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Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Review
Fiber-reinforced recycled aggregate concrete with crumb rubber: A
state-of-the-art review
Md. Shahjalal a, e, Kamrul Islam b, Farnaz Batool c, Mohammad Tiznobaik d, F.M. Zahid Hossain d,
Khondaker Sakil Ahmed a, M. Shahria Alam d, *, Raquib Ahsan e
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Department of Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
Department of Civil Engineering, NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, Pakistan
d
School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC, Canada
e
Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
b
c
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Crumb rubber
Rubberized recycled aggregate concrete
Fiber-reinforced rubberized recycled aggregate
concrete
Mechanical properties
Failure modes
Material model
The growing population demands rapid development of infrastructures. However, the construction industry is
searching for environmentally sustainable and eco-friendly building materials to fight climate change. Millions of
tires are discarded globally, and only certain percentages are recycled. The use of rubber tires as a natural
aggregate replacement in concrete has gained popularity among the research community in the past few years,
primarily due to its ductility and toughness properties. A significant number of investigations have been reported
in the past using recycled coarse aggregates (RCA), crumb rubber (CR), and fibers separately in concrete. The
results revealed that the addition of rubber particles along with RCA in concrete reduced the strength. However,
the inclusion of fibers in the same mixtures significantly improved the mechanical properties of concrete by
acting as a bridge within the concrete matrix for the surrounding cracks. In this review paper, over 220 research
articles from the last 30 years reporting the effect of RCA, CR, and fibers on the mechanical and physical
properties of rubberized recycled aggregate concrete (RRAC) and fiber-reinforced rubberized recycled aggregate
concrete (FRRAC) are summarized. This paper presents in detail the influencing factors that affect the physical
and mechanical properties of RRAC and FRRAC. The performance of FRRAC depends on the types of fiber and
CR, treatment of CR, RCA sources, and the mix design of concrete. Based on the review, recommendations are
provided for optimized FRRAC production. Simplified equations have been proposed to predict the tensile and
flexural strength and modulus of elasticity of RRAC and FRRAC. An overview of predicting the mechanical
properties of rubberized concrete using different machine-learning algorithms has been presented. Finally, this
review paper will help scholars understand the use of RCA and CR in concrete as aggregate replacement materials
and create waste material utilization opportunities for the sustainable green construction industry.
1. Introduction
Concrete is a composite material used worldwide as a major con­
struction material [1]. Nearly 1.5 billion tons of crushed stone were
produced in 2021 for concrete production, a 3% increase compared to
2020, which saw a production of over 1.47 billion tons of crushed stone
[2]. This significant increase in aggregate demand resulted in the
depletion of natural resources and a threat to the environment. Another
challenge is the utilization of concrete waste produced during the
process of demolition. For instance, China alone generated 2500 million
tons of construction and demolished waste (CDW) in 2015, which is 15
times more than the municipal solid waste generation. In contrast, the
USA, Japan, and the UK produced nearly 191, 77, and 45 million tons,
respectively [3]. Similarly, the European Union countries and Australia
produce approximately 531 and 20.4 million tons of CDW per year [4,5],
which is 30% and 38% of the total generated waste [5,6]. Besides, in
Canada, CDW occupies one of the most significant contributors to
municipal solid waste [7]. However, only about 5% of CDW was reused
in these countries, with the remainder mainly ending up in landfills for
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: shahjalal@ce.mist.ac.bd (Md. Shahjalal), kamrul.islam@polymtl.ca (K. Islam), batool1@ualberta.ca (F. Batool), mohammad.tiznobaik@ubc.ca
(M. Tiznobaik), zahidedu@mail.ubc.ca (F.M. Zahid Hossain), drksa@ce.mist.ac.bd (K. Sakil Ahmed), shahria.alam@ubc.ca (M.S. Alam), raquibahsan@ce.buet.ac.bd
(R. Ahsan).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133233
Received 30 July 2023; Received in revised form 29 August 2023; Accepted 3 September 2023
Available online 14 September 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
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Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
Nomenclature
AAD
ANN
BF
CC
CDP
CDW
COV
CR
DIF
EDS
FEM
FRRAC
HSP
ITZ
LCA
MAD
MAE
MAPD
MAPE
MoE
ML
MRE
MSE
NAC
NCA
NFA
NSC
PAC
PI
PP
R2
RAC
RC
RCA
RMS
RMSD
RMSE
RRAC
RRMSD
RRMSE
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RSD
RSE
SCA
SEM
SF
SSD
SSE
TSC
b1 &b2
dr,max
dεij p
Ep
Er
fc
ft
fr
p
Average Absolute Deviation
Artificial Neural Network
Basalt Fiber
Correlation Coefficient
Concrete Damage Plasticity
Construction and Demolished Waste
Coefficient of Variation
Crumb Rubber
Dynamic Increase Factor
Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy
Finite Element Modelling
Fiber-Reinforced Rubberized Recycled Aggregate Concrete
Hybrid Statistical Parameter
Interfacial Transition Zone
Life Cycle Assessment
Mean Absolute Deviation
Mean Absolute Error
Mean Absolute Percentage Deviation
Mean Absolute Percentage Error
Modulus of Elasticity
Machine Learning
Mean Relative Error
Mean Squared Error
Natural Aggregate Concrete
Natural Coarse Aggregates
Natural Fine Aggregate
Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency Coefficient
Preplaced Aggregate Concrete
Performance Index
Polypropylene
Correlation Coefficient/ Coefficient of Determination
Recycled Aggregate Concrete
Rubberized Concrete
Recycled Coarse Aggregate
Root Mean Square
Root Mean Squared Deviation
Root Mean Squared Error
Rubberized Recycled Aggregate Concrete
Relative Root Mean Squared Deviation
Relative Root Mean Square Error
σ
Δσ
Δσ m
Δσ y
ε
εc
εc,0
εcr
εpl
εru
ρr
ρm,a
ρm,d
k
α
αc
β
n
γ
λ
γm
μ
Φ&κ
disposal [3]. Using concrete wastes as recycled coarse aggregate (RCA)
has been a subject of interest for many researchers for the last two de­
cades [8–12]. Studies conducted in the past have achieved remarkable
results in improving concrete properties through the use of recycled
aggregates [1,13–17]. However, some studies reported a reduction in
compressive strength and an increase in the water absorption capacity of
concrete due to attached old mortar [12,18,19].
Over the last decade, the use of crumb rubber (CR) in concrete as the
aggregate replacement material has gained popularity owing to its
salient features like low density and high ductility [20–23]. CR is formed
during the process of recycling scrap types, and according to various
reports [24–26], almost 1 to 1.5 billion tires become nonfunctional
annually throughout the world. These scrap tire wastes are highly
vulnerable to fire, thus, requiring special disposal treatments. Re­
searchers [1,12,14–16,18,19,27–30] had suggested using CR as an
aggregate replacement in normal concrete, owing to its good compati­
bility and improved physical, mechanical, and thermal properties.
Improving different physical, mechanical as well as durability
properties of concrete is yet under research [11,31–36]. Addition of
different types of fiber, air-entraining agents, supplementary
Relative Standard Deviation
Root Squared Error
Silane Coupling Agent
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Silica Fume
Saturated Surface Dry
Sum of Squared Errors
Two-Stage Concrete
Constants for Compressive and Tensile Softening
Maximum Rubber Particle Size
Plastic Tensor
Secant Modulus of Elasticity
Modulus of Elasticity of Rubberized Concrete
Reference Concrete Compressive Strength
Tensile Strength
Rubberized Concrete Compressive Strength
Hydrostatics Pressure
Compressive Stress
Stress Differences
Maximum Strength Surface
Yield Strength Surface
Axial Strain
Crushing Strain of Concrete
Peak Strain of NAC
Crushing Strain of Rubberized Concrete
Strain at Proportionality Limit
Ultimate Strain of Rubberized Concrete
Volumetric Rubber Ratio
Modified Material Parameter at Ascending Branch
Modified Material Parameter at Descending Branch
Attenuation Coefficient
Ascending Sections Parameters of Stress-Strain Curve
Shape Parameters of Descending Segment
Descending Sections Parameters of Stress-Strain Curve
Shape Parameters of Ascending Segment
Accumulated Plastic Strain
Aggregate Replacement Factor
Plastic Strain at Maximum Strength Surface
Self-Defined Function with γ
Coefficients of Linear Equation
cementitious materials, and nanoparticle materials such as fly ash, silica
fume, metakaolin, rice husk ash, blast-furnace slag, hydrophobic mate­
rials, nano-SiO2 (NS), nano-TiO2 (NT), nano-Al2O3 (NA), carbon nano­
tube (CNT), nano-clay (NC), graphene oxide (GO) was suggested in the
past studies to improve the mechanical, durability as well as crack
resistance capacity of concrete [11,14,32,33,37]. However, to enhance
the properties of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC), different treatment
methods such as washing with water [10], soaking in HCl solution [1],
coating with silane-based water repellent [38], treating with lithium
silicate [39] have been proposed in various studies. To improve the bond
between CR and concrete aggregates, several studies have recom­
mended treating CR with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution
[14,40–43], H2O2 solution [43], carbon disulfide (CS2) solution [44],
silane coupling agent (SCA) [40,45,46], H2SO4 solution [47], CaCl2
solution [43,48], KMnO4 and NaHSO4 solution [43], heat treatment
method [49], addition of silica fume and coating of rubber particles with
mortar. Incorporating these potential wastes (RCA and CR) into the
concrete mixture produces sustainable green concrete, conserves natural
resources, and reduces the burden on landfills.
Numerous review articles have been published in the last decade
2
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Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
focusing on the individual effect of RCA [50,51], CR [30,52–59], and
fibers [60–63] in the concrete mixture. However, a comprehensive re­
view study discussing the combined effect of RCA, CR, and fibers on
concrete’s mechanical and physical properties is yet to be conducted. To
the authors’ best knowledge, no such review paper exists in the current
literature focusing on the behavior of fiber-reinforced rubberized recy­
cled aggregate concrete. This paper presents a critique of the existing
literature related to the fresh properties, microstructural parameters,
different hardened properties at normal temperature and elevated
temperature, and constitutive modeling of concrete containing both
RCA and CR (RRAC: Rubberized Recycled Aggregate Concrete) and
compares them with the concrete containing different types of fiber
along with RCA, CR (FRRAC: Fiber-Reinforced Rubberized Recycled
Aggregate Concrete). Here, the review of journals, conference papers,
and different scientific and technical reports published from 1990 to
2023 related to RCA, CR, and fiber are included. Based on reviewing
over 220 research articles, this review paper provides appropriate
guidelines, challenges, recommendations, and future feasible research
direction on RRAC and FRRAC. Besides, the merits and demerits of using
RCA and CR and possible treatment methods for improving the prop­
erties of RRAC and FRRAC are also summarized. Moreover, a brief life
cycle assessment and the failure pattern of these new types of concrete
are included. However, the durability properties of RRAC and FRRAC
are beyond the scope of this current review paper and will be addressed
in future studies.
between NAC and ancient mortar (old ITZ), and the other one is in be­
tween RCA and new mortar (new ITZ), whereas for the natural aggregate
concrete (NAC) only new one exists [70]. Therefore, the RAC comprises
a larger volume of ITZ, leading to porosity, higher permeability, and
inferior mechanical properties compared to NAC. Reduced compressive
strength and increased water absorption tendency were observed by past
researchers with the addition of recycled aggregates [12,14,15,50]. Due
to this higher water-absorbing phenomenon, it is suggested to use RCA
in saturated surface dry conditions [71]. Some investigations have
pointed out a higher strength of RAC compared to NAC [1,13,16]. Be­
sides, Silva et al. [72] reported that, over a long period, RAC exhibited a
greater strength development than the corresponding NAC due to the
latent cementitious properties of the attached old mortar on the surface
of the recycled aggregates. In terms of tensile strength, though it is
decreased with increasing RCA content, this effect can be managed by
carefully choosing the RCA when making concrete because a higher or
relatively lower tensile strength loss can be achieved depending on the
RCA’s quantity, size, type, and quality [73]. Hossain et al. [11] and
Huda and Alam [8] found that in comparison to NCA, the RCA exhibited
lower density, thus, making them an ideal choice for lightweight and
energy-efficient structures. The Environmental Council of Concrete Or­
ganizations (ECCO) statistics demonstrated a 60% reduction in the cost
of using RCA compared to NCA concrete mixtures [18]. Verian et al.
[19] reported a reduction in the cost of $2.26–$2.93/ton on the concrete
pavement with the addition of RCA. In terms of energy consumption,
Xiao et al. [74] found that the RCA structure consumed nearly 12.8%
less energy than the NCA structure. Another study by Hossain et al. [75]
revealed that using RCA can reduce energy consumption by up to 58%.
2. Recycled coarse Aggregates, crumb Rubber, and fiber
2.1. Recycled coarse aggregates (RCA)
2.2. Crumb rubber (CR)
2.1.1. Source and production of RCA
Recycled aggregates are produced from the waste demolition of
concrete buildings and structures [8,9]. After passing various stages of
crushing, removing contaminants, shedding, grinding, cleaning, sorting,
and sizing, this waste is used in concrete as recycled aggregates [10].
According to Silva et al. [64], there are four types of recycled aggregates:
Recycled Concrete Aggregates, Recycled Masonry Aggregates, Mixed
Recycled Aggregates, and Construction and Demolition Recycled Ag­
gregates. As in the recycling process, impurities are added to the recy­
cled aggregates, and the limits of harmful elements present in RCA, such
as zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) were set to be less than 400 and 200 (μg/l)
(Table 1). This step was taken to make the use of RCA environmentallyfriendly (Oikonomou [65]. In 2001, the ACI Committee 555 [10]
endorsed the use of RCA in concrete. Besides, ASTM C33 [66] and CSA
A23.1 [67] standards and specifications are now commonly used by
different countries. The schematic process of crushing and sorting the
RCA from demolished structures is presented in Fig. 1.
2.2.1. Source and production of crumb rubber
Every year, more than 1 billion tons of tires reach the end of their
useful life, and this figure is expected to rise to 1.2 billion tons by 2030
[25,76]. This pressing issue can be addressed by reusing waste tires in
civil engineering applications. Before using them within the concrete
mixture, these scrap tires are shredded into different pieces. The
different kinds of rubber aggregates and their length are summarized in
Table 2. The most commonly used form of rubber as aggregate is crumb
rubber (CR) [11,14,77–79]. Typically, these CR are found with a
diameter of 0.425 to 4.75 mm and are used as a partial substitute for
natural fine aggregates (NFA) [80]. Furthermore, the rubber aggregates
passing through sieve No. 40 (0.425 mm) are classified as fine-grained
rubber [80–82]. The stage-wise processing of rubber aggregate is illus­
trated in Fig. 2. Recently, Aslani et al. [29] reported the presence of
carbon (40%), polymer (45%), and organic materials (15%) in crumb
rubbers. The details of other elements found in CR by different re­
searchers are tabulated in Table 3.
2.1.2. Merits and demerits of using RCA
The recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) that derives from the con­
struction and demolished wastes (CDW) consists of two parts: (1) the
natural coarse aggregates (NCA), and (2) the accompanying old mortar
on the surface of aggregates. Therefore, in recycled aggregate concrete
(RAC), there may exist two interfacial transition zones (ITZs), one is in
2.2.2. Merits and demerits of using CR
Past studies [20–23,27,28,94,95] have reported higher ductility,
high energy dissipation capacity, enhanced resistance to cracking and
spalling, as well as improved freeze–thaw durability with the use of CR
in concrete. Moreover, comparable lightweight concrete can be pro­
duced with CR due to the lower specific gravity of rubber particles [11].
Despite these advantages, the CR tends to decrease the compressive
strength, modulus of elasticity and splitting tensile strength [77,96–98]
and increase water absorption and permeability [99,100]. The re­
searchers suggested the use of rubber as the replacement for NFA over
NCA [11,14,77–79,101,102] with pre-treated crumb rubber for better
results. Moreover, most of the past researchers [11,77,85,86] used the
volumetric replacement of NFA by CR, as presented in Table 5 due to the
significant difference in density.
Table 1
Allowable limits of deleterious elements in RCA [65].
Element-substance
Zinc (Zn)
Copper (Cu)
Lead (Pb)
Nickel (Ni)
Chromium (Cr)
Arsenic (As)
Cadmium (Cd)
Iodine (I)
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Limit (μg/l)
400
200
100
100
100
50
5
2
3
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Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
Fig. 1. Production of RCA, modified images from sources [8,40,68,69].
Table 2
Classifications of rubber aggregate.
Types of Rubber Aggregate
Shredded/Chipped
Rubber
Crumb Rubber
References
Ground/Powdered Rubber
Fiber Rubber/Buffing
Dia
(mm)
Specific
Gravity
Diameter
(mm)
Specific
Gravity
Diameter
(mm)
Specific
Gravity
Length
(mm)
Specific
Gravity
13–76
13–76
25–30
10-300
-
1.3
-
0.425–4.75
0.5-5
3-10
1-10
0.15–4.75
0.64–0.72
1.15-1.25
<0.425
0.15–19
<1
<1
-
0.8
-
8.5–21.5
0− 40
<8
-
0.95
-
Ganjian et al.[80]
Siddique and Cachim [83]
Gerges et al. [84]
Mohajerani et al. [26]
Emiroglu et al. [82]
Hossain et al. [11], Shahjalal et al. [85], Meherier
[77], Tamanna et al. [86], Chen et al. [87]
2.3. Fibers
Table 4.
2.3.1. Types of fiber
The fibers commonly used in concrete are steel fiber [37,103–105],
polypropylene fiber [11,41,106], glass fiber [107], carbon fiber [107],
galvanized iron fiber [108], basalt fiber [87], textile fiber [109], recy­
cled steel-wires [79], macro synthetic fiber [106], natural fiber like jute,
bamboo, sugarcane, coconut coir, wood, hast, sisal, bagasse, palm,
kenaf, banana leaf, pine, seed, wool [107,110–112], etc. Among other
fibers, steel fibers are the most commonly used fibers for concrete pro­
duction. The tensile strength of steel fiber is nearly 1000 MPa, and it
works better against crack propagation [106]. Besides, they can reduce
the shear reinforcement requirement in concrete structures [113].
Synthetic fibers, for instance, polypropylene (PP) fibers, performed
better in decreasing segregation and increasing cohesiveness among the
ingredients [14]. Banthia and Soleimani [114] reported that the
requirement for PP fibers in concrete is smaller than steel fibers due to its
lower specific gravity. Moreover, PP fiber does not suffer from corrosion
like steel fiber; thus, PP fiber-reinforced concrete performs better in
terms of durability [115]. In addition, the production and labor cost of
PP fiber is relatively less [116], and it emits low CO2 during the pro­
duction process [117]. The maximum dose of fiber is found to be up to
2% in the reported literature [11,106]. A snapshot of different types of
fiber is presented in Fig. 3, and their properties are summarized in
2.3.2. Merits and demerits of using fibers
Over the last decade, the use of fibers in concrete has increased
significantly. Past researchers [61,121] had reported improvement in
ductility, toughness, tensile strength, and flexural strength of normal
concrete with the addition of fibers. The same is also observed in RAC or
RRAC for the inclusion of fiber [11,85–87]. The energy absorption ca­
pacity and impact resistance were increased significantly due to the
addition of fiber into the concrete mixture [78,79]. However, some in­
vestigations have observed a fall in compressive strength [11,61,121].
The main disadvantage of fiber is decreasing the workability of concrete,
as reported by Hossain et al. [11] and Islam et al. [106].
3. Properties of rubberized recycled aggregate concrete (RRAC)
and Fiber-Reinforced rubberized recycled aggregate concrete
(FRRAC)
3.1. Microstructure
3.1.1. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images
Past researchers [40,77,92,122] employed the scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) method to understand the formation of the interfacial
transition zone (ITZ) in the presence of crumb rubber, fiber, and
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Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
Fig. 2. Stage-wise process of tire-shredding, modified image from sources [30,52,53,88].
recycled concrete aggregates. These studies [40,77,92,123] also found
irregular shapes and rough surfaces of crumb rubber particles through
these micrographs (Fig. 4a-c). This irregularity of shape could be the
possible reason for air entrapping during the mixing process of rubber­
ized recycled aggregate concrete (RRAC) [77,124].
Copetti et al. [92] reported a smoother surface texture of the crumb
rubber particles after being treated with Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
(Fig. 4d). Similar findings were reported by Su [40] after treating with
NaOH solution and silane coupling agent (SCA) (Fig. 4e-f). The SEM
micrographs presented in Fig. 4e showed loose attachment of NaOH
crystals to the surface of CR particles with no evidence of surface
roughness alternation. From Fig. 4f, a tight silicone coating can be
observed on the surface of CR particles after being treated with SCA. To
observe the bonding characteristics between rubber particles and
cement paste, Meherier [77] used SEM micrographs and found a failure
pattern occurring around the CR particles. The weaker ITZ between
cement paste and CR particles could be the reason for this failure.
Tamanna [14] studied the microstructure of CR particles treated with 10
and 20% of NaOH solution by using SEM micrographs (Fig. 5a-c). The
author observed a significant reduction in crack size and width in ITZ
between CR and cement paste with a higher concentration of NaOH
solution. Also, the improved ITZ contributed to gaining higher
compressive strength than with untreated CR and with 10% treatment.
Similar findings were reported by Ahmed et al. [41] for the CR 20%
NaOH treated particles (Fig. 5d). Although Copetti et al. [92] reported
no significant changes in the ITZ after the NaOH treatment, but observed
the densification of ITZ with the addition of silica fume (Fig. 5e-f). The
mechanical properties of RRAC had dramatically improved because of
this densification, which was brought on by the micro-filling effect of
silica fume. Su (2015) and Ahmed et al. (2019) inspected the interfaces
of CR-cement paste and RCA-cement paste. After studying different SEM
micrographs cracks, Meherier [77] noticed larger gaps at the interface
between CR and cement paste, indicating poor adhesion (Fig. 6a). Su
[40] reported a smooth transition zone between RCA and cement paste
compared with rubber-cement paste (Fig. 6b,c).
In contrast, Mohseni et al. [120] detected larger gaps at the interface
of RCA and cement mortar, primarily due to adhered mortar on the
surface of RCA. The same phenomenon is also observed by Ahmed et al.
[41] (Fig. 6d). Comparing the control specimen with PP fiber-reinforced
concrete, Mohseni et al. [120] observed several micro-cracks in the
cement paste (Fig. 7a). However, a better restraint in crack propagation
with the addition of fibers was found mainly due to the strengthening of
constituents’ bonds in the matrix (Fig. 7b). In addition, the formation of
cement hydrated products, in large quantities, were found at the inter­
face of PP fiber and cement paste. However, no chemical reaction
occurred between the fibers and cement paste, thus, indicating good
compatibility between both [120].
3.1.2. Energy dispersive spectroscopy technique (EDS)
The energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) techniques are employed
to get comprehensive information about the elements present in a ma­
terial. By using this technique, Meherier [77] found that the CR particles
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Md. Shahjalal et al.
Table 3
Chemical composition of CR by different researchers (in %).
Elements
(Symbol)
Weight (%)
Untreated
Treated
20%
NaOH
10%
NaOH
20%
NaOH
Tamanna et al.
[86]
40%
NaOH
10%
NaOH
Water
Soaking
10%
H2O2
10%
CaCl2
35%
H2SO4
1%
Silane
6
Gupta
et al.
[89]
Mhaya
et al.
[88]
Angelin
et al.
[90]
Tamanna
et al. [86]
Chen
et al.
[91]
Copetti
et al.
[92]
MuñozSánchez
et al.
[93]
Ahmed
et al.
[41]
Youssf et al. [43]
Carbon (C)
69.95
87.51
14
91.50
88.60
44.30
30-38
88.88
44.70
19.70
60.14
95.7
92.1
87.9
85.4
84.1
86
84
Oxygen (O)
20.93
9.23
-
3.30
9.40
6.54
-
8.65
29.60
57.2
5.36
4.3
6.3
9.5
11.9
8.1
8.8
10.2
Sodium (Na)
Magnesium
(Mg)
Aluminum (Al)
Silicon (Si)
Sulfur (S)
0.38
0.23
0.14
-
0.20
-
-
81.1685.19
1.722.07
-
-
-
0.49
0.06
-
-
0.44
0.08
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.71
1.53
1.42
0.08
0.20
1.08
-
1.20
0.20
-
0.95
1.32
0.48
≤5
0.09
1.08
22.70
-
22.90
-
0.21
1.70
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Potassium (K)
Calcium (Ca)
Iron (Fe)
Copper (Cu)
Zinc (Zn)
Hydrogen (H)
0.12
0.22
2.43
0.15
1.91
-
1.76
-
-
0.10
3.50
0.20
0.70
1.10
-
0.39
16.42
3.58
15.04
-
-
0.03
0.26
0.46
-
3.00
0.00
-
0.20
0.00
-
0.26
0.27
4.04
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Nitrogen (N)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Acetone
Extract
Ketonic Extract
Ash Content
-
-
10
-
-
1.521.64
7.227.42
0.310.47
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
24
-
-
-
-
52
-
-
-
-
-
-
10-20
3-7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3.847.44
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
10.98
40-55
21-42
-
-
-
-
27.5
-
1.6
2.6
2.7
7.8
5.2
5.8
*Note: If the sum of all available elements in CR is less than 100%, then the rest percentage is reported as miscellaneous data.
Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
Meherier
[77]
Rubber
Hydrocarbon
Polymers
Natural Rubber
Miscellaneous*
Copetti
et al.
[92]
5%
KMnO4/
5%
NaHSO4
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Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
Fig. 3. Different types of fiber used in concrete [11,79,87,105–109] (images are not in scale).
contained Carbon (C) and Oxygen (O) elements, whereas Sulfur (S),
Silicon (Si), Iron (Fe), and Zinc (Zn) were also present within a range of 1
to 3% by weight (Fig. 8a). Meherier [77] and Richardson et al. [125]
reported that hydrophobic elements such as Silicon (Si) and Zinc (Zn)
are mainly responsible for increasing the initial and final setting time of
RRAC, making crumb rubbers water-resistant. To improve the perfor­
mance of CR particles, Tamanna et al. [86] treated them with NaOH
solutions and found complete removal of Zinc (Zn) from the particles
(Fig. 8b-c). In addition, it was also found that the reaction of CR particles
with cement paste produces elements such as oxygen (O) and silicon (Si)
which are good in oxidation. Most of the researchers [14,41,77,86]
suggested pre-treatment of CR with a 20% NaOH solution for enhancing
bonding between CR particles at ITZ.
concrete mixtures. Moreover, the combined effect of polypropylene (PP)
fiber, CR, and RCA in concrete were also investigated by Hossain et al.
[11] and Shahjalal et al. [85]. Hossain et al. [11] observed a drop in
slump values in the presence of PP fibers, and even more, a decline was
noticed with increased fiber percentages. For instance, an approximately
41% reduction in slump values for the concrete mixtures blended with
10% of RCA, 5% of CR, and 1% of PP fibers was noticed. However, by
increasing the PP fiber content up to 2% the difference jumped to 65.5%.
Similar results were observed by Shahjalal et al. [85] while investigating
the slump for FRRAC blended with 0.5% PP fibers. Most of the re­
searchers [11,14,40,79] related this reduction of slump values to the
high water absorption capacity of RCA and low density of fibers and CR.
Apart from normal concrete, the decrease in the workability of rubber­
ized recycled aggregate concrete was also observed by Aslani et al. [29],
especially with the change in recycled aggregate content. In this regard,
Chen et al. [87] suggested the use of RCA with a lower substitution ratio
to achieve better workability results. Moreover, the loss of workability
due to RCA, CR, or fiber can be addressed by using saturated surface dry
(SSD) aggregates, water-reducing admixture, supplementary cementi­
tious materials such as fly ash, slag, silica fume, metakaolin and treated
CR particles with NaOH solution [1,14,41,103,129,130].
3.2. Properties of fresh concrete
3.2.1. Workability
The deterioration in the workability of concrete mixtures with the
addition of RCA, CR, and fibers has been reported by past researchers, as
shown in Fig. 9 [11,97–99,126]. This drop is primarily due to the
different specific gravity of constituents present in the mixtures, for
instance, fibers, CR, and recycled aggregates [14,77,99,126]. Marie
[127] recently observed a slump value of 75.3 mm for the control
mixture and a decrease of 42% for RRAC mixtures blended with 20% of
RCA and CR. However, Henry et al. [128] reported an increase in slump
values from 95 mm to 130 mm for CR substitution of 25 to 50% with
100% RCA in the binder.
After two years of Henry et al. [128] findings, Guo et al. [103]
observed a decrease in slump values from 132 mm to 125 mm, again
keeping RCA 100%, but when CR and fiber were added in the same
binder, these values of slump dropped further. However, stable slump
values were observed for the CR substitution range of 8 to 16% in
3.2.2. Air content
Past studies [40,77] reported an increase in air content value with
the addition of CR in RAC mixtures. In the same context, Tamanna [14]
reported that adding CR in higher content could significantly increase
air content. Hossain et al. [11] explained this phenomenon due to air
entrapping in the adhered mortar of RCA and CR particles and thus,
leading to a rise in air content. Henry et al. [128] observed no changes in
air content values for mixtures blended with 100% RCA and CR added in
25% and 50% ratios. Later in 2017, Marie [127] noticed a surge in the
air content value as the replacement ratio of RCA got higher. Recently,
7
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Hossain et al. [11] attempted to investigate the effect of PP fiber on the
air content and found that adding PP fiber into the concrete mixture
would drop the air content values. The authors reported that the con­
crete mixture containing 1% PP fibers, 10% CR, and 30% RCA demon­
strated the highest air content among the FRRAC mixtures, showing an
increase of around 53% compared to the control mixture. However,
Ahmed et al. [41] found just the opposite trend with 0.5% PP fibers.
3.3. Hardened properties
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
214–455
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2500–3500
2200
315–621
3800–4840
–
2000
250 -350
95–118
73–505
347–378
70–73
390
17.5
93–110
–
–
26 - 32
2.8
10–40
15.2
–
–
18.0–40.03
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3.6–4.8
0.5
–
2.7–3.1
–
–
1.5 - 1.9
–
–
–
3.3.1. Compressive strength
Most of the past researchers [96–98,131–133] have recorded a
decrease in compressive strength with the addition of CR and RCA
Fig. 10a-b. This reduction in strength was irrespective of the size, con­
tent, and treatment of CR. In a study, Henry et al. [128] found
compressive strength relating inversely to the CR content when tested
for samples with 100% RCA. Later, Feng et al. [134] also recorded a
significant drop of 27.8, 39.2, and 47.2% in the strength of the concrete
with 10, 20, and 30% of CR and 100% recycled aggregates. Next,
Tamanna [14] investigates the strength of the RRAC samples in which
CR was treated with 20% of NaOH (Fig. 10c). This reduction of
compressive strength is primarily due to the inadequate adhesion of CR
with concrete, resembling the higher void, the lower water absorption
capacity
of
CR,
and
the
porous
nature
of
RCA
[11,14,50,97,98,127,135,136]. Another factor found to influence the
strength of RRAC mixtures was the particle size of CR, as reported by Li
et al. [137]. As for evidence, it can be noticed from Fig. 10d that as the
size of the CR particles reduces, the compressive strength drops signif­
icantly, and this is regardless of CR content. Similar results were re­
ported by Ahmed et al. [41] but with a different content of RCA. In
addition, Aslani et al. [29] measured the strength of self-compacting
RRAC incorporated with 20% CR, but the results were not different
from other researchers’ findings. This reduction was explained by the
researchers [138–140] due to the unbonded interface among recycled
particles and cement paste that creates a weaker ITZ also due to the
lower stiffness of CR particles.
Nonetheless, some of the researchers, along with CR and RCA, tried
using different fibers to improve the compressive strength and other
hardened properties. Chen et al. [87] initially observed a decrease in the
compressive strength for the samples with RCA (40%) and CR (10%), but
after incorporating 4 kg/m3 of basalt fibers, a rising trend was observed.
Similarly, Ahmed et al. [41] recorded compressive strength increased by
up to 31% compared to its counterpart sample with no fiber. The author
used 0.1% of steel wire in FRRAC with RCA (100%) and CR (20%). In the
same way, when PP fibers were added, an approximately 26.4% rise in
strength was noticed in FRRAC [11,78]. According to Hossain et al. [11],
the higher content of fibers was also found to enhance the strength
(Fig. 10e), while the optimum value of 0.5% for PP fibers for improving
the properties was recorded by Shahjalal et al. [85]. However, Su [40]
reported a decline in the compressive strength with 1 kg/m3 of PP fibers
in FRRAC. The author stated that when CR was limited to 20%, the
compressive strength of most of the FRRAC samples exceeded the design
target strength (Table 5) and the same trend was also noticed by Tam­
anna [14].
Alfayez [79] worked with preplaced aggregate concrete (PAC),
which is also known as “two-stage concrete” (TSC). It was noticed that
the compressive strength of the FRRAC decreased with increasing CR
content and steel fibers (Fig. 10f). However, these findings are against
the observations of Hossain et al. [11] and Ahmed et al. [41] as a reverse
trend was noticed with a higher content of fibers. This phenomenon was
explained by Alfayez [79] due to the obstruction posed by steel wires to
fill the gaps between aggregates, thus, leading to a porous microstruc­
ture. Nevertheless, if strength is of great concern, then Guo et al. [103]
suggested using 4% of CR in FRRAC. Xie et al. [119] suggested adding
silica fume (SF) in FRRAC specimens by replacing cement with different
substitutions. Therefore, the addition of 10% SF along with 1% steel
–
–
–
20
–
20-35
–
–
–
–
2.54–2.78
1.95
–
2.60
–
–
1.80
1.177
1.158
1370
10
7.0–9.7
500–1000
15
3.6 – 32.1
200
0.1 - 0.2
–
–
–
6–12
0.90–0.91
Polymeric Fiber
(Polypropylene)
Glass Fiber
Carbon Fiber (PAN)
Galvanized Iron Fiber
Basalt Fiber
Textile Fiber
Recycled Steel Wires
Jute Fiber
Coconut Fiber
Bamboo Fiber
Sisal Fiber
20–50000
03
–
130–689
3.4–7.0
–
15
Jian-he et al. [118], Guo et al. [103], Xie
et al. [119], Mohseni et al. [120]
Hossain et al. [11], Micelli et al. [107],
Ismal et al.[106], Mohseni et al. [120]
Micelli et al. [107]
Micelli et al. [107]
Emon et al. [108], Islam et al. [106]
Chen et al. [87]
Sadrolodabaee et al. [109]
Alfayez [79]
Micelli et al. [107]
Torgal and Jalali [112]
Torgal and Jalali [112]
Torgal and Jalali [112]
5 - 20
–
–
600–1030
–
–
750–32000
7.70–7.82
Steel Fiber
~50
Specific
Gravity
Fiber Length
(mm)
Diameter
(μm)
No. of
Denier
Yield Strength
(MPa)
Tensile Strength
(MPa)
Elastic
Modulus (GPa)
Elongation at
Ultimate Stress (%)
Elongation at
Rupture (%)
Reference
Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
Types of Fiber
Table 4
Different properties of fibers.
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RA Size
(mm)
5-20 &
2040
5-10
Rubber
Size (mm)
Treatment
Method
w/c or
w/b
ratio
Control
Mixture
Strength
(MPa)
RRAC
Recycled Aggregate
FRRAC
Rubber
Replacement
Level (%)
Replacement
Type
Replacement
Level (%)
Replacement
Type
Fiber
Fiber
Type
Fiber %
(Total
Volume)
No Treatment
0.38
50
100
Weight Basis of
NCA
0, 10, 20,30
Volume Basis
of NFA
110.6, 79.8,
67.2, 58.4
-
-
-
Feng et al.
[134]
0.221
No Treatment
-
60
100
Weight Basis of
NCA
10, 20, 30, 40
Volume Basis
of NFA
62.5, 52.5,
45.8, 43.3
72.5, 63.3,
56.6, 45.8
79.3, 71.6,
66.7, 51.7
86.1
84.2
86.8
92
44.1, 56.8,
55.6, 47.7,
53.8
139.5, 95.3,
69.8
80.5, 75.0,
73.2, 71.1,
69.5
100.0, 93.0,
62.0
117.0, 73.4,
68.5
90.0, 67.8,
56.8
-
-
-
-
Li et al.
[137]
-
-
-
Su [40]
-
-
-
Aslani et al.
[29]
-
-
-
-
-
-
Henry et al.
[128]
Marie [127]
PP Fiber
0.5
70.7, ** , 47.5
PP Fiber
1 kg/m3
-
PP Fiber
1
4.04
≤10
0.3, 0.5 &
3
4-14
10, 20, 30, 40
10, 20, 30, 40
42.5
50
Weight Basis of
NCA
20
Volume Basis
of NFA
0.45
50.39
0, 10, 20, 30, 40
Volume Basis of
NCA+NFA
20
Volume Basis
of NCA
≤ 20
≤3
No Treatment
0.30
43.0
100
0, 25, 50
5-20
0.0754.75
No Treatment
0.56
27.33
0, 5, 10, 15, 20
Weight Basis of
NCA
Weight Basis of
NCA
Volume Basis
of NFA
Volume Basis
of NFA
4.7520
4.74-0.08
20% NaOH
Solution (30
Min)
0.34
51.8
0
Weight Basis of
NCA
0, 10, 20
9
0.37
5-10
Un-treated
NaOH (2hr)
NaOH (24hr)
SCA
No Treatment
50
10
Volume Basis
of NFA
100
0.3, 0.5 &
3
No Treatment
0.37
50.9
0
0, 10, 20, 30, 40
Volume Basis
of NFA
Weight Basis of
NCA
0, 5, 10
Volume Basis
of NFA
77.2, ** , 59.1
50
75
100
0.15-4.75
No Treatment
0.38
32
10
30
Tamanna
[14]
2
1
100, 96.9,
91.9, 83.7,
70.9
98.4, 95.5,
90.4, 81.7,
69.5
96.5, 93.3,
89.2, 80.4,
68.4
93.9, 91.4,
86.6, 78.2,
66.6
90.8, 88.0,
83.5, 75.2,
64.4
117.2, 104.7,
93.8
117.2, 109.4,
100
104.8, 103.1,
98.4
Su [40]
Hossain
et al. [11]
(continued on next page)
Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
Weight Basis of
NCA
** , 45.9, 45.2
25
4.7519
Strength
Relative to
Control (%)
0.25
0.864
≤10
Strength
Relative to
Control (%)
Reference
Md. Shahjalal et al.
Table 5
Summary of compressive strength of RRAC and FRRAC by different researchers.
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Table 5 (continued )
RA Size
(mm)
Rubber
Size (mm)
Treatment
Method
w/c or
w/b
ratio
Control
Mixture
Strength
(MPa)
RRAC
Recycled Aggregate
Replacement
Level (%)
Replacement
Type
FRRAC
Rubber
Replacement
Level (%)
Replacement
Type
Strength
Relative to
Control (%)
Fiber
Fiber
Type
Fiber %
(Total
Volume)
2
4.7519
4.7512.5
0.15-4.75
No Treatment
0.38
33.97
30
Weight Basis of
NCA
Weight Basis of
NCA
0, 5, 10
0.85-1.40
No Treatment
0.35
73.5
100
4.7519
0.075-10
0.31
40
0, 50,100
Weight Basis of
NCA
0, 10,20
19-38
6-12
20% NaOH
Solution (30
Min)
No Treatment
0.45
34.05
90, 80, 70, 60,
50
Weight Basis of
NCA
10, 20, 30, 40,
50
0, 4, 8, 12, 16
Volume Basis
of NFA
Volume Basis
of NFA
-
PP Fiber
0.5
-
Steel
Fiber
1
Volume Basis
of NFA
100, 75, 87.5
Steel Tire
Wires
0.1
Weight Basis of
NCA
90.7, 86.8,
82.8, 78.9,
71.5
Tire Steel
Wire
Fibers
0.25
0.5
10
1
4.7512.5
0.85-1.40
Unheated (25
C)
56.52
100
Volume Basis of
NCA
0, 4, 8, 12, 16
Volume Basis
of NFA
-
Steel
Fiber
1
0.48
45.65
100
Weight Basis of
NCA
0, 5, 10, 15, 20
Volume Basis
of NFA
-
Steel
Fiber
1
200 ◦ C
5-20
0.85-1.40
400
◦
C
600
◦
C
Untreated
5% Silica Fume
10% Silica
Fume
125.0, 105.0,
93.1
108.1, 88.4,
80.9
72.2, 71.8,
67.8, 61.0,
57.8
150.0, 80.0,
115.0
84.1, 81.1,
78.0, 73.2,
67.0
79.9, 76.7,
74.9, 68.5,
61.1
76.8, 74.8,
71.7, 67.6,
57.8
91.0, 86.8,
69.7, 66.5,
63.5
77.1, 71.5,
61.1, 56.9,
55.2
50.7, 46.4,
34.8, 31.2,
30.4
19.4, 22.6,
18.1, 14.7,
14.6
79.1, 74.2,
62.3, 54.2
88.5, 74.9,
65.1, 59.1,
56.8
104.8, 93.8,
73.6, 69.4,
67.8
Shahjalal
et al. [85]
Jian-he et al.
[118]
Ahmed et al.
[41]
Alfayez
[79]
Guo et al.
[103]
Xie et al.
[119]
Note: RA = Recycled Aggregate; SCA = Silane Coupling Agent; w/c = water/cement; w/b = water/binder; NFA = Natural Fine Aggregate; RRAC = Rubberized Recycled Aggregate Concrete; FRRAC = Fiber Reinforced
Rubberized Recycled Aggregate Concrete; PP= Polypropylene; ** = Data not found.
Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
0.35
◦
Reference
Strength
Relative to
Control (%)
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Fig. 4. Micrographs of CR surfaces: (a-c) untreated particles [77,92,123], (d-e) treated particles with NaOH solution [40,92], and (f) treated particles with SCA [40].
Fig. 5. Concrete blended with CR particles: (a) no pre-treatment, (b) treated with 10% NaOH, (c-d) treated with 20% NaOH, (e) treated with NaOH, and (f) addition
of silica fume [14,41,92].
fibers and 5% CR enhanced the interface bond with filler effect, and as a
result, higher compressive strength was achieved (Table 5). Further­
more, Aslani and Klein [141] observed that 0.1% PP fiber and 0.75% of
steel fiber could increase the compressive strength of lightweight selfcompacting rubberized concrete by 22 and 47% respectively. From
Tamanna’s [14] and Ahmed et al.’s [41] studies, it can be noticed that
after the treatment of NaOH and with the addition of fibers (0.1% steel
and 0.5% PP) a higher strength of 15–59% (of control samples) can be
achieved.
11
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Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
Fig. 6. Concrete blended with CR particles: (a-b) interface of rubber-cement paste, and (c-d) interface of recycled aggregates-cement paste [40,41,77].
Fig. 7. Micrographs of concrete: (a) control specimen, and (b) specimen containing PP fiber [120]
3.3.2. Modulus of elasticity (MoE)
Different researchers recorded the reduction in modulus of elasticity
(MoE) values for RAC, RRAC, and FRRAC concrete during the in­
vestigations (Table 6 and Fig. 11a-b). Even the increased content of RCA
and CR brought no significant change in MoE results [14,133,143,144].
Recently, Chen et al. [87] reported a nominal difference in MoE values
for RAC in comparison with NAC. Silva et al. [71] reported that this
degree of reducing the MoE mostly depends on the characteristics
inherent to RCA, such as the type, size, and quality of the original ma­
terial. Gupta et al. [145] measured 27 and 28% reductions in MoE values
for rubberized concrete (RC) and RRAC samples. Some of the re­
searchers [143,146–148] found that CR particles were responsible for
decreasing the MoE as the participation of rubber against external load
was quite low in concrete. Tamanna [14] took a new direction and
studied the effect of RCA and CR content on MoE in RRAC samples. The
author reported improved results with 50% RCA compared to 100%
RCA, especially with the combination of 10% CR, which resulted in a
7.4% rise (Fig. 11c). Although the addition of fibers was found to
enhance the ductility, toughness, and tensile properties of the RC but
MoE properties remained unaffected [14,135]. Steel fiber reinforced
RRAC was studied by Xie et al. [119], and a decrease of 10 to 25% in
MoE for rubber content range of 5 to 20% was observed. Also, a decrease
in the stiffness of FRRAC was noticed with higher CR content. In another
study, Jian-he et al. [118] reported a decrease of 43% in MoE value with
12
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Fig. 8. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis of (a) untreated particles, (b) treated with 10% NaOH, and (c) treated with 20% NaOH [77,86].
Fig. 9. Variation in slump values: (a) RRAC and (b) FRRAC mixture.
the inclusion of steel fibers. Similar results were reported by Alfayez
et al. [79] for pre-placed RAC (Fig. 11d). In addition, Tamanna [14],
with the inclusion of 0.5% polypropylene fibers, reported a 17% in­
crease in the MoE value of FRRAC compared to corresponding to the
RRAC specimen.
showed more ductile behavior. Jian-he et al. [118] also reported similar
results for FRRAC samples but with 100% RCA replacement. Moreover,
the addition of basalt fiber (BF) in the proportion of 2 and 4 kg/m3
resulted in improved ultimate stress and strain (Fig. 12b) [87].
3.3.4. Tensile strength
Most of the results [11,14,29,85] presented in Table 7 and Fig. 13a
showed a decrease in the tensile capacity of RRAC with an increase in CR
content. Similarly, Ahmed et al. [41] reported a drop of 38% in tensile
strength for samples with RCA in the range of 0 to 100% and added CR in
the ratio of 0 to 20%. Against these findings, Tamanna [14] reported
that RCA (50%) and CR (10%) could enhance tensile strength by up to
11% compared to the specimen with no RCA. Another mixture showed
improved strength with 100% RCA and 20% CR compared to the con­
crete containing either the RCA or CR. For further enhancement in the
tensile strength, the researchers decided to add fibers along with RCA
and CR (Fig. 13b). Most of the reports [11,14,79,85,87] concluded that
steel and PP fibers contribute to increasing the tensile strength, but if the
RCA and CR content is increased for the same fiber ratio, then the in­
fluence of fibers remains nominal. Primarily, fibers are responsible for
this increment in the tensile capacity, as they possess bridging charac­
teristics and distribute the tensile stresses along the cracks [151–153].
3.3.3. Stress-Strain relationship
Fig. 12a presents the stress–strain curves for NAC, RAC, RC, and
RRAC. As seen, the addition of RCA and CR significantly increased the
ultimate strain of RRAC and RC, while the strength remained lower in
comparison with NAC [87]. In the same context, decreasing the slope of
stress–strain curves was observed with the higher content of RCA and
the addition of CR in RRAC mixtures by Tamanna [14] and Kazmi et al.
[148]. Kazmi et al. [148] also reported that the effect of CR on the
stress–strain behavior of concrete is more pronounced in NAC than in
RAC. Earlier Feng et al. [134] were able to achieve increased strain and
reduced deflection with 20% CR. Other researchers, for instance, AlTayeb et al. [149] and Zheng et al. [150], also reported the same find­
ings. Furthermore, during an investigation, Guo et al. [103] studied the
FRRAC samples and observed a decrease in the slope of the stress–strain
curve with an increase in CR content. Alfayez (2018) recently experi­
enced an increased ductility of FRRAC with the addition of steel fibers.
However, further addition of CR in higher content in the same binder
13
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Fig. 10. Variation in compressive strength of (a) RRAC specimens [14,29,40,41,79,85,127,128,134,137,142], (b) FRRAC specimens [11,14,41,79,85,103,118,142];
relationship with CR: (c) RCA addition in RRAC [14,134], (d) rubber particle size in RRAC [137], (e) RCA and PP fiber added in FRRAC [11,85], and (f) steel-wire
fibers in FRRAC [79].
3.3.5. Flexural strength
In general, the inclusion of CR in RRAC and FRRAC mixtures reduced
the flexural strength, as presented in Fig. 14a–c and Table 8. The sig­
nificant influence of CR particle size on the flexural strength of RRAC has
been reported in recent and past studies (Table 8). Li et al. [137] re­
ported an improvement in flexural strength as the particle size of CR
increased while remaining unaffected by higher CR content. However,
Su [40] observed a decrease in flexural strength with increased particle
size. This reduction was up to 13, 11.3, and 10.9% for 3, 0.5, and 0.3 mm
of CR particles, respectively. The author found improved strength with
smaller particle sizes due to the filler effect that increases the
compactness of the concrete and, consequently, the likelihood of frac­
ture reduced [40]. Feng et al. [134] reported that the addition of CR
particles resulted in a notable flexural strength reduction. However, the
requirement of flexural strength for designing aircraft movement areas
was met by using CR content up to 20%, which was greater than 4.5 MPa
[134,154]. The addition of fibers significantly improved flexural
strength [11,79,87] (Fig. 14c,d). Hossain et al. [11] studied the effect of
PP fibers on rubberized recycled aggregate concrete (RRAC) and re­
ported an increase in flexural strength (Fig. 14d). This rise was found to
strengthen further with higher fiber content. These results were ex­
pected as fibers possess an interlocking property that helps in creating a
strong bridge between the aggregate and cement mortar. Furthermore,
the flexural strength of FRRAC was found to weaken with the inclusion
of RCA and CR, and the strength gets worse with higher replacement
content [79,87,118,155,156].
3.3.6. Dynamic behavior and impact resistance
Li et al. [137] studied with Split-Hopkinson pressure bar to deter­
mine the impact mechanical properties of RRAC. The dynamic
compressive strength of RRAC was found to be improved by increasing
CR particle size, for instance, 4.04 mm. Li et al. [137] also noted that
14
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Table 6
Summary of modulus of elasticity by different researchers.
RA Size
(mm)
Rubber
Size (mm)
Treatment
Method
w/c or
w/b
ratio
Control
Mixture MoE
(GPa)
Un-Treated
NaOH (2hr)
NaOH (24hr)
SCA
No Treatment
0.37
RRAC
Recycled Aggregate
FRRAC
Rubber
Replacement
Level (%)
Replacement
Type
Replacement
Level (%)
Replacement
Type
25.1
50
Weight Basis of
NCA
20
Volume Basis
of NFA
0.30
35.0
100
0, 25, 50
0
50
Weight Basis of
NCA
Weight Basis of
NCA
Volume Basis
of NFA
Volume Basis
of NFA
Weight Basis of
NCA
0, 4, 8, 12, 16
Volume Basis
of NFA
Weight Basis of
NCA
10, 20, 30, 40,
50
Weight Basis of
NCA
≤10
0.3, 0.5 &
3
≤ 20
≤3
4.75-20
4.74-0.08
20% NaOH
Solution (30
Min)
0.34
29.6
4.7512.5
0.85-1.40
No Treatment
0.35
55.4
19-38
6-12
No Treatment
0.45
41.01
100
100
90, 80, 70, 60,
50
0, 10, 20
Strength
Relative to
Control (%)
Fiber
Fiber %
(Total
Volume)
88.0
88.8
89.2
94.8
92.9, 77.1, 62.9
-
-
-
Su [40]
-
-
-
100, 91.9, 79.7
119.6, 107.4,
79.1
91.9, 77.7, 83.8
-
PP Fiber
0.5
98, ** , 93.2
** , 66.9, 82.4
Henry et al.
[128]
Tamanna
[14]
Steel
Fiber
1
95.8,94.4, 93.1,
84.7, 80.5
Tire Steel
Wire
Fibers
0.25
15
Fiber
Type
0.5
1
4.7512.5
0.85-1.40
Unheated (25
C)
0.35
34.91
100
◦
Volume Basis of
NCA
0, 4, 8, 12, 16
Volume Basis
of NFA
-
Steel
Fiber
1
200 ◦ C
0.85-1.40
◦
C
600
◦
C
Untreated
5% Silica Fume
10% Silica
Fume
0.48
46.63
100
Weight Basis of
NCA
0, 5, 10, 15, 20
Volume Basis
of NFA
-
Steel
Fiber
1
81.1,
51.6,
50.5,
43.7
92.5,
85.4,
75.5
87.8,
78.9,
67.7
79.1,
74.5,
61.0
76.1,
60.9,
54.9
38.2,
36.7,
32.1
15.5,
11.4,
2.95,
3.18,
2.61
79.8,
75.4,
90.2,
79.0,
67.2
84.1,
72.3,
64.7
** , 70.9
51.3,
46.9,
Jian-he et al.
[118]
88.7,
77.0,
Alfayez
[79]
81.3,
75.5,
76.6,
73.2,
72.2,
59.8,
Guo et al.
[103]
39.1,
33.2,
12.9,
10.3, 9.5
3.70,
2.66,
77.1,
67.4
80.9,
76.0,
77.0,
67.1,
Xie et al.
[119]
Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
5-20
400
Reference
Strength
Relative to
Control (%)
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Fig. 11. Variation in modulus of elasticity of (a) RRAC specimens [14,79,119,128,142], (b) FRRAC specimens [14,79,103,118,119,142]; relationship with CR: (c)
RCA addition in RRAC [14], and (d) steel-wire fibers in FRRAC [79].
Fig. 12. (a) Stress-strain behavior of NAC, RAC, RC & RRAC, and (b) stress-strain behavior of FRRAC with BF [87].
increasing the strain rate contributes to strengthening the dynamic
compressive strength, which was found irrespective of CR particle size
and content. However, with a higher CR replacement level, the dynamic
compressive strength was reduced, but dynamic increase factor (DIF)
values took a peak. This could be due to the rubber particles’ inherent
elasticity and relatively low strength, which weakens the bonds. To
determine the impact resistance of fibers in RRAC, Shahjalal et al. [78]
performed a repetitive drop-weight impact test on FRRAC and found an
increase in energy absorption capacity. This capacity was further
increased by blending CR and PP fibers in higher proportions (Fig. 15a).
The reported difference for RCA (30%), CR (10%) along with PP (1 or
2%) fiber was 2.5x times higher than that of normal concrete [78].
Similarly, enhanced capacity was reported by Alfayez [79] where up to
40x times more impact resistance capacity was observed for steel fibers
when used in the ratio of 1.5% in FRRAC (Fig. 15b). This rise in capacity
is primarily due to the ability of steel fibers to deter crack propagation.
Results of the impact resistance of different RRAC and FRRAC investi­
gated by different researchers are tabulated in Table 9.
3.3.7. Toughness and ductility
An enhanced energy absorption capability, ductility, and toughness
were observed in previous studies with RRAC after the inclusion of CR
content [134,137]. However, excessive CR content in RRAC would have
a negative impact on this ability of concrete [23,143]. Guo et al. [103]
stated that if toughness is of great concern, then the addition of CR up to
4% would be an optimum choice. On the other hand, Xie et al. [119]
noticed a 15% CR replacement as a cutoff point. Earlier, Jian-he et al.
[118] also found the same observation where the compressive toughness
16
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Md. Shahjalal et al.
Table 7
Summary of tensile strength by different researchers.
RA Size
(mm)
Rubber
Size (mm)
Treatment
Method
w/c or
w/b
ratio
Control
Mixture
Strength
(MPa)
RRAC
Recycled Aggregate
FRRAC
Rubber
Replacement
Level (%)
Replacement
Type
Replacement
Level (%)
Replacement
Type
17
4
10
No Treatment
0.45
3.70
0, 10, 20, 30, 40
Volume Basis of
NCA+ NFA
20
Volume Basis
of NCA
4.7520
4.74-0.08
20% NaOH
Solution (30
Min)
0.34
6.52
0
50
Weight Basis of
NCA
0, 10, 20
Volume Basis
of NFA
0.15-4.75
No Treatment
0.38
2.52
30
0.15-4.75
No Treatment
0.38
3.20
10
4.7519
4.7519.0
100
Weight Basis of
NCA
Weight Basis of
NCA
0, 5, 10
0, 5, 10
Volume Basis
of NFA
Volume Basis
of NFA
Strength
Relative to
Control (%)
Fiber
Fiber
Type
Fiber %
(Total
Volume)
73.2, 81.6,
74.3, 80.3,
83.0
100, 72.5, 56.9
69.8, 80.8,
53.7
61.2, 52.6,
70.9
-
-
-
-
Aslani et al.
[29]
PP Fiber
0.5
73.3, ** , 50.2
** , 52.1, 54.4
Tamanna
[14]
PP Fiber
0.5
-
PP Fiber
1
60.9, ** , 51.2
2
30
4.7519
0.075-10
19-38
6-12
20% NaOH
Solution (30
Min)
No Treatment
Reference
Strength
Relative to
Control (%)
1
2
4.00
0, 50,100
Weight Basis of
NCA
0, 10,20
Volume Basis
of NFA
100, 75, 61.3
Steel Tire
Wires
0.1
0.45
5.12
90, 80, 70, 60,
50
Weight Basis of
NCA
10, 20, 30, 40,
50
Weight Basis of
NCA
92.8, 62.9,
57.4, 50.4,
43.8
Tire Steel
Wire
Fibers
0.25
0.5
1
Shahjalal
et al. [85]
Hossain
et al. [11]
105.5, 68.0,
64.3, 57.0,
51.6
108.0, 72.3,
69.3, 63.1,
58.0
111.7, 75.8,
71.9, 69.9,
66.4
Alfayez
[79]
Ahmed et al.
[41]
Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
0.31
102.8, 98.0,
90.9
98.8, 88.1,
87.2
120.7, 112.5,
90.6
103.1, 85.9, 78
109.4, 93.8,
82.8
112.5, 112.5,
97.5
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Fig. 13. Variation in tensile strength of (a) RRAC specimens [14,29,41,79,85,142]; and (b) FRRAC specimens [11,14,41,79,85,142].
Fig. 14. Variation in flexural strength of (a) RRAC specimens [14,41,79,134,137,142], (b) FRRAC specimens [11,41,79,118,142]; (c) effect of fiber in FRRAC [79],
and (d) relationship of flexural strength with CR, RCA, and fibers in FRRAC [11].
initially increased and then started to decrease with the increase of CR
content. Li et al. [137] investigated that the size of the CR particles had
an influence on the toughness index of RRAC and reported that the
toughness index decreases for larger CR particle sizes. Recently, Hossain
et al. [11] investigated the PP fiber-reinforced rubberized concrete
containing RCA and reported a higher toughness value than the control
samples. Moreover, the addition of fibers in higher quantities contrib­
uted further to increasing the toughness and ductility [11,79]. This is
indeed due to the strong bond between aggregate and cement built in the
presence of fibers. Similarly, Xie et al. [119] noticed an increase of 9 and
13.9% in the toughness of NAC and RAC when added with 1% of steel
fibers. However, researchers suggest limiting the use of CR in FRRAC up
to a certain level for better toughness value. For instance, Jian-he et al.
[118] found optimal toughness with 8% of CR replacement in FRRAC,
while recently, Hossain et al. [11] reported that 5% of CR would be an
ideal selection for increasing the toughness in FRRAC samples. This is
primarily due to the higher energy absorption capacity of rubber im­
proves the toughness ability, which further increases with the addition
of fiber content [158–160]. In a recent study, Xie et al. [119] attempted
to limit the CR content to 15% with 1% steel fibers.
3.3.8. RCA and CR treatment method
Most of the researchers [14,38,42,43,86,157,161–163] had noticed a
significant improvement in the performance of RAC, RRAC, and FRRAC
with the appropriate treatment method. The contaminants and the
attached mortar of RCA are mainly responsible for reducing the strength
and increasing water absorption of RAC [1,14,15,50]. Crushing RCA
with the right crushers will allow the removal of unwanted contami­
nants and attached mortar (i.e., impact crusher and cone crusher) [164].
Besides, washing the RCA to remove fine particles [10] and soaking old
mortar in 0.1 M of HCl solution helped in achieving the desired results
[1]. Some other common methods are pre-soaking into acids [161],
coating with silane-based water repellent [38], and carbonation [162].
Although these methods had shown reasonable performance, the impact
on the environment had concerned many researchers. Recently, Tang
et al. [39] introduced a treatment agent based on lithium silicate. After
18
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Table 8
Summary of flexural strength of RRAC and FRRAC by different researchers.
RA Size
(mm)
5-20 &
20-40
5-10
Rubber
Size (mm)
Treatment
Method
w/c or
w/b
ratio
Control Mixture
Strength (MPa)
RRAC
Recycled
Aggregate
Rubber
Replacement
Level (%)
Replacement
Level (%)
Replacement
Type
Volume Basis of
NFA
Volume Basis of
NFA
No Treatment
0.38
5.74
100
0, 10, 20,30
0.221
No Treatment
-
5.25
100
10, 20, 30, 40
0, 10, 20
Volume Basis of
NFA
20
Volume Basis of
NFA
0, 5, 10
Volume Basis of
NFA
Volume Basis of
NFA
Volume Basis of
NFA
Weight Basis of
NCA
0.864
4.04
19
4.75-20
4.74-0.08
20% NaOH
Solution (30 Min)
0.34
4.7
≤10
0.3, 0.5 & 3
0.37
5.1
4.7519.0
0.15-4.75
Un-Treated
NaOH (2hr)
NaOH (24hr)
SCA
No Treatment
0
50
100
50
0.38
3.52
10
4.7512.5
4.75-19
0.85-1.40
No Treatment
0.35
8.5
100
0, 4, 8, 12, 16
0.075-10
0.31
3.80
0, 50,100
0, 10,20
19-38
6-12
20% NaOH
Solution (30 Min)
No Treatment
0.45
10.61
90, 80, 70, 60, 50
10, 20, 30, 40, 50
30
Strength Relative
to Control (%)
Fiber
Strength Relative
to Control (%)
Fiber Type
Fiber % (Total
Volume)
89.7, 83.6, 78.9,
71.4
87.6, 78.1, 73.3,
70.5
93.3, 85.7, 82.9,
72.4
94.3, 90.5, 86.7,
77.1
100, 91.5, 80.9
105.3, 80.9, 80.9
101.1, 75.5, 68.1
68.6
72.5
72.5
80.4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Tamanna et al.
[157]
-
-
-
Su [40]
PP Fiber
1
2
1
2
Hossain et al.
[11]
-
Steel Fiber
1
100, 68, 94
Steel Tire
Wires
Tire Steel
Wire Fibers
0.1
99.7, 85,2, 83.8
101.4, 88.6, 86.9
96.0, 95.2, 94.6
108.5, 108.0,
99.1
91.8, 81.2, 69.4,
71.8, 67.1
115.8, 109.7,
89.5
102.4, 77.9, 74.0,
62.6, 48.3
108.3, 86.7, 76.0,
65.8, 51.6
110.5, 88.2, 82.8,
69.8, 58.6
95.6, 73.0, 67.3,
59.6, 42.0
0.25
0.5
1
Note: Replacement of NCA by Recycled Aggregate by weight
Reference
Feng et al.
[134]
Li et al. [137]
Jian-he et al.
[118]
Ahmed et al.
[41]
Alfayez [79]
Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
0.25
FRRAC
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Fig. 15. Relationship of impact resistance capacity of RRAC and FRRAC with CR [78,79].
being treated with this agent, the reported compressive strength for selfcompacted samples was 18.5% (50% RCA) and 16% (100% RCA), more
than in comparison with untreated concrete. In addition, the tensile
strength for RAC with 50% RCA was found close to normal concrete.
The researchers [14,41–43,157] improved the performance of CR by
applying different pre-treatment methods. These treatments change the
smooth textures of CR and develop a strong bond between CR and the
cement matrix. Most commonly, the rubber particles are treated with
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution for a specified period, making the
surface of the CR uneven [14,40–43,45]. Meherier [77] reported that
due to the presence of zinc and silicon, the surface of the CR becomes
hydrophobic due to which the bond with the cement paste gets weak.
For this, Mohammadi et al. [42] suggested using NaOH solution to make
the rubber particles’ surface relatively rougher. Ahmed et al. [41] found
that CR treated with 20% NaOH solution showed a reduction of 94 and
76% in the content of silicon and zinc. Some of the researchers
[40,45,165] applied coating with a silane coupling agent (SCA) while
others simply washed the rubber particles with water [43,166]
(Table 10). Additives of cementitious materials like silica fume also
showed good results [119,167]. Some researchers [40,45] noticed a
decrease in the workability of RRAC with the use of CR treated with a
silane coupling agent, while the NaOH solution treatment had negligible
effects. The researchers [40,45] concluded that the reduced workability
by a silane coupling agent (SCA) is primarily due to the increase of
stickiness among aggregate particles, making concrete less flowable. To
improve the hydrophilicity of the rubber surface, Tamanna [14] used
10% and 20% NaOH solutions for 30 min and reported a 26% increase in
compressive strength with 20% NaOH treatment. Similarly, Emam and
Yehia [44] reported an increase of 22% in compressive strength (7 days)
with the use of carbon disulfide (CS2) for treating CR. Also, Su [40]
examined the effect of surface treatment of rubber particles on the
properties of rubberized recycled aggregate concrete (RRAC) with RCA
being replaced by 50% and CR by 20%. Two different methods, such as
NaOH solution and SCA, had been used to treat the CR particles. The
author revealed that soaking the rubber particles for 2 h in NaOH so­
lution decreased the compressive strength while soaking for 24 h in
NaOH indicated a modest increase in compressive strength. However,
SCA treatment showed the highest increase in strength (Fig. 16a).
Similar results can be noticed for the MoE and flexural strength
(Fig. 16b,c). The treatment of SCA creates silicone coating on the surface
of CR particles, developing a strong bond in ITZ and increasing flexural
strength [40]. Washing with water is another treatment found to in­
crease the dynamic elastic modulus, but no such change was observed on
the static elastic modulus by Najim and Hall [166]. Swilam et al. [49]
attempted a new treatment method in which rubber particles were
heated at 200◦ C for two hr. The results showed improved impact resis­
tance capacity by 37, 28, and 15% for the rubberized concrete con­
taining 40, 60, and 80% CR content, respectively, compared to the
corresponding untreated rubberized concrete. In another study by
Youssf et al. [43], different treatment methods such as water washing,
treated with NaOH solution, KMnO4 + NaHSO4 solution, H2O2 solution,
CaCl2 solution, H2SO4 solution, and silane solution were incorporated.
Despite no significant effect had been noticed in compressive strength, a
reduction in the workability had occurred in all cases. However, pretreatment using water wash was recommended for practical use.
3.3.9. Temperature effect
The performance of FRRAC under elevated temperatures was
investigated by many researchers [37,103,104,141,168]. Most of these
studies had reported a decline in the properties of FRRAC in comparison
with normal conditions. For instance, Guo et al. [103] reported a sig­
nificant drop in the compressive strength, stiffness, and MoE of FRRAC
with an increase in temperature (25 to 600◦ C). These specimens were
prepared with 100% RCA, 4–16% CR, along with 1% of steel fibers. Guo
et al. [103] also reported a reduction in spalling of FRRAC samples,
which is most likely due to the presence of steel fiber, increasing the
concrete resistance. Aslani and Klein [141] found that steel fibers out­
performed PP fibers under 900◦ C as approximately 22% higher tensile
strength was recorded. However, an interesting finding was that the
maximum MoE was obtained at 100◦ C with the addition of 0.5% steel
fibers compared with the control specimen at 25◦ C, but when exposed to
600◦ C a drop of almost 50% in MoE was recorded. In a recent study, Guo
et al. [103] observed the formation of cracks on the surface of FRRAC
under elevated temperatures.
The FRRAC was found to substantially reduce the formation of cracks
under the temperature of 400 to 600◦ C (Fig. 17). Netinger et al. [168]
stated that as rubber is melted at around 170◦ C, therefore, water
evaporates easily without creating pore pressure. Furthermore, the
toughness trend remained unchanged under elevated temperatures.
However, the CR content is not ideal for strength but would provide
resistance to explosive spalling. In a separate study, Guo et al. [37]
explore the fracture behaviors of FRRAC at different elevated tempera­
tures (25, 200, 400, and 600◦ C). Then an inverse relation was observed
between compressive strength and fracture energy of FRRAC at elevated
temperatures. The fracture energy was calculated by adding the area
under the load–deflection curve considering four different types of work
done. The compressive strength decreased with increasing temperature,
whether the energy dissipating capacity and fracture energy increased
(Fig. 18a). From the experimental results, the increase of 1.80, 2.81, and
2.78x times in the fracture energy was observed after being exposed to
200, 400, and 600◦ C, respectively. According to the author, this increase
in fracture energy could be due to a tortuous pattern followed by cracks
helping in more dissipation of energy. In addition, the samples blended
with 8% CR showed maximum fracture energy (Fig. 18b) under elevated
temperature.
3.3.10. Density
Studies investigating the properties of RAC, RRAC and FRRAC re­
ported lower densities as the specific gravity of RCA and CR is lower
than NCA and NFA [11,134,169]. In a study, Feng et al. [134] worked
with RRAC concrete and reported a reduction of 3.7% in the hardened
density of RAC (100% RCA) in comparison with NAC. Later, the author
20
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Md. Shahjalal et al.
Alfayez
[79]
1.5
1
0.5
Tire Steel
Wire
Fibers
Volume Basis of
Total Mixture
Najim and Hall [166], Youssf et al. [43]
Ahmed et al. [41], Tamanna et al. [157],
Tamanna [14], Copetti et al. [92]
Youssf et al.[43]
Su [40], Su et al. [45]
Youssf et al. [43]
Youssf et al. [43]
Tian, Zhang [48], Youssf et al. [43]
Abdulla and Ahmed [47], Youssf et al. [43]
Youssf et al. [43]
Onuaguluchi and Panesar [167], Xie et al.
[119]
Emam and Yehia [44]
Su [40], Su et al. [45], Huang, Shu [46]
Najim and Hall [166]
Swilam et al. [49]
3.3.11. Fatigue life
Feng et al. [134] investigated fatigue behavior and damage features
of rubber-modified recycled aggregate concrete by replacing natural
sand with CR content at 10, 20, and 30% (by volume) with 100%
recycled coarse aggregates. The double logarithmic fatigue equation
curves (S-N curve) showed that for RAC, the S-N curve was steeper than
for NAC, as presented in Fig. 19. With the rise of CR content up to 20%,
the S–N curve became steeper, which means that both the RCA and CR
particles could enhance the bending fatigue life of the concrete. The
fatigue strength of RAC (with 0% CR) increased by 3.39% compared to
NAC (0% RCA & 0% CR), while the fatigue strength of rubber-modified
recycled aggregate concrete containing 20% CR was increased by 6.56%
compared to RAC and 9.95% compared to NAC. For a fixed N value, both
the RCA and CR particles enhanced the fatigue strength of concrete up to
a certain range. Finally, the authors recommended that the optimum CR
percentage was 20% in terms of fatigue strength. Even the concrete
containing 30% CR also showed slightly better fatigue strength than that
of normal concrete. Su [40] attempted to investigate the effect of rubber
treatment on the fatigue properties of RRAC blended with RCA (50%)
and CR (20%). These samples used CR particles treated with NaOH so­
lution and silane coupling agent (SCA). It was found that the addendum
of rubber particles and SCA treatment improved fatigue life compared
with untreated or NaOH-treated rubber aggregate.
As seen from the discussion of this section, the fresh and mechanical
properties of RRAC and FRRAC can vary significantly after incorpo­
rating RCA, CR, and fiber into the concrete mixtures. Summarized in­
formation on various fresh and hardened properties of RRAC and FRRAC
based on this extensive literature review is presented in Fig. 20. These
variations in the physical and mechanical properties of RRAC and
FRRAC are still a great challenge that researchers are currently facing
and further working on this.
20.20
100
Weight Basis of
NCA
0, 10, 15, 20
Water washing
10, 20%, 40% NaOH solution
incorporated CR in the ratios of 10, 20, and 30% and recorded a
reduction of 6.2, 8.1, and 10.6%, respectively. Similarly, Li et al. [137]
reported a decrease in concrete density with higher CR content and
smaller CR particles. Recently, Hossain et al. [11] verified previous re­
searchers’ results by observing a reduction in density with the addition
of 10% CR. Besides, increasing the fiber content tended to decrease the
density in FRRAC. Yet, this reduction cannot be classified as lightweight
concrete.
4.5
0.45
0.6-1.2
19-38
References
Treatment with CS2
Silane coupling agent
Coating of rubber particles with
mortar
Heat Treatment
0.457
0.38
0.15-4.75
4.7519.0
CR Treatment Methods
10% NaOH solution for 30 min
followed by water washing
Saturated NaOH solution for 2
hours and 24 hours
5% KMnO4/ 5% NaHSO4 solution
10% H2O2 solution
10% CaCl2 solution
35% H2SO4 solution
1% Silane solution
Addition of silica fume
100, 100,
100, 100
2
116.7, 133.3,
250.0
133.3, 200.0,
266.7
2200, 600,
600, 500
2500, 1000,
700, 700
4000, 1100,
900, 800
1
PP Fiber
Volume Basis of
NAF
0, 5, 10
Weight Basis of
NCA
30
51.96
0.988
w/c or
w/b
ratio
0.893
Fiber
Fiber %
(Total
Volume)
Replacement
Type
Replacement
Type
Recycled Aggregate
Table 10
Summary of treatment methods of CR particles adopted by different researchers.
Rubber
Size (mm)
Drop
Ht (m)
Drop
Weight
(Kg)
Control
Mixture E.A
Capacity (N.m)
Replacement
Level (%)
RRAC
Replacement
Level (%)
Rubber
Strength
relative to
control (%)
Fiber
Type
FRRAC
Strength
relative to
control (%)
Reference
Shahjalal
et al. [78]
Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
RA
Size
(mm)
Table 9
Summary of impact resistance of RRAC and FRRAC by different researchers.
https://www.tarjomano.com
3.3.12. Code prediction
Previous authors [11,170,171] compared the experimental
measured mechanical properties of RRAC and FRRAC with available
design equations for NAC. Recently, Hossain et al. [11] reported that the
21
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Fig. 16. Effect of treatment of CR particles on (a) compressive strength of RRAC [40], (b) modulus of elasticity of RRAC [40], and (c) flexural strength of RRAC [40].
Fig. 17. Effect of elevated temperature on the crack formation of FRRAC with full RCA replacement and 1% steel fiber [103]. (Note: NC0= NCA with 0% CR content
and RC8= RCA with 8% CR content).
experimental results of splitting tensile strength and flexural strength for
FRRAC were close to the code-predicted results such as ACI 318 [172],
ACI 209 [173], EC2 [174], and CSA A23.3 [175]. This reveals that the
equations for normal concrete can also be used for determining the
splitting tensile strength and flexural strength of FRRAC. In a separate
study, Mutsuddy [171] made a comparison of experimental results of
MoE with theoretical values of rubberized concrete (RC) and fiberreinforced rubberized concrete samples and reported an over­
estimation by CSA A23.3 [175] equations. Similarly, Mendis et al. [170]
found that the tensile strength values of RC were less than 10% of the
experimental results through the codes equation of AS 3600 [176], ACI
318 [172], ACI 363 [177], and fib2010 [178]. However, EC2 [174]
overestimated the strength by 15%. In addition, the code equations of AS
3600 [176], ACI 318 [172], and ACI 209 [173] were found to
overestimate the modulus of rupture values by 20% while an undervalue
of again 20% was reported with the use of ACI 363 [177], fib2010 [178]
and EC2 [174] equations. For MoE, reasonable accuracy was recorded
with AS3600 [176] and ACI 318 [172] equations, but fib2010 [178] was
found to overrate the value by 25%. As the equations in fib2010 [178]
were developed without considering the effect of rubber aggregate
therefore this overestimation occurred. However, the authors suggested
that the available design guidelines for regular concrete can be used to
foretell the splitting tensile strength and MoE of RC with reasonable
accuracy except for the modulus of rupture.
Based on the experimental data collected from previous studies
[11,14,29,41,79,85,103,118,119,128,134,137,142] a code comparison
has been carried out on different mechanical properties, such as tensile
strength, flexural strength and MoE of RRAC and FRRAC (Fig. 21). The
22
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Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
20
(a)
Fracture energy (kN/m)
Fracture energy (kN/m)
20
16
12
NC₀
RC₀
RC₄
RC₈
RC₁₂
RC₁₆
8
4
0
1
25⁰C
2
200⁰C
3
400⁰C
12
8
25 ⁰C
200⁰C
400⁰C
600⁰C
4
0
600⁰C4
(b)
16
1NC₀
2
RC₀
3
RC₄
4
RC₈
5
RC₁₂
6
RC₁₆
Crumb Rubber
Temperature
Fig. 18. Relationship between (a) fracture energy and temperature and (b) fracture energy and CR content under elevated temperature in FRRAC with full RCA
replacement and 1% steel fiber [37]. (Note: NC0= NCA with 0% CR content and RC8= RCA with 8% CR content).
3.3.13. Failure pattern and crack resistance
The inclusion of three different aggregates, such as RCA, CR, and
fiber, in normal aggregate concrete is almost a new concept. Therefore,
their failure pattern should be investigated carefully. Comparing the
failure mode of RAC and RRAC, Li et al. [137] observed that the failure
of RAC occurred rapidly, providing a sharp cracking sound without
warning, whereas RRAC specimens failed slowly and exhibited more
ductility because of the elastic properties of rubber either with a faintly
cracking sound or no sound (Fig. 22).
Under the bending test, relatively wide cracks were observed in RAC
compared to NAC and rubberized concrete (Fig. 23a–c). As opposed to
this, a small number of fine cracks popped up on the surfaces of the
RRAC samples (Fig. 23d). Feng et al. [134] showed that under the
bending test, the NAC (Fig. 23a) and RAC (Fig. 23b) showed a wide
aperture and extensive penetration, whereas the crack resistance capa­
bility was improved significantly after adding CR contents (RRAC
specimens) (Fig. 23d). Also, the width and depth of the cracks decreased
as the CR content increased. Similar behavior was also observed by other
researchers [37,119]. This may happen due to the anti-cracking per­
formance of CR particles [179,180]. Moreover, Xie et al. [119] and
Richardson et al. [125] described that due to the existence of two
different materials at the interface (CR particles have hydrophobic
surfaces and are organic, whereas cement paste is inorganic and con­
tains ionic compounds) they can not combine effectively because of the
higher water absorbing phenomena of the cement paste compared with
that of CR particles. In addition, the lower MoE of the CR particles can
act as dampers; hence, stress distribution may occur at the crack tips,
which can delay the coalescence of the cracks as described previously
[159,181]. In FRRAC specimens, it was observed that most of the con­
crete specimens containing CR and fiber content provided ductile failure
mode compared to the brittle failure of reference concrete under
bending [11,14] (Fig. 23e). Besides, the FRRAC specimens remained
intact at failure due to the confining effect of the PP fibers [14].
Under the splitting tensile strength test, Hossain et al. [11] demon­
strated that the RAC specimens showed well-defined crack lines
(Fig. 24a), whereas the FRRAC specimens followed an irregular and
zigzag crack pattern (Fig. 24d). It was observed from the broken flexural
specimens that the fibers protruded outward and perpendicular to the
cross-section, which helped to resist the crack propagation by providing
bridging (Fig. 23e). Jian-he et al. [118] found several major macro
cracks in RAC specimens crossed through the height of the concrete
cylinders. However, in FRRAC specimens, only small multiple longitu­
dinal cracks were observed on the surfaces of the specimens. Guo et al.
(2014b) also observed the same behavior. Turatsinze et al. [159] re­
ported that when the tip of the crack touched the CR particles, it could
resist the crack growth like a damper. The authors also claimed that
incorporating steel fiber restrained crack propagation and provided
significant residual post-peak strength. However, Xie et al. [119]
Fig. 19. Double logarithm fatigue equation curves for RRAC [134].
Fig. 20. Summarized influence of RCA, CR, and fiber on RRAC and
FRRAC properties.
available code equations i.e. ACI 318 [172], fib2010 [178], EC2 [174],
and CSA A23.3 [175] either overestimate or underestimate the experi­
mental values up to 74%. Using those previous experimental data, an
extensive regression analysis has been performed in this study consid­
ering the effect of RCA, CR, and fiber. The proposed equations of this
study (Table 11) can predict the properties accurately and are presented
in Fig. 21.
23
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6
2
0
0
4
2
0
2
4
6
ACI Prediction (MPa)
0
Experimental Value
(MPa)
4
6
6
Experimental Value
(MPa)
Experimental Value
(MPa)
Experimental Value
(MPa)
6
4
2
0
0
2
4
6
fib Prediction (MPa)
2
4
6
Eurocode Prediction (MPa)
4
2
0
0
2
4
6
Proposed Equation (MPa)
2
0
0
4
2
0
2
4
6
ACI Prediction (MPa)
0
6
6
Experimental Value
(MPa)
4
Experimental Value
(MPa)
Experimental Value
(MPa)
Experimental Value
(MPa)
(a) Tensile Strength of RRAC
6
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
fib Prediction (MPa)
0
4
2
0
2
4
6
Eurocode Prediction (MPa)
0
2
4
6
Proposed Equation (MPa)
8
4
0
0
4
8
12
12
9
6
3
0
0
ACI Prediction (MPa)
12
4
8
12
fib Prediction (MPa)
9
6
3
0
0
4
8
12
CSA Prediction (MPa)
Experimental Value
(MPa)
12
Experimental Value
(MPa)
Experimental Value
(MPa)
Experimental Value
(MPa)
(b) Tensile Strength of FRRAC
12
8
4
0
0
4
8
12
Proposed Equation (MPa)
4
8
12
ACI Prediction (MPa)
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
ACI Prediction (GPa)
20
0
0
40
20
0
20
40
60
ACI Prediction (GPa)
20
40
60
fib Prediction (GPa)
0
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
CSA Prediction (GPa)
12
8
4
0
0
4
8
12
Proposed Equation (MPa)
60
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
Proposed Equation (GPa)
(e) MoE of RRAC
60
60
40
20
0
4
0
4
8
12
4
8
12
CSA Prediction (MPa)
fib Prediction (MPa)
(d) Flexural Strength of FRRAC
60
40
60
Experimental Value
(GPa)
Experimental Value
(GPa)
60
0
0
60
Experimental Value
(GPa)
Experimental Value
(GPa)
60
0
8
Experimental Value
(MPa)
0
4
Experimental Value
(GPa)
0
8
12
Experimental Value
(GPa)
4
12
0
20
40
60
fib Prediction (GPa)
Experimental Value
(GPa)
8
Experimental Value
(MPa)
12
Experimental Value
(GPa)
Experimental Value
(MPa)
Experimental Value
(MPa)
(c) Flexural Strength of RRAC
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
CSA Prediction (GPa)
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
Proposed Equation (GPa)
(f) MoE of FRRAC
Fig. 21. Code comparison of different mechanical properties of RRAC and FRRAC.
reported that the inclusion of silica fume in FRRAC helped to propagate
the cracks through RCA and CR particles instead of passing them along
with the interfaces. In the FRRAC specimens without silica fume, the
internal crack propagation occurred along with the interface between
the RCA and the cement paste by-passing the steel fiber and rubber
because the RCA’s strength may be greater than the interface’s strength.
Thus, the fracture occurred easily at the interface, and the failure surface
was more distinct. However, silica fume can increase the interfacial
bond strength and make a denser paste, which promotes propagating the
cracks through the RCA and rubber particles because of its higher
strength. The failure patterns of NAC, RAC, RC, RRAC, and FRRAC
specimens under different loading conditions are presented in Fig. 22 to
Fig. 24.
3.3.14. Life cycle assessment
Life cycle assessment is a process that measures the effect on the
environment through carbon emission and cost analysis during the
period of the life cycle of man-made products. The term global warming
24
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Table 11
Proposed equations for RRAC and FRRAC.
Concrete Property
Tensile Strength (MPa)
Flexural Strength (MPA)
Modulus of Elasticity (MPa)
Proposed Equation
√̅̅̅̅̅
RCA CR
−
ft = 0.62 fc′ +
√̅̅̅̅̅ 1000 100
′ RCA CR
ft = 0.42 fc +
−
+ 0.35F
√̅̅̅̅̅ 66.5 500
RCA CR
′
−
fr = 0.74 fc +
910 61.5
√̅̅̅̅̅
RCA CR
fr = 0.55 fc′ +
−
+ 0.42F
21̅̅̅̅̅ 30
√
RCA
CR
−
E = wc 1.5 0.038 fc′ +
17 12
√̅̅̅̅̅
RCA CR
E= wc 1.5 0.045 fc′ +
−
+ 0.81F
20 4.5
Coefficients of Determination (R2)
Types of Concrete
0.963
RRAC
0.967
FRRAC
0.898
RRAC
0.918
FRRAC
0.948
RRAC
0.961
FRRAC
Note: fc′= Compressive Strength (MPa), wc = Concrete Density (kg/m3), RCA = % of Recycled Coarse Aggregate Replaced with Natural Coarse Aggregate (Weight
Basis), CR = % of Crumb Rubber Replaced with Natural Fine Aggregate (Volume Basis), and F= % of Fiber (Volume of Total Mixture). The FRRAC equations are only
applicable for PP fiber, steel fiber, and steel tire wires fiber. For hybrid fiber (a combination of two or more types of fiber), it is not applicable.
can also coincide with carbon dioxide emission or carbon footprint.
Construction materials that will have lower environmental impacts have
been of prime importance for researchers for a long time. Therefore,
when RRAC and FRRAC are sought to be accepted as attractive products
worldwide, a thorough study of their effect on nature conservation is
necessary, which is often termed as a part of the life cycle assessment
(LCA) process. A simplified illustration of the life cycle of the end life of
tires and concrete elements and/or structures is shown in Fig. 25.
according to Martínez-Lage et al. [184], the concrete with 100% mixed
RCA exhibited the highest cost. This difference was primarily due to
changes in mixture proportion and the transport charges between nat­
ural and recycled aggregates. The authors identified that the trans­
portation distance of RCA is a significant factor in cost consumption.
However, a 20% replacement of RCA has a negligible difference in the
cost of production.
3.3.14.2. Carbon emission. As mentioned before, the global warming
potential is mainly quantified by the assessment of carbon emissions.
Mhaya et al. [88] reported that CO2 emission was reduced by 0.02, 0.03,
0.06, and 0.09% when CR was used to replace the NFA by 5, 10, 20, and
30%, respectively. Besides, when CR was used as a substitution for both
NCA and NFA, the emission level of CO2 was reduced to 0.06, 0.13, 0.26,
and 0.41% for 5, 10, 20, and 30% CR content, respectively. The reason
may be due to lower energy consumed and consequently less carbon
dioxide emission for acquiring and transporting natural aggregate. The
author concluded that CR could produce sustainable RC having lower
carbon emissions and reduced energy consumption compared to con­
ventional concrete. Another study by Shahjalal [142] found the same
trend and reported that up to 19.0 and 20.2% of CO2 emissions could be
reduced by RRAC and FRRAC mixture, respectively. The study by Xie
et al. [119] also addressed this particular environmental concern by
calculating the total CO2 emission by FRRAC. Moreover, the general
observation was that the CO2 emission increases with a higher amount of
CR, just opposite to Shahjalal [142], as presented in Fig. 27. For
instance, the CO2 emission was 6.4, 7.4, 8.1, 8.8, and 9.6% greater for
3.3.14.1. Cost analysis. Mhaya et al. [88] demonstrated that replacing
river sand with CR slightly increased the cost of modified concrete, but
was still less than that of the concrete cast with OPC. A review by Presti
[183] pointed out that the Asphalt-Rubber is an attractive option for
roads and pavement construction in terms of environmental concerns.
The comparison between the cost incurred during maintenance and
usage unraveled that an Asphalt-Rubber pavement was more costeffective than conventional pavement. To support this claim, the data
analysis in that paper represented that after 25 years of construction, the
difference in maintenance cost between the conventional bituminous
pavement and Asphalt-Rubber pavement is quite significant, implying
that the maintenance required by the conventional pavement is more
(Fig. 26).
The Environmental Council of Concrete Organizations (ECCO) [18]
reported that using RCA instead of NCA can save the cost up to 60%.
Another study by Verian et al. [19] reported that using RCA can reduce
the cost to $2.26–$2.93/ton on the concrete pavement (without
considering the savings of not using landfills). On the contrary,
Fig. 22. Failure pattern of (a) RAC, (b) RC, (c) RRAC, and (d) FRRAC specimens under compression [11,14,77].
25
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Fig. 23. Failure pattern of (a) NAC, (b) RAC, (c) RC, (d) RRAC, and (e) FRRAC specimens under bending test [11,14,134,182].
Fig. 24. Failure pattern of (a) RAC, (b) RC, (c) RRAC, and (d) FRRAC specimens under tension [11,29,77].
Fig. 25. Life cycle of end of life of tires and concrete (modified by the authors from Presti [183] and Martínez-Lage et al. [184]).
26
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Md. Shahjalal et al.
14000
12000
Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
density due to CR inclusion allows CO2.
In terms of RCA, Silva et al. [190] reported that increasing the
amount of RCA resulted in greater carbonation depth, considering all
other factors remained constant. A 100% replacement of RCA may cause
up to two times greater carbonation depth than those of corresponding
NAC specimens. Besides, the particle size of the recycled aggregate
significantly impacts the carbonation behavior of concrete. The fine RCA
exhibited comparatively higher carbonation depth than coarse RCA
because the fine RCA comprises a relatively large amount of adhered
mortar with higher porosity in the concrete mixture. The authors sug­
gested that reducing the w/c ratio, reducing adhered mortar by incor­
porating extra crushing stages, and reducing the porosity by increasing
the amount of cement can help reduce carbonation.
Conventional Bituminous Mixes
Asphalt-Rubber Mixes
Cost ($)
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
https://www.tarjomano.com
5
10
15
Year
20
3.3.14.4. Energy consumption and carbon footprint. During the CO2
emission process, notable energy is consumed, which leads to the
importance of assessing the energy consumption in the LCA regime.
Mhaya et al. [88] mentioned that concrete with CR replacing NFA and
NAC required greater energy in the production stage. For instance, the
replacement of NCA by CR increases energy consumption with the
highest value of 1.5% for the specimen containing 30% CR. In the case of
CR replacing both NCA and NFA, almost a 1.7% rise in energy con­
sumption was reported for concrete with a 30% CR replacement level.
This increase in energy consumption is because the CR requires more
electrical energy and fossil fuels during the concrete production phase
than that is required by NFA. However, Li et al. [191] mentioned that
the highest impact on the environment is due to the de-vulcanization
stage in the process of production of CR as it includes large quantities
of coal burning. The vulcanization is a chemical process that involves
heating the rubber with sulphur, accelerator, and activator at
140–160 ◦ C. The second highest load on the environment is due to the
refining process, primarily giving rise to electricity consumption.
However, it is worth mentioning that the preparation of the CR by
chopping, slicing, grinding, and screening has the lowest environmental
impact. Xiao et al. [74] studied the effect on carbon footprint due to the
incorporation of RCA and reported that when RCA was used as a
structural material, up to 2.175 × 105 kgCe carbon footprint was
decreased. Also, the cumulative energy demand of the RCA structure
was calculated to be 1.473 × 106 MJ which was about 12.8% lower than
that of the NCA. Their study identified that the recycling process and
transportation distance were chosen to play a vital role in reducing
embodied carbon and energy consumption, making RCA more attrac­
tive. The study by Hossain et al. [75] found that energy consumption can
be lowered by using RCA by up to 58%.
25
Fig. 26. Comparison of maintenance cost between conventional bituminous
mixes and Asphalt-Rubber mixes [183].
Fig. 27. CO2 emissions rate from RRAC and FRRAC mixtures [119,142].
samples with CR contents of 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20%, respectively in
comparison to that emitted by normal concrete. However, the authors
reported that adding silica fume into the FRRAC mixture reduced the
CO2 emission significantly. It was observed that, in the FRRAC sample
with 20% CR content, as the amount of silica fume increased from 5 to
10%, the carbon emission was 270.1 kg/m3 and 258.1 kg/m3, respec­
tively. As seen from the experimental results, the CO2 emission was
reduced by over 8% in FRRAC with 5% CR and 10% silica fume,
compared to steel fiber-reinforced natural aggregate concrete. The full
NCA replacement by RCA showed a slight decrease in carbon emissions.
Other authors [185–187] also mentioned that CO2 emission was reduced
by up to 40% when NCA was replaced by RCA and arc furnace slag.
Another study by Hossain et al. [75] showed that the greenhouse gas
footprints were reduced by up to 65% when RCA derived from CDW was
used in construction.
3.3.14.5. Eutrophication and acidification. The acidification generally
occurs due to anthropogenic air pollutants like SO2, NH3, and NOX,
which can change the chemical composition of the soil and surface water
after deposition. Eutrophication is when inland waters become overly
nutrient-rich due to chemical fertilizers or discharged wastewater.
During the concrete production process, these substances are generally
emitted, which are directly responsible for acidification and eutrophi­
cation. Moreover, these are also responsible for air pollution as well as
the deterioration of concrete. As stated by Kim and Chae [192], the
substances emitted during concrete production not only impact global
warming but also affect eutrophication and acidification. According to
this study, acidification and eutrophication indices can be significantly
reduced by increasing the replacement ratio of natural aggregate with
recycled aggregate. This may happen due to the lower NOX emissions
during recycled aggregate production compared to natural aggregate.
On the other hand, Martínez-Lage et al. [184] reported that the eutro­
phication and acidification potential increased for 100% RCA replace­
ment with NCA, but they were limited to only 6%. However, it should be
noted that reusing this recycled aggregate can save up more than 35% of
waste generation and 50% of abiotic depletion. A paper by Piotrowska
3.3.14.3. Carbonation. The CO2 emitted by constituents in RRAC and
FRRAC can be estimated during the process of carbonation [188].
Carbonation is considered another aspect of LCA that quantifies the
amount of CO2 absorbed by the concrete in terms of carbonation depth
[189]. The carbonation depth of RC was found to be greater than that of
normal concrete, and it increased with an increase in CR content [99].
The resistance to carbonation was found to reduce with an increase in
CR content in a study by Gupta et al. [89], where the authors mentioned
that the carbonation depth increased with a rise in exposure to CO2. This
can be explained by the fact that the increment of void and reduction of
27
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et al. [193] pointed out that the eutrophication and acidification of car
tires are significant during production and are mainly at the service
stage. However, no effects on eutrophication and acidification were
observed due to the recycling of end-of-life tires. It was also observed
that the global warming potential increased as the replacement level of
RCA got higher in concrete mixtures. The study by Moro et al. [194] also
concluded that the eutrophication potential for the concrete sample
having 100% RCA replacement was the highest, whereas that of con­
ventional concrete was the lowest.
was used for the simulation of concrete. The compressive behavior was
modeled assuming a linear response of stress versus strain up to the
concrete compressive strength, and beyond this point, it was assumed to
exhibit a perfectly plastic response. Similarly, the RAC’s tensile behavior
was assumed to express linear response up to its tensile failure strength,
which was calculated as 7% of its corresponding compressive strength.
Beyond the tensile failure strength, the micro-cracks in concrete were
simulated considering linear softening response using fracture energy
estimation. The study focused on the FEA of flexure and shear response
of the RAC beam specimens, and a good agreement was found between
the experimental results and the numerical simulation. For instance, the
load–deflection response developed by the FEM showed a negligible
error in the elastic region and an error of 10% in the plastic region.
However, in the case of shear, theoretical calculations by European
codes showed better prediction results than the numerical models
developed in that study.
3.3.15. Stress-Strain constitutive models
Limited numerical research has been conducted considering the ef­
fect of all three materials, such as RCA, CR, and fiber. Due to the diffi­
culty in performing large-scale tests, the numerical models can provide
useful insight into the behavior of the structures subjected to various
loading conditions. However, different authors worked with individual
materials and their effect on mechanical performance at the element
level. The stress–strain relationship of concrete due to these materials
differs significantly from that of ordinary concrete. This section will
briefly summarise the existing material models which can readily be
implemented in a commercial finite element package.
3.3.15.3. Finite element modeling of Fiber-Reinforced concrete. For the
finite element analysis (FEA) of fiber-reinforced concrete, Abbas et al.
[203] adopted the ABAQUS/Explicit [196] and used the brittle cracking
model to describe the concrete behavior. The author performed a nonlinear FEA analysis for steel fiber-reinforced beams with and without
transverse shear reinforcement. Before cracking, the concrete in tension
was assumed as linear elastic and tension-stiffening, which can describe
the post-cracking response. The authors used a smeared crack approach
to simulate the cracking process of the specimens and adopted the
Rankine criterion to point out crack initiation. The FEM found a
remarkably (<10%) accurate prediction of load-carrying capacity.
Another study by Chi et al. [204] adopted a non-associated plasticitybased model to present the stress–strain response of hybrid steelpolypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete subjected to multiaxial loads.
The model was implemented in ABAQUS using a subroutine called Userdefined Material (UMAT) to simulate the material behavior of the con­
crete. Fiber reinforcement indices were incorporated to include the ef­
fect of fiber in the material model. Constitutive equations were used to
define the loading surface, hardening/softening rule, and stiffness
matrices. The UMAT subroutine utilized a Modified Newton-Raphson
method for determining the initial yield point and the state of stress
after yielding was calculated using a modified Euler integration algo­
rithm coupled with error control. The performance of the developed
model was found to have good accuracy in predicting both the strength
and axial deformation, whereas a moderate underestimation was
observed in lateral strain. However, the constitutive model provided a
good prediction regarding the stress–strain response of fiber-reinforced
concrete.
3.3.15.1. Finite element modelling of CR concrete. As rubberized con­
crete can be considered conventional low-strength concrete, Bompa
et al. [133] and Xu et al. [195] used the concrete damage plasticity
(CDP) model for modeling the behavior of rubberized concrete using
ABAQUS [196]. The authors proposed equations for the uniaxial
compressive stress of rubberized concrete considering the effect of
rubber particle size (dr ) (whether it is coarse or fine) and their per­
centage of replacement level (ρr) as the strength of rubberized concrete
is significantly influenced by both parameters. The proposed equations
considered the three-segment in the stress–strain curve. The first
segment is the elastic segment, which ends at the elastic limit strain. The
second segment starts from the elastic limit strain to the peak strain, and
the third one is the descending section of the stress–strain curve, which
is associated with crushing energy. Besides, Li et al. [138] and Aslani
[197] proposed two different stress–strain constitutive models for
rubberized concrete. Feng et al. [198] worked on the blast responses of
rubberized concrete slabs and proposed some modified equations
adopted from Karagozian and Case concrete (KCC) model [199,200] to
predict the dynamic stress–strain constitutive relationship of rubberized
concrete. The main modifications have been introduced in the values of
b1 and b2 (Constants for compressive and tensile softening), the rela­
tionship between γ (Accumulated plastic strain) and μ (Self-defined
function with γ) and the strain rate effect. The modified equations
showed a good correlation with the experimental results, whereas the
original KCC model grossly underestimates the deformation capacity in
the softened phase of rubberized concrete and is not suitable for this type
of concrete. All these equations and other researchers’ models are pre­
sented in Table 12.
A comparative assessment (Fig. 28a) has been done between the
predicted response of Bompa et al. [133] and the experimental results of
Bompa et al. [133] and Meherier [77]. It is observed that the developed
equations can predict the experimental results of Bompa et al. (2017)
with good accuracy (COV = 6.7%), whereas, for Meherier [77], the
variation is quite high. However, Xu et al. [195] used these equations to
model rubberized reinforced concrete members and found a good
agreement between the numerical simulations and the experimental
results in terms of the initial stiffness, cracked stiffness, maximum lateral
capacities, and the failure pattern (Fig. 28b). Moreover, the experiment
to numerical capacity ratio was found to be 0.97 with a COV of 0.04.
3.3.15.4. Finite element modeling of RRAC and FRRAC. Guo et al. (1982)
proposed a well-known piecewise model, which was then adopted in
Chinese Standards such as GB50010-2002 [205]. After 2010, a modifi­
cation was proposed for the ascending segment in GB50010-2010 [201]
standards. The modified equation is presented in Table 12, where n and
αc are the shape parameters of the ascending and descending segments.
Chen et al. [87] found GB50010-2010 (2015) compatible with natural
aggregate concrete and rubberized concrete, whereas the modified
equation did not work well for RRAC and FRRAC concrete, especially in
the descending segment. Based on these results, a new equation was
proposed for the descending segment (αcm). The authors concluded that
the new proposed equation could predict more accurately for cases such
as NAC, RAC, RC, RRAC, and FRRAC respectively.
Elsayed [206] used ANSYS [207] to validate the experimental
load–deflection curves of reinforced concrete flat slabs incorporating
RRAC under the punching shear test. SOLID65 element with three de­
grees of freedom at each node was used to simulate the concrete char­
acteristics. For reinforcing the steel bar, a 3D spar element (LINK 180)
having two nodes (uniaxial tension–compression element with no
3.3.15.2. Finite element modeling of RCA concrete. Velay-Lizancos et al.
[202] tried to incorporate the influence of RCA in material modeling.
The concrete damage plasticity (CDP) model available in ABAQUS [196]
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Table 12
Stress-strain constitutive models of RC, RAC, RRAC and FRRAC.
Constitutive Model
σ
fr
σ
fr
= [α ×
=
(ε)
εr
ε
εr
+ (3 − 2α) ×
ε
εr
β × ( − 1)2 +
( ε )2
εr
+ (α − 2)(
( ε )3
εr
ε ; where ε ≥ εr
εr
α = (2.4 − 0.0125fc ) × k−
2.195
× (1 − 0.0027ρd−
]; where ε ≤ εr
0.1136
ε
ρm ( )
εr
]
ε
fr
ρm − 1 + ( − 1)ρm
εr
fr = fc αe− βR
Reference
RC
Li et al. [138]
RC
Aslani [197]
RC
Bompa et al.
[133]
RC
Feng et al.
[198]
NAC and RC
GB50010-2010
[201]
NAC, RAC, RC, RRAC
and FRRRAC
Chen et al. [87]
)
11
0.22293k1.817×10 ρ− 0.0434 d0.9924
β = (0.157fc 0.785 − 0.905) × exp(− 0.1633lnρ +
)
d − 0.0817
0.0054k− 2.212 ρ1.088 d0.908
fr = fc × exp(0.0222lnd −
d − 0.0175
0.3365ρ0.3931 d0.934
εr = εc × exp(0.31088lnρ −
d + 0.0441
σ
Concrete
=[
(E )]−
ρm = ρm,a = [1.02 − 1.17
ρm = ρm,d = ρm,a
p
0.74
; ε ∈ (0,εr )
Er
+ (∅ + kt); ε ∈ ε ≥ εr
∅ = 35 × (12.4 − 1.66 × 10− 2 fr )−
911
k = 0.75exp( −
)
fr
fr
Ep =
0.9
εr
f
ν
)
Er ν − 1
εr = ( r )(
f
ν = r + 0.8
17
σ
= Er ε; where ε ≤ εpl
fr
εpl = 0.3 × fr /Er
fc
fr =
1 + 2(1.5λρr )3/2
fr
Er = 12000( )2/3
10
λ = 2.43 → dr ∈ (0, 5); for fine mineral aggregate replacement, λ = 2.90 → dr ∈ (0, dr, max ); for both fine and coarse mineral aggregate
replacement, and λ = 2.08 → dr ∈ (5, dr, max ); for coarse mineral aggregate replacement.
(
) ((
) )2
ε − εpl
σ
5 ε − εpl
=
−
+ 0.3; where ε ∈ (εpl, εcr)
3
fr
εcr
εcr
εcr = (1 − ρr )εc
εc = 0.7fc 0.31
)(
(
(
))2
)( ε
)
1
fr 1/3
ε
6
fr 1/3
fr,2
− 1
− 1
−
− 1
− 1 + ( ); where ε ≥ εcr
(
εcr
εcr
8 (1 + ρr )2/3
8 (1 + ρr )2/3
fr
) (
)
εpl
fr,2
5 (
ε 2
− 1−
( )= ( ) 1 −
+ 0.3
εcr
3
fr
εcr
(
)
Δσ = μ Δσm − Δσy + Δσy
σ
fr
=
p
γ =
dεp
∫ε
0
[
DIF × 1 + (
p
γ =
∫ε
0
dεp =
[
p
)
DIF × ft
dεp
DIF × 1 + (
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
2
3dεij p εij p
p
)
DIF × ft
]b1 , for p ≥ 0
]b2 , for p < 0
( )2
( )3
γ
γ
⎧ αγ
+ (3 − 2α)
+ (α − 2)
for γ ≤ γm (HardeningPhase)
⎪
⎪
γm
γm
⎪ γm
⎪
⎨
γ
μ(γ) =
⎪
γm
⎪
⎪
(
)αd
for γ > γm (SofteningPhase)
⎪
⎩
γ
γ
αc
− 1
+
γm
γm
σ
=nx/(n − 1 +xn ) when x ≤ 1x/[αc (x − 1)2 +x] when x > 1n = Ec εr /(Ec εr − fcr )
fr
x = ε/εr
αc = 0.157fr0.785 − 0.905
αcm = 0.157fc0.785 − 0.905
fc = fr /(Ec εr /Ec,0 εr,0 )e
εr
σ
fr
=nx/(n − 1 +xn ) when x ≤ 1x/[αcm (x − 1)2 +x] when x > 1
29
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Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
Fig. 28. (a) Comparative assessment between experimental and predicted stress-strain responses [77,133], and (b) failure modes of rubberized concrete column
specimens [195].
bending capability) with three degrees of freedom at each node was
used. The plastic deformation, cracking, and crushing behavior of con­
crete were also considered. Besides, the shear transfer coefficients of
concrete for an open-and-close crack were taken as 0.2 and 0.8,
respectively. In addition, FE modeling adopts the same boundary con­
ditions as of experiment. A displacement control loading was applied in
the FE model. The numerical results were found to differ by 1% on
average, with a standard deviation of 0.02 and a coefficient of variation
of 2.5% for ultimate load-carrying capacity.
mechanical behavior of RRAC and FRRAC and the production of highstrength concrete. Limited research has been found in the literature on
the durability properties of RRAC and FRRAC mixtures. Various dura­
bility properties of RRAC and FRRAC under severe environmental
exposure conditions are required to analyze deeply before using these
wastes as an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional
materials.
The production process of RCA and CR particles needs to be inves­
tigated to achieve modifications in their physical characteristics, like
angularity, rough surfaces, flakiness, elongation, density, hydropho­
bicity, and impurities. Various CR treatment strategies exist in the cur­
rent literature. However, optimized heat treatment and CR treatment
methods need to be established to develop improved mechanical prop­
erties of RRAC and FRRAC. So far, no extensive investigation has been
done on the bond behavior between steel and FRRAC. A detailed study of
the bond behavior between the reinforcing steel and the RRAC matrixes
with and without fiber is needed. Fire and blast resistance of RRAC and
FRRAC-based concrete structures was not found in the literature, which
should be investigated thoroughly. Fatigue performance and the effect
of high strain rate should be investigated to evaluate the dynamic
compressive, tensile, and flexural strength of fiber-based rubberized
recycled concrete specimens. Impact tests of medium to high strain rate,
drop weight hammer test, and Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar testing
should be adopted in the future.
Quasi-static cyclic behavior of load-bearing structural elements, such
as beams, columns, and beam-column joints made with RRAC and
FRRAC, is yet to be explored. The seismic performance of various
structural elements made with RRAC and FRRAC needs to be investi­
gated before their use in earthquake-prone regions. Such studies are very
limited. The incorporation of rubber in the concrete changes the
damping properties significantly. Accurate damping modelling of con­
crete structures is essential for any numerical simulation under seismic
loading. Future studies should focus on characterizing the damping
properties of RRAC and FRRAC-based concrete structures for nonlinear
time history analysis. In addition, incorporating advanced machine
learning (ML) techniques such as ensemble and boosting ML algorithms
should be implemented in the future to predict the mechanical proper­
ties of RRAC and FRRAC to develop interpretable data-driven models
utilizing the existing test results. Although very recent studies have been
published on this topic by the authors [223,224], where they focused on
concrete cylinders, cubes, or prism beams to predict the mechanical
properties of RRAC and FRRAC. Therefore, future studies should focus
on predicting the element-level behavior of RRAC and FRRAC members,
such as beams, columns, and slabs, through ML models. One of the
important research needs is to develop mechanical models to predict the
flexural and shear behavior of FRRAC as the inclusion of fiber change the
3.3.16. Machine learning models to predict mechanical properties of
rubberized concrete
Before establishing rubberized concrete as a safe and viable alter­
native to conventional concrete, its mechanical behavior needs to be
investigated carefully. Accurate prediction of the mechanical properties
of rubberized concrete has been a great challenge since it is a new
concept for the construction industry. Incorporating different machine
learning (ML) models can be a possible solution to predict the most
accurate result. Several studies were found in the literature where ML
models have been implemented to predict various mechanical properties
of rubberized concrete, as presented in Table 13 [33,208–222]. Most of
the ML models were single-learning algorithms. Artificial Neural
Network (ANN), Multilayered Perceptron (MLP), Support Vector Ma­
chine (SVM), Gene Expression Programming (GEP), and Random Forest
(RF) were mostly used in ML algorithms for rubberized concrete. The
commonly used input variables were the amount of cement, water,
coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, coarse rubber, fine rubber, superplasticizer, concrete age, W/C ratio, CR replacement level, and parti­
cle size. In most cases, the studies focused on the prediction of
compressive strength of concrete. Besides the compressive strength,
Huang, Zhang [219], Miladirad, Golafshani [221], Zhang, Xu [222],
Gupta, Patel [218], and Gesoğlu, Güneyisi [216] also predicted the
splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity of
rubberized concrete. Moreover, one study by Topçu and Sarıdemir [214]
predicted different fresh properties of rubberized concrete, such as unit
weight and flow table value. Among all ML algorithms, ANN demon­
strated the best performance in terms of accuracy while predicting the
mechanical properties with a coefficient of correlation (R) of over 0.90.
4. Challenges and future research needs
Since the application of fiber-reinforced rubberized recycled aggre­
gate concrete is an almost new concept in the construction industry,
more research is required on the different properties of RRAC and
FRRAC before establishing them as potential alternatives to natural
aggregate concrete. Future research must focus on the long-term
30
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Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
Table 13
Applications of ML in predicting mechanical properties of rubberized concrete.
Ref.
Data
size
ML Algorithm
Input Variables
Output Response
Performance
Measure
Wang et al.
[33]
92
Gene Expression Programming (GEP)
Compressive Strength
RMSE, MAE, RSE,
RRMSE, R, PI
Golafshani
et al. [217]
712
M5P Model Tree, Multi-Gene Expression
Programming (MGEP)
Compressive Strength
RMSE, MAE, R,
RRMSE
Gregori et al.
[211]
89
Support Vector Machine (SVM), Gaussian Process
Regression (GPR)
Compressive Strength
R2
Huang et al.
[219]
353
Levenberg–Marquardt (LM), Bayesian
Regularisation (BR), Scaled Conjugate
Gradient (SCG)
Compressive Strength,
Flexural Strength,
Splitting Tensile Strength,
Modulus of Elastic
MSE, R
Kovačević
et al. [220]
166
Compressive Strength
RMSE, MAE, R,
MAPE
Miladirad
et al. [221]
2623
Multilayered Perceptron Artificial Neural Network
(MLP-ANN), Ensembles of MLPANNs, Regression
Tree Ensembles (Bagging Method, Random Forests
Method, Boosting Trees Method), Support Vector
Regression (SVR), Gaussian Process Regression
(GPR)
Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Neuro-Fuzzy
System (NFS)
Compressive Strength,
Splitting Tensile Strength,
Flexural Strength,
Modulus of Elastic
RMSD, RRMSD,
MAD, MAPD, CC,
HSP
Zhang et al.
[222]
114
Extreme Learning Machine (ELM)
Compressive Strength,
Splitting Tensile Strength,
Flexural Strength
R, RSD, MRE
Dat et al.
[209]
129
Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Random Forest
(RF), Multilayered Perceptron (MLP)
Compressive Strength
R2, MAE, RMSE
HadzimaNyarko et al.
[212]
457
Artificial Neural Network (ANN), k-Nearest
Neighbor (KNN), Regression Trees (RT), Random
Forests (RF)
Compressive Strength
NSC, RMSE, MAE
Gupta et al.
[218]
324
Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
Period of NaOH Pre-treatment,
Concentration of NaOH Solution, CR
Replacement Level, W/C Ratio, Amount of
Fine Aggregate, Amount of Super-plasticizer
Amount of Cement, Amount of Water,
Amount of Coarse Aggregate, Amount of
Fine
Aggregate, Amount of Silica Fume, Amount
of Super-plasticizer, Amount of Coarse
Rubber, Amount of Fine Rubber, Concrete
Age
Amount of Cement, Amount of Fine
Aggregate, Amount of Coarse Aggregate,
Aggregate Pre-Treatment Condition, W/C
Ratio, Fine Aggregate Replacement Level,
Coarse Aggregate Replacement Level
Rubber Replacement Level, Rubber Particle
Size, Amount of Fine Aggregate, Moisture
Content of Fine Aggregate, Fine Aggregate
Particle Size, Amount of Rubber, PreTreatment Method of Rubber, Amount of
Cement, Cement Type, Amount of Water,
Amount of Water-Reducing Admixture,
Amount of Coarse Aggregate, Coarse
Aggregate Particle Size, W/C Ratio, Amount
of Slag, Amount of Fly Ash, Amount of Silica
Fume.
Amount of Water, Amount of Cement,
Amount of Fine Aggregate, Amount of
Coarse Aggregate, Amount of Fine Rubber,
Amount of Coarse Rubber, Amount of Superplasticizer, Amount of Slag, Amount of Silica
Fume, Amount of Fly Ash
Water/Binder Ratio, Total Coarse Aggregate
to Cement Ratio, Total Fine Aggregate to
Total Aggregate Ratio, Silica Fume to
Cement Ratio, Super-plasticizer to Binder
Ratio, Coarse Rubber to Total Coarse
Aggregate Ratio, Fine Rubber to Total Fine
Aggregate Ratio, Concrete Age, Mechanical
Properties of Normal Concrete, Volume
Percentage of Fine Aggregate Replaced by
Fine Rubber, Volume Percentage of Coarse
Aggregate Replaced by Coarse Rubber
Amount of Rubber, Rubber Particle Size,
Amount of Polypropylene Fiber, Amount of
Cement, W/C Ratio, Amount of Fine
Aggregate
Amount of Water, Amount of Cement,
Amount of Supplementary Cementitious
Materials, Amount of Coarse Aggregate,
Amount of Coarse Rubber, Amount of Fine
Aggregate, Amount of Fine Rubber, Amount
of Super-plasticizer, Concrete Age
W/C ratio, Amount of Cement, Amount of
Fine Aggregate, Amount of Coarse
Aggregate, Amount of Fine Rubber, Amount
of Coarse Rubber
Temperature, Exposure Duration, Amount of
Fiber, W/C ratio
MSE, RMSE, R,
AAD, COV, SSE
Sun, et al.
[213]
138
Random Forest (RF)
Compressive Strength,
Static Modulus of
Elasticity, Dynamic
Modulus of Elasticity,
Mass Loss
Compressive Strength
Bachir et al.
[215]
112
Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
Compressive Strength
R, MAE, MSE
Amount of Cement, Amount of Water,
Amount of Supplementary Cementitious
Materials, Amount of Super-plasticizer,
Amount of Coarse Aggregate, Amount of
Coarse Rubber, Amount of Fine Aggregate,
Amount of Fine Rubber, Concrete Age
W/C Ratio, Amount of Super-plasticizer,
Amount of Coarse Aggregate, Amount of
Fine Aggregate, Amount of CR, Amount of
Tire Chips
R, RMSE
(continued on next page)
31
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Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
Table 13 (continued )
Ref.
Data
size
ML Algorithm
Input Variables
Output Response
Performance
Measure
El-Khoja et al.
[210]
287
Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
Compressive Strength
Mean, SD, COV,
MAE, MSE, R
Cheng and
Hoang
[208]
70
Self-Adaptive Fuzzy Least Squares Support
Vector Machines Inference Model (SFLSIM)
Compressive Strength
RMSE, MAPE
Gesoğlu et al.
[216]
70
Multilayered Perceptron Artificial Neural Network
(MLP-ANN), Gene Expression Programming (GEP)
Compressive Strength,
Splitting
Tensile Strength, Static
Elastic Modulus
Max % Error,
MAPE, RMS, SSE, R,
COV, MSE, RMSE
Topçu and
Sarıdemir
[214]
36
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), Fuzzy Logic
(FL)
Amount of Coarse Aggregate, Amount of
Fine Aggregate, W/C Ratio, Amount of Fine
Rubber, Amount of Coarse Rubber
Amount of Cement, Amount of Silica Fume,
Amount of Water, Amount of Superplasticizer, Amount of Coarse Aggregate,
Amount of Fine Aggregate, Amount of CR,
Amount of Tire Rubber
Amount of Cement, Amount of Silica Fume,
Amount of Water, Amount of Superplasticizer, Amount of Coarse Aggregate,
Amount of Fine Aggregate, Amount of CR,
Amount of Tire Chips
Amount of Cement, Amount of Sand,
Amount of Water, Amount of Fine
Aggregate, Amount of Coarse Aggregate,
Amount of Fine Rubber, Amount of Coarse
Rubber
Unit Weight, Flow Table
Geometric Error
Average, Absolute
Error
mechanical properties of concrete. Existing mechanical models are not
applicable for predicting the flexure and shear mechanism of FRRAC
beams. New constitutive models need to be developed for FRRAC under
different strain rates to be implemented in the FE models to capture the
behavior of this new type of concrete numerically.
• Most of the researchers recorded a decrease in compressive strength
with the inclusion of CR and RCA and was irrespective of size, con­
tent, and treatment. This decline is primarily due to inadequate
adhesion of CR with concrete and lower water absorption capacity.
However, adding fibers resulted in increased compressive and tensile
strength of FRRAC compared to RAC and RRAC. Mainly steel and PP
fibers were added in a ratio of up to 2%.
• The modulus of elasticity and density was found to decrease as the
replacement level of RCA and CR increased. Besides, studies revealed
that the inclusion of fibers had a negative impact on improving the
stiffness of the FRRAC. On the other hand, reduced concrete density
can help reduce the self-weight of the structure.
• The trend of attainment of splitting tensile strengths of the RRAC and
FRRAC samples did not differ from that of compressive strength.
Increasing RCA and CR content resulted in decreased tensile capac­
ity. All types of fibers can improve tensile properties. However, steel
fiber and PP fiber are commonly used fibers among all.
• The ultimate strain was found to increase significantly under the
combined effect of RCA and CR. On the other hand, fibers imparted
good bridging characteristics that tended to complement the strain
capacity of CR particles, leading the FRRAC to sustain higher strain
and deformations. Also, the ductility was improved due to the
combined effect of CR and fiber, making FRRAC a better option than
RRAC.
• Although reduced flexural strength of RRAC with higher CR content
was reported, the inclusion of fibers was found to improve flexural
strength. Due to the filler effect of CR, especially with the minuscule
size, the flexural strength may increase. However, some studies have
reported the opposite trend.
• Higher strain rates contributed to strengthening the dynamic
compressive strength, and this remained unchanged with CR particle
size and content. In addition, the recycled aggregate concrete con­
taining both CR and fiber exhibited better energy absorption ca­
pacity, which got more pronounced with higher CR and fiber
content.
• The toughness and ductility of RRCA concrete were enhanced with
the addition of CR and fibers; however, an excessive amount of CR
was found to affect the toughness values negatively.
• A decline in the properties of RRAC and FRRAC at elevated tem­
peratures was recorded, but the energy dissipation capacity and
fracture energy were found to be improved. Moreover, the presence
of rubber helped ease the initiation and development of cracks at
elevated temperatures. At the same time, the inclusion of fiber
controlled the crack width and spacing, delaying the crack propa­
gation along with concrete spalling at normal and high temperatures.
5. Conclusions
This paper reviews the studies related to fresh and hardened prop­
erties of rubberized recycled aggregate concrete (RRAC) and fiberreinforced rubberized recycled aggregate concrete (FRRAC), along
with microstructure, failure mechanism, code comparison, constitutive
modelling, numerical simulations, life cycle assessment, and carbon
emission. Besides, the source of RCA, CR, and fiber; their merits and
demerits; and treatment methods have been summarized. A brief review
of the application of ML in predicting the mechanical properties of
rubberized concrete has been presented. This extensive review of 223
research papers led to the following conclusions:
• The CR particles mostly carry carbon (C) and oxygen (O) elements
which are greater than 90%. In addition, the presence of hydro­
phobic elements, such as silicon (Si) and zinc (Zn) delays the overall
hardening process.
• Some methods are suggested to improve the quality of RCA by
removing the contaminants and attached mortar, such as crushing
RCA with an impact crusher and cone crusher, pre-soaking into
acids, coating with silane-based water repellent, and treating with
lithium silicate. Besides, the CR particles can be treated with NaOH
solution, CS2, silane coupling agent, or washed with water.
• As the surfaces of CR particles are rough and hydrophobic, proper
pre-treatment of rubber particles with NaOH or silane coupling agent
can improve the surfaces of rubber particles, resulting in improved
ITZ and fatigue life.
• Compared with conventional concrete, the RRAC and FRRAC mix­
tures showed decreased workability, which lowered further with
increased RCA, CR, and fiber content. However, the influence of fi­
bers was found to be more pronounced on workability than for
binders blended with RCA and CR separately. In contrast, the air
contents of both RRAC and FRRAC mixtures were found to be higher
in comparison with normal concrete, which increased further with
the addition of RCA, CR, and fibers.
• The loss of workability due to RCA, CR, or fiber can be addressed by
wetting the aggregate before mixing, using plasticizer and/or
superplasticizer, treating CR particles with NaOH solution, and
incorporating supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash,
slag, silica fume, metakaolin.
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Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133233
• The fatigue strength and fatigue life of the concrete were enhanced in
the presence of CR particles. However, the fatigue life of RRAC can
be improved by using the CR particles after treating them with a
silane coupling agent or NaOH solutions.
• The existing design equations for conventional concrete can
reasonably predict the different mechanical properties of RRAC and
FRRAC.
• Brittle failure was observed in NAC and RAC specimens, while CR
and fiber blended specimens showed more ductile behaviour.
Accordingly, wider cracks appeared in RAC blended mixtures, while
a few fine cracks were found on the surfaces of the RRAC and FRRAC
specimens.
• The incorporation of RCA and CR into concrete mixtures reduced
CO2 emissions. In the FRRAC mixtures, an increase in CO2 emission
was observed with an increase in the amount of CR. However, the
inclusion of silica fume reduced CO2 emissions significantly. It is
worth mentioning that the recycling process and transportation path
are important decisions as embodied carbon and energy consump­
tion are both affected.
• The carbonation depth was found to be greater in rubberized con­
crete than in normal concrete, increasing with rubber content.
• The maximum level of replacement of natural aggregates by CR was
used up to 30%, and most of the studies considered replacing the
NFA with the CR particles on a volume basis. However, it is suggested
to use CR up to 10% for a comparable strength with the control
specimens and to enhance the deformation capacity, ductility, and
toughness of concrete. Besides, the use of RCA should be limited to
up to 30%.
• No synergetic effect has been observed with the incorporation of
RCA, CR, and fiber. The effects of incorporating all of these materials
simultaneously are simply the sum of the individual effects of
incorporating each. However, the individual role of these materials
in the mixtures was quite prominent.
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Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge former and current re­
searchers and collaborators (Kishoare Tamanna, Md Salamah Meherier,
Humera Ahmed, Charles Rockson, Rubaiya Rumman, Jesika Rahman,
Md. Rezaul Karim, AHM Muntasir Billah, and Joarder Md Sarwar Mujib)
who participated in the joint rubberized concrete research projects
conducted at UBC, MIST, and BUET in the academic year between 2016
to 2023 in various capacities.
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