Chapter 7
Human nutrition
IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL ( Objectives )
Activity -1, 2, in jam board
• Getting Started
• Testing the Prior Knowledge
• Daily energy requirements of all ages
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Activity -3 in jam board
• Daily energy requirements of all ages
As well as providing you with energy, food is needed for many other reasons.
To make sure that you eat a balanced diet, you must eat foods containing carbohydrate, fat and protein.
You also need each kind of vitamin and mineral, fibre and water.
If your diet doesn’t contain all of these substances, your body will not be able to work properly.
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Carbohydrates
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are needed for energy, include starch and sugar.
In most countries, there is a staple food that supplies much of the
carbohydrate in people’s diets, in the form of starch. Staple foods
include potatoes, wheat (often made into bread or pasta), rice and
maize (Figure 7.3).
We also eat carbohydrate in sweet foods, which contain sugar.
Fats and oils
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are needed for energy, and to make cell membranes.
We store excess fat and oil under the skin, in adipose tissue.
It acts as an insulator, reducing heat loss from the body to the
air.
form a layer around body organs such as the kidneys,
providing mechanical protection for them.
We obtain fat from cooking oils, meat, eggs, dairy products
and oily fish
Proteins
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are needed to build new cells, for growth.
They are also used to make proteins, including haemoglobin,
insulin (a hormone) and antibodies (which help to destroy
pathogens).
We get protein from meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, peas
and beans, nuts and seeds.
Vitamins
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Vitamins are organic substances which are only needed in tiny amounts.
If you do not have enough of a vitamin, you may get a deficiency disease.
Table 7.1 shows information about sources and uses in the body of vitamins C and D.
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Minerals
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Minerals are inorganic substances.
Once again, only small amounts of them are needed in the diet.
Table 7.2 gives information about the sources and uses of two of the most important
ones.
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Fibre
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helps to keep the alimentary canal working properly.
The alimentary canal is the part of the digestive system through which food passes as it moves
from the mouth to the anus.
Food moves through the alimentary canal (see Topic 7.2)
because the muscles contract an d relax to squeeze it along.
This is called peristalsis.
The muscles are stimulated to do this when there is food in
the alimentary canal.
Soft foods do not stimulate the muscles very much.
The muscles work more strongly when there is harder, less
digestible food, like fibre, in the alimentary canal.
Fibre keeps the digestive system in good working order and
helps to prevent constipation.
All plant foods, such as fruits and vegetables, contain fibre (Figure 7.6).
This is because plant cells have cellulose cell walls.
Humans cannot digest cellulose. Figure 7.6:
Some good sources of fibre (roughage). One excellent source of fibre is the outer husk of cereal
grains, such as oats, wheat and barley. This is called bran.
Some of this husk is found in whole meal bread. Brown or unpolished rice is also a good source
of fibre.
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Water
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More than 60% of the human body is water, important solvent.
Cytoplasm is a solution of many substances in water.
The spaces between our cells are also filled with a watery liquid.
Inside our cells, chemical reactions are happening all the time. These are called
metabolic reactions. They can only take place if the chemicals that are reacting are in
solution.
If a cell dries out, then the reactions stop, and the cell dies.
The liquid part of blood, plasma (Chapter 9), is also mostly water. It contains many
substances dissolved in it, which are transported around the body in the blood.
Water is also needed to dissolve enzymes and nutrients in the alimentary canal, so that
digestion can take place (Topic 7.3).
We also need water to get rid of waste products.
As you will see in Chapter 13, the kidneys remove a waste product called urea from the
blood.
The urea is dissolved in water to form urine.
We get most of our water by drinking fluids, but some foods such as fruit also contain a
lot of water.
6
Summarize
7
Activity -4
Assignment-1 (07.12.2023)
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7.3
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Lard Asses! mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine, anus.
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Villi are finger-like projections which are richly supplied with blood
vessels. They are present in the inner lining of the small intestine and
help in the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area for
absorption.
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Sites of secretion and action of digestive enzymes
• Enzymes -LAP- PAN- acts on DUO
• Amylase in mouth by salivary glands
• Protease in walls of stomach
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Assignment (11.12.2023)
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Amylase :
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we will look in more detail at the way that digestive enzymes break down large food molecules.
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We have seen that amylase is secreted into the mouth and the duodenum.
The amylase in these two parts of the digestive system does the same thing –
it breaks starch molecules down to a sugar called maltose.
(You may be able to taste this sugar if you chew starchy food for a long time, as the amylase in
your saliva breaks the starch down)
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Each maltose molecule is made of two glucose molecules linked together.
Although maltose molecules are much smaller than starch molecules, they are still too big to be
absorbed.
Another enzyme, maltase, breaks the maltose molecules apart to produce glucose molecules.
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(Maltase is secreted by the cells lining the small intestine. This lining tissue is called an
epithelium. The maltase does not go into the lumen of the small intestine, but remains attached
to the epithelial cells, sitting on their cell membranes. So, maltose is digested on the surface of
these epithelial cells (villi).
We can summarise this two-step process like this: amylase maltase .
Protease :
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Protease is secreted into the stomach and the duodenum.
The protease that is produced in the stomach is called pepsin. Pepsin is secreted from the
stomach walls, in a liquid called gastric juice.
Gastric juice also contains hydrochloric acid, to kill harmful microorganisms in food.
Pepsin has an optimum pH of 2, so it is perfectly suited to working in these very acidic
conditions.
The protease that is produced in the pancreas, and works in the duodenum, is called trypsin.
Pepsin and trypsin both break protein molecules apart, producing amino acids.
26
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Amino acids are small enough to be absorbed.
Trypsin has an optimum pH just above 7,this means that the acidic contents of the stomach must
be neutralized, and this is done by the alkaline substances in bile and pancreatic juice.
Bile has another important function.
Fats and oils are insoluble in water, so any fat or oil in the food that you eat stays as little drops that do
not fully mix into the watery fluids inside the digestive system. Bile acts rather like liquid detergent. It
breaks up large drops of fat or oil into tiny droplets, which can disperse among the watery liquids. A
mixture of tiny, floating droplets of one liquid in another is called an emulsion. So, bile emulsifies fats.
27
28
YOUTUBE LINKS :
1. (115) The Role and Anatomy of the Pancreas - YouTube
The Role and Anatomy of the Pancreas
2.
(149) Human digestive system - How it works! (Animation) - YouTube
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
(149) Bile Explained - YouTube
(149) The Intestinal Villi Explained || Absorption - YouTube
(107) THE LIVER - FUNCTIONS - YouTube
(115) The Role and Anatomy of the Pancreas - YouTube
(149) Physiology Basics: the Digestive System, Animation - YouTube
(149) The Intestinal Villi Explained || Absorption - YouTube
Human digestive system - How it works! (Animation)
29
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IGCSE Biology CIE
7.1 Human Diet & Digestion
Contents
7.1.1 Diet & Deficiencies
7.1.2 Digestive System
7.1.3 Physical Digestion
7.1.4 Teeth & Digestion
7.1.5 T he Stomach
7.1.6 Emulsification of Fats & Oils: Extended
7.1.7 Chemical Digestion
7.1.8 Enzymes in Digestion
7.1.9 Hydrochloric Acid
7.1.10 Digestion of Starch: Extended
7.1.11 Digestion of Protein: Extended
7.1.12 Bile: Extended
7.1.13 Absorption
7.1.14 Adaptations of the Small Intestine: Extended
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7.1.1 Diet & Deficiencies
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Balanced Diet
A balanced diet consists of all of the food groups in the correct proportions
The necessary food groups are:
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Vitamins
Minerals
Dietary Fibre
Water
Food Groups Table
Vitamin and Mineral Requirements Table
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Varying Dietary Needs of Individuals Table
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Scurvy & Rickets
Scurvy
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Scurvy is the name for a severe vitamin C deficiency
It is caused by a lack of vitamin C in the diet for over 3 months
Its symptoms include:
Anemia
Exhaustion
Spontaneous bleeding
Pain in the limbs
Swelling
Gum ulcerations
Tooth loss
It is a condition that was commonly seen in sailors between the 15th to 18th centuries
Long sea voyages made it very hard to access a ready supply of fresh produce
Scurvy can be treated with oral or intravenous vitamin C supplements
Rickets
Rickets is a condition in children characterised by poor bone development
Symtpoms include:
Bone pain
Lack of bone growth
Soft, weak bones (sometimes causing deformities)
Rickets is caused by a severe lack of vitamin D
Vitamin D is required for the absorption of calcium into the body
Calcium is a key component of bones and teeth
Vitamin D mostly comes from exposure to sunlight but it can also be found in some foods (fish,
eggs and butter)
The treatment for rickets is to increase consumption of foods containing calcium and vitamin D
Alternatively vitamin D supplements can be prescribed
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7.1.2 Digestive System
Identifying Organs of the Digestive System
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The human digestive system
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Organs of the Digestive System: Function
Stages of food breakdown
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Food taken into the body goes through 5 different stages during its passage through the
alimentary canal (the gut):
Ingestion - the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body through the mouth
Mechanical digestion - the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change
to the food molecules
Chemical digestion - the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble
molecules
Absorption - the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the
intestine into the blood
Assimilation - the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where
they are used, becoming part of the cells
Egestion - the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as faeces,
through the anus
Functions of the Digestive Organs Table
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7.1.3 Physical Digestion
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Physical Digestion
Physical digestion (sometimes referred to as mechanical digestion) is the breakdown of food
into smaller pieces without chemical change to the food molecules
The processes that take place during physical digestion help to increase the surface area of
food for the action of enzymes during chemical digestion
It is mainly carried out by the chewing action of the teeth, the churning action of the stomach and
the emulsification of fats by bile in the duodenum
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7.1.4 Teeth & Digestion
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Types of Human Teeth
Mechanical digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to
the food molecules
It is mainly carried out by the chewing action of the teeth, the churning action of the stomach and
the emulsification of fats by bile in the duodenum
Teeth are held firmly in the bone of the jaw
They are used for chewing to increase the surface area of the food so that it can be
exposed to saliva and other digestive juices and broken down more quickly
The differing shapes and siz es of teeth enable them to perform slightly different functions:
Incisors - chisel-shaped for biting and cutting
Canines - pointed for tearing, holding and biting
Premolars and molars - larger, flat surfaces with ridges at the edges for chewing and grinding
up food
Types of teeth
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Structure of a Tooth
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Structure of a typical tooth
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7.1.5 The Stomach
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The Stomach
The stomach is one of a number of organs that make up the digestive system
The role of the digestive system is to break down large insoluble molecules into smaller, soluble
food molecules to provide the body with nutrients
The stomach lining contains muscles which contract to physically squeeze and mix the food
with the strong digestive juices that are present
Also known as "stomach churning"
Food is digested within the stomach for several hours
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Three types of tissue found in the stomach are muscular, epithelial and glandular. These tissues
work together to allow the stomach to carry out its role.
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7.1.6 Emulsification of Fats & Oils: Extended
Emulsification of Fats & Oils: Extended
Cells in the liver produce bile which is then stored in the gallbladder
Bile production and secretion
Bile has two main roles:
It is alkaline to neutralise the hydrochloric acid which comes from the stomach
The enz ymes in the small intestine have a higher (more alkaline) optimum pH than those in the
stomach
It breaks down large drops of fat into smaller ones. This is known as emulsification. The larger
surface area allows lipase to chemically break down the lipid into glycerol and fatty acids faster
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Exam Tip
Emulsification is the equivalent of tearing a large piece of paper into smaller pieces of paper.This
is an example of mechanical digestion, not chemical digestion – breaking something into smaller
pieces does not break bonds or change the chemical structure of the molecules which make it
up, which is the definition of chemical digestion.
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7.1.7 Chemical Digestion
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Chemical Digestion
Stages of food breakdown
Food taken into the body goes through 5 different stages during its passage through the
alimentary canal (the gut):
Ingestion - the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body through the mouth
Mechanical digestion - the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change
to the food molecules
Chemical digestion - the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble
molecules
Absorption - the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the
intestine into the blood
Assimilation - the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where
they are used, becoming part of the cells
Egestion - the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as faeces,
through the anus
The role of chemical digestion is to produce small soluble molecules that can be absorbed
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7.1.8 Enzymes in Digestion
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Enzymes in Digestion
Amylases
Amylases are produced in the mouth and the pancreas (secreted into the duodenum)
Amylases digest starch into smaller sugars
The digestion of starch
Proteases
Proteases are a group of enzymes that break down proteins into amino acids in the stomach
and small intestine (with the enz ymes in the small intestine having been produced in the pancreas)
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The digestion of proteins
Lipases
Lipase enz ymes are produced in the pancreas and secreted into the duodenum
They digest lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
The digestion of lipids
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7.1.9 Hydrochloric Acid
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Hydrochloric Acid
The stomach produces several fluids which together are known as gastric juice
One of the fluids produced is hydrochloric acid
This kills bacteria in food and gives an acid pH for enzymes to work in the stomach
How is a low pH helpful in the stomach?
The low pH kills bacteria in food that we have ingested as it denatures the enzymes in their cells,
meaning they cannot carry out any cell reactions to maintain life
Pepsin, produced in the stomach, is an example of an enz yme which has a very low optimum pH around pH 2
The hydrochloric acid produced in the stomach ensures that conditions in the stomach remain
within the optimum range for pepsin to work at its fastest rate
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7.1.10 Digestion of Starch: Extended
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Digestion of Starch: Extended
Amylases are produced in the mouth and the pancreas (secreted into the duodenum)
Amylases digest starch into smaller sugars
The digestion of starch
Amylase is secreted into the alimentary canal in the mouth and the duodenum (from the
pancreas) and digests starch to maltose (a disaccharide)
Maltose is digested by the enz yme maltase into glucose on the membranes of the epithelium
lining of the small intestine
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7.1.11 Digestion of Protein: Extended
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Digestion of Protein: Extended
Proteases are a group of enzymes that break down proteins into amino acids in the stomach
and small intestine (with the enz ymes in the small intestine having been produced in the pancreas)
The digestion of proteins
Protein digestion takes place in the stomach and duodenum with two main enz ymes produced:
Pepsin is produced in the stomach and breaks down protein in acidic conditions
Trypsin is produced in the pancreas and secreted into the duodenum where is breaks down
protein in alkaline conditions
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7.1.12 Bile: Extended
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Bile: Extended
Cells in the liver produce bile which is then stored in the gallbladder
Bile production and secretion
Bile has two main roles:
It is alkaline to neutralise the hydrochloric acid which comes from the stomach
The enz ymes in the small intestine have a higher (more alkaline) optimum pH than those in the
stomach
It breaks down large drops of fat into smaller ones. This is known as emulsification. The larger
surface area allows lipase to chemically break down the lipid into glycerol and fatty acids faster
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Exam Tip
Emulsification is the equivalent of tearing a large piece of paper into smaller pieces of paper. This
is an example of mechanical digestion, not chemical digestion – breaking something into smaller
pieces does not break bonds or change the chemical structure of the molecules which make it
up, which is the definition of chemical digestion.
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7.1.13 Absorption
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Absorbing Nutrients
Absorption is the movement of digested food molecules from the digestive system into the
blood (glucose and amino acids) and lymph (fatty acids and glycerol)
Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine
Absorbing Water
Water is absorbed in both the small intestine and the colon, but most absorption of water
(around 80%) happens in the small intestine
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7.1.14 Adaptations of the Small Intestine: Extended
Adaptations of the Small Intestine: Extended
The ileum is adapted for absorption as it is very long and has a highly folded surface with
millions of villi (tiny, finger like projections)
These adaptations massively increase the surface area of the ileum, allowing absorption to take
place faster and more efficiently
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Adaptations of the small intestine
Microvilli on the surface of the villus further increase surface area for faster absorption of
nutrients
Wall of the villus is one cell thick meaning that there is only a short distance for absorption to
happen by diffusion and active transport
Well supplied with a network of blood capillaries that transport glucose and amino acids away
from the small intestine in the blood
Lacteal runs through the centre of the villus to transport fatty acids and glycerol away from the
small intestine in the lymph
Exam Tip
The way in which the structure of a villus is related to its function comes up frequently in exam
questions so it is worth ensuring you have learned these adaptations.
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