UNIT 1: IoT
Introduction to Internet of Things (IoT) – Set 1
IoT stands for Internet of Things. It refers to the interconnectedness of physical devices, such as appliances and
vehicles, that are embedded with software, sensors, and connectivity which enables these objects to connect and
exchange data. This technology allows for the collection and sharing of data from a vast network of devices, creating
opportunities for more efficient and automated systems.
Internet of Things (IoT) is the networking of physical objects that contain electronics embedded within their
architecture in order to communicate and sense interactions amongst each other or with respect to the external
environment. In the upcoming years, IoT-based technology will offer advanced levels of services and practically
change the way people lead their daily lives. Advancements in medicine, power, gene therapies, agriculture, smart
cities, and smart homes are just a few of the categorical examples where IoT is strongly established.
IOT is a system of interrelated things, computing devices, mechanical and digital machines, objects, animals, or
people that are provided with unique identifiers. And the ability to transfer the data over a network requiring
human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction.
History of IOT

1982- Vending machine

1990-Toaster

1999-IOT(Kevin Ashton)

2000-LG Smart Fridge

2004-Smart Watch

2007-Smart i phone

2009-Car Testing

2011-Smart TV

2013-Google Lens

2014-Echo

2015-Tesla autopilot
Four Key Components of IOT

Device or sensor

Connectivity

Data processing

Interface
IoT is network of interconnected computing devices which are embedded in everyday objects, enabling them to
send and receive data.
0 seconds of 21 secondsVolume 0%
Over 9 billion ‘Things’ (physical objects) are currently connected to the Internet, as of now. In the near future, this
number is expected to rise to a whopping 20 billion.
Main Components Used in IoT

Low-power embedded systems: Less battery consumption, high performance are the inverse factors that
play a significant role during the design of electronic systems.
UNIT 1: IoT

Sensors: Sensors are the major part of any IoT application. It is a physical device that measures and detects
certain physical quantities and converts it into signal which can be provided as an input to processing or
control unit for analysis purpose.
Different types of Sensors

Temperature Sensors

Image Sensors

Gyro Sensors

Obstacle Sensors

RF Sensor

IR Sensor

MQ-02/05 Gas Sensor

LDR Sensor

Ultrasonic Distance Sensor

Control Units: It is a unit of small computer on a single integrated circuit containing microprocessor or
processing core, memory and programmable input/output devices/peripherals. It is responsible for major
processing work of IoT devices and all logical operations are carried out here.

Cloud computing: Data collected through IoT devices is massive, and this data has to be stored on a reliable
storage server. This is where cloud computing comes into play. The data is processed and learned, giving
more room for us to discover where things like electrical faults/errors are within the system.

Availability of big data: We know that IoT relies heavily on sensors, especially in real-time. As these
electronic devices spread throughout every field, their usage is going to trigger a massive flux of big data.

Networking connection: In order to communicate, internet connectivity is a must, where each physical
object is represented by an IP address. However, there are only a limited number of addresses available
according to the IP naming. Due to the growing number of devices, this naming system will not be feasible
anymore. Therefore, researchers are looking for another alternative naming system to represent each
physical object.
Ways of Building IOT
There are two ways of building IoT:

Form a separate internet work including only physical objects.

Make the Internet ever more expansive, but this requires hard-core technologies such as rigorous cloud
computing and rapid big data storage (expensive).
In the near future, IoT will become broader and more complex in terms of scope. It will change the world in terms of
“anytime, anyplace, anything in connectivity.”
IoT Enablers

RFIDs: uses radio waves in order to electronically track the tags attached to each physical object.

Sensors: devices that are able to detect changes in an environment (ex: motion detectors).

Nanotechnology: as the name suggests, these are tiny devices with dimensions usually less than a hundred
nanometers.
UNIT 1: IoT

Smart networks: (ex: mesh topology).
Working with IoT Devices

Collect and Transmit Data : For this purpose sensors are widely used they are used as per requirements in
different application areas.

Actuate device based on triggers produced by sensors or processing devices: If certain conditions are
satisfied or according to user’s requirements if certain trigger is activated then which action to perform that
is shown by Actuator devices.

Receive Information: From network devices, users or devices can take certain information also for their
analysis and processing purposes.

Communication Assistance: Communication assistance is the phenomenon of communication between 2
networks or communication between 2 or more IoT devices of same or different networks. This can be
achieved by different communication protocols like: MQTT, Constrained Application Protocol, ZigBee, FTP,
HTTP etc.
Working of IoTac
Characteristics of IoT

Massively scalable and efficient

IP-based addressing will no longer be suitable in the upcoming future.

An abundance of physical objects is present that do not use IP, so IoT is made possible.

Devices typically consume less power. When not in use, they should be automatically programmed to sleep.

A device that is connected to another device right now may not be connected in another instant of time.

Intermittent connectivity – IoT devices aren’t always connected. In order to save bandwidth and battery
consumption, devices will be powered off periodically when not in use. Otherwise, connections might turn
unreliable and thus prove to be inefficient.
UNIT 1: IoT
Desired Quality of any IoT Application
Interconnectivity
It is the basic first requirement in any IoT infrastructure. Connectivity should be guaranteed from any devices on any
network then only devices in a network can communicate with each other.
Heterogeneity
There can be diversity in IoT enabled devices like different hardware and software configuration or different network
topologies or connections, but they should connect and interact with each other despite so much heterogeneity.
Dynamic in Nature
IoT devices should dynamically adapt themselves to the changing surroundings like different situations and different
prefaces.
Self-adapting and self configuring technology
For example, surveillance camera. It should be flexible to work in different weather conditions and different light
situations (morning, afternoon, or night).
Intelligence
Just data collection is not enough in IoT, extraction of knowledge from the generated data is very important. For
example, sensors generate data, but that data will only be useful if it is interpreted properly. So intelligence is one of
the key characteristics in IoT. Because data interpretation is the major part in any IoT application because without
data processing we can’t make any insights from data. Hence, big data is also one of the most enabling technologies
in IoT field.
Scalability
The number of elements (devices) connected to IoT zones is increasing day by day. Therefore, an IoT setup should be
capable of handling the expansion. It can be either expand capability in terms of processing power, storage, etc. as
vertical scaling or horizontal scaling by multiplying with easy cloning.
Identity
Each IoT device has a unique identity (e.g., an IP address). This identity is helpful in communication, tracking and to
know status of the things. If there is no identification then it will directly affect security and safety of any system
because without discrimination we can’t identify with whom one network is connected or with whom we have to
communicate. So there should be clear and appropriate discrimination technology available between IoT networks
and devices.
Safety
Sensitive personal details of a user might be compromised when the devices are connected to the Internet. So data
security is a major challenge. This could cause a loss to the user. Equipment in the huge IoT network may also be at
risk. Therefore, equipment safety is also critical.
Architecture
It should be hybrid, supporting different manufacturer’s products to function in the IoT network.
As a quick note, IoT incorporates trillions of sensors, billions of smart systems, and millions of applications.
UNIT 1: IoT
Application Domains
IoT is currently found in four different popular domains:
1) Manufacturing/Industrial business - 40.2%
2) Healthcare - 30.3%
3) Security - 7.7%
4) Retail - 8.3%
Modern Applications

Smart Grids and energy saving

Smart cities

Smart homes/Home automation

Healthcare

Earthquake detection

Radiation detection/hazardous gas detection

Smartphone detection

Water flow monitoring

Traffic monitoring

Wearables

Smart door lock protection system

Robots and Drones

Healthcare and Hospitals, Telemedicine applications

Security

Biochip Transponders (For animals in farms)

Heart monitoring implants (Example Pacemaker, ECG real time tracking)

Agriculture

Industry
Advantages of IoT

Improved efficiency and automation of tasks.

Increased convenience and accessibility of information.

Better monitoring and control of devices and systems.

Greater ability to gather and analyze data.

Improved decision-making.

Cost savings.
UNIT 1: IoT
Disadvantages of IoT

Security concerns and potential for hacking or data breaches.

Privacy issues related to the collection and use of personal data.

Dependence on technology and potential for system failures.

Limited standardization and interoperability among devices.

Complexity and increased maintenance requirements.

High initial investment costs.

Limited battery life on some devices.

Concerns about job displacement due to automation.

Limited regulation and legal framework for IoT, which can lead to confusion and uncertainty.
Device Driver and It’s Purpose
Device Driver in computing refers to a special kind of software program or a specific type of software application
that controls a specific hardware device that enables different hardware devices to communicate with the
computer’s Operating System. A device driver communicates with the computer hardware by computer subsystem
or computer bus connected to the hardware.
Device Drivers are essential for a computer system to work properly because without a device driver the particular
hardware fails to work accordingly, which means it fails in doing the function/action it was created to do. Most use
the term Driver, but some may say Hardware Driver, which also refers to the Device Driver.
UNIT 1: IoT
Working of Device Driver:
Device Drivers depend upon the Operating System’s instruction to access the device and perform any particular
action. After the action, they also show their reactions by delivering output or status/message from the hardware
device to the Operating system. For example, a printer driver tells the printer in which format to print after getting
instruction from OS, similarly, A sound card driver is there due to which 1’s and 0’s data of the MP3 file is converted
to audio signals and you enjoy the music. Card reader, controller, modem, network card, sound card, printer, video
card, USB devices, RAM, Speakers, etc need Device Drivers to operate.
The following figure illustrates the interaction between the user, OS, Device driver, and the devices:
Types of Device Driver:
For almost every device associated with the computer system there exist a Device Driver for the particular hardware.
But it can be broadly classified into two types i.e.,
1. Kernel-mode Device Driver –
This Kernel-mode device driver includes some generic hardware that loads with the operating system as part
of the OS these are BIOS, motherboard, processor, and some other hardware that are part of kernel
software. These include the minimum system requirement device drivers for each operating system.
UNIT 1: IoT
2. User-mode Device Driver –
Other than the devices which are brought by the kernel for working the system the user also brings some
devices for use during the using of a system that devices need device drivers to function those drivers fall
under User mode device driver. For example, the user needs any plug-and-play action that comes under this.
Virtual Device Driver:
There are also virtual device drivers(VxD), which manage the virtual device. Sometimes we use the same hardware
virtually at that time virtual driver controls/manages the data flow from the different applications used by different
users to the same hardware.
It is essential for a computer to have the required device drivers for all its parts to keep the system running
efficiently. Many device drivers are provided by manufacturers from the beginning and also we can later include any
required device driver for our system.
Top 10 Technology Trends in 2024
In today’s fast-paced life, TECHNOLOGY has taken the reins of the world and emerged rapidly. As per a survey, it is
expected that in the next 5 years, there will be globally an addition of 150M technology-related jobs. New
technologies are constantly being evolved that will shape the upcoming future. This simply means that you need to
constantly learn the latest technological trends to secure top jobs and sustain yourself in the industry. Looking
ahead to the next 10 years, staying attuned to Top Technology Trends 2024 will be vital for professional success.
Every trend has a lot of potential to allow individuals to stay in the ever-growing tech domain and also help
organizations upgrade their business processes in such a way their potential customers can connect with them very
easily.
In this article, we will be covering the top 10 technology trends for 2024 that you can learn. Furthermore, we will
also discuss the best resources that you can use to enhance your knowledge about trending technologies.
Top Technology Trends 2024
UNIT 1: IoT
Here, we have listed some of the most-recent new technology breakthroughs to keep an eye on in 2024.
1. Generative AI
2. Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning
3. Blockchain
4. Cybersecurity
5. Low Code/No-Code
6. Full Stack development
7. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR)
8. Robotic Process Automation (RPA)
9. Internet of Things (IoT)
10. Edge Computing
1. Generative AI
Generative AI, an advanced technology, has transformed various industries by allowing machines to produce content
that resembles human-created work. It covers a wide range of uses, from generating text to creating images and
even composing music. Mastering generative AI opens doors to exciting careers in areas like AI research, data
science, and creative fields. The expanding applications of generative AI offer a promising future for those skilled in
this technology, influencing how we interact and create digital content.
Some top job opportunities include:

Being an AI Researcher, exploring advanced generative models;

Data Scientist, using generative AI for valuable insights;

A Content Creator, using generative AI for creative storytelling;

An AI Ethics Consultant, addressing the ethical considerations of AI-generated content.
Average Salary: INR 8 LPA to INR 15 LPA.
2. Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning
Artificial Intelligence which is also known as AI has been one of the emerging technology trends in 2021 and
continue to be on the top of the list in 2024 all due to the right reasons. Artificial intelligence refers to the ability of
computers to perform tasks that are done by humans as they require supreme intelligence. As per the latest survey,
more than 75% of venture capital investors will use AI to collect information by 2025. AI will be used to detect
customer behavior, enhance the personalized experience, analyze data and make better insights.
So AI is the future and it is expected to create a whopping 2.4 million jobs. Machine Learning on the other hand is a
part of AI and there’s a gigantic tide riding in the coming years for tech professionals. According to a survey, AI
and Machine Learning will be accountable for 9% of all new technological jobs in the US by 2025.
Average Salary: INR 9 LPA to INR 14 LPA.
3. Blockchain
A blockchain simply refers to a chain of blocks that facilitates the process of recording transactions. As per the
survey, the global spending on Blockchain will reach a whopping $11.7 billion by the end of 2024. Blockchain is used
in a lot of fields like Cryptocurrencies, IoT devices, smart contracts, legal documentation, digital voting, smart cars,
the food and chemical industry, and many more.
UNIT 1: IoT
Blockchain technology, digital assets, and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are going to transform our world, and this
technology will continue to advance in 2024. These advancements extend beyond Bitcoin to include smart contracts
that permit us to verify ownership with NFTs.
Future technology like Blockchain promises amazing job opportunities, insanely high salaries, and global recognition.
Average Salary: INR 7 LPA to INR 20 LPA.
4. Cybersecurity
Cybersecurity professionals are the individuals who identify threats and vulnerabilities in the system and then
implement high-tech solutions to defend against all types of cybercrimes. Cybersecurity has played a major role in
securing the safety of user experience.
As per the latest reports, India will have more than 1.5 million unfulfilled job vacancies in the cybersecurity domain
by 2025. So this is an amazing technology to build your career in.
Average salary of a cybersecurity expert ranges between INR 3 LPA – 40LPA based on the skillset and expertise.
5. Low Code/No-Code
Low Code/No-Code has put the world on a pedestal as it’s speeding up the software development process. Low
Code/No Code allows you to create business and mobile apps with little to no coding skills. According to a study, the
future of low-code or no-code is with an expected growth rate of 44.4% by 2024 to $27.23 billion (up from $4.32
billion in 2017). It is predicted that the market for app development will grow at least 5x faster than the IT capacity
to provide those services.
Therefore, the rise of apps developed by businesses has been triggered by the demand for digital transformation.
The demand for developers and platforms is not high enough to meet the demand.
Average Salary: INR 9 LPA to INR 15 LPA.
6. Full Stack development
Full stack development involves creating both the visible part that users interact with (front-end) and the behindthe-scenes part that manages data and functionality (back-end) in web or software applications. Full stack
developers are skilled in various programming languages and technologies, enabling them to handle the entire
software process. This approach has become popular as businesses look for adaptable developers capable of
building complete solutions quickly.
Full stack development simplifies the creation process, making it faster to develop and release products. In simpler
terms, a full stack developer is like a versatile chef who can handle every aspect of cooking, from preparing
ingredients (back-end) to serving a delicious dish (front-end), ensuring a seamless and efficient development
journey.
Average Salary: INR 7 LPA to INR 16 LPA.
7. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR)
Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) are proven to be the top innovations that have the highest growth
potential. VR submerges one into a virtual environment whereas AR enhances the user experience which is achieved
by the use of digital, visual, sound, and sensory technology.
As per the survey, the AR market is expected to increase by $198 billion by the year 2025 and around 171 million
people are using VR technology. To ace, this field you don’t require any specialized knowledge all you need is basic
programming skills and cognitive ability.
Metaverse has indulged a part in VR and AR and continuing to expand its horizon.
Average Salary: INR 4 LPA to INR 15 LPA.
UNIT 1: IoT
8. Robotic Process Automation (RPA)
Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is a method of automating business processes such as data collection and
analysis, customer service, and other repetitive tasks that were previously operated manually.
RPA, like AI and Machine Learning, is a constantly evolving technology that automates many jobs in a variety of
industries. Less than 5% of jobs today can be completely automated, but nearly 60% can be partially automated.
RPA opens up a slew of new career paths and opportunities, such as those for programmers, project managers,
business analysts, and consultants. It also opens doors to high-paying jobs in leading organizations with a moderate
learning curve. Choosing this technology as a career path can be extremely beneficial.
Average Salary: INR 4.4LPA to INR 24 LPA.
9. Internet of Things (IoT)
IoT is one of the most promising technological trends in 2024 that is disrupting the digital world. The Internet of
Things, or IoT, is a network of devices that interconnect to the internet and share data with one another.
IoT devices include not only computers, laptops, and smartphones, but also objects that have been outfitted with
chips that allow them to collect and connect data over a network. By 2025, it is gauged that there will be more
than 21 billion IoT devices.
Average Salary: INR 4 LPA to INR 16 LPA.
10. Edge Computing
Once considered a trendy technology, cloud computing is now a mainstream practice dominated by major players
like AWS, Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud Platform. While the adoption of cloud computing is still on the rise, a
new trend has emerged – edge computing. As businesses grapple with increasing data volumes, they’ve noticed
limitations in cloud computing, leading to the rise of edge computing.
Edge computing aims to address these limitations by processing data closer to where it’s needed, bypassing the
delays associated with sending data to a centralized data center. This is especially helpful for time-sensitive data in
remote locations with limited connectivity. Think of edge computing as mini data centers at the edge of the network.
Staying updated on cloud computing, including emerging trends like edge and quantum computing, opens doors to
exciting job opportunities such as Cloud Reliability Engineer, Cloud Infrastructure Engineer, Cloud Architect and
Security Architect, and DevOps Cloud Engineer.
Average Salary: INR 25 LPA to INR 40 LPA.
Understanding Data Governance
Data Governance :
Data governance is an act that takes the action according to data provided using its own method. Data governance
refers to a complete set of processes and policies and people as well for ensuring effective data management. It’s a
term using on both macro and micro levels as data governance is required from lower-level activities to higher-level
activities as each activity works with some data. It’s very efficient and also enables an organization to achieve any
specific goals. Effective data governance provides strong strategies to the organization and also it establishes the
processes and responsible which ensures the quality and all security of data across the organization. Some data
governance practices start with small creating pictures with big scenarios in mind. Data governance is not data
management as data governance is a core component of data management.
UNIT 1: IoT
Benefits of Data governance :

Basic understanding of data –
Data governance provides an overall view and provides common terminology and helps in retaining the
flexibility of the business.

Improves data quality –
Complete and Correct data helps in achieving something perfectly. Data governance makes it easy as the
plan created with data governance results in data correctness, completeness, and consistency.

Data Map –
Data governance provides an advanced ability to understand location data-related entities, which helps in
data integration.

Consistent compliance –
Data governance provides a platform for fulfilling the demands of regulations by the government.
Building data governance :
If the integrity is not managed then it’s totally worthless so it’s important some principal should be followed that will
ensure data remains high-quality and its compliance throughout the lifecycle. Here are some listed principles –

Coverage –
The volume and completeness of data are kept in view of and level of unique identities.

Accuracy –
It’s important to merge data fields from multiple sources into one centralized system.

Freshness –
The data records should be fresh as possible. That monitors the system continuously to confirm the last
update and ensures contacts and keeps updated.

Flows –
Marketing campaigns and the company’s sales lead data flows should remain in sync and Tracks errors via
the lineage of data across sources, transformation, and dependencies.

Labels and rules –
It helps in standardize organization and visualizing tags and unidentified data models. And nominate data
authorities to be the source of part across connected systems.
Main characteristics of data governance :

Administers the public policy and affairs of data.

Exercises the sovereign authority of data and influences the database

Controls the speed or magnitude of data.

Regulates data

Controls the actions of data and their behavior

Restrains the data

Manages political authority over data
UNIT 1: IoT
Goals of data governance :

Minimizes risks factors

Establishes internal rules of data

Implementation compliance requirements

Improves internal and external communication

Increases the value of data

Facilitates the administration

Optimizes cost
Data governance roles :

Steering committee –
It includes managing, protecting, and ensuring the integrity and usefulness of organization data. It
designates data stewards and supports planning and governance to meet the data requirement and usages.

Data owner –
Mainly handled by senior managers in the organizations who are responsible for specifying the
organization’s requirements on data and on data quality. Responsible for data creation and maintenance
and also accountable for the data definition in specific areas of responsibility which differs according to the
role and data requirement.

Data steward –
A functional end-user in an operational area with responsibility for a subset of data. So, we can say data
expert in a particular operational area. Implements data policies in an operational area and monitors the
data quality as well.
Difference Between Data Privacy and Data Security
Data Security – Data Security is shielded from unauthorized use, access, and disclosure via data security. It also
guards against interference, alteration, and destruction.
Data Privacy – The right to decide who can access your personal data, such as bank account balances and credit card
numbers, is known as data privacy.
In this article, we are going to discuss what is Data Privacy & Data Security and the differences between them and
their importance.
What is Data Privacy?
Data Privacy is also called Information Privacy in which proper handling, processing, storage, and usage of personal
information takes place. In this case, the priority is given to the rights of an individual. Data Privacy is typically
concerned with ensuring the data any given corporation processes, stores, or transmits is ingested compliantly and
with consent from the holder of that sensitive data.
Importance of Data Privacy

Although there are several definitions of privacy available online, data privacy generally refers to how
personal information is handled, processed, stored, and used. It ultimately comes down to each person’s
right to privacy regarding their data.

The concept of data privacy states that only those with permission can view the data.

It covers all sensitive data handled by businesses that deal with clients, investors, and staff.
UNIT 1: IoT

Maintaining the security of the data is ensured by protecting personal information. This idea is the point at
which data security and protection merge with privacy.
What is Data Security?
Data Security is based upon securing or protecting personal data from any unauthorized third-party access or
exploitation of data. In this case, the data is accurate, reliable, and user-friendly. Data security is related to securing
sensitive data. You don’t have to be an IT expert, auditor, or security analyst to figure out. Where data privacy and
security begin to vary is in whom or what they are protecting data from.
Importance of Data Security

Your data or information may be exposed if you do not have security measures in place, such as managing
your identity, authentication using multiple factors or multi-device management.

Aside from personnel, your data is the most significant asset. A breach may pose a serious risk to the
organization or lead to its closure.

Data security shields information from misuse, disclosure, and unauthorized access. Additionally, it guards
against tampering, alteration, and deletion of data. The right to decide who can access your personal data,
such as account balances and credit card numbers, is known as data privacy.
Various U.S Laws for Data Privacy and Data Security
The US approaches data privacy laws in a sectoral manner. This implies that each and every data privacy law and
compliance requirement was developed with a specific business or demographic group in mind.

Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) : Gives parents the ability to decide what data websites
can gather about their children.

Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) : Expands the scope of government prohibitions on wiretaps
to cover electronic data transmissions.

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) : Guarantees patient privacy for all information
pertaining to healthcare

Video Privacy Protection Act : Stops the unintentional release of a person’s personally identifiable
information resulting from the purchase or renting of audiovisual content.
UNIT 1: IoT
Difference Between Data Privacy and Data Security
Data Privacy
Data Security
Data Privacy is all about the reflection of what data is
important and why.
Data Security is all about the reflection of how those
policies got enforced.
Data privacy sets about proper usage, collection,
retention, deletion, and storage of data.
Policies, procedures, and tools for protecting personal
data are established by data security.
Data security gives prerequisite to data privacy.
Data security is the main prerequisite to data privacy.
It offers to block websites, internet browsers, cable
companies, and internet service providers from
tracking your information and your browser history.
It offers to protect you from other people accessing
your personal information and other data.
Data Privacy basically governs how data is collected,
shared and used.
Data Security basically protects data from compromise
by external attackers and malicious insiders.
Data privacy tools include browser extensions and
add-on, password managers, private browsers and
email services, encrypted messaging, private search
engines, web proxies, file encryption software, and ad
and tracker blockers.
Data Security tools involve with identity and access
management, data loss prevention, anti-malware, antivirus, event management and data masking software.
It doesn’t include the encryption format.
It includes the encryption and breach response.
For e.g. The European Union’s General Data Protection
Regulation is an type of international standard for
protecting the privacy of EU citizens.
For e.g. The Payment Card Industry Data Security
Standard is a set of rules which protect the sensitive
payment card information and cardholder data.
Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)
Generally, sensors are used in the architecture of IOT devices.
Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.
A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.
The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for processing (e.g. electrical,
mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or material to detect the presence of a particular physical
quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form like changes in characteristics,
changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance, etc.
UNIT 1: IoT
IOT HARDWARE
Transducer :

A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.

It converts one type of energy into another type.

It might be used as actuator in various systems.
Sensors characteristics :
1. Static
2. Dynamic
1. Static characteristics :
It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change after steady state condition.

Accuracy: Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result close to the true value of the
measured quantity. It measures errors. It is measured by absolute and relative errors. Express the
correctness of the output compared to a higher prior system. Absolute error = Measured value – True value
Relative error = Measured value/True value

Range: Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which the sensor can actually
sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense or no kind of response.
e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.

Resolution: Resolution is an important specification for selection of sensors. The higher the resolution,
better the precision. When the accretion is zero to, it is called the threshold.
Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.

Precision: It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when repetitively measuring
the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions.
It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value.
It is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.

Sensitivity: Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response of the system with respect
to incremental change in input parameters. It can be found from the slope of the output characteristics
curve of a sensor. It is the smallest amount of difference in quantity that will change the instrument’s
reading.
UNIT 1: IoT

Linearity: The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particularly straight line. Linearity is determined by
the calibration curve. The static calibration curve plots the output amplitude versus the input amplitude
under static conditions.
A curve’s slope resemblance to a straight line describes linearity.

Drift: The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when kept at that value for a
long period of time.

Repeatability: The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the same conditions. The
measurements have to be made under a short enough time duration so as not to allow significant long-term
drift.
Dynamic Characteristics :
Properties of the systems

Zero-order system: The output shows a response to the input signal with no delay. It does not include
energy-storing elements.
Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary displacements.

First-order system: When the output approaches its final value gradually.
Consists of an energy storage and dissipation element.

Second-order system: Complex output response. The output response of the sensor oscillates before steady
state.
Sensor Classification :

Passive & Active

Analog & digital

Scalar & vector
1. Passive Sensor –
Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil moisture, water level and temperature
sensors.
2. Active Sensor –
Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser altimeter sensors.
3. Analog Sensor –
The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input parameter. Ex- Temperature
sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog hall effect.
4. Digital sensor –
Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog sensors. Along with the analog
sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit conversion. Example – Passive infrared (PIR) sensor and
digital temperature sensor(DS1620).
5. Scalar sensor –
Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer for the sensor is a function of
magnitude of some input parameter. Not affected by the direction of input parameters.
Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.
6. Vector sensor –
The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and orientation of input parameter.
Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field and motion detector sensors.
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Types of sensors –

Electrical sensor :
Electrical proximity sensors may be contact or non contact.
Simple contact sensors operate by making the sensor and the component complete an electrical circuit.
Non- contact electrical proximity sensors rely on the electrical principles of either induction for detecting metals or
capacitance for detecting non metals as well.

Light sensor:
Light sensor is also known as photo sensors and one of the important sensor.
Light dependent resistor or LDR is a simple light sensor available today.
The property of LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the ambient light i.e when the
intensity of light increases, it’s resistance decreases and vise versa.

Touch sensor:
Detection of something like a touch of finger or a stylus is known as touch sensor.
It’s name suggests that detection of something.
They are classified into two types:
1. Resistive type
2. Capacitive type
Today almost all modern touch sensors are of capacitive types.
Because they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.

Range sensing:
Range sensing concerns detecting how near or far a component is from the sensing position, although they can also
be used as proximity sensors.
Distance or range sensors use non-contact analog techniques. Short range sensing, between a few millimetres and a
few hundred millimetres is carried out using electrical capacitance, inductance and magnetic technique.
Longer range sensing is carried out using transmitted energy waves of various types eg radio waves, sound waves
and lasers.

Mechanical sensor:
Any suitable mechanical / electrical switch may be adopted but because a certain amount of force is required to
operate a mechanical switch it is common to use micro-switches.

Pneumatic sensor:
These proximity sensors operate by breaking or disturbing an air flow.
The pneumatic proximity sensor is an example of a contact type sensor. These cannot be used where light
components may be blown away.
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
Optical sensor:
In there simplest form, optical proximity sensors operate by breaking a light beam which falls onto a light sensitive
device such as a photocell. These are examples of non contact sensors. Care must be exercised with the lighting
environment of these sensors for example optical sensors can be blinded by flashes from arc welding processes,
airborne dust and smoke clouds may impede light transmission etc.

Speed Sensor:
Sensor used for detecting the speed of any object or vehicle which is in motion is known as speed sensor .For
example – Wind Speed Sensors, Speedometer ,UDAR ,Ground Speed Radar .

Temperature Sensor:
Devices which monitors and tracks the temperature and gives temperature’s measurement as an electrical signal are
termed as temperature sensors .These electrical signals will be in the form of voltage and is directly proportional to
the temperature measurement .

PIR Sensor:
PIR stands for passive infrared sensor and it is an electronic sensor that is used for the tracking and measurement of
infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view and is also known as Pyroelectric sensor .It is mainly used
for detecting human motion and movement detection .

Ultrasonic Sensor:
The principle of ultrasonic sensor is similar to the working principle of SONAR or RADAR in which the interpretation
of echoes from radio or sound waves to evaluate the attributes of a target by generating the high frequency sound
waves .
Actuators in IoT
An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller (“brain”) + Sensors + Actuators + Networks
(Internet). An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the mechanism of the system.
Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control signals are generated for the actuators according to the
actions needed to perform.
A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can move to a given specified
angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT applications and make the motor rotate to 90 degrees,
180 degrees, etc., as per our need.
The following diagram shows what actuators do, the controller directs the actuator based on the sensor data to do
the work.
Working of IoT devices and use of Actuators
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The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of energy and a control
signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of energy to a mechanical operation. On this basis, on
which form of energy it uses, it has different types given below.
Types of Actuators :
1. Hydraulic Actuators –
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are actuated by a cylinder or
fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory motion, according to the need of the
IoT device. Ex- construction equipment uses hydraulic actuators because hydraulic actuators can generate a large
amount of force.
Advantages :

Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.

Used in welding, clamping, etc.

Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.
Disadvantages :

Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.

It is expensive.

It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance systems.
2. Pneumatic Actuators –
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to convert into either linear
or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work like human fingers by using compressed air.
Advantages :

They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is a safer option than
chemicals.

They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.

It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.
Disadvantages :

Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.

The air compressor should be running continuously.

Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.
3. Electrical Actuators –
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts electrical energy into
mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid based electric bell.
Advantages :

It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.

It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.

It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.
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Disadvantages :

It is expensive.

It depends a lot on environmental conditions.
Other actuators are –

Thermal/Magnetic Actuators –
These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) or Magnetic Shape‐
Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these actuators. An example of a thermal/magnetic actuator can be a
piezo motor using SMA.

Mechanical Actuators –
A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into linear motion. It involves
pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate. Example – A crankshaft.

Soft Actuators

Shape Memory Polymers

Light Activated Polymers

With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in commercial and domestic
applications along with the pre-existing use in industry.