New Spain, the council that
governed the colony from 1531 to 1535. Consecrated as bishop of Michoacán in 1538, he sought
to organize his diocese into small towns based on ideas from Thomas More’s Utopia—gathering
Indians into communities to be taught crafts, agricultural skills, religion, and self-government. His
towns harbored runaway slaves, and Quiroga himself condemned Indian slavery in a treatise sent
to Charles I of Spain. While in Europe for the Council of Trent he was called upon by the Spanish
king to give his advice on colonial affairs.
Rankin, Melinda (1811–1888): Presbyterian missionary and teacher. Born in New Hampshire
but learning of the need for teachers in the Mississippi Valley, Rankin established several schools
in Kentucky, Alabama, and Mississippi as an outreach to recent Catholic immigrants. In Mississippi she was encouraged by stories of soldiers returning from the Mexican-American War and
moved to Brownsville, Texas, in 1852. She developed a school for Mexican girls in 1854 with the
help of the Presbyterian Board of Education. When religious freedom was achieved in Mexico,
Rankin began to venture across the border to distribute Bibles and other religious materials. During the Civil War, Rankin was forced to abandon her work along the border but in 1865 went to
Monterrey to establish a school. Rankin’s efforts dovetailed with those of Baptist minister James
Hickey, and their movement became the first Baptist church in Mexico in 1864. Her work also
led to the foundation of the Presbyterian Church in Mexico, including the fourteen congregations
that she and the nationals she mobilized had established. Rankin returned to the United States due
to poor health and died in Bloomington, Illinois.
Ruiz García, Samuel (1924–2011): Bishop of San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chiapas (1959–2000).
As bishop in the poverty-stricken Chiapas, Ruiz brought to light the abuses and inequalities
suffered by the Mayan population. Influenced by the Second Vatican Council, Ruiz sought to
challenge the prevailing views of the church and in the 1970s trained Indian catechists, ordered
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translations of the Bible and religious materials in the indigenous languages, and included Mayan
expressions of spirituality in worship. His advocacy on behalf of the Maya brought him into conflict with the government, which accused him of fomenting the Zapatista uprising in 1994—an
uprising he in fact quelled in 1995 by serving as mediator between the government and the rebels.
Because of his efforts to empower the Indians, landowners accused Ruiz of being communist
and inspiring class warfare; the Vatican believed he was trying to create an ethnically politicized
church. Ruiz was asked to step down from his position in 1993 but his fellow clerics stepped in to
support him and he did not retire until 2000. He was the recipient of several human rights awards.
Sahagún, Bernardino de (1499–1590): Franciscan friar, missionary, and ethnographer. Born
Bernardo de Ribiera in Spain, he attended the University of Salamanca and was ordained around
1527. Sahagún arrived in New Spain in 1529 and helped establish the Royal College of Santa
Cruz in Tlatelolco to recruit native men to the priesthood and to study indigenous languages.
During his tenure at the college, he collaborated with his students to produce Nahuatl manuscripts that documented indigenous beliefs, cultural and social customs, the Aztec version of the
conquest, and the natural environment. This enormous work, the Florentine Codex, was created
as the result of fieldwork and interviews with those who experienced life before the conquest,
unfiltered by Spanish influences. It is seen by some as marking the beginning of anthropology.
Serra, Junípero: See!LATINOS IN THE UNITED STATES!BIOGRAPHIES.
Sigüenza y Góngora, Carlos de (1645–1700): Intelectual and polymath. Born in Mexico City,
Sigüenza entered the Society of Jesus in 1660 but was expelled around 1667 for disciplinary reasons. Sigüenza returned to the University of Mexico and continued his theological and scientific
studies there. In 1672 he was named the chair of mathematics and exact science; he was ordained
the next year. Sigüenza’s career spans a multitude of disciplines. In addition to teaching mathematics and astrology, he was a cartographer, serving as a royal geographer, hospital chaplain, poet,
historian, and philosopher. In 1681 he wrote a treatise that used Galileo, Copernicus, Kepler,
and other noted authors to support his thesis that the comets were merely natural phenomena,
dispelling the common notion that comets were supernatural portents. He was a close friend of
SOR JUANA INÉS DE LA CRUZ and delivered her eulogy in 1695. A passion of Sigüenza’s was
Mexico’s pre-Columbian past: he acquired an important collection of codices and manuscripts
dating from the early seventeenth century and was the first to explore the ruins of the city of
Teotihuacán. Much of this interest is related to his resistance to the prevailing view that the New
World’s cultures and peoples (both preconquest and postconquest) were naturally inferior to
those of Europe. To this end he glorified the Aztec Empire as equal to ancient Greece or Rome and
believed that the New World owed its evangelization not to Spain but to the efforts of St. Thomas
the Apostle shortly after the death and resurrection of Jesus. In these assertions, he is seen as a
precursor to Mexican nationalism.
Thompson, James “Diego”: See!ARGENTINA!BIOGRAPHIES.
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TH E H ISTO R IES OF TH E L AT I N A M E R I C A N C H U R C H
Tomelín y Campos, María de Jesús (1579–1637): Conceptionist nun and mystic. Born in Mexico City to Spanish parents, she was subject to visions and mystical experiences since childhood.
She entered the Conceptionalist convent in Puebla in 1598. Seeking “Christian perfection,” she
mortified her body through fasts, flagellations, and other painful means. She reportedly enjoyed
mystic experiences such as clairvoyance, bilocation, prophecy, and others, much to the chagrin of
her fellow sisters, a persecution she bore with patience and humility. She was beatified in 1785.
Townsend, William Cameron (1896–1982): American missionary; cofounder of Wycliffe Bible
Translators (WBT) and the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL). Born in Southern California
into a Presbyterian family, Townsend evangelized in Guatemala from 1917 to 1932, eventually
under the Central American Mission, selling Spanish Bibles to the indigenous peoples, organizing a school, teaching literacy, and translating the New Testament into a regional Mayan dialect.
Convinced that access to the Bible in the indigenous languages would not only help convert the
Maya to Protestantism but also lend to their social improvement, Townsend began to advocate for
the wholesale study of indigenous languages under the recent interest in the science of linguistics.
With the support of Mexican president Lázaro Cárdenas, Townsend and associate L. L. Letgers
organized a summer camp in the US state of Arkansas in 1936 named Camp Wycliffe after the
first translator of the New Testament into English. He would take his students to Mexico for field
studies. This would eventually lead to formation of the WBT, focusing on Bible translation, and
the SIL, which documents indigenous languages from around the world and provides instructional
materials in linguistics to schools and universities internationally. The Mexico City office was
established in 1948.
Valenzuela, Romana Carbajal de (d. 1918): Pentecostal evangelist and founder of the Apostolic
Church of Faith in Jesus Christ. Two years later she was converted to Pentecostalism in Los Angeles, California. In 1914 she returned to her family in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico, converting
twelve members of her family and planting a church. Having to return to her husband in Los
Angeles, she converted a local Methodist pastor, Rúben Ortega, and gave him charge of the small
body of believers, giving him orders to baptize “in Jesus’ name,” and thus beginning Oneness Pentecostalism in Mexico. Valenzuela’s movement quickly spread to neighboring states.
Zumárraga, Juan de (1468–1548): Franciscan; bishop (1528–1547) and then archbishop
(1547–1548) of Mexico. Born in Durango, Spain, Zumárraga caught the attention of Charles
I and arrived in Mexico as bishop-elect and “Protector of the Indians” in 1528. In 1534, on a
return trip to Spain, he was consecrated bishop. In New Spain he worked with civil authorities
to stabilize colonial administration, advocate for the Indians, and promote native education and
Christianization. To this latter end he helped found the College of Santa Cruz to educate and train
the children of Aztec nobles for the priesthood. Charged with evangelizing the natives and abolishing their worship, Zumárraga destroyed valuable native manuscripts, permitted the destruction
of temples, and conducted inquisitorial proceedings to root out idolatry among the converts. He
introduced the printing press in 1536, the first in the Americas, to publish religious materials and
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treatises. In 1553 he laid the groundwork for the University of Mexico. According to tradition,
Zumárraga was the bishop to whom Our Lady of Guadalupe entrusted JUAN DIEGO CUAUHTLATOATZIN with her message in 1531.
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