Fire Inspection and Code Enforcement Textbook

kinimmunnannie:” hohe Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2022 with funding from Kahle/Austin Foundation httos://archive.org/details/fireinspectionco0007edunse Fire Inspection — and Code Enforcement Ss Seventh Edition Lynne Murnane Project Manager’ Fred Stowell Project Manager/Technical Writer Barbara Adams and Clint Clausing Senior Editors The International Fire Service Training Association The International Fire Service Training Association (IFSTA) was established in 1934 as a nonprofit educational association of fire fighting personnel who are dedicated to upgrading fire fighting techniques and safety through training. To carry out the mission of IFSTA, Fire Protection Publications was established as an entity of Oklahoma State University. Fire Protection Publications’ primary function is to publish and disseminate training texts as proposed and and validated by IFSTA. As a secondary function, Fire Protection Publications researches, acquires, produces, markets high-quality learning and teaching aids as consistent with IFSTA's mission. The IFSTA Validation Conference is held the second full week in July. Committees of technical experts meet and work at the conference addressing the current standards of the National Fire Protection Association and other standardmaking groups as applicable. The Validation Conference brings together individuals from several related and allied fields, such as: e e e e Key fire department executives and training officers Educators from colleges and universities Representatives from governmental agencies Delegates of firefighter associations and industrial organizations Committee members are not paid nor are they reimbursed for their expenses by IFSTA or Fire Protection Publications. They participate because of commitment to the fire service and its future through training. Being on a committee is prestigious in the fire service community, and committee members are acknowledged leaders in their fields. This unique feature provides a close relationship between the International Fire Service Training Association and fire protection agencies, which helps to correlate the efforts of all concerned. IFSTA manuals are now the official teaching texts of most of the states and provinces of North America. Additionally, numerous U.S. and Canadian government agencies as well as other English-speaking countries have officially accepted the IFSTA manuals. SRR RR AS ha A WN SN IT IS SE RU SR NS STR SEO Copyright © 2009 by the Board of Regents, Oklahoma State University All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without prior written permission from the publisher. ISBN 978-0-87939-348-9 Library of Congress Control Number: 2008940411 First Edition, First Printing, January 2009 10 S) 8 if 6 3 4 Printed in the United States ofAmerica 3 2 1 If you need additional information concerning the International Fire Service Training Association (IFSTA) or Fire Protection Publications, contact: Customer Service, Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma State University 930 North Willis, Stillwater, OK 74078-8045 800-654-4055 Fax: 405-744-8204 For assistance with training materials, to recommend material for inclusion in an IFSTA manual, or to ask questions or comment on manual content, contact: Editorial Department, Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma State University 930 North Willis, Stillwater, OK 74078-8045 405-744-4111 ae State pee — Fax: 405-744-4112 E-mail: editors@osufpp.org in compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of1964 and Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972 (Higher Educa ton Act) t) does not discriminate cri on the basis sis of race, , color, Alenational Sinorigin or or sex sex ini any of its j policies, ici practices [ or procedures. , Thi I ision i t is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid and educational services. ‘ i Reade Chapter Summary Chapters EEL mee Sra CheNUCO LILY acscoey tae ane fs seoes atts ar echin oyeeee vee SVnie aes ealas @odeswanGd)Perimitsett:.ccscce soem Mr Oe west cued iis) ee oT MM esBINAOG caacerncs ate cne eo od seen ae acer as essqsaidisascvaschov eteracnsesteuo Cosa ees oostcctecs RE ARLES 75 Joe constuction Types and Occiipancy Classitications#...ce oe ee eee 121 itiee 5 Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems .........c.ccsccsscsssesessesseeseeseeseeseeseens 157 Die Olt cia pe On stiNIChOn: GOMIPOMEDIS pcssanssndcs ce Gi LCA SOU TOSS eect iSar sais Sgng tsa sdocotanntstcete oe eee Ne ee Re 261 SRY let oup DIY, Dista DULL Omen ater based hire -ollp PrecSlOM. SY Stems 4s.0.cac seat ieeema ee 10 201 ONASYStCMNS ss.st.ect- sa s0rss a sscrse eee eee ee e ee 299 ey) Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishef6................0.cs0.sesecssssseeererss 397 REECE MD eteciOmancdyA lari Systems 25... ccealishensoscn dk eo eee eee 445 ea 485 DAM Abe AZay WhRCO RTC OI Rarra:caeccoeeto; faces eh icccne one foeec thee tines tenceuce aaa cane ere a ee ae MSM WOW NC OCS ee acioet cheery sto fiatcaseiceas><adstoiesteansshye taut ioreaueeteeaa matter 14 Hazardous Materials: Descriptions and Identification Methods. .............ccccseseseseeereeseees 567 15 Hazardous Materials: Storing, Handling, Dispensing, Praasporine Using, ald IispOSINS |std. scacs.c-.tceesse sere onees eee orca LGM IMM meet menage eee en peritess: 545 eee ee 619 coetece noe so enone esncs seeunecess-eisseeec a oes oeeece sa mscnea te 679 dnsiRevdew anid Meld VOFIfCAtiONS:..:..c<ccacty ASISC CGI EOC COUN CS et ani tiaes sacestenras5s<cesenonsosaye ont steaceehr nnssol Canecsresussccsaiensscsaassanverescekseseecread 719 Appendices A TB NEFPA® Job Performance Requirement (JPR) Correlation ............csceceeceseeeeteeeeeneeeneeees a Aaae aig SSVOT ONTSN pee te ence a eon Pe Cones cerice ca nchoncasocabonwie secs 774 C —_Example of a Citation Program........ccccseeeeeereeresesesesessssssssssssseseseseseseseseneeneressssesesesenees uo Sample Fire Hydrant Spacing RequireMent «0.0.0... sesesesseeseseseseeeseeteneseeeeneneseseeteneseneeenes 778 D E Commercial Fire Alarm Acceptance Test Checklist..........eessssessssesssersseesssesssssersseenes TES) F seeseeseeteseeteneeeeeene eneneeteneneensesenenss cenencens 782 ssesees Sample Fire Lane Sign Requirement ..........csee Hazardous Materials Awareness LeVel..............:ccsssesscsteetecseeeseeenseeesenseesssseeseensesessesenesenes 786 G H I USS. DOT Placard Hazard Classes and DivisiOns.........ccccsesesserscesesssescenseeseesseerseseeeseenes 837 Sprinkler Systems Acceptance Test Checklist.......cseceereereesesecsssseseesssisessesssesssentes 844 Inspection Checklists ..........csssssssssssssecsseesnsssssssneesnssnnecsnsesnnccessessscssscsssesssscnsscenecenccesscenscenees 847 ed ee 851 GOSSALPY .0...sccseceeceesesseensneeseesseeneeeseeseesenssensaneneeeneesenseesaeeaneats (ook e a js keen acta at ee en J TENCUOX cccccccececvvcessavsecoeavecansenecuanecqunscscorenneasscnscanccesesovsssnasensuneesoessenseccucesenssuuvsnessensusasansanunsenaensensensenonenannes 869 a ‘a - Table of Contents BASSET VEIN OS tard aalgncxstsucnsteriidetvet wedavsidselsdvosid xiv BIR NACE srevenerecvenet ee reraori cssave sectors bissiemeehtosaneass xvi WRU ECORELIC LIEN pace catarertencerecsss it.vecckstaites nesspic tanto: 1 EME POSE ANC SCOPE Tecsscossecsstccssessscsecocsaceasceossaccssavenes 2 Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities................cccesesseeee 3 Namal OT asi ZatlOns.....-.+-sccsssqcessscseccecdecseossseesssats 4 ISERSOUTCES cereccntstestisenecacerenicecre-cesereseeezcercensestee ieeteiste5 MCE UNNITIOIOS Vareererettenstoneccevtise sesctssceectcecathcasteaccesecees csi) Referenced NFPA® Standards and Codes............+. 6 eV IIMOLUN ALO sccresecscarscesrssesssercetszeseserssacseaccreseeseees 6 Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education ROVITEICUILOEN trnccosecssassee casetscteetcucs<tesccesteosaccesorectcseen 8 1 2 Standards, Codes, and Permits............s.000ses0e 37 eee ett ecestrere Standards sic.cc-csyssrcssse 40 National Fire Protection Association®............... 40 toe 4] pesca ease ASTM internationalleeee a -eeee 4] Underwriters laboratories: new American National Standards Institute.............. 42 Standards Council ol Ganadames ene tn 42 teetee eam case COGS x cricccsssuesssecsetsstesen csacsnatetic ee ts43 Current Codesand Standards asses ee 46 Consistent Codes and Standards.......................+. 47 Performance-Based Options...............0 teen 49 Local Code Development Process.................00.+. 50 Problenvldenificatioiee see ee ene ey! sence ere. 51 Stakeholder Identijicatiojine: Duties and Authority .............::::cccesen 13 JUSS 2a eRe 15 EVO CNOT OAT ZALLOUS cree srecrests. cccececnc terscce cee-aes15 PEICM COUT UIICIUL error teecres core anetusnettcre aet tS BUG oD CD OTUICH barerrsr exon soe strates nsr ec core es 16 Code Enforcement Department.........000 16 PLYAU MOT PAUIZALLOUS nesecswtssessncscascseeccapserecsoreecses 17 RUNG DOLORES peer cet ae tec eccers ctnes pat eneceers cress cezepeanestos i CeAMIC COMES OMIUS PCCUOS ct ss.ssce eecrese scorers: 19 eral Guidelines lor IS PeECIOMS:: ..c.c:serec.ee.e ses:20 Proftessioid! Development .c..-:cc.-ps-pcsetaceense renee 21 SOU LA oe 22 BUOS OU A WS rege rect etek:oecwsaoeascesyntsnoasacnarssssancoasssts jes TACTOU QUIS a oige seed nase one ccsehs oso ad-notapmrsnonicas Jas} SIGIC MOU UICUN LAWS reais tiers seeasne<eeaeyores 24 OCA EIU SAU (OTAMILOTICES ccc case-uoatssecesetesecs 24 Me Paleo Als Ol LIIS PO CUOLS aeysayerererersassasercareoansene? 26 OESIULRS COLO es che eens scs vnc scree steps Stas aa caetsensinak 26 PTTL SOCIOtaeseuete sess ested usseepeuncivasanseananrnasee 27 Conflict Between Public and Private TR LINETILOIIUS MER mer tnantsxcnseteceoi parenreanrsiceoect 28 Etability CONSICETALIONS .........ss.--csc-scereersnseereeerss 28 MEASCEVA IIULIS epee, esac omrachanepateoar sneeencd> wstecer 28 UAC TIAUULCALION tren sereot tert rdactnecaccencencergesvarias es) DULY £0 INSP€CE...0erreeceeseserecrerrereesesrrorccerscrscees jae} (IS. ao eae RoRBOR RO arePCE SE PED AOE 29 COOMA LIEVED Outside Technical ASsistance..............sseseereee 30 Right Of ENtry..........scesecccerescsercerssssssseesrcssnenesseneees 30 SUIMIMALY......sccesrceserceensceeesescsessscseerseseecesnseenseonsens 32 Review QuESTtIONS........ccessrrrcescscersecssecreessesreresennes 33 TOSK Orem ee ee ene Code Diafl Process. cae L@GGlREVICW Ciee ee ee ee ane eete tee ee Code Adopilom Piocess 1. tee etesmth PYCDQTAUOMN cress anateaatte ss ceoneoeeet eeeees 52 ye} 53 Bo DS Study Session, Consideration, and POSSARE. cc.ianinsnagansogeerseaenectduseetnee aden seconsee:aye) Introduction of New Codesmen- ces 56 Code Modification and Appeals Procedure......... ay! Code Modification i.e. ten ee 58 Appeals Procedures -.ceee tem erent cee 60 Gode EnforCement :..2..:.<.scccacscesscccevecestseatersctecsenezes 61 Compliance Procedurés.).....-s.0- tee 61 Case. Prosecution s....ctaccnset ee eee eee 62 POLtnt cesccocscocerccscnccdeovssosecsccsoveccsansecceteceteteeecteseestei 63 TV POS cacecconcsesnencesoneigassscacesesncesuctts Seueeeat eaeeense 64 PLHOCESSic arcs tbeseonchecsecoraasauecessceosaetetheser sodcamomesterans: 67 AP PUCATL ON ou csnsissserarcacsarconspecstsetsoxsansommscenaatl 67 REVI CW cuss scestecsacsceccerccandscn eee Ome eee eee 69 ISSUGUCOM earrieccee tee eee eer 69 EXP USAUION se snpetniscnsadienteetusetsonee ncek ene taraNea es 70 SUIMIMIALY.........csrccesserecesssescresscescscssecscsccssssssscsssnsoees 70 Review QuestiOns s..,.--<s<-coss---e2anonessucbeecsesssceseeneasnees 71 a PIP BQIAV ION vis ccevtatvrscastevatecdeviuverertereexerres: 75 SElONCE OF Pil Ciescccsecccceesecccsedecstansscctarescecsessciucacenesess 76 Physical-and Chemical Changes......................... 76 Modes of Combustion... Bite eet ee SGD Riel ee A CGUIG Fel aan eres nest qe ea eee ete nee 78 ee ee 79 ent eee eee ol GAS COUSPUEL utrentpe ee &2 Assembly OCCUPANCiS.........ceesesseeseseeseeseeeeees BUSINESS OCCUPANCIES ...........:cceeeceesreceseerereeeeenes Educational OcCUPANCECG..............ceeererneronrees Factory/Industrial OCCUPANCiES .........:.:0ee Institutional OCCUPANCIES ..............2rcceerecsne-ssenes Health Care and Ambulatory Health Care OCCUDGICICS ..sxcrcenscaserec-esee 140 Detention and Correctional Fire Development in a Compartment.............00+ MACIPIEN StaSE. c.enssuestersvsssecorseeeenenceteesscenceancewates (GSROMM Ae ISS) eona craree bac acachode Goubicun iaeeeoccruoncuocanacd TIVCTINGUL QV CRUG str nsncctincoen street-estiieragacsoren” TSOLA(E TVGIIUCS iescss- sevacsencurtoesencssssdseaoeneasereROMOUCT exh cei le Misncata dente seaeae ign eompetee ELGSHOVCTIR IR rises otinteoscengecee tote wernt nena: AllevNnGlVe PA atccome caer erncenmoensaen iarrieores Pully Developed Stages iccctcscsre cesses DECAY SUASCy acttasine. cantecorece cons stceecact utesuaa tu seanaes COMSUTMOLIOMO} BUC) Ar ece teen etre secon Limited Ventilation............: Pea Reese Factors That Affect Fire Development.............. PUCLL VDC vs adaiteasedasuatingcumes seisencceom eaterdeenestests Availability and Location of AAGITIONGLEUCIS «su naote ned nnret scons: Compartment Volume and Ceiling FICIBNE airs noite etait er VEMELIGLIONN Maret le.ct one Cate el romne ea iac iene Thermal Properties of the COMP ATEN Fire: COmtrol The Ory cccc.cccc;sscccescecesccescecessnccecccorvsys Pemperacune RECUCtON occ ce cea een ee Pie bakG1Vag|eet ossesyacscate teak cactenteaeert eomec teat OxyOMPE XCIUISI Ole saree ea eee sneees-tces. cer aes Chemical Chain Reaction Inhibition................ SUTIMITI ALY) -c0ccassccccocssecsessaaseessoecessseavereeteesvacterttcxecess BREMICW: QUESLIONS ccscacctonsecresssrecsvsnowarocereveceenrs.cceess Construction Types and Occupancy ClaSSifICAtlONS eercsscrsiescecrneeenhectsacseeteee CONSUFUCH OI LY POS..cs-:ccs<c-scv-es snes tastroccceeterne cartes United States Construction Oem e een eee eeeenereeeeeeene COCO e eee ere rear eereserese ree eeereereeeeeeeeeeeeeesseseeeres OPPO eee re rrersereerseeere esse eeeeeeeseeeeseeseesereeees CoO ee ene reererererersererseseereseeeeseseeeeereereresece OOO e rere eerene rereserereserereseseseseeeeeeesesesesesose POO em meee eee enee seers eeeeseeeenes POCCH OOOO ODO OOOO DOOD O EE OO EE OEOEEES vi aecnaine eecst 141 OCCUDONCICS 2s iecsaacsacscetovenotters Residential Board and Care asec seacentre 14] tirees OCCUPOICICS \ aie prrtrsceceyc Day-Care OCCUPANCIES........00.1ssvrercrsereerrens 142 ee eeeee ees: 142 eect Mercantile OccUpanCtes sr Residential OCCUpancies cases screener 143 One- and Two-Family Dwelling Unit......... 143 Lodging (Boarding) or Rooming TI OUSE sicccrcinsdssua iaawen tne nnte a aneasaen eee neetenceaece 144 FHOLEL, pecsseenccntetececcti eee teenatesect terete 144 DOV INULOTY. scccsssavsenc tsa sanesatevseanceoyseatencatdeeseaade 145 caenee 146 AP OT BULGING irre cncse-ssteronene te tose147 Storage’ OCCUPANICICS -s<sse<ccesacscseeerncgreneeuvees Utility/Miscellaneous Occupancies ............... 148 Multiple-Use Occupamcies. <<. icciccnccsc-cccnsseeanee 149 eee 150 Incidental USC 203: txecteesnca eee Mixed USE wnesuces tiie cere eens 150 N oon cececaccencecneecesececnecasvecesneseecaascneecsceesaemaaa= 151 SSUITITIEY REVICW QUESTIONS: <cccccscevccsccscecccassecercecnsseeunrerceraers 153 trsscncghonecateal iticoeeoreat a AMDT CONGINONS an aenn eee eine: Effects of Changing Conditions............0000+ 4 136 136 Eig 138 139 5 Building Construction: Materials and Siruetiral’ SVStQINS vxccreeeceereeee ccs ere: 157 Construction Materials. ;....<¢:.:.ccascccsasecduassaceeasece 158 AYS30.70((erway a oa 159 SOME LUNITDER eecossessu cask et Laminated MempDers vas Cae PANELS i che oversee eee ae cre ret ara ne ON 8s Se 160 ee 161 161 Manufactured Members anne Pire-Ketardant lredimenian. ee 162 ee 162 MasOUIry scicswesior-chcgisun eecoe ne eee BY LCN cs scucotop tinct ieee Concrete BIOCK nce crus ee SEONC sus saseascavnsvnaiaeas tant Gant oe 163 164 164 165 Clay Tile Block and Gypsum Block......0.0.... 165 CONICIOTE iiaciacsccsostese casks che one eepee A GININEUTES scccrso keene ne Rernjorced Corcrele ae 165 166 ee 166 Water-to-Cement Ratio... SLECN ci.hco.tanencSomeccsesahy ere ee nt ea 167 Disadvantages ..cccncen 1 ee Fire Protection... act eee Other Metals... ee 167 168 169 169 Gypsum BOatd sea eer tae wees BEN [aS Cero ea eens dt cer ete: LORCA lel al 4. EL ATUTADULL Renee ten eaceoesd ea eee ee A PUT CHELGAZ UTS eee TR eats te ics LCM ANEGITICTS Sane en rh LCTUOInCNEL Sea anne ter ees 172 173 174 E75 U5 176 |REVOYE edn Meant oe Saad Oe eee ay oe 176 MEKUICCLIFAL SYSUCIIS toccccaceeecvesecceesetetecssceeedeeccseccssuss 177 ee tcc. ek V7 weer ee Conmerete Siruciiresea ee ieceates: 17. ete PeLeECUSLGOTICTCLE Mam et Gasi-in- Place Concrete pie ee 178 WONCIEIEISVSLCIIIS ath eettras ae treed 179 ces 180 brramedsotl UCtUITeS mista eta DLeCl DPEAMUAIA GIACl ETAIMIES Miiew.1sethseeceesck. 180 DECCLEL US SCS ee cescucduccnnss eet ove eetea esttaae 181 I STGAPTAINCS 20...ceascaeterteetiersas tes eA Caiss,182 SECC AT CICS Mm nent oh tos. NRRL Seated DIZEISUSPCIISIOM SYSUCIIS ceeds torreon teeeas te: SLCELACOLLTINS tances eats ened SOI SUICICUUNES ete aeeecetcc tee sennsetos cn oa ceaceeess WDIASOTUTY VCS metrrcece emer omeoreeceeaceetce 182 182 182 183 184 UVTETLOMOLUICLUTAL BING tics. eoesee cseee ees 187 ELF CARCSISLANICE treats hee ceaascoaetesn eetetsfeyoseees 189 TVCRCTLONUILLON Gtitete ts eaereeeeaaitet onaacect neesoscee es£90 WV OGUGEPTT CLULESteretsctancsssincsorctece eres nearctetaeoseacstes 19] PLCDUVEL LITUDEM nace sacceseteoet ran ean aeeteen cesses 192 POSH ATIG DCATII IR Sera rarer asad ctheccee eo tecteceaebees 193 TOIT VOO te oaatet siootiad.ceudteeldee toned toeeesaat 194 EXCTIORAY CLL MIGTCHIGISe cl eeseerat eett rescos 195 BYECIAV ETI CET couse ee Rite cote ee Soares eset 196 SUIMIMIALY.......cccsccsssccccccscssvossscccsssssssssosscosssscssoosssens 196 PREVIEW AILESUIONS ss2cssenescccaceccssccrasccncesesssserceoocesoe 197 6 Building Construction: Components..... 201 Will Gieseenecocetcccecccstsercusccsseocscccssccesseccnsacerecoscessscscese 202 | BSW? NA UN IS regi ar Nr (CONST CIOTE UV OES vacncereucssersesrerrenccenpacssscrr. OBCTIUTBS versa nscessecroarsenee¥astecnvosencsnreonsvarorsoonss Pet VVallStoresevescses-paasaecascenneeeserecesercenecnecuvassncsne Fire Partitions and Fire Barriers.............+-.0c0-c9s9. Biaclosure ald oiiait VWWallS iice.cc.ce----c0e-ceosanrccenne RUAN AsIII V All Serre sca ee cnc cereocere cee atseesiencousanrnesecse conceit eaese<cess oenpeae eeoneee AlUIELOUSctsstate NOU ADC r 202 202 204 204 205 206 206 207 208 ee eee XN Rae TYPES ........0..ssscsssesscenersencsscecessorssersecsscrsasersnsnseroes 208 SS CS Pee STI eo ire eee tears tnoc encase omearsnasensshs= 208 ROOF COVETINGS ...........s0cs-cserennsersrsersoreraroseoneentens 209 GOES sicscccscssvssoccsscessenconsseassess Be n eerescrsseseratecsone=ess 211 ConstuctomiVaterials:nme eno... 74M EIGOLSUPPOLIS4 tows wc eeee eee 22 SLECLE eee ae, eoosth, hanid.de Ohi tecn ee een eee 214 WO OG SRP eee at eee ahah RG Rte AEE Ae teds 214 IMIQSOTI Vattrasevecccenens sesvaiccnoetn snccssereate- tontoahon Z15 PlOOr Coveringerm cme crear eeeeee ee 215 Floor Penetrations and Openings..................0.. 216 Ceilings ice ticcrticnttesce reer oot rone terrcancsections 217 SUALIS Foressncbelscsosccsssoscsts snestoesisastocsoscssavstteeesencsssses Pallleg Basic:@emponents eee eee eee ee 218 Means: oR Beresshsecte ce arene trae cers 219 Protected SIGW sian ro ere eee ios 220 EXLCTUOT SUGUSiiemesceceercas soesensettereetocee seca dees220 PIC ESCAPES ers elseeeerake net Nec: 220 OMMOKEDTOO] SLA ENECIOSUTES e.e-comeen.er ee 221 UNPrOrecleSiQirs. een eeeeee 222 DOOLS iis cccccccscaasensocececvecscsestectacerestvoustonsddeteereerarete 222 Operational Types eeneeeee ee eee Zao SWINGING DOOTS:, cameo ee eee eee CEES SLING DGOTS Joe. ctt cen eee eee eee 223 FOIGING DOOTS Stren o se eee ee ee 224 VETICGUDOOTS aren tam ne ee 224 REVOWING DOOTS a ree. rea ee ee 225 Styles and Construction Materials.................... 225 Wood Panel and Fiish Doors ncn. t:- 6) GIGSS DOONS tee ines at tee nese eee PY WUCAIGALD YO) Moore erercorrcteeccerccrinconie coearAMOPOREEN. 227 BIDE DLOOUS tecccescesccacaesscesescacnccasccestssesatcssseee strane seers 227 Classifications t,o ar een ene ee 228 TTESUUIGSeecraeaecieenspescerees tanacenssesnoscesocuatensnctie Bee 29 Bram es andar dwar Cr ececetseee see ere 229 Construction and Operational Types............... 230 Rolling Ste€el Piet IOOrS fe eseseetaccermnee sone 230 Horizontal Sliding Fire DOOTS 230 SWINGING PEC DO OTS reanseseootensconsassesssutversesres Zo SNeCIAl TYPOS. reen.sacscesnoccseno tearcomcconeteronesces Zoe, Glass Panels and Louvers. ee 233 Closing DevICeS Sri eee ee 233 WINCOWG.........secccsrrcsscssssssscsseasessccsosssseescsssscnssssonss 235 GOMPOMEUIS i. cn-cr, sees sates easeseeeee naccaanca eee cre 235 IS@YEIN pnocoe nace et 3 econ choco ao) aceactocnaggnccaseacBice ee0dc 239 FIix@dWINGOWS ok eetss. yecet teeheeos 236 Movable WitdOW Ss tecyscnt ieteres teat eancncses 236 SE CUMIty earners asteacens oaeenes tieanearoncncmnancecent scone 238 Fire, WIDOWS: ssocctoreeecxtretens cio eae ees nec eeeaee 238 Interior Finishes .,...........cccccccccccccssccsssssssccsssssesees 239 Plamie-SpreadRatingsis.cc....sere-socconcetnt- menace: 240 Smoke-Developed Ratings:....2..-.csercsrcessseesneseeee 242 Pire-Retardant Coatings cn: 2.22.4. -assosecnsenrcsecnssones 243 Building Services .......cssccescrscrrscerseeeeeereesseeeeeeees 243 vil Elevator Hoistways and DOOTs............::seeseeees 244 MOVING Stairs .........csccseseeereereesenssssecenrenceeseneens 246 Utility Chases and Vertical Shafts .................... 247 PIC CUGSES) aise tesreecessesetareennceree maeseasesse sc 248 REPUSC GUL ta noreiesconseesnrerenree seetraneetecce 2eo2t 249 evanee tones epee 249 MN TLCTEGIRULES eee tease eatarse GiEGSE DUCKS areca. tauren pooch nisatee neon seneesenn tan: 249 Heating, Ventilating, and Air CONCIIOMING SYSLETIS .-.11-..sssecorceseeenoee 250 (GONVEVORS YSUCING se. sa-ncesceortcesteeneeteeseeeecratoeer=e253 Electrical Sy SteriSises:weissaccs-esers teense ssaneeaneae sr293 Electrical Service Panels ts:t.sc.scseees-2-005-- 253 SHUUECIE GOATS siren cosnate seco csatone Aenea onetet ace cires 254 (FEVLET LOLS rete cncusston ncn Gisetonsoueaet nenseven ee254 TRANIS{ OFINMOKS ac. socsovcveovesestiotasernatetnsisareaneae” 254 EVMETSCNnCy POWEF SUPPLICS vrsueseoresresssosrvntee 250 SUIIIIATY........cccccccssrrrrrsrcsscscscsssssscccoseccsssscccssssccoes 256 REVIEW QUESTIONS. ..........0cc.cccccressscssccescessesceseesessous 256 Pe MGONS Ol EOlOSS iadsaricccctuctvsnscceccurcsatsenraras 261 Means of Egress System...........scscscsssssssserrreeeseees 263 MILCMMEMUSe ee ctr te eetcst ce cercastanec es ears sees 264 EXUE ACCESS ene sane see spaces seme nee eaneocse sects saisert 264 USN See epee nonce ERS aE ERE CRRA CPR ASA PEN: BOCES ETS264 PERIL ISCHATBC,meannesnsonsenetpecee nue conean aer267 (COMMONS meet mt een cawares caress 269 DOORS on ssonssoastesensnosnvsiensetasececyass oeperstaneneaseaves 269 VAT a eas ce borer oer Ret ee arte tn rat 272 GLE INEAE AS canbe shee terran ee PROS AALS ae Tiere Zs TPLOOUS Ere ce eerendes Neeson tae ee. ener Te 203 SELLE Seapine netes recs en tone aren tend taser een 203 ROIS crssancsincseseensedsotteanseiecten ess ancerce sea eie274 Fire Escape Stairs, Ladders LIV SIIACS ce eae RNas cree Mee eee een ota 200 xit [mination and Marking y.c:.....0ss 276 LULU QUIONY ce cesta Re eRe ee are eee ese. cas aa WIG ILI ES ee ctor teat te wane nen escent eer ote 0G DAUR LLG POUUC fen meer natant oesfet ZAC OCCUPANEN GAS cecececcecscaretececcreesecerceccteesteser ete 278 Means of Egress Determinations .................s000008 284 GAPAGIy Peer pinnae eer sean aes 284 EXUSC ANAC cer cm tens. re tatn. anr rea tose 285 OTC) EMI CO POCIY crate eee cee ee 286 Required INUMDEr Op EAUS ati. eey ene 288 ATEAMSCIN CMe tte cate es en een eres ete 289 LOCATON Of EXUESt tea er ee 289 Maximum Travel Distance to an Exit......... 290 Bifectiveness tases etn ete eee 283 SUMM APY seit sseeeesiet eee ee Review Questions#sicncne ee Vili 293 294 8 Water Supply Distribution Systems.......... 299 Public Water Supply Systems ..........cccccseeeeeesseeees 301 Water SOULCES .....-...-:c-zss-ossersvonreceosennctensescssweres™ 301 Treatment or Processing Facilities..............0++ 302 Means of Moving Wate............cssccsceeseeseseesens 303 DistribUtion SYStCMIS...s22.-s.ssseceseeoeneovenereecencs=s=2 303 PUPUIIG varnsssssreeoeserssedesanscnteneteerearccesr-escrmo-nssiar 303 StOrd@e TOMMIS cc. .ce--a,consecsermieetreent etreneseeeentes 305 Control Valves rere nice ete eee eee 305 re S07 tarsie Fire Hy Grants vecccss.2crctr ateneae eerie ees 309 srrrrsrrrre Private Water Supply SysteMs........ccccscc aeee eenenteerset eran oe seetec csssen Water SOUlCOS 2er-cc..--ce sese asseaes ccsnectenspo mande-tadetese RESCTUOUTScn sseadnespeeonn 3iZ SUCTION TANKS ii aresnoe cee cee menaonsoaen atte 313 Pressure TANKS i. .ccasesencnsat otanrersessseeeteccareace ees) GrAVity, TANKS: jas cocscaeecoscsee eneeeaeeeeee 314 Piping, Valves, and Fire Hydrants «22... ....0.....:... 314 Hose Houses and Monitors f2.2<22<:-:2<csscceensoneceess- 314 Water Supply Analyses .................csssssscsscecscsoeeeese 315 Fire Hydrant [nspectiOns.cccscccssceeee steer 317 cnceecs alg e.ces =caysscaesacove Pitot Tube anid (Gauge <.22sseeders Fire-Flow Test Gomputauons-7.1.ce sete eee: 320 Required Residual) Pressures... eee 322 Fire-Flow= lest PrOCe (ULes s,s eee ee 22 sneke 32D PFOCAULIONS \.; sneer jannsesecensonccissantenceaten ODSIFUCTIONS Hic. ccctseascat tones eee S27 Available Fire-Flow Test Results 328 Computations cr ccccces ne eee Graphical Analysis awe ee eee 328 ee 332 Mathematical Method ~..2.2 eee SUIT ALY -feccceoccecesaasesssxcecesenceasaccascteecneereesnesteoeaes 335 Review QuesStloms sicccaccscscscecaccasccaccoencoteensceeetee neat 335 9 Water-Based Fire-Suppression SYSlOINS ccsseiscirsdnivsaxeseertesriecteclance ene 339 Automatic Sprinkler Systems.............sccsesccssescees Basic Types sackcicsce ie oe ch COMPONENUS % fase. cceens eee ee Waller SUpDUies ices a eeee oe are Water-Flow Control Valves ie.c.ccnct eee Operatin® Valves cca meen ee nee Water Distribution Pines... ane SPLINKILOLS cscdisnon Sayan ee Detection and Activation Devices............... Residential’Sy stems =. e-em Designiand Operaniopi men es s ree Water Supply and Flow Rate REGUITENICHIS eme nee ee r ee 340 342 344 345 346 347 348 348 351 by JOS 354 Water Spray Fixed Systems6...........scsccsccsccssseceeees 355 VALET MIISE SVSUCITIS seers scteactescecoeseceuetscheelotlivenese. 356 Gaim Water SVSt@MSiccereceres.cectcncessceectesssshciecessesee 359 Standpipe and Hose Systems .............cscccsscsssesseee 360 COMPONE NISHA ee tema th tee ath Rete siseses 360 OS SILC ALLO 11Sbercere erace RUA WCRR o . 361 CIOS SLSEICIIEILCY Secon ee aeMs 361 Class II: Trained Building Occupants......... 361 Gigs MIA CONIUINGION ee ane eee 362 UNOnc atin eerbee eeree OR tty ae tie ce Cer ee 362 Water Supplies and Residual Pressure............. 364 Eights e Bull dings sere es ee ness tee sce.3: 364 Pressure-Regulating DEVICES ..s.....s.c.s00.00000000000- 366 Fire, Departinent Connections) .tissse-sesnv0.0: eh 368 ON Ay, PITS PUMIDS s:.cs-tssccsosesscsssscetestssececesosss- 369 SLA “TST 5) Sots te are OO Re athe ee ee 369 TLOMZOMIALS Ite GASC meee tasers sek tastes 369 WET BCG SU COSC. porte n teiiie A 370 VE TITCCULUILIILC Srence Seen chaser. crettersaneeeee aioe eiAll VENETO TOL ete. cps ens Re mae cick oe OH UATE LSID ONTO) (inatsceedepn eterion osaaa ae peee 3/2 BICSSITECIVAGUIILEIIOIICE., peste satact,. A snececers tis. 342 |BAG) Cea Recreate non OCC RR RAVTY CR e ou3 FACGUACAMOLOL IOTIVCY a... areseetiere ie teocebstsenen 373 DIES ETSnes TV er manne shietee enter esene 373 INNAAOMAS INVAAANALTE on oresocoes on nec A ORDRACO eo e oeener 378 oni elle keene sen © iacaenet ee eee aes enceewst cess 315 PTO TOON Recor ne een O OLE ens Omen SS) DOSCPAVIOLONE Ook soc e rome Rte Mee arty sas tN 3 376 Inspection and Testing .............cccsccrrrressesssessoosees 376 PIAS EROVCWar tietse- chan cinkaspcasacancneaasdurgrathices onessoyom Predecem tal Ge NSP eCilOUS) ac..2,.c-soceresse-cs-e= 377 PNCECDLAN Ce NOSTN Oe nor .ccavsnseessnsehssceeeceseas sere 378 Periodic Inspections and Testing..............006+ 378 Automatic Sprinkler SYSteMs .....:cccceeeeee 384 WYGIETES OTGy ICU SVSICIIUS@ sxcpuzasatsatee soared 389 VAGETENATS ASV SICIIIS ceah.saacoceacueeet yaneeemre <-2°e: 390 POGIN-WGLEE OVSICITIS tepsessttsazascdeerestattenessssr- 390 Standpipe ANd HOSE SYStEMS ........101e.e000e 391 StATIONATY FITC PUINPS ...0..s0icrererenesroersnooreee> 392 Private Water Supply SYSteMs......1.c0ceeee 392 SUIMIMALY «......sssecceesserccesenrsccesssesesssesssecscneeeeesnnees 392 REVIEW QUESTIONS. .......ccccrrrrerseresscsccccssceseeeeereeeeeess 393 10 Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems And ExtinguiShe’ .........cscccccesseeeenseeees 397 Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems........ 398 Classification SyStemMs ..............ccssseseeeesroeroeeees 399 Dry-Chemical Fire-Extinguishing Systems......399 AP PCAOTUIVICL NO GStavatnterteceeoentadenteet 400 ARE TLLSy, seattsatessae tastes sts aves Me Selge eA Soest 400 CONTDONETUS aetaen rises ete peace 403 TASNECHOMIATIO NEST Ce nae cara peeen tes) 4: 405 Wet-Chemical Fire-Extinguishing Systems...... 406 ASCIIS: chr neat asa Meat eee aerate 406 COM PONCHIS amie ee ee ener Seeks, 407 TSPCCHOIL GIG Nesta Siwrmentmean amerene eet 407 Clean-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systemas......... 408 A RCTUSccista.vntocenestostesgetces stacsbenemtenes meme ae 409 COMPONCHGSine cease eee eee 411 INSPCCHON ANAM CSTUIS ea nceer terete tere 411 Carbon Dioxide Fire-Extinguishing Systems... 411 Personnel SGjetVine n acen viet teen eee 412 COMPONCIUS tu. o.n eee ene ree eet 413 Inspection Gnd Vestine mere arene 413 Foam Fire-Extinetishine Systems t:.1....:cre 414 LV DOS: vs cwseincie tone casa Meestneeree heen a mre 415 FOG. GENETAHON .necesnetaetssa neo sidan renee 416 POG PrOPOrtiOniuts RALESeicce-sotee, ecco: 418 FOG EX PANSIONARGICS ee eee ees 418 POaM Concent ale Lypes ewe. renee 419 PLOPOsMONMElSHercgeweecen anrece noes een eee eee 422 INSPECIIOTE GILG TESTING ree een rere 424 Portable Fire Extinguishers .................ccccccssssseees 424 Classification systems ese. eaten eee 425 Rating SYSteIis ss, s2..2..csssnesssescssesnesteceer ena 425 PICLONIGUSY SIGHT wae nd pene a nee 427 Detter SViMDOLSYSICHU mame ire eee eee 427 PAB OTIS nei cea on ecataus see mee tnasianns Garces eae 427 TYPOS ssscossacsoss co scan seavoysntoesa-coaeanccaetnaran-tese eee senses 430 Selection and Location/Distribution ............... 432 Nature Of the HaZand eee ee 433 Extinguisher Size/Travel Distance.............. 435 Installation and Placement. cn eee 436 Inspection and Maintenancer re terse... 438 "DTALTUING, .sancoas ane sdeadeceacssteeceenasscdseband sSensoreradgacsesese0 439 SUINIMALY «22..cereccesssveconsssscessscercascsssesssasecesvacssssnesues 440 Review QUESTIONS <.:.<<ccccsccccosonscceceesscescocesccesssvesess 441 11 Fire Detection and Alarm Systems......... 445 Detection and Alarm System Components......... 446 Fire Alarm Control Panels esc cse een neces 447 Power Supplies cc -cater-naseasewtee seoe. ese eeneuon tere448 PUI Y = svsrcss steencessesnciad teenety teatntenteootaceerctta 448 SCCOMAQTY hinasc rn ataetore st aacot ga ncntomonee 448 EP OUDIC SIONGI eres tenracoteass Siuatceeman ensesas as 448 SYSECIN D@VICES ...csseseresnerererrereeeescrsonsnnsncnsseessesents 449 Automatic Alarm-Initiating Devices ..............000 451 Fixed-Temperature Heat DetectoTs .................. 452 Fusible Links/Frangible BUuLIDS .......:0000 Birmetahlic Heat DeLeclOr venssicsianccttmernts: Continuous-Line Heat Detector...........-..+++ Rate-ol-Rise Heat DeteCtOrs nic es-ssnncenernertey Pneumatic Rate-of-Rise Line ......1ceeeees Pneumatic Rate-of-Rise SPOt ...cccccccecceeee RGbe-COMPCNSALON s, s.ercasscvetcorereorsienroaresos8 BICCEFONICSPOE TV POR. sssssccccsescotess caredenteen SiO Ke Dele COIS Becreeacase crater succrerncse tanrraar ne stanes PROCOCIECITIC = pecans sattectdensye dee.stoestusdeer eee DOMIZAULON UM aaeterere tae he tatenatetescearacereeceseetess: Flaiiie DDGteCtOns Age.cecvees cess stonctansaanenecernoesneeces Hie Gas CLEClOlSe. easscaec sees tecrce sce cesne se senrase Compinatlonm Detectors aee-oteeoste serra ese WatersRlownDevicestr tester. oesesasnsdsteeesearvars: WAHT SWItCHES a .sset ates snsesas Seat teveteen orton 453 454 454 456 456 456 456 457 457 458 460 462 463 464 464 464 Manual Alarm-Initiating Devices ..............000008 464 Alarm-Signaling Systems .............csssessssccessessesees 467 Protected, Premises (Local) 2 tncr.-s.0streerrenrcase 467 INONCORDEA LOGAIAIGTIN Gacnnsscte eta. 468 ZOMCA/ATIMUNCIALER ALQIIIU: seresceeeste scene: 469 AGGTESSGDICZAIATII SVSLCTI esseasetinccee sotsure se470 PAU ary Hite A Laviid ecerae, cere ee ecco e cone 470 LOCAL ENICrEV SVSLCIN eater eee ce ere eeeete ee 470 SIUULTIUL SV SLCIIUM ante recte cee tactecree ae er ores oe eee 470 PLOPTICCALY 2 oe. kor cnet eres dens goss snes epee eee 471 Central Savion wencutescnt ere teeta 472 REmMOlERECCIVITIG 2. eee ces eee ate neato reee teasers 472 Emergency Voice/Alarm Communication....... 473 Parallelelelephone tee. ceeeee 474 INSPeCCU ON. AMC TEStIMG sor ccrescseccocecseocecesccncesecceeas 474 ACCEDLANCepl esting ar Meee nace ete me renee ete 475 Service Testing and Periodic Inspections ........ 476 Detection and Alarm Systems..:c:cccsc.e01.00+s 477 WlGrIN-IiatiOn Deviceshet.n.0./ nee 478 Hiremlarm Gontrol Panels aie 479 When ie lel Reema mercer ertece ine noir tet tre Rte perro 480 SUMMIITLALY csecsssnecescscacesscorsectstessectestanttetncnsttcentter 481 REVIEW QUESTIONS <,.sc-cscccccssssesensoeccccssecsserensectcceese 481 12 Fire Hazard Recognition ...........ccsseseee 485 Unisate Beh aviors:.c.ccactecccsscsserceeceieresetinnce PoorHousekeepingen sett. tne ee Ignoring lenition SOUrCeS uae eee Open Burnin errc ie. cin ex nt eee eee eee lmpropenUise Of Bleciniciive sere ttn Careless Use of Flammable and Combustible Liquidsicstet eset ee 486 486 487 489 489 489 Electrical Hazard Conditions ..................cseseee- 491 Worn Electrical EQuipMent.........ccscccesceeeees 491 Improper Use of Electrical EQUIPMEN ...cecsrsessercrresressonsonscneeneenesenenes 49] Defective or Improper Electrical ae 492 TAStQIIGHONIS Reperceess. cums -nonessananteceeeasareer POWEH SUTBES.......0senserssnrcsrncsensonccconsossosseres StGtiC ELCCtICIIY «2: cssensseattantseranteedeeeereotaarse-r Material Storage Facilities ...............ccerseeeers CVV ATS eset ap rearean tn eeremicene enact aeee TUT 492 493 494 495 Warehouses and High-Piled Storage.......... 497 Tire Storage FACIINICS tieesrsccsesers encernecene as 500 Pallet Storage FACUIES <2) csscersonssssscaneeeehs 501 Recycling Facilities irecset-tnasesteseaerenee ree tanta 502 Waste-Handling Facilities: 2. .svscsniseserneteess504 omereen505 TIACTICT CLOTS 2. iasercnaccnnaecehavaanetecasnaredaaet ng ditioni ing, and Air-Con Heating, Ventilat Equipmiemt/SySt@IMs <.cc.c1csvercaedecoteetaceceaereeener 506 Bt Ors oiass.tececcncsendessnsnveononttnteatacsaataaeomeneaen attces 508 PUSTIGCES cts dvetiocnacte ences aascamondercressdeatoenaes: 509 uecaesos 511 UPUE TICQL CTS vaisccaaendsisescscesucc nessacesdotatent eene 51] rsusceancona ROOM HEGLCTS i. itiedecderes-necescatede Temporary/Portable Heating ee SEZ EGQUIPITICIIL vatensadtec tote ce cceses tee een eee als Air-CONGILMONING SYSTCINS cee Ventilating SVSl€MmS.ncc..00 ee 514 ee Filtering DEVICES «tcc, neat 514 ca omoke- CONE OL DCUICeS Are eet 514 eee eeee Cooking Equipment. 22c0.. eee oS IndustrialFumaces‘and OQvenser...c sete 518 CIGSSCS REAM hee ee salastdsdhuaceautcoees 518 TOZGTAS sis isco 518 ee Powered Industrial Trucks 2a... eteeeeee BIg Tents/Air-Supported Membrane Structures.... 520 cees 521 Hazardous Processes ic..ccccccecceseac sees rintreeccnss Welding and Thermal Cutting Operations....... 522 agehe 524 PUL eWLGCH. coiacd et en FIO WOTK PIO STAIN ae POrimuls... eee ee Asiaies eee ee 524 524 Flammable Finishing Operations ..............0... 625 Fluid Coating. ee ee 526 g eee 27 tin Powder. Coainn tive deen Dipping and Coating Operations... B27, Quenching Operations ne... eee 528 . 530 Dry Cleaning Operations..ee Dust Hazard Processesag eee eee eee 532 Classified Locations...) eee 534 Grain Facilities: ce ae eee 534 Woodworking and Processing POCIITICS S78 ete een ee aes eee 536 Machine Shops and Manufacturing CELLOS Sua hrs Ar Peas Boe FL ref ss Ya 537 psphaltwand lar Kettless..torc, cba ake aes tckcs 538 Semiconductor/Electronics Manufacturing.... 539 SSEMITAITIALY soctessteceetscores ustuess seveaceicotackea szceets sssaneencecs 540 REVIEW OU CSUOMS srssrecasseccc terecateeeckece easecekokkenaecs 541 HEINE ACCESS mmmern et gra hirrsciainaase: 545 Fire Lanes and Fire Apparatus Access Roads.....546 WDCAGE OWACCESS ROACS ttire.cescsarsvscescsseesstevarvacs 548 EGacsVigikimes SipilSrecc S52 ay et kaye ne Construction and Demolition Sites .................0.. 553 SURTICTUIFETACCESS Barrie®s ccccrcceosoccrssscetecsccesetesonese 556 eda ckvece 556 EAOTIO WIACCESSeeecercr se rorscce hiss. arte WEIS RCO UITCIIIENIS menaerence ees.te.sroys ce VLC COUP GTIAN Sener eee eta ee. Oa7 OVCLRCOGODSITUCIIONS tne ee teen ae 558 LEANASCADCNSSUCS ett cn eee ee 558 POPOLTAPIICA) GONGIIONS concer tee 209 Seasonal Climate Conditions ...........000é0006+ Hog IWAN CEAGB) Bi NGGOS pve arate a ela ANAS epee ea 560 SOUNIIALTA AT peccenctrcrrecstscesesstsstuvesreercrcaessisascarasccsase<see 562 REVIEW OUCSTIONSierccccscscsssesesccsctsssecsesceccceseesesncenes 563 14 Hazardous Materials: Descriptions and Identification Methods..........ccssesececeseees 567 Hazardous Materials Descriptions .............0cceeee 570 Flammable and Combustible Liquids.............. 570 Compressed and Liquefied Gases..................... av Cryogenic Lid iids wenn cence soe SALE MCE OAT 575 Blalmimiable SOUS .sr. reese tess easeecees cs corscsebesessoe 576 MO GIVI ALE CIALSe tan utessceen te ces ote se sect tact eek sersope 576 CD SIAIZ EUS eaten erarere cote eta sc-secetecrecbaeestessoaseses 579 Radioactive Viatenials iace-cewsc.crtuencnsescsacesrasense 579 GormosiveMatentalsacscpotecc cosasters ccanenecsenseenes 581 Explosives and Blasting Agents.......:....2.:.-..--2++- 582 Identification Methods ...........cccccsessrrreeceeseseeeers 584 SalefVpl Ala CE Sy c.nce-patveatuecaencrsuerenstarebeses>2:585 Transportation Placards, Labels, and INAATKITIOS erences cet eased ne cons taone aces tecrencoce-<eahes 586 niteeseceynne* 589 DINGAG 21S SCS teeta etsenancstenta UN Commodity Identification UNGLTIL CIS eeeree eee sonst arnt etn eet cence DOT Placards, Labels, and Markings.......... EMER IVALKATOS cree cence car coacnateneensedeenanarnebano2dss0> Manufacturers’ Labels and Warning eePEP ony coda sr acer GY eSrpraeenh oo Military MQrking ......csccserererreseseereeseeeees Pipeline MALKINgS ....ssscecesercseessereteeseseeees NEPA® 704 SYStCIN......00sesenesecbecensraressonsvees ReESOULCE GIG eDOOKS:.c...-txc ones eee 603 Emergency Response Guidebook...........00... 603 NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical LOZ TAS Merete ete a aaectcascanece iBibaalosasvastixe 605 Hazardous Materials Guide for PUPS RES PONOCrSaemeoerey ree et oaks, cats 606 Hazardous Materials Information TRESOUNCE SVSLT oa snes apeet-ueatncemesstuenencteeees 606 Canadian Dangerous Goods System................. 607 Mexican Hazard Communication System ....... 612 SUIMMMALY <cccsscessstccossscesscesscssssvecccsosect covssveabecssoeharse 614 REVIEW QUESTIONS. -ccccccccccccocecsecasuscsvasccosvcosestooseeses 615 15 Hazardous Materials: Storing, Handling, Dispensing, Transporting, Using, and DISPOSING enecvcnssx un eeeaenne severest cence 619 Storage and Transport Containers ..............s000008 620 Fixed-Site Storage Tanks... ccmnme terete eer 621 Aboveground StOrGge LGNKS ees 621 Underground Storage TAnKsS..........0s.00000 627 Tanks inside: Buildingspar ees nee 628 VONUUGIONy, oo test Renta ne eee eet 629 Nonbullk.Packaging Sipe .t tate emerer te 631 Flammable and Combustible Liquids CONIGINCIS=... ieee ene 631 Compressed and Liquefied Gas CONTGQINCTS aeors nossoeccaie nate heeene 637 Flammable Solids Packaging ...........:0.000080 639 Oxidizer CONLGINGT Smite eae 640 Radioactive Materials Packaging............... 641 Corrosive Materials Containe’s...............0++ 643 Explosives and Blasting Agents CONEGINOIS rac fo esrcuiehocuaicersoeaewrorsgeenerk acto ens644 Bulk Packaging 205cvp 5 scecs-ccetss-cooctasseosnsttessvesss 646 Railroad CAss, orc, eonsso ene Cece as, 647 Cargo dank Tucks’. sees wc ees: 647 Intermodal ConiGiniens wre are eeceecat: 652 Inspection CONCELNG............cccecsssrcssrrscesscessees 657 SYCo)i le Saar Bee Bereege ne Becca Boanconc sour ontBicnnsee.snsonbt noc ib 660 Flammable/Combustible Liquids and Compressed/Liquefied/Cryogenic GSES scsi 590 590 598 598 599 Doo. 599 cticera shane too cese heel mee ae ete 661 Flammable SOUS heat -arreee eee ate TOXIC MMOLCTICNS cea... te create eee cece OMILIZ CFS ita so ate ee ee eae ae Explosives and Blasting Agents... RadiIOGCHUG MGOLCTIIS, sc. acrcnceisscsees cok oun 662 662 662 663 663 1 PevaYellba pears rpeccononce- noone ea pbconee ecdoode on cuocesencnsen! 664 Flammable/Combustible Liquids .............. 664 COmpressed/Liquesied GASES qe acacnrar tes 664 xi DiSPCNSING.........ceccescereeceeneeesesssenseneensensesaeeaeeess 666 TYANSPOTTING..........eccsercercenseecceseserseescenscearenacenses 669 Flammable/Combustible Liquids, Compressed/Liquefied/Cryogenic Gases, Corrosives, and OXxidiZeTS........+++. 669 ss 671 seeenteesseeenod BIGIINGUle SOUS; cctsateoecesar cs 671 EX DIOSIUCS oieneeicccsrssnsnesaquttonscnattesrasneneereere (UVTI ccersnicer soroo35 Coon cotonn055c5 Jocecrach ecenasoqcc cbocpaodisey 671 ens 673 s--sone DISPOSING ssreacev-torss ccmseonescosussncsarsl torececacenses cens 673 ssnsceeeeeeee SUIMIMALY.......ssccsccccsessereecesssscrescescesssc 17 Inspection ProCeCuUres.......scsseseeessseceeees 719 Interpersonal COMMUNICATION. .........seererereeeeees Listemimg SkGUS ii. :..c..accscesssvecesesesenrerrenrosenesmtanneer Conversing SKS i... sii-cwerceeossncesscentteonecseanyerensns Communication Model Elements..........++++ 720 GA! (233 We} Verbal Communications Improvement...... 725 Nonverbal Communications ITD OVCTIICIID or vsvers ss scstere sarap erten ness cateacs 726 Perstiading Skill si ctseecscencscesteenes eaten: 726 Inspection Preparation ........ccseccccccscerssrreeceeerees 727 REVIEW QUESTIONS. ...........0cceeesecsscescccccseeseeeessssscees 674 cor azar 728 see ccccsceaeteeesrense Personal Appearances. EQuap Ment LiStS\Fessercsnuetetsanraededenerereuansete esas 728 16 Plans Review and Field Verifications.....679 Inspectiom sche cilities arse eee eres 730 Inspection RECOrdS RE VIGW oe.-.n1seacc casesereseer rane fol Inspection PrOCedures ..........cceeessereesssssreeseeseeees 732 General Inspection Practices <..22...2sc..2:<snscrnvsente Toe Inspection Concerns (Code Requirements) .... 736 PhOtosraplis .22cacsecne--aceeccnedecaseaeeseaey sae cae 736 Inspection CHECKIStS ....:ssc<caccst-scnuceareneaseaesuaame 736 Plans Review PLOces ...........ssessecsscccceessceeeeesssesees 680 SEC (BIST! eacaaceocane spoon secon Spanky panoddon cocmaconachoc erscgas 682 AST ACen oe enes eactaee taeee eee opt eneets 682 PAGSCS een eee an tied, ae rane oat ote area 683 PemiaitsranidiPeesace ecto soe eee erase ena ncess 683 Building Plans and Construction Drawings..... 684 SUD POL JO CUINICIITS este eesente seenc sneer stcecssce 685 Plan Views and System Plans...............cccccsessseeeees 686 . es690 amnr erer Pia VICWSseeoases olen trereseeaea sees crtccie TION ELIOT(Ne anette eos BOLE or OEE Le 690 ee teem FLOOR PIGi ees eee eee 693 wer ener eke eee reece aera 694 Bev aTON VieWerc Sectional View see ee tee et ete 696 Detailed iewencnn eee 697 eee. e tee eee ere DV SLEMDE La Shetamere cee ees eeea ame aetee clers 697 IWLECILANICALSYSLEI Se ere teace nna 698 FLCCLY ICAU SVSLCIIIS cert rare eee ne 701 LUSTILDTIUR SUSLCIIUS mee nee erence eee are 702 SPI ITURIET SV SLOMIS Wemene caer ce eae meee nae te cas 702 land pipe ANd HOSE SVSLCINS vas: sreserecsecesse: 704 Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing DVSLONIS Stra eiceeesuste er teet eterna mere 704 Fire Detection and Alarm SystemMs..........2..- 706 Systematic Plans Review ...........ccsssccccssssrrcesessseees 708 eee 708 OverallsizeorRBulldinge ees nea <n ac Oecupancy: Classificationens eae 708 Occupant Load Mee re ree eee 709 Means'ODE STESS eae erers ah etic ar etic iee 709 o 710 eke cssaceek EXIG Capacity wt ecece te aeentiatta .00000-+Building Compartmentation................. 710 Additional Concerns c.o8 a. wae ee 710 Field Verification Procedures ...............sccsscsessees 711 SUMMUMN ALY cocscecerer st asccaters so nteancer tee 714 Review, Questions :.sscissecetsssesssstattsccesetretehactens 714 Xil Inspection! Drawies so c2c...ssceesesteceosessrcrserscece 740 Building Occupancy Ghan oes :s25 ee .eae ees742 Results Interview ie.ccscceee tes aes eee 742 Violation DISCUSSIONS 2... eae ee ee 743 Educational Opperitunities:: sce eee Long-Term Relationships ernencecee neat Inspection-Related Letters and Reports .......... Follow-Up Inspections. <...-.ccsccsscaseccteseseorvaceveseans 744 744 745 746 Emergency Planning and Preparedness............ 746 Procedures s.ccicnccsctseeten te 747 Emergency Evacuation Drills 322. eee 749 Bducational Facilities... eee 749 Flealilx Care. PACiities ac. ee ee Zo Correctional PQCHiutes.. aut ct eeee foo Hotels and: Motels i carmcncee eee (03 Complaint Managemenl..............ssscccssserscsssseeseees 754 Administrative Duties siccc.cc.cscccrcecectctre cte TE Written Communicationsx.es..ce. eee Won Mem ossictsevn cue ccans toe ee “eye E-Mail: Messages Cuae, sh eee Ue) Formal Business Letters ce... eee 760 REPOTtS \seskociae See ee 762 Files-and REGordseanccssn eee eee eee 763 Retention sini mancees ane ee ene 764 Hard CODY. Ge rah eee ee: 765 ElCCtroniCsete eee 766 SUNMLIM ANY <eoeepeeseceostcesccetterss cee essccseee eee es 767 Review Questions:..c:ccccscscssaccseasecrte een 767 Appendices A NFPA® Job Performance Requirement (UPR) Cornrelationncciivcestisciasenssesdedectctccss 771 B Adams vs. State of Alaska..........c..cc00 774 C Example of a Citation Program............... 775 D Sample Fire Hydrant Spacing PROQUIFOIMEN teeteecev teenth atucsbetesaiieeasec euces s: 778 E Commercial Fire Alarm Acceptance Test FE ALETeTotTES lpensern ie pee eeraS pein A Se ne 779 F 782 Sample Fire Lane Sign Requirements... G Hazardous Materials Awareness tics VG crt ee eres retal ase ecseezubbowenkt 786 iate Health and Physical Hazards .............cccssssccseseees 787 BSaleTere rete te eee Mada aes SN seca set vashoseasss 787 LO@1Cal erect cssestececs-trocteceocsateacacteccsnesseuateee« 788 PrlcliO ENS PLU MTALL ON aeteee teases teen ae term. ee cttececseedisweateSissies se 788 (GivenGale rermta tee esteetn ean tae ehaeucnea ee areal sees 788 ROULCSIOF IUD WVekatesatessuressnsasustesans Seesevareseaes 789 cuse-ne789 IPOISOUMS VOKIOMIICINICGIS x. iaie isonet: COLT OSIUES Cr eerie eae rete eaaenn mente: 789 aec. Etolowicaly BIOLOGICA L .cccssoses sesencseosarssevoncsns 789 Gealeecenere. esate se ccvastas cerned Revisor nseceresuse GON Le Chiat Clues to the Presence of Hazardous Materials... 792 casera cussseeaseresce “93 WWE ChETYRCSOUICES Sscrrs ceccacocness eeccce ‘SHGUYOYOU BFS2 X.YYS! Seeonncreirinnaseron oar eos Oa CEA oe 793 SINSCS ere ene rare ene cesta osea ence hed teceatae nace "93 Monitoring and Detection Devices .................. 796 Terrorist Attack Indicators. ..........cccccccsesssseeeceeeees 797 UT CIINIC Aloe ter fie he etcapneceansccesbeasoeesncsasoneaoranncease 799 y(CAT |areca cere [SOIC roe nao ee FACIOLO CCA lems nced canst peru vacveuoestenysMueaeheet 814 UU Le citer e pete eet cea otas co cearerncao aac bac escent caicdaseaseien: 814 EXDIGSIVeMMACENICHIAT Ys cra scne-eeseacrrotessenceuesactas 815 SECON CAN errea se ectieetce sat eocedeavarorriagl tettetsenneeasvela 815 Illicit Laboratory Identification ..............scsceeee 817 LOPS SNrecee rere cor eerene erred seas ceench esse tren cvancrere 817 GHETIICAlNG CIVLS rea ate ee eons secret aeeacees eases 823 EXDIOSIVieSm ce rtente cet nee nee cose rrnctiec 824 BiOLOPICal Aer recer neces etree teem 824 INOTUfi Cationirecrccsesscts-ccscosesetecetetecenscdosascsceccssssceees 825 SCONE SC CULILY ccoccereensssteteccansccetceccccostacsse-cesscerss-+a825 PHOUCOCU OM cco cccsscsnescecccsccecccecescacececceccsccccesersestsesensas 826 Awareness-level Personnel. se. 827 Ignition Sources at Incident Scene...........++. 827 Personal Protective Equipment Types........ 828 EPA Protection Levelsrirascarcesstss mast se5s50 829 PUD LG sis sceapece eecedach ue dues basteoerssuamessaeosenasosoettesseses,830 EVQCUGUION vcaxsensenesoareesercnns tavmnseansersassoransesace 830 Shelierine in: PiGCe se nee eens 833 Protecting/Defending in Place................0+ 834 Crime Scene Managemenl ...........ccccsccceceeeeeeereeees 834 SULITIIMIALY sccacecstsencaavaceesenccnens>secscr-seestcassncensetscncorsss 836 H U.S. DOT Placard Hazard Classes and DIVISIONS vcncesncesspccttepare-capehpaesareadeceerssigay 837 | Sprinkler Systems Acceptance Test CHeCKIISUE a cccccncncteceerscarccrrssaseke tose nraancre844 J Inspection Checklists .........cccccseseeeeees 847 GIOSSALY otcarnecs accctuiieesasvens taceserceteesecen Cheeta 851 [ale (=) Grperecrere es ca eccmmrrr errr yr etm tr tro 869 cae 810 Xill List of Tables ol 3.1 32 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5.1 6.1 al Pe 7.3 8.1 8.2 8.3 9.1 9.2 10.1 yg 12.1 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14 14.15 XIV resets65 rensenenaneenesens Model Code Activities Requiring Permits ...........csccseceseessersesetseseseesesensseensecesereesescenserenes cuscsinens aranttns= 84 <+anrsneccadbinrd COMMON OXIGIZELS ..0-..cccseesecsseseecoveeseesvseaooarsonestavnucovesobecosonesdenpeaenceenotone-anabeserchacssisusasenc eneenes 85 reetees teneseeressseeeseesen Flammable Ranges of Common Flammable Gases and Liquids .........ssscsceeeteeste sss 89 nneneetenss ceeseess eeseeeesteseeneeeene Spontaneous Heating Material Types, Containers, and LOCAatiOns.......eseeeee Flammable Ranges of Common Flammable Gases and Liquids .........:.csssesseeeseseeteeseeeeteneeterereneeseseseseeenes 94 Factors Influencing Development of a Fuel-Controlled Fire «0.0.0... seseeseseseseeseeeetenenenerenetetscneneeeeeesesees 102 Fire-Resistance Rating Requirements for Building Elements (HOUTS) ..........:sssesseseseeseseeseseeeseeeeneeeeneneneey 124 Fire-Resistance Rating Requirements for Exterior Walls Based on Fire Separation Distance................. 125 Occupancy Classifications ..........cccccscesesceseeseeseeseteeneenecsecsessensesssssscsscseessessesensensensecseenecnacessesscsensacesencesseens 132 bey Required Separation of Occupancies (HOULS)........cccscseseseeseecereseseeesenesesesesesesesssensesessssseneneneecseseneneneneeees i Plastics Commonly Used in Construction...............c.csscsccsssesensescecsnssnsenscssesseescsseneeoseseessesessoesonsentcaesensenseees iis Interior Wall and Ceiling Finish Requirements by OCCUPANCY..............sseccsescercerrcerrcerreereeerseseccntconseonsoners 241 saeaeey aera reaeiien eee 283 Maximum Floor Area Allowances per OCCUpant...-2-2.-crync.ceesecesocessscaseceeccesacevansaetecieasen rsure erssccse sscesssv nesccest Eeress Width perOCcupant S€1rVed o2....csumsssseconssacco surcsscencenccevardavewartaccasegses=-teaasenaanan t=87 dec285 Common Path, Dead-end, and Travel Distance Limits (By Oceupancy ).eco ee 292, Classincations and Markings or Municipal Firei ELyar arise. see. ce seecescess eee destea teeta ecneee eee aetan eres 309 tees gon geoseuaares eee eda oecaaencsee Correction Factors for Barge Diameter Outlets: sic-scscceeween-casncsecrancenyessetsscoesua seetessye-e 334 dcsatsscsu Valuestor Computing Fire Flow TeSts «.2 2.:0c..<.0s-cesn-ncpscncsscaaeareesscuss steers seen eee eset sprinkler Color Coding, Temperature Classificauon, and Temperature Rating ....:ccscc-srereeeae eee SUF Acceptance Testing PLOCE CUES as ccsssaseesci secu seks WNLsT Mle oe ae tee Portable Fire Exunguisher Requirements tor Class. Fire: Hiazat Sarge te ee ge acters SYie) en 434 Heat-Sensing Fire Detector Color Coding, Temperature Classification, and Temperature Rating.......... 452 1..cccecve -e.nc e e 530 emcees ta Classiticationsiol Dry Cleaning Plants:and-SOlventsi Agency Definition of Flammable and Combustible Liquid Flash Points..............cccccsccssccsecssessssesseceecceceee Swall sssers Ie Gevand NEPA® Mamimable Liquid Classes a.cccs Coe rga ree eee ee 573 ICG@ and NEPA@. Combustible liquid: Classes :.....ca..5 nee eee 573 Compressedianddiquefied Gas Classifications c2u. COMIUNOINCG OFT OSIVES sont aa Rite neatsous ae a soaante eet Gave tersh sates ve peat ee eee nee OR eT es 582 Comparison of DOT Explosives Classifications :.<y:-<.c:12.00- cece eee Information Disclosed on aiU.s, Material Safety Data sheet. = s441 ee -ee Information Disclosed on a Canadian MSDS... .cccey eee 583 Unique dt).SaDOT Mab els sie. o.cssss ens ten ssutaadorteeeisiert sates aR ae ne Unique U.S<DO TDMarkitg6in....s.s tos, wei seavteer vets ticace aslo get ee ee Hazardous Materials Placard Requirements. .accs-00.ec eee eee ee oo2 587 588 595 596 U.Sand Canadian Military Symbols sr..sce anes etree ee oe ee 600 Emergency Response Guidebook Contents auc acac rete aerate ee eee 604 Canadian Transportation Placards, Labels, and MarkingS.........cc..cessssscsseesseccsessssesssssssscsssosssessecssecoseccscccea. 608 cts-ttae ssscc Sample 1SQ-3864 Type Symbols). <2as:.s.sssccss e oatssaiec e 613 1oe1 Rail roar ars serio Mransporttazardous Materials 2.40 dere. ..0etiscisess vats alas-sslssiass deosntesetactaseovtavess 648 Lo2 Carcomanlalcucks Usedao Mtanspor tazardous Materials. cs iarsces:s..¢-csresessestsds usteFessssoscssiss) oosroveers 653 Lore. Mitemmocalldnkssed to Mansport Lazardous Materials, icescee 16.1 SOMMMONATCINLeCUUbal alc EILe Salety SVMMWOLS -.. .cacistsesssctser ee soecnc etn sooo erie iors aesseeecseerss insanscah ote 695 ven OU cpa evade CONVENE (UT CIMLCL LCSect ein aera feces Lie Pmerency Evacnavuomrlans and Urils per Occupancy [ype ...sss..crerseicsasereeceteapeeery sete getsceoneea renee747 173 Pikeromncsyactatlone il Mrequency and Parti CipatlOn seasacsesestiee ater a eee eee eee 750 G.1 iy DesOlloxincranc a ielky Lat Ser OT PalaSecs G.2 SLOW @)MANES] AEE OYE)wNILG(Sia MUA N NYG 0 tae aM Gis PLAC KSelU au RAIN Greta rete cea ee a ear cots tayhse Seca eaucu nvascoven he sct oes fay scedite tieteea eaneh ae saa G.4 INGmVer Perlis GS Comin Mab isteig Celis: GH aArAClell SUS = serr.sets.cssn sneru. eeteeneseneseaccrsiete teNeenee atte tee eee G.6 EsMOOR G7 GSNOKIN GAC EMIS: G.8 RIE ontroles G.9 Toxic Industrial Materials Listed by Hazard Index Ranking...............00:..00s0seeseses Uisseepes Seen encase 811 G.10 Ware gsOly G.11 Vehicle Bomb Explosion Hazard and Evacuation Distance ................sssrsssscesssrersensecesasareresronssneneoseorees 816 Methamphetamine Sources and Production Hazards ...........:.sseeseseseeseneeeeereesesenseseneeeessesssseseseneeseseneenes 818 G.12 eee ne assscucaaciacs Ses est teesee nce eee eee acter. cceestecteost cece cities PCR rd ee te oet-decersseseciss4sonsroesms<ceetorevns 658 ROR Re ee Seatac caso uouee 730 RAT oe re ree ee WE SP @MAbACUCIISUCS xcter rics, 1.2.5 ocis-cteesteaa-esccdeerne ecco cases oentssnser t asaort tren ton AL eee eyacai 790 795 eres y ek vesee cee cae 799 heehee renee eee career eee 800 ee ee eee 802 NP CAIUS SEN AL ICLELISUICS ome teceres ace carcsene cons roses vayk casatoctaseoe ce Meese mncredue areete eet caeeee cate ae eee sateen tae Tae Meats 805 NAT ACC UIS LLCS ee crceace eerconecesrscenes cure <ctceicneieeuposcscneauchenssess dervseusessontencssuaencesoaesscmnaSacenmtneuesets 807 Ge mts: Cl aAraCtelISUlCa nes toes sasevecsos ss taasssars wa cannesdeserssaa curse oneness ncertoceeanter strastenceettn carseat 809 BIGIOSICAl AGCIItS grvee sec seecesrs csuecs sees osensenseescsocsnsaveszacsvauesneversenerereteccre eetqretracsetsrgemescneccee= gees 813 XV Preface and The seventh edition of the IFSTA Fire Inspection and Code Enforcement manual is written to assist fire job performance requirements (JPRs) of National Fire emergency services personnel in meeting the Fire Inspector for Fire Inspector and Plan Examfor Professional Qualifications Protection Association® (NFPA®) 1031, Standard for Levels I and II Fire inspect required iner (2009). Itis intended to provide the basic level of knowledge that is and provide a training curriculum for inspector training programs. It should be understood that this manual is intended to be the foundation for the education and certification of each level and as professional development for personnel currently in those positions. Additional reading and course work is highly recommended for all fire inspectors. Because Level III Fire Inspectors are generally chief officers, this manual does not attempt to meet the JPRs for this level. The reader should refer to the IFSTA Chief Officer, 2nd edition, manual for that knowledge. Acknowledgement and special thanks are extended to the members of the IFSTA validating committee. The following members contributed their time, wisdom, and knowledge to the development ofthis manual: IFSTA Fire Inspection and Code Enforcement Seventh Edition Validation Committee Committee Chair Ed Steiner Building Services City of Edmond (OK) Edmond, Oklahoma Committee Members Glen Albright City of Ventura (CA) Fire Department Ventura, California Page Dougherty International Code Council Mission Viejo, California Darcy Asuaje Alezones Martin M. King Pfizer Global Manufacturing Bureau of Fire Prevention and Urban Affairs Barceloneta, Puerto Rico West Allis (WI) Fire Department West Allis, Wisconsin John Blaschik, Jr. Office of Fire Marshal State of Connecticut Sandra Kirkwood Las Vegas (NV) Fire & Rescue Middletown, Connecticut Las Vegas, Nevada Russell K. Chandler Virginia Fire Marshal Academy Virginia Department of Fire Programs James Fitzgerald Jaracz Hobart (IN) Fire Department Hobart, Indiana Glen Allen, Virginia Larry R. Collins Department of Loss Prevention and Safety Eastern Kentucky University Richmond, Kentucky XVI Preface Brett T. Lacey Colorado Springs Fire Department Colorado Springs, Colorado Committee Members (Concluded) Doug Sanders Steven Toth Prince George’s County Fire/EMS Department Office of the Fire Commissioner Regina, Saskatiawan, Canada Landover Hills, Maryland Jimbo Schifiliti R. Paul Valentine Mount Prospect (IL) Fire Department Mount Prospect, Illinois Fire Safety Consultants, Inc. Schaumburg, Illinois Greg Willis Wetumpka (AL) Fire Department Wetumpka, Alabama The following individuals contributed their assistance and comments as reviewers for this manual: Brian Dove Alan Ellis Aaron Hoffberg John T. Johnson Matthew Witt Additional contributors include former FPP staff member Tom Ruane and the following individuals and organizations who contributed information, photographs, and other assistance that made completion of this manual possible: Bob Allen City of Long Beach, California Tom Clawson, Technical Resources Group, Inc. Colorado Springs Fire Department Doddy Photography Edmond (OK) Fire Department Edmond Planning and Public Works Center Excalibur Equipment, LLC/Gregory Industrial Trucks Federal Emergency Management Agency Fire Service Training, Oklahoma State University International Code Council® Floyd Luinstra Rich Mahaney Mesa (AZ) Fire Department District Chief Chris Mickal Rick Montemora National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Oklahoma Forestry Services Ed Pendergast Paul Pestel Phoenix (AZ) Fire Department Mike Porowski Public Works Department, Kent, Washington Sand Springs (OK) Fire Department Ed Steiner Tim Stemple Stillwater Development Services Stillwater (OK) Fire Department Ralph E. Tingley, Ansonia, Connecticut Tulsa (OK) Fire Department Tyco Fire Suppression & Building Products United States Air Force United States Department of Defense Dave Warwick Aerial Photography Will Rogers World Airport (OK) Fire Department Kay A. Yeager Preface XVII Additionally, gratitude is extended to the following members of the Fire Protection Publications Fire Inspection and Code Enforcement Project Team whose contributions made the final publication of this manual possible: Project Managers/Staff Liaisons Lynne Murnane, Senior Editor Fred Stowell, Senior Editor Editor/Writer Illustrators and Layout Designers Fred Stowell, Senior Editor Ben Brock, Senior Graphic Designer Missy Hannan, Senior Graphic Designer Clint Parker, Senior Graphic Designer Lee Shortridge, Senior Graphic Designer Errick Braggs, Senior Graphic Designer Editors/Proofreaders Clint Clausing, Senior Editor Barbara Adams, Senior Editor Curriculum Development Beth Ann Fulgenzi Melissa Noakes Michele Skidgel IFSTA/Curriculum Projects Coordinator Ed Kirtley : : FPP Photographers Library Researchers Susan F. Walker, Librarian Jenny Brock, Senior Data Control Technician Jeff Fortney, Senior Editor Fred Stowell, Senior Editor Brett Noakes, Research Technician Editorial Assistant Tara Gladden Mike Sturzenbecker, Graduate Researcher Production Manager Ann Moffat XVili_ Preface Research Technicians Gabriel Ramirez Joseph Raymond The IFSTA Executive Board at the time of validation of the Fire Inspection and Code Enforceme nt manual is as follows: IFSTA Executive Board Chair Jeffrey Morrissette Commission (CT) on Fire Prevention and Control Windsor Locks, Connecticut Vice Chair Executive Director Paul Valentine Chris Neal Fire Protection Publications Stillwater, Oklahoma Village of Mount Prospect (IL) Mount Prospect, Illinois Board Members Stephen Ashbrock Maderia & Indian Hill (OH) Fire Department Cincinnati, Ohio George Dunkell Fire Service Consultant St. Helens, Oregon John W. Hoglund Maryland Fire and Rescue Institute College Park, Maryland Paul Boecker II Illinois Public Risk Fund Oswego, Illinois Bradd K. Clark City of Owasso (OK) Fire Department Owasso, OK Dennis Compton Fire Service and Emergency Management Consultant John Judd Institution of Fire Engineers Bolton, England Wes Kitchel Santa Rosa (CA) Fire Department Santa Rosa, California Mesa, Arizona Lori Moore-Merrell International Association of Fire Fighters Washington, D.C. Frank Cotton Memphis (TN) Fire Department Memphis, Tennessee Randal Novak David Daniels Iowa Fire Service Training Bureau Fulton County (GA) Fire Department Ames, lowa Atlanta, Georgia Dena Schumacher Champaign (IL) Fire Department Champaign, Illinois Preface XIX Introduction __ Chapter Contents Purpose and ScOpe.............2..s2sscseeceeee 2 Referenced NFPA Standards and Codes ..... 6 Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities .............. 3 Key Information tee ceccece eee Manual Organization......................0e00e 4 Fire and Emergency Services Higher HOSOUICOS terse eet tect eee 4) TOrMINOlOGV iceverretaner eee eee ce ens: 4) - Key Term INSPECTION 28... eee cy ees eee er 7 eee 6 Education Curriculum .....................6. 8 : Introduction The fire service has a long and gallant history of responding to fires and other emergencies. The history of fire fighting can be traced to the Roman Empire over two thousand years ago. Organized fire fighting in North America is as old as the colonial settlements established in the 1600s. This history and tradition is symbolized in etchings, photographs, and movies of firefighters in protective clothing advancing into burning buildings to rescue citizens and extinguish fires. While this heroic image is dominant and deserved, it is still based ona reactive approach to dealing with the multitude of hazards that plague society. Beginning near the end of the 19" Century, following many devastating fires that destroyed entire communities, citizens started to realize that preventing fires was better than having to extinguish them once they had started. Municipal zoning ordinances that established minimum distances between structures and the development ofreliable water distribution systems for fire suppression began to appear in large cities. Nationally, organizations like the National Fire Protection Association® (NFPA®) began to develop codes and standards that defined the minimum levels offire safety in both construction materials and design. Still, the 20" Century witnessed disastrous and fatal fires involving numerous types of structures from circus tents to supposedly fireproof high-rise buildings. Tragedy struck schools, nightclubs, theaters, and manufacturing facilities as well as single and multifamily dwellings. After each major disaster, new fire and life-safety ordinances were passed and new standards were written. By the beginning of the 21* Century, fire departments had the most up-to-date equipment, personal protective clothing, respiratory protection equipment, and tactics for fighting fires and controlling other types of hazards. In keeping with tradition, the majority of the resources of most if not all fire departments were directed toward response and suppression and not prevention. True, the number ofstructural fires in North America has decreased over the past half century, and the average fire loss has decreased. This reduction is due in part to the increase in modern, NFPA@®-compliant building construction. At the same time, old buildings that have been modernized have been upgraded to meet current codes and standards. Local municipalities have adopted and enforced model building codes as well as fire and life-safety codes. Introduction 1 No matter how safe the design of a building might be or how fire resistant construction materials are, unsafe acts on the part of occupants can still result in fires. A high-rise fire in Sao Paulo, Brazil, in 1972 cost many livesina building that was supposed to be fireproof. The Station Nightclub fire in West Warick, Rhode Island, on February 20, 2003, killed over 100 people due to the improper use ofpyrotechnics and blocked exits. To reduce fire-related deaths, ensure that fire and life-safety standards are adhered to, and ensure that structural safety components are not compromised, most fire departments have established fire prevention bureaus or divisions. Staffed by both uniformed and nonuniformed inspectors, these units provide building inspection, plans review, permit issuance, and codeenforcement services. The employees of these units should be certified to the for for Professional Qualifications levels established by NFPA® 1031, Standard Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner. In many fire departments, fire officers in charge of fire companies have responsibilities for fire-prevention inspections and preincident planning surveys of commercial and public facilities within their response areas. Company officers and their crews inspect facilities, prepare site plans, correct life-safety hazards, and document the results of the inspections. Severe hazards or code violations that are beyond the scope of their abilities or authority are referred to the jurisdiction’s fire prevention officer or division. In small career, combination, or volunteer departments, a company officer may also perform the duties of a fire prevention officer and be certified to both NFPA® 1021, Standard for Fire Officer Professional Qualifications, and NFPA® 1031. NFPA® 1031 also contains the basic requirements for Plan Examiner Levels Tand II. While Level II Fire Inspectors can perform plans review, this function is more technical and requires additional training. Depending on the size and organization ofthe local jurisdiction, plans review may be the responsibility of the building department or fire department. If the building department has the responsibility, the fire department may or may not be involved; and that involvement may be total or limited to a review ofthe fixed fire-suppression, detection, and alarm systems. The knowledge and skills required to certify to these levels can be found in the International Fire Service Training Association (IFSTA) Plans Examiner for Fire and Emergency Services, first edition (2005). A basic overview of the plans review process is given in Chapter 16, Plans Review and Field Verifications. It should also be noted that NFPA® 1031 provides the certification requirements of the Level II Fire Inspector. This level is generally that of the organization’s fire marshal and that person may hold the rank of chief officer. Therefore, Level III is excluded from this manual. Purpose and Scope The purpose of Fire Inspection and Code Enforcement, 7th Edition, is to provide fire and emergency services personnel with basic information necessar y to meet the job performance requirements (JPRs) of NEPA® 1031 for Level ] 2 Introduction and Level II Fire Inspectors. Additional information that exceeds the standard requirements based on the experiences of the IFSTA validation committee and editors has also been included. The scope of the manual addresses the basic duties assigned to a Level I or Level II Fire Inspector. Because NFPA® 1031 does not require the fire inspector to hold a certification as a firefighter or fire officer or have previous firefighting experience, some basic information normally included in training for Firefighters I and II and Fire Officers I and IJ is included in this manual. Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities The fire inspector must possess certain knowledge, skills, and abilities and be able to apply them to assigned tasks and duties. At each level, an inspector must be able to perform the duties listed: a) Fire Inspector I e Prepare correspondence and reports. e Handle complaints. e Maintain records. e Participate in legal proceedings. e Communicate orally and in writing. e Interpret codes and standards. e Become familiar with local policies and procedures relating to inspections and plans review. e Perform fire-safety inspections of new and existing structures. e Recognize problems, make observations, and make the correct decisions. e Understand building construction types. e Understand occupancy types. e Recognize types of construction materials. e Determine occupancy loads for single-use buildings. e Recognize potential hazards operations. created by processes, materials, and e Read plans. e Understand the operation of fixed fire-suppression, detection, and alarm systems. e Understand human behavior during fires. e Identify exit, egress, and evacuation requirements for various types of occupancies. e Understand fire behavior and growth characteristics. @ Verify water supply fire flow capacity. Q Fire Inspector II e Conduct research. e Interpret codes. e Implement policies. Introduction 3 e Testify at legal proceedings. e Create forms. e Understand the local permit application process. e Communicate orally and in writing. e Understand the local plans review process. e Apply local fire and life-safety codes to complex situations. e Understand the laws and ordinances that authorize the inspection of occupancies. e Analyze and recommend modifications to local codes. e Evaluate fire-protection systems. e Analyze egress elements ofa structure. e Evaluate hazardous conditions. e Evaluate emergency planning and preparedness procedures. e Evaluate code compliance in the storage, use, and manufacture of flam_ mable and combustible liquids and gases and hazardous materials. e Evaluate emergency access to sites. e Review and evaluate the installation of fire-protection systems. e Identify building construction characteristics. A close review of the standard indicates that the knowledge, skills, and abilities required for each level are similar. In fact, most of the differences can be attributed to experience on the part of the inspector. For instance, a Level I Fire Inspector must be able to determine the occupant load for a single-use building, while the Level II Fire Inspector must be able to determine the occupant load for a multiuse building. This manual combines the two levels together in the presentation of the information. The two levels are designated by specific icons to assist both readers and instructors in determining levelappropriate information. Manual Organization The 7" edition of Fire Inspection and Code Enforcement provides information needed to develop the knowledge, skills, and abilities listed previously, organizing it into the following 17 chapters: 4 Introduction Chapter 1 — Duties and Authority Chapter Standards, Codes, and Permits 2 — Chapter 3 — Fire Behavior Chapter 4 — Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications Chapter 5 — Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Chapter 6 — Building Construction: Components Chapter7 Means of Egress — Chapter 8 — Water Supply Distribution Systems Chapter Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 9 — Chapter 10 — Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Chapter 11 — Fire Detection and Alarm Systems Chapter 12 — Fire Hazard Recognition Chapter 13 — Site Access Chapter 14 — Hazardous Methods Materials: Descriptions and Identification Chapter 15 — Hazardous Materials: Storing, Handling, Dispensing, Transporting, Using, and Disposing Chapter 16 — Plans Review and Field Verifications Chapter 17 — Inspection Procedures Learning objectives and a chapter contents section are located at the beginning of each chapter to assist the reader in focusing on the appropriate topic and knowledge. A list of key terms for the chapter is also included. Key terms and their definitions are noted throughout the chapter in the margin. The manual also contains a glossary of essential terms that will assist the reader. The numbers of the JPRs are listed at the beginning of chapters where they are referenced. Appendix A contains a guide that coordinates the JPRs to the specific page of the chapter that relates to the requirements. This manual has also been written to meet the learning objectives of the Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Principles of Code Enforcement course. The complete list of learning objectives for this course are provided on pages 8 and 9 of this Introduction. Review questions based on the learning objectives are located at the end of each chapter to ensure that the reader has a good comprehension of the material in the chapter. Please note that these questions should not be used for certification or course examinations. Resources Additional educational resources to supplement this manual are available from IFSTA and Fire Protection Publications (FPP). These resources include a study guide (available in both hardcopy and electronic formats) that will assist readers in mastering the contents of this manual. A full curriculum is available for instructors and training agencies to facilitate the teaching of the concepts and techniques described in this manual. Clip art, photos, and illustrations that are found in the manual are available ona Compact Disc-Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM) for use by instructors as well as an instructor’s guide for teaching Levels I and II Fire Inspector topics. Terminology IFSTA has traditionally provided training materials that are used throughout the U.S. and Canada. In recent years, the sales of IFSTA materials have expanded into a truly international market and resulted in the translation of materials into German, French, Spanish, Japanese, Hebrew, Turkish, and Italian. Writing the manuals, therefore, requires the use of Global English that consists of words and terms that can be easily translated into multiple languages and cultures. Introduction ) This manual is written with the global market as well as the North American market in mind. Traditional fire service terminology, referred to as jargon, must give way to more precise descriptions and definitions. Where jargon is appropriate, it will be used along with its definition. The glossary at the end of the manual also assists the reader in understanding words that may not have their roots in the fire and emergency services. The sources for the definitions of fire-and-emergency-services-related terms are the NFPA® Dictionary of Terms and the IFSTA Fire Service Orientation and Terminology manual. Referenced NFPA® Standards and Codes One of the basic purposes of IFSTA manuals is to allow fire and emergency services personnel and their departments to meet the requirements set forth by NFPA® codes and standards. These NFPA® documents are referred to throughout this manual. References to information from NFPA® codes are used with permission from the National Fire Protection Association®, Quincy, MA 02169. This referenced material is not the complete and official position of the National Fire Protection Association® on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. Key Information Various types of information in this manual are given in shaded boxes marked by symbols or icons. See the following examples: Information: Local Officials as Stakeholders Local elected officials are often included as stakeholders, but this situation is not always the case. Elected officials listen to stakeholders and serve in their elected positions at the discretion of the voters. These elected officials, in fact, represent all stakeholders and are very receptive to their collective voice. Although they are not true stakeholders, it is of utmost importance for the fire code officials proposing adoption of a new code or an amendment to fully inform elected officials of the nature and effect of the changes. Sidebar: Halon-Replacement Systems A Halon-replacement extinguishing agent interferes with a chemical reaction, forms a stable product, and terminates the combustion reaction. This process is called chemical flame inhibition. Halon-replacement systems are found in rooms, areas, and occupancies where the use of other firesuppression systems can cause more damage than the actual fire. Rooms containing computer equipment, electrical switching equipment, transformers, or file storage areas are examples. Halon-replacement systems may also be found in processes or storage areas that contain materials that are water-reactive. Magnesium processing plants are typical examples. 6 Introduction Q Case History: Chicago Nightclub Tragedy, 2003 Twenty-one people lost their lives and scores were injured as the result of a stampede for the exit by patrons of a Chicago nightclub in 2003. The victims were attempting to escape down a single Stairway exit from the second story of the establishment after security personnel used pepper spray and Mace® to break up an altercation. As many as 1,500 people stampeded toward the front door to escape the fumes. This single exit proved inadequate to handle the number of individuals attempting to evacuate the premises. Although the second floor of the club was restricted from use after the discovery of 11 building code violations the previous summer, it was in use the night of the tragedy. Safety Alert: Protect Property! Always protect property from possible damage during a flow test. List any damage that does occur, and prepare a report for the department safety officer. Information pertinent to Level I and Level II Fire Inspector duties are designated by FI I and FI II icons at the beginning of the paragraph or section where the material is located. The icons are also shown in the chapter contents section for quick reference. Fil icon > FI Il icon Key terms and their definitions are placed in margin boxes for easy reference in order to emphasize concepts, technical terms, or ideas that readers need to know. An example is shown on the right side of this paragraph. ; : ; Inspection — Formal examination of an occupancy and its associated uses or processes Three key signal words are found in the text: WARNING, CAUTION, and NOTE. Definitions and examples of each are as follows: io determine tis compliance with fire and life safety codes and e WARNING indicates information that could result in death or serious injury to fire and emergency services personnel and inspectors. See the following example: standards WARNING! The discussion of the stages of fire development examines fire behavior in a single compartment to illustrate fire progression. Actual conditions within a building composed of multiple compartments can vary widely. These variables make the job of reading the fire and assessing the hazards presented by fire conditions a critical task for everyone working inside a burning building. Introduction 7 cy e CAUTION indicates important information or data that fire and emergen perform to order in of aware service responders and inspectors need to be their duties safely. See the following example: The signal word NOTE indicates important operational information that helps explain why a particular recommendation is given or describes optional methods for certain procedures. See the following example: NOTE: Unless the building or fire code specifically states that it is retroactive, it cannot be used to enforce current requirements on preexisting conditions. Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education Curriculum Course Title: Principles of Code Enforcement Course Outcome: To provide the students with the fundamental knowledge of the role of code enforcement in a comprehensive fire prevention program. Learning Objectives: L. Explain the code enforcement system and the fire inspector’s role in that system. Describe the codes and standards development and adoption processes. Describe the difference between prescriptive and performance based codes. . Describe the legal authority and limitations relevant to fire code inspections. on Describe the importance of thorough documentation. Recognize ethical practices for the code enforcement officer. ge Explain the application, and interrelationship of codes, standard xxl s, recommended practices and guides. Describe the differences in how codes apply to new and existin g structures. 8 Introduction 9. Identify appropriate codes and their relationship to other requirements for the built environment. 10. Describe the political, business, and other interests that influence the code enforcement process. 11. Identify the professional development process for code enforcement practitioners. NOTE: These objective numbers will be used at the beginning of each chapter where they apply. Introduction 9 Chapter Contents CB DiticSee ces PUL OYFIG, OUNCE ee hres peer ek EUTONM Ss rsosccnecnenoonnconanscosoasocconsosanabesoasoano: 5 AUUNORITV cere eee a Vere Ty Pes On LAWS sheets western ee22 e ecee eee eee as PURINE OO ENMIPAUIOINS, cooricnanosconccoussoecoeeseuooseeoonsbooenoaso0: 17 Me galiotaluSsOnlilSD EGLO Sees NESS OXe1h C0)RSet Liability: Considerations eacccenereee eee eee 28 eeepc eececreenon terreccacreoarne totic ce eaca entice WA teeter eee eens Galegories Of INSPECHIONS ce. cs.ccccansancaresssepcancgnesserenie is OuisidemechiGalnSSistayicGe etree ee Legal Guidelines for INnSpeCHONStreys:cn.u es eees 20 PIGUET ERE Vi. 0 tetra te once ee ener POWESSIONEl (DEMEIOONTTEMronccansecrasnaoaopcoscenoceeneneeeenoacose 21 SUMINGLY see oeeee ee ere Ce 26 30 meee cree rece 30 a ae ey . 32 Review Questions ................cccccceeeeeee 32 Chapter Key Terms Cease-and-Desist Order ...........cc:ccceeseee 20 PONCE POW le rceetererscccsese scarereeeeeete ee27 Enabling Legislation .............::scccssssseee 14 Public-Duty Doctrine ................seccceeeseeeees 28 iaZardOuS Malenialies wert mst reay teeters 19 Special’ DULy mitts tere ee ee 29 BEICICUVMIVILY terete Se rertecctn ceca tcn ts fasczesesrenctsaaiteeesss29 Unincorporated ccc. ee tee eee cesta eee 15 MS CC LOtugrecereatree ert ees ste tee vente eeecce ssh 13 Job Performance Requirements This chapter provides information that addresses the following job performance requirements (JPRs) of NFPA® 1031, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner (2009) Chapter 1 Administration 1.3.10 Chapter 4 Fire Inspector | 4.2.1 4.2.4 4.2.5 Chapter 5 Fire Inspector Il 5250 5.2.4 say | Duties and Authority > Learning Objectives © Fire Inspector | Compare and contrast public and private inspection organizations. Explain the duties of NFPA® 1031 Level | inspectors. Describe the categories of inspections. Describe the legal guidelines of inspectors. eS Compare the types of laws at federal, state/provincial, and local levels that apply to fire and life US Ge ge) Soe Safety inspections. 6. Discuss the legal status of both the public- and private-sector inspector. 7. Discuss general liability considerations of all inspectors. 8. Describe how right of entry is limited and permitted by the law. ©) Fire Inspector Il 1. Compare the duties of NFPA® 1031 Level | and Level II inspectors. 2. Describe the legal guidelines of inspectors. 3. Explain the types of laws at federal, state/provincial, and local levels that apply to fire and life safety inspections. 4. Discuss the legal status of both the public- and private-sector inspector. 5. Explain general liability considerations of all inspectors. 6. Explain how right of entry is limited and permitted by the law. FESHE Objectives Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Objectives: Principles of Code Enforcement 1. Explain the code enforcement system and the fire inspector’s role in that system. 4. Describe the legal authority and limitations relevant to fire code inspections. 11. Identify the professional development process for code enforcement practitioners. ee 12 Chapter 1 © Duties and Authority Chapter 1 Duties and Authority Follow-up Inspections A fire inspector in Alaska conducted an inspection ina business-type occupancy and discovered a number ofviolations that were noted on the inspection report. A postinspection review was conducted with the owner of the business and a formal letter regarding the violations was sent. The department did not conduct a follow-up inspection to ensure compliance anda fire occurred as the result of one of the noted violations. The owner sued the fire department claiming that the inspector had failed to perform his duties by not performing a follow-up inspection. The court held in the owner’s favor. The statement afire that does not occur is the one that is most easily controlled accurately describes the ultimate goal of any fire and life safety inspection program. By identifying hazards or potential hazards and taking mitigating action, the majority of uncontrolled fires can be avoided. Fire and life safety inspection programs are established by the local jurisdiction with the goal of protecting lives and property from uncontrolled fires and other hazards. To accomplish this goal, all levels of government have created fire inspection and code enforcement organizations (referred to as departments, bureaus, or agencies) that are given the authority to manage these programs. The personnel who are given the responsibility for fire and life safety inspection programs may be members ofthe fire department, building department, code enforcement department, or some other agency. These individuals may be referred to asfire and life safety inspectors, code enforcement officers, or, as Inspector — Person who is trained and certified to perform fire and life safety inspections of all types of new construction and existing occupancies; also called Code Enforcement Officer and Fire and Life Safety Inspector in this manual, simply as inspectors. To properly perform the duties assigned to an inspection organization, inspectors must first know what duties are assigned to their positions. Inspectors must have a thorough knowledge of all of the provisions of the building and fire codes, including how various sections of a code are interrelated to other sections and the ways these sections are interpreted in their jurisdiction. Periodic training is necessary to renew skills to keep abreast of changes Chapter 1° Duties and Authority 13 (Figure 1.1). Inspectors must also understand the authority that they have for conducting their duties. Understanding this authority requires a further understanding of the laws and ordinances that grant the authority. The fire and life safety inspection programs and the authority of the inspectors who implement them are founded on certain federal laws, state/provincial laws, and local ordinances. Therefore, it is the inspector’s responsibility to become thoroughly familiar with the fundamental legal concepts, statutes, codes, regulations, and permitting processes regarding the building and fire codes applied in a particular jurisdiction. The inspector must have a thorough knowledge and understanding ofthe following items: e Enabling legislation that created the inspection position or designates individuals to perform fire and life safety inspections Enabling Legislation — Legislation that gives appropriate officials the authority to implement or enforce the law e State/provincial or local statutes that provide the legal basis for the inspections and establish the minimum requirements to perform fire-prevention and related activities e State/provincial and local laws, codes, ordinances, and statutes that detail various fire and life safety requirements and establish an inspector’s duties and responsibilities regarding the mitigation of any hazards or violations discovered e Statutes that set the limits of authority that may be part of state/provincial and local enabling legislation @ Ways in which statutes, ordinances, or laws can be amended or altered This chapter provides the inspector with a general description of the duties and authority of an inspector. It also provides inspection guidelines, describes inspection departments and types oflaws, and describes an inspector’s legal status and liability. Finally, it is the responsibility of the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) to train and certify inspection and code enforcement personnel to perform the functions assigned to them. It is also the responsibility of the inspector to continually pursue professional development. Chapter 2, Standards, Codes, and Permits, provides a view of the standards and codes that the inspector will enforce. Figure 1.1 Inspectors should remain current on trends in the profession. Professional development programs, including classroom presentations, are offered by local, state/provincial, and national agencies. 14 Chapter1© Duties and Authority Duties The duties assigned to an inspector will vary based on the type and size of the inspections organization. An inspector may be an employee of a public government agency, a private company, or an insurance company. This section provides a brief overview ofboth public and private inspection organizations followed bythe duties generally assigned to both public and private organization inspectors. In addition, this section introduces the categories of inspections as well as the legal guidelines for conducting inspections. Public Organizations In the public arena, fire and life safety inspection programs may be located in the fire, building, or code enforcement departments. The size and complexity of the local government may determine the location of the program. Fire Department In many large municipalities, the fire and life safety inspection program is the responsibility of the fire prevention division or bureau in the fire department. The division is managed by the fire marshal who typically holds the equivalent rank of assistant or deputy fire chief. The fire marshal reports directly to the : : aL chief of the department (Figure 1.2). At the state/provincial level, the state/ provincial fire marshal’s office maintains the inspection program for the unincorporated portions ofthe state. Unincorporated — Portion of a State/province outside the Ea eee jurisdiction of municipalities that does not provide an inspection program Staffing for fire-prevention divisions may include nonsworn personnel, sworn personnel, or acombination of both. Depending on the size of the department, inspectors may be nonsworn employees who have been hired specifically as inspectors or plans examiners. In some departments, sworn firefighters or fire officers may be assigned to the prevention division. Sworn personnel may have the primary duty of performing inspections or it may be secondary to other duties such as commanding an emergency response unit. Generally, in-service fire companies, fire-prevention division inspectors, or a combination ofthe two conduct actual inspections. Figure 1.2 Fire marshals manage the operation of the fireprevention division or bureau. They report to the fire department chief or an elected official such as the governor. Chapter 1 © Duties and Authority 15 NOTE: The two categories of terms common to both the fire service and law enforcement communities are (1) sworn and uniformed and (2) nonsworn and nonuniformed and may be used interchangeably. Sworn or uniformed personnel are those who have taken an oath, wear a badge, and may have the authority to arrest people; whereas, nonsworn or nonuniformed personnel do not. When the authority for inspections and code enforcement is not assigned to the fire department, the department should develop a strong relationship with the department that does. Fire-protection plans for new construction and alterations of existing structures should be reviewed by a trained member of the fire department in conjunction with the responsible department. Building Department In some states/provinces, counties, and municipalities, the inspections and code enforcement responsibility may be assigned to the building department (Figure 1.3). In this case, the inspectors are usually civilian (nonuniformed) employees. The building department is generally responsible for the following activities: e Reviewing and approving all new construction and alterations to existing structures e Conducting plans reviews e Issuing permits related to buildings and their use e Making field inspections to verify that approved plans are followed in the construction and alteration process Code Enforcement Department Some jurisdictions may have a separate code enforcement department that is responsible for ensuring code compliance. This department may be separate from both the fire and building departments. In addition to conducting fire inspections and in some cases responding to complaints, the code enforcement department may have responsibility for codes that govern the following items: Figure 1.3 The building department is responsible for ensuring that new construction and alterations to existing structures meet locally adopted codes and standards. The department reviews construction plans and documents and issues permits for all new construction in the jurisdiction. 16 Chapter 1 © Duties and Authority Residen ce Marriott Parking Weed abatement e Vacant structures Water usage e@ Pyrotechnics displays e Tents Private Organizations The role of inspector is not limited to the public sector. Private-sector inspectors are integral components ofthe loss control mission in many private-sector organizations. Private companies should have policies and procedures for handling fire and life safety hazards as part of a risk management program. The private-sector inspector must know the proper chain of command for handling these situations and the limits of relationships with public-sector inspectors. There are two common roles for private-sector inspectors: The first is an inspector whom a company employs to ensure that appropriate levels of fire and life safety are maintained within all the company’s buildings and facilities. The second is that of an inspector an insurance or underwriting company employs. Functioning as a risk assessor, this inspector evaluates processes and facilities that are insured or underwritten by the insurance company. The inspector attempts to identify hazards within the insured’s facility. Through this evaluative process, mitigation of risks can occur before any loss that affects both the insured and the insurance company. The insurance inspector’s scope and power to make corrections or improvements varies widely. The policies and procedures of the insurance company will dictate the working relationship between the insured and the inspector. Appropriate insurance company policies and procedures for handling noted hazards must be followed at all times. Private inspectors employed by an organization or by an insurance company should have good, working relationships with the public-sector inspectors within the jurisdiction. It may become necessary for both private and public inspectors to work together. They should also maintain constant communication on facility and process changes that will affect fire and life safety at their facilities. Inspectors Regardless ofthe type of organization, an inspector must possess a high level of expertise to ensure that all hazards are identified and actions are taken to correct them (Figure 1.4, p. 18). This level of expertise is gained through training, experience, and certification based on nationally recognized standards. This manual is intended to provide the information necessary for the inspector to certify to the requirements established by the National Fire Protection for Professional Association® (NFPA®) in its standard NFPA® 1031, Standard for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner (2009). Qualifications Chapter 1¢ Duties and Authority 17 Figure 1.4 Inspectors perform a multitude of tasks ona regular basis, including hydrant tests, courtroom testimony, code interpretation, facility inspections, and portable fire extinguisher checks. NFPA® 1031 separates the inspector’s duties into three levels. As mentioned in the Introduction, only Levels I and IJ are included in this manual. While duties vary between organizations and between the public and private sectors, a Level I Inspector must be able to perform the following duties: Handle citizen complaints related to fire and life safety. Interpret and apply adopted codes and standards. Perform fire and life safety inspections of new and existing structures. Determine occupancy loads for single-use buildings. Participate in legal proceedings involving fire and life safety code issues. Verify water supply fire flow capacity to determine the ability of water supply systems to provide the required level of protection. An inspector who is certified to Level II must be able to perform the following duties: Interpret and apply adopted codes and standards. e Determine occupancy loads for multiuse buildings. 18 Chapter 1 © Duties and Authority e Testify at legal proceedings. Hazardous Material — Any material that is explosive, e Perform plans reviews. ; : flammable, poisonous, ' e Apply fire and life safety codes requirements to complex situations. corrosive, irritating, or e Analyze and recommend modifications to fire and life safety codes. Sea ac area to cause injury or death; any e Evaluate code compliance in the manufacture, storage, and use of flammable and combustible liquids, gases, and hazardous materials. substance that possesses an unreasonable risk to the health and safety of persons and/or the environment if it is not properly controlled during storage, manufacturing, processing, packaging, use, disposal, or me Categories of Inspections transportation There are several categories offire and life safety inspections that an inspector may be authorized to perform. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, in some jurisdictions, the fire department may share the responsibility for these inspections with the building or code enforcement department. When this joint responsibility exists, the jurisdiction must establish clear inspection guidelines or Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs) regarding procedures. The classifications of inspections include the following: e Annual (routine) — Inspections occur on a set basis and usually involve occupancy classifications such as places of assembly, education, and health care to name a few. e Issuance ofa permit— Inspections occur when the owner/ occupant is required to obtain a permit for a special event or use of the occupancy such as the limited-term use ofa circus-type tent or use of pyrotechnics during a performance or show. e Response to a complaint — Inspections occur when a complaint such as overcrowding or blocked exits has been filed against a business or occupancy. e Eminent hazard — Inspections occur when it becomes obvious that an occupancy or process poses a hazard to life and property such as the parking of vehicles within a mall area without draining the fuel tanks. e New construction — Inspections are required when a new structure is built, an addition is made to an existing structure, or an existing structure is altered in such a way that code compliance must be ascertained (Figure 1.5). The demolition of a structure is also included in this type of inspection. e Change in occupancy — Inspection occurs when a structure’s use or occupancy classification changes and code compliance must be ascertained such as a warehouse that is converted into a movie theater or other place of assembly. e Owner/occupant request — Occasionally, the owner/ occupant may request an inspection. This inspection may be a requirement of another government agency or an insurance company. Figure 1.5 Inspectors are responsible for field inspections of new construction. Knowledge of both construction techniques and building codes is essential to this task. Chapter 1° Duties and Authority 19 Legal Guidelines for Inspections To operate within generally accepted legal guidelines, inspectors should follow certain procedures when performing an inspection. Those procedures include the following: Inspectors must be easily identifiable with current official credentials prominently displayed or immediately available for review, including a badge or identification card (Figure 1.6). Wearing a uniform, while recognizable, is often not adequate as a form ofidentification when performing official duties. Inspectors must state the reason for the inspection. Before entering the premises, a clearly stated reason for requesting entry should be presented. Often an oral request to enter will be sufficient. Occasionally, however, the owner/occupant may request a written request before allowing entry. Entry may also be denied by the owner/occupant in some instances. Should this situation occur, the inspector must prepare a request for an administrative warrant and present it to a judge for legal approval. At the time of an inspection, the inspector should invite the building owner/ occupant or his or her representative to accompany the inspector during the inspection. Other local inspection authorities, including building, electrical, mechanical, and plumbing code inspectors, may also participate in an inspection. To ensure consistency, it is wise to try to conduct all of these inspections at once. This timing is especially true when these inspections are part of an annual inspection, new construction inspection, or when a certificate of occupancy is requested. Joint inspections reduce the interruption that the owner/occupant experiences. It will also avoid the appearance of harassment that multiple inspection requests might imply. Cease-and-Desist Order — Court order prohibiting a person or business from continuing a particular course of conduct Inspectors should follow a written inspection procedure. This procedure should be approved by the fire chief, fire marshal, or code official. Implementation of a fire department standard operating procedure (SOP) for inspections is recommended, and it should list every step that is to be performed during the inspection. Inspectors should seek an administrative warrant if their entry request is denied. Inspectors may issue a stop-work or cease-and-desist order for extremely hazardous conditions (even if entry is denied) while a warrant is being obtained. Inspectors should have guidelines available that define conditions whereby they may issue a stop-work order without obtaining either permission to enter or a warrant. Inspectors should be certain that all licenses and permits held by the owner/ occupant indicate that periodic inspections can be made throughout the duration of the permit or license. 20 Chapter 1 Duties and Authority ' = . Figure 1.6 Official uniforms are not the only type of identification inspectors should have during inspections. Badges and photo identification cards are also needed to assure the owner/occupant of the inspector’s authority. Figure 1.7 An organized record-keeping system is essential to a fire and life safety inspection program. Files that are used regularly should be easily accessible to the inspector. e Inspectors must be trained in applicable laws, codes, standards, and ordinances. e Inspectors must maintain a reliable record-keeping system ofinspections (Figure 1.7). Many state and federal courts have made decisions that protect the right of privacy of owners ofprivate residential dwellings where no known or suspected fire hazards exist. To insist on making an inspection under these conditions is generally considered to be an unreasonable search. Professional Development The AHJ establishes the minimum level of training for inspectors and code officials and defines the certification requirements. The AHJ may be the national agency, state/province, the county, or the local municipality. Professional qualifications may be based on NFPA® 1031 or individually developed standards. Code-development organizations like the International Code Council® (ICC®) provide courses, training materials, and curriculum for all levels and types of code enforcement and interpretation. The U.S. National Fire Academy (NEFA) as well as state/provincial and regional fire academies also provides courses in inspection, plans review, and code enforcement. Training and certification testing may be provided by the AHJ or through local colleges or technical schools. Because NFPA® 1031 does not require that inspectors meet Fire Fighter I or Fire Fighter II prerequisites or Fire Officer certification, initial inspection training may include information normally provided in these programs. The AHJ may also require a minimum number of hours of continuing education and recertification on a two-year or greater cycle. Chapter 1 © Duties and Authority 21 skills, the Once trained and certified to a minimum level of knowledge and shed by une inspector may pursue a path of professional development establi AHJ. Besides the NFPA® 103] Fire Inspectors I, H, and III and Plans Examin- include ers Land II levels, other levels of advancement and certification may the following: e Residential inspection e Commercial inspection e Code enforcement e Special inspector e General inspection e Code official and building official e Master code professional Course topics, like the chapters in this manual, may be varied in content and include such information as the following: e Report writing e Verbal communication skills e Ethics e Principles of code enforcement e Personnel issues e Public speaking e Stress management e Case development e Evidentiary procedures e Courtroom presentations Final sources of continuing education are the programs and workshops provided by professional organizations. For example, the American Code Enforcement Association (ACEA) sponsors annual conferences and workshops that provide attendees with continuing education credits that many AHJs accept toward annual requirements. Authority Authority to perform the duties of an inspector is based on the laws adopted by the AHJ or the regulations established by the private-sector organization. In the case ofthe private sector, the regulations may be written to meet the legal requirements ofthe applicable jurisdiction. For instance, a private organization may require its inspectors to enforce Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requirements for the use or storage of flammable liquids. It is important, therefore, for all inspectors to understand the laws upon which their authority is based. The sections that follow also describe how inspection duties limit the amount of liability applicable to a jurisdiction or individual inspector. In addition, the use of outside authorities in inspections and issues concerning right of entry are addressed. 22 Chapter 1© Duties and Authority Types of Laws As stated previously, inspectors must be familiar with many different laws, ordinances, and other legal regulations. This section details the various types of federal, state/provincial, and local laws that inspectors may encounter. In addition to laws, inspectors may be involved in issuing various types of permits for their jurisdictions. The types of permits and permit processes will be addressed in Chapter 2, Standards, Codes, and Permits. Federal Laws Many federal agencies have developed regulations designed to ensure the safety of the public. These regulations cover a broad spectrum of activities and include the following topics: e Employee safety e Transportation of hazardous materials e Patient safety in health care facilities e Accessibility for handicapped citizens e Minimum housing standards The federal agency that sets standards in any particular area of concern is usually responsible for their enforcement. In some instances, such as workplace safety laws, the state or province may choose to enforce federal regulations. In most cases, the local inspector is not responsible for enforcing federal regulations. However, the inspector who becomes aware ofhazards or violations within federal properties or jurisdiction should know howto report them to the proper federal agency or authority to seek corrective action. Federal and some state/provincial-owned buildings located within the local jurisdiction are not required to comply with local codes (Figure 1.8). In the past, agencies that operated these buildings usually enforced their own fire- Figure 1.8 Municipal inspectors rarely have authority to inspect state/ provincial or federal facilities located within their jurisdictions. However, their assistance may be requested for recommendations on fire and life safety situations. Chapter 1¢ Duties and Authority 23 folprotection regulations. In recent years, the U.S. government has chosen to s, and low local codes for facilities such as post offices, Social Security building Armed Forces Reserve facilities protected by municipal fire departments. Military bases having their own fire departments and fire-prevention staff follow the Unified Facility Criteria (UFC) from the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD), portions ofthe International Fire Code® (IFC®), and NFPA® standards. However, a combination of the UFC, NFPA® standards, and local code adapta- tions are often used in local government buildings. Inspectors should know the people who are responsible for federal properties and work with them to ensure that fire protection is maintained at a high level, regardless of which code they follow. Even if the local fire department does not have the authority to perform code compliance inspections in a federal facility, it still should perform preincident planning visits so that itis prepared to handle any fire that may occur within the facility and be ready to assist the federal authorities. State/Provincial Laws In addition to enforcing selected federal laws, states/provinces are empowered to enforce state/provincial laws and statutes. The state/provincial government may also regulate specific fire and life safety inspection activities within its jurisdiction as well. For example, in some states/provinces, the duty to inspect nursing homes and day-care centers is specifically assigned to the state/ provincial fire marshal’s office. Similarly, authority is sometimes removed from the state/provincial level, and building and fire codes are enacted that are enforced by local jurisdictions. State/provincial laws can define and specify building construction and maintenance details in terms of fire protection and empower agencies to issue regulations. State labor laws, insurance laws, and health laws also havea bearing on fire safety and sometimes encompass fire and life safety inspection responsibilities. Itis the inspector’s responsibility to communicate the authority of the local jurisdiction to other agencies with fire-related concerns. This kind of communication can form the basis for an effective working relationship between local and state or provincial agencies. Local Laws and Ordinances Local laws and ordinances, although sometimes based on state/provincial laws, are more specific and tailored toward the exact needs of a particular county, municipality, or fire-protection district. Typically, states or provinces have legislation in place that enables local jurisdictions to adopt state/ provincial regulations. The local jurisdiction may adopt the regulations by reference (citing the specific state standard, law, or regulation) orin the form of enabling acts. Adoption by reference means that the local jurisdiction will follow the state/provincial laws exactly as written. Adopting laws in the form of enabling acts gives the local jurisdiction the use of state/provincial laws as their basis but then adds or deletes regulations or ordinances based on local needs or preferences (Figure 1.9). An inspector's status as a member of the public sector is important. This status describes the rights, responsibilities, and liabilities inherent toa public safety officer or government employee. Also, inspectors need to underst and the limits and scope oftheir authority. 24 Chapter 1 Duties and Authority Relationship Between State and Local Laws se STATE/PROVINCIAL LEGISLATION : By Reference By Enabling Act Cites State/Provincial Legislation, Adopting it as Written Adopts State/Provincial Legislation in Part, With Local Amendments Figure 1.9 Local jurisdictions may adopt state/provincial laws by way of two methods: by reference or by enabling act. LOCAL LAW OR ORDINANCE One of the most important laws to the inspector is the enabling legislation that establishes the municipal fire department. This law is the foundation upon which the department and local fire and life safety codes are built. Without a legal establishment of existence through legislative action, the fire department cannot exist. As mentioned earlier, the enabling legislation defines the extent and limitations of the department’s authority. The scope of powers granted to a fire department and its subdivisions varies widely among jurisdictions. Some fire departments have almost unlimited power to develop, enact, and enforce fire codes. Other fire departments may be required to enforce a code established by the state/province, county, or regional government. Still other departments may have no power to modify or amend the provisions ofthe fire code. In addition to the legislation that authorizes the fire and life safety inspection program, inspectors must have a clear understanding ofthe building and fire codes that they are responsible for enforcing. The fire marshal or building code official should provide building or fire code information to the inspector. This information can be in the form of an operating procedure, a directive, or a training program that clearly describes the building and fire codes. The development and implementation of these codes are usually the result of acooperative effort among the following organizations and individuals: e Fire department administration e Mayor or city/county manager e Municipal legislative body e Legislative body, council, or board The municipal legal counsel should provide information on the inspector’s authority and liability as defined by the law. Additionally, formal interpretations of ordinances or codes, as written, should be requested from the legal counsel. It is usually best to seek a legal interpretation of the code from the legal counsel before taking action when there is a question of authority or meaning of the code. Chapter 1¢ Duties and Authority 25 Legal Status of Inspectors to the The legal status of an inspector defines the amount of authority granted that action legal against on inspector, the responsibility to act, and the protecti the jurisdiction provides. In the private sector, the employer’s risk management program, job description, and fire and life safety policies determine an inspector’s legal status. Public inspection personnel often conduct inspections of facilities that insurance inspectors or private-sector companies also inspect. The result of joint or overlapping inspections should be enhanced fire and life safety. However, occasionally conflict will result between the various parties. ite public inspector should be flexible as long as the legally mandated code is not compromised. Public Sector Inspectors who work for a public agency must be aware of their legal status as public officials. In particular, they should know whether their job position classifies them as a public employee (nonsworn position) or as a public safety officer (sworn position). Each classification has particular responsibilities and duties. In some jurisdictions, this distinction can affect potential individual or municipal liability, compensation, and a multitude of other benefits important to the inspector. In the United States, individual state governments determine the legal status of public-sector employees within the framework ofthe federal Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). In addition to legal requirements for inspectors, the states may also have regulations regarding the organization of fire-protection agencies, retirement systems, and civil service requirements. The state may also specify jurisdictional lines between the state/provincial fire marshal’s office and other local agencies such as those at the county and municipal levels. Each state/province may also have specific statutes concerning the legal liability and responsibilities of inspectors. Public-sector inspectors must understand any empowerments granted to them by law. Inspectors may be authorized to do some or all of the following actions: e Arrest or detain individuals. e Issue asummons. e Issue citations. e File complaints for code violations. e@ Issue warrants. Fire codes may authorize inspectors to interrupt business operations or to evacuate and close a building that presents eminently dangerous conditions. For example, an inspector could close a nightclub that is grossly over its legal occupancy limit. An inspector might also close buildings for housing inherently dangerous materials or for violating fire or building codes. Some jurisdictions give designated inspectors police power to actin these roles. [finspectors have this authority, they must also receive the appropr iate legal and law enforcement training. In many states, training and certifica- 26 Chapter 1 © Duties and Authority tion as a peace officer is required before an inspector can exercise any lawenforcement-type powers. This situation is particularly true if the inspector can expect to be involved in the actual prosecution ofa fire code violator. . The exact relationship between a municipal police department and an inspector must be clearly defined in communities where the inspector has limited police powers (Figure 1.10). Understanding this relationship avoids conflicts when the inspector must exercise police powers that require the assistance of the police department. For example, an inspector must request Police Power — Constitutional right of the government to impose laws, statutes, and ordinances, including zoning ordinances and building and fire codes, to protect the health, safety, morals, and general welfare of the public assistance from the police department while arresting a code violator who is known to be uncooperative with the authorities. Police assistance may be required to safely make such an arrest. The jurisdiction’s adopted fire and life safety codes should contain language that further explains the relationship between the inspector and the police department. Figure 1.10 Inspectors often have the opportunity to work with law enforcement agencies from all levels of government. It is important to maintain a healthy relationship with law enforcement personnel at all times. Private Sector In the private sector, an inspector’s actual legal status may be less specific than in the public sector. The status may be included in the inspector's job description, the company’s risk management plan, or in the company’s fire and life safety policies. Private-sector inspectors should be familiar with the legal basis for performing inspection and code enforcement within their companies. In some cases, the company may place greater importance on generating a profit than on providing a safe work environment. In such a situation, a privatesector inspector or insurance inspector should be aware of the liabilities for not stopping an unsafe act or correcting an unsafe condition. Insurance company inspectors should be familiar with the local, municipal building and fire codes and understand how they compare with the code requirements of the insurance company. In all cases, the legally adopted code takes precedence over any others. Chapter 1° Duties and Authority 27 Conflict Between Public and Private Requirements are stan: Insurance companies often dictate protection requirements that Public stringent than local fire codes or ordinances for their insured risks. targeted inspectors must remember that some insurance requirements are more at property protection than concern for life safety. Life safety code issues must always have precedence over property-conservation considerations. The public inspector must point out these issues to the building owner/occupant and the insurance inspector to ensure that life safety is paramount. Insurance company inspectors may find that their employer's requirements bring them into conflict with either the company they are inspecting or local public inspectors or both. Interpretations sometimes differ concerning the applicable fire code or its provisions. This situation may Cause a conflict between inspecting parties. An insurance inspector should work with the municipal inspector to ensure that the insurance requirements meet or exceed the locally adopted fire code. Liability Considerations Changes resulting from lawsuits and other administrative challenges continually alter the limits ofliability that an inspector may face. It is not possible for a manual of this type to give locally specific or comprehensive information on liability because of the wide variation among different courts. Interpretation of the limits ofliability also changes over time. New cases about liability raise new legal questions that create new opinions. The lawis then modified to reflect these new perceptions. There are, however, some general liability considerations that are more permanent and will be useful for all inspectors. In general, inspectors are not held liable for discretionary acts (acts involving actions inspectors consider necessary to fulfill their responsibilities). The term refers to the manner in which the fire inspector, acting for a superior, performs an act or enforces a policy. For example, an inspector cannot be held liable for lost income if the inspector closes a business for violations of the fire code. The limits of liability, the concept of indemnification, duty to inspect, and civil rights aspects of inspections are all addressed in the sections that follow. Liability Limits Public-Duty Doctrine — States that a government entity (such as a State or municipality) cannot be held liable for an individual plaintiff's injury resulting from a governmental officer’s or employee's breach of a duty owed to the general public rather than to the individual plaintiff 28 Chapter 1© Duties and Authority Most of the model fire codes contain language that limits the liability of the jurisdiction. These limits also extend to inspectors who have the responsibility for applying the code. In order for this language to be effective in a jurisdiction, the jurisdiction must specifically adopt that portion ofthe code. Merely incorporating by reference (or adopting by reference) the code’s liability section is insufficient to provide adequate protection. As states have modified their constitutions to eliminate the public-duty doctrine, there have been a number of court rulings against the immunity provisions contained in the model codes. The courts have ruled that the immunity provisions conflict with statutes that establish an inspection authority and require the enforcement of codes and regulations. In other words, a community cannot be required to do something and at the same time be immune from liability if it or its officers (inspectors) doa job inadequately or negligently. Indemnification Most jurisdictions indemnify their inspection personnel or provide liability insurance to protect them in the areas where they may be held liable. To indemnify the inspector means that the AHJ assumes the responsibility for any claims against the individual. The procedures for indemnification generally depend on prevailing state law. It is most important for inspectors to determine whether they are indemnified or protected by liability insurance when they are performing their official duties. Liability insurance provided by the jurisdiction protects the inspector from costs involved with providing legal counsel or court judgments. Decisions in court cases have established inspector liability precedence over the past 32 years. For instance, a 1976 court ruling (Adams v. State of Alaska; see Appendix B), held that fire inspectors, in conducting code inspections, had taken ona duty and must use reasonable care in the exercise ofthat duty. For example, ifinspectors inspect a property and determine that violations are present but fail to perform a follow-up inspection to ensure that the violations are corrected, they can be held liable if a fire related to the violations occurs. In addition, inspectors can be held liable for the resulting deaths or injuries if they can be attributed to the code violation. Likewise, inspectors who take on a special duty or obligation to a person can be held liable. This liability results from the inspector placing the person in potential harm or danger through incorrect or unsafe advice. For example, by issuing an occupancy permit for an uninspected building, an inspector establishes the duty to ensure that the building complies with applicable codes and regulations. Indemnify — One party agreeing to compensate another party for losses or damages that are incurred If specific actions or events occur Special Duty — Type of obligation that an inspector assumes by providing expert advice or assistance to a person; this obligation may make the inspector liable if it creates a situation in which a person moves from a position of safety to a position of danger by relying upon the expertise of the inspector Duty to Inspect Most model codes contain a duty-to-inspect clause. This clause is significant for an inspector because it normally does not allow selective enforcement. Instead, the clause charges the inspector with total enforcement. This clause means that inspectors are not limited to only certain buildings or occupancy classifications within their jurisdiction for enforcement. The code must be applied equally, within reason, to all applicable occupancies in a given jurisdiction. Failure to follow this clause may subject the department or individual inspector to personal and professional liability. From a liability standpoint, it is better for inspectors to conduct fewer, but more thorough, inspections and to follow up on all violations than to perform more frequent inspections in a haphazard, incomplete, or negligent manner. Failure to inspect a property does not impose a duty on the inspector unless laws or statutes impose such a duty or there is a known code violation present. Laws that single out a particular class occupancy for a predetermined number of inspections do establish a duty for the inspection staff. Civil Rights Another potential source of major liability that inspectors must be concerned about involves the issue ofcivil rights. For example, an inspector might perform inspections in a jurisdiction in a manner that discriminates against a certain Chapter 1¢ Duties and Authority 29 discrimination group ofpeople or classification of business. In such acase, the es, may indicate a civil rights violation. Other examples of questionable practic also known as oppression, might include the following: es, e Singling out certain groups or classes of people, including business without justification e Targeting a specific business or industry but seldom or never inspecting similar businesses; for example, inspecting pool halls but ignoring bowling alleys e Conducting inspections according to different frequencies for certain businesses throughout a jurisdiction; for example, inspecting a tavernina residential neighborhood more frequently than a tavern located in a commercial or industrial setting e Conducting inspections based upon the race, religion, or ethnic background of the owner or clientele e Conducting inspections as a means ofretaliating against the owner of the business; for example, inspecting a business based on a complaint like The owner threw me out, so I want you to inspect his business Civil rights cases can become high-profile media events that can be avoided through the consistent application and enforcement ofthe adopted local codes. Inspection procedures that are employed need to be constantly reviewed to ensure that deviations from acceptable practices are avoided. Outside Technical Assistance Occasionally, a jurisdiction may find that a code issue or a request to build a unique structure is beyond its capabilities to assess. For example, a new building may require use of alternative building materials or fire-protection systems to meet the intent of an existing code. These situations generally require the involvement of amore highly trained individual such as a fire protection engineer (FPE). Some large fire departments and industrial operations have FPEs on staff to handle these situations. However, many jurisdictions may not be able to support a position of this type. Lacking this technical support on staff, these jurisdictions may choose to contract with an engineering or fireprotection firm to provide technical third-party assistance as required. Before entering into such an agreement, local code officials must ensure that such an agreement is legal and that decisions made by the outside firm can be made binding by the local enforcement official. These legal questions can normally be legitimized through the enabling legislation ofthe fire inspection division and the fire department. Right of Entry The right to enter for inspectors to is not a problem. owners have the a property to inspect for code compliance is essential in order fulfill their duties. In most cases, the issue of right to enter However, the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that property right, under the Fourth and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, to refuse admittance to an inspector unless a proper legal instrument or warrant to enter the premises has been obtained. 30 Chapter 1©Duties and Authority In two rulings, the U.S. Supreme Court has held that portions of commercial premises that are not open to the public may only be entered for inspections, without the consent of the owner, by first obtaining an administrative warrant. The use of an administrative warrant, as opposed to a search warrant, to gain entry is necessary because ofthe legal protocols required for issuing these warrants. A search warrant is sought by an enforcement agent and issued by a judge once it is established that there is probable cause that a crime has been committed and evidence supporting the accusation is on the property to be searched. The warrant allows the search and is restricted to seeking only evidence or types of evidence for the suspected violation (or infraction) that is specifically listed on the warrant as issued by the judge (Figure 1.11). The administrative warrant, on the other hand, is a demand to enter for the purpose of inspection. There is no requirement for the inspector to claim or list a probable cause in the same sense as in a criminal search warrant. The requirement for an administrative warrant protects the owner from continuous, sometimes frivolous, inspections, while at the same time giving the inspector a legal means to demand entry with legal backing. When a warrant to enter is obtained, the inspector must understand the process required for granting the warrant so that the necessary supporting documentation can be provided to the local court. The AHJ may wish to develop a refusal form that can be used when a property owner or occupant refuses the right to enter a property. The refusal form provides the basis of information for obtaining a warrant to enter the property at a later time. Occasionally, itis prudent to obtain written permission to enter a site before the inspection. The use of a consent-to-enter form will remove questions regarding the original authorization to enter and perform an inspection. Any form that is developed for these purposes should be approved by the jurisdiction’s legal counsel and authorized by the fire chief. Figure 1.11 When an inspector can demonstrate probable cause that a crime has been committed, a judge can issue a warrant that will allow a search of a property. Chapter 1° Duties and Authority 31 Canadian Right of Entry Canadian national, provincial, and municipal fire-prevention laws are generally based on the inspection requirements outlined in the National Fire Code of Canada (NFC). Section 8 132-28 provides the authority for the right of entry to perform an inspection: Every Fire Prevention Officer may, upon the complaint of a person interested, inspect any residential occupancies or dwelling units, and for such purpose may, at all reasonable hours and upon producing proper identification, enter into and upon the building or premises containing the dwelling units for the purpose of examination and ascertaining whether provisions of this Article have been obeyed and to enforce or carry into effect the Article. Summary Inspectors are responsible for ensuring that the fire and life safety program of the jurisdiction is successful. By performing their assigned duties, inspectors review plans, issue permits, inspect new and existing facilities, and respond to complaints. Inspectors may be private or uniformed or nonuniformed public employees. Their authority may be based on national, state/provincial, or local laws or the regulations established by their employer. As certified inspectors, they enforce the codes and standards that have been legally adopted by the AHJ. These codes and standards are presented in Chapter 2, Standards, Codes, and Permits. 32 Chapter1 Duties and Authority Review Questions List several types of public inspection organizations. What are some duties of a Level I fire inspector? List several categories of inspections. Ere Are federal buildings required to comply with local codes? Why or why ee eek pm not? What is a consent-to-enter form? What are some duties ofa Level II fire inspector? Who should be invited to accompany the inspector while performing the inspection? What is the importance of enabling legislation? Where can the legal status of a private-sector inspector be determined? What does indemnify mean? Chapter 1 © Duties and Authority 33 ~~ Chapter Contents @ OStandards................ eR Aa et pa 40 National Fire Protection Association®.............cc 40 ASTIN Nnternational estos anette ees ene 4] © Code Modification and Appeals PrOCOCUIGS ao sceter tenes eee Sa eh eee 07 Code: MOginG ation: cement teee eaten ere 58 Underwriters Eaboratones |G: 20ers 4] © © AND CalS PRO CCUG Sse cmmmtaeeenercen cate ee eens 60 American National Standards Institute 0... 42 Code.Enforcementiesgcsr eee reece 61 Dlalidanas COUnC IKON Gallada cme aereceeerert etter cre42 COUGS erence eae eee et GurrentCodes and standandS -.wsnaatee se ee 43 erences 46 Compliance: Proce ares jaeeece ce etc CaS PROSECUTOR eer eee eee anti carga uae nner ae 61 62 POrmitS es rrercreny (owas cmece eee ee 63 Consistent Codes and Standards ..........c.ccccccccseeceee 47 TV DOS cece Petformance-BasediOpuonS....s.-sscc1rsereersees 49 PEOGGS Sxesrcg secs cccteee entered Aarts eae ee te ede ee ee 64 67 Local Code Development Process ............0....0:see0e0 50 SUMMARY So te craes ocr eran teee area CodevAdentGmPrOCessiras ones oe eter 55 eee 70 Review Questions ...................c..cee eee 71 Key Terms DUG RLOCOSS wrmtsrres scree eect hts ge tsede hice 61 SANCUON iar t eee ee ee es 62 Due Process Clause...........cssssssssssseccereess 61 Smoke: Dampers ILC) OOleerrreccce ste Be rttaes «arseoupunscsistsuarsvencanss 49 Standardization ¢.ccc.c..cs ercisesceeee eee ete 42 IP COV Gul treceteesetaeee tee tenes accces tees wieceh estes 49 SUUGYSCSSlOMirrcccctucetecse eee terete nee 55 INGUS ITV ES AMC ANC serteeccceres-senvensesvreeess serra40 SUNSEt PrOVISION cri ei eee 45 s.r.ce-cecetusseeseseseeteeereeeete 55 Job Performance Requirements his chapter provides information that addresses the following job performance requirements (JPRs) of JFPA® 1031, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner (2009) Chapter 4 Fire Inspector | 4.2.2 4.2.4 4.2.6 4.3.5 Chapter 5 Fire Inspector Il BaZa 5.2.4 J4aj @ a = Standards Codes, and Permits ~ Learning Objectives © Fire Inspector | Compare and contrast codes and standards. Explain the meaning of the term consensus standard. Discuss the organizations that develop national consensus standards. Describe a model code. Describe how codes and standards are kept current. Describe performance-based options. Explain how codes are developed locally. Explain the code adoption process. Explain the appeals process. Describe the code enforcement process.. Describe the inspector’s rote in the prosecution process. Participate in a legal proceeding. (Learning Activity 2-I-1) Describe the permit process. the need for a permit. (Learning Activity 2-1-2) US) Recognize Eee: eu Son eee OS ee oe Moaede Seg sae ee ee ee © Fire Inspector II Compare and contrast codes and standards. Explain the meaning of the term consensus standard. Discuss the organizations that develop national consensus standards. Describe a model code. Describe how codes and standards are kept current. Describe performance-based options. Explain how codes are developed locally. Explain the code adoption process. Explain how codes are modified. Recommend modifications to adopted codes and standards. (Activity 2-/I-1) . Explain the appeals process. Describe the code enforcement process. Describe the inspector’s role in the prosecution process. Describe the permit process. Process a permit application. (Activity 2-1/-2) FESHE Objectives Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Objectives: Principles of Code Enforcement Zz Describe the codes and standards development and adoption processes. 3 . Describe the difference between prescriptive and performance based codes. i Explain the application, the interrelationship of codes, standards, recommended practices and guides. 8 Describe the differences in how codes apply to new and existing structures. Vescribe the political, business, and other interests that influence the code enforcement process. 36 Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits Chapter 2 d n a , s e d o C , s Standard 7" Permits Code Amendment | During the adoption of a new edition of building and fire codes, a suburban Midwestern community added an amendment to the codes. The new addition required that all new construction of single-family dwellings greater than one story in height be equipped with sprinkler systems compliant with NFPA® 13D, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in One- and Two-Family Dwellings and Manufactured Homes. The fire department was able to support the amendment with documentation that demonstrated the need for the systems, the documented effectiveness of the systems, and the cost/benefit of the systems. The city council adopted the new editions of the codes along with the new amendment. Standards and codes are developed to establish minimum requirements for the design, construction, and use of buildings, structures, and facilities and the installation of equipment. Standards and codes are adopted by an authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) and enforced by the building or fire department of the jurisdiction. Fire and life safety codes establish the minimum level of safety that should be present in a structure. Fire and life safety codes regulate not only construction materials and designs, but also occupant behavior and processes. These codes must be current and consistent to provide the desired level of protection established by the authority. Standards and codes are the tools that an inspector uses to create firesafe environments within the jurisdiction. It is necessary for an inspector to know the difference between standards and codes. These terms are often used together and sometimes interchangeably. Even the National Fire Protection Association® (NFPA®) tends to assign similar definitions to the terms. Technically, however, standards and codes are notidentical. The differences are important to the inspector as well as other code enforcement officials. As it applies to fire and building safety, a standard isa set of principles, protocols, or procedures that is developed by committees through a consensus process. Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits 37 do someThese principles, protocols, or procedures normally explain how to be folthing or they provide a set of minimum standards that are expected to of tion Installa the for ard lowed. An example ofastandard is NFPA® 13, Stand Sprinkler Systems, which provides the information necessary to install a fire sprinkler system to a minimum level ofprotection such as the following items (among many others): e Minimum water supply requirements are outlined. e Types of pipe acceptable for use are listed. e Minimum design requirements are listed. e Minimum installation standards are given Another example ofa standard is NFPA® 1403, Standard on Live Fire Training Evolutions, which specifies the minimum requirements for training all fire-suppression personnel engaged in fire-fighting operations under live fire conditions. NEPA® has over 100 standards that address a multitude of topics. Many ofthese are used by fire and building jurisdictions around the world. Many organizations provide standards that are available to the fire and building industries. A code is a collection or compilation of rules and regulations enacted by a legislative body to become law in a particular jurisdiction. The jurisdiction can be any lawfully chartered political subdivision such as a municipality, county, or state/province. The code so adopted can be composed partially or entirely of standards. The major difference between a code and a standard is that a code must have administrative provisions to explain how and when the standards are to be applied. As an example, the International Code Council’s® (ICC’s®) International Fire Code® (IFC®) states that a sprinkler system is required in mercantile occupancies over 12,000 square feet (1 114.83 m’) in size. The code also defines the kind of system based on the design standard (NFPA® 13 or NFPA® 13R, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Residential Occupancies Up to and Including Four Stories in Height) that is required. The applicable NFPA® standard for the installation explains how to install the system, what the water supply must be, how to arrange the pipes, etc. Another example ofthe difference between a code and a standard is NFPA® 70®, National Electrical Code®. Even though the word code appears in the title of the standard, it is just a book of rules for the proper installation of electrical wiring and appliances. Even if a jurisdiction wanted to adopt the National Electrical Code® as its installation standard, it would first need a set of administrative provisions to guide in the use ofthe code’s provisions. That reason is why the ICC® published the Electrical Code Administrative Provisions as the companion to the National Electrical Code®. Together they form the electrical code to regulate installation of electrical wiring and appliances. A final example of how codes and standards interrelate is the International Fire Code® (IFC®), which states that fire protection systems shall be inspected, tested and maintained in accordance with the referenced standards in Table 901.6.1. This table contains a list of applicable NFPA® standards. 38 Chapter 2 Standards, Codes, and Permits IFSTA Definitions of Code and Standard Code 35 Body of regulations arranged systematically usually pertaining to one subject area such as a mechanical code, a building code, an electrical code, or a fire code given statutory force Standard — Set of published criteria that is developed to serve as a modelor example of desired performance or behaviors and that contain requirements and specifications outlining minimum levels of performance, protection, or construction Simply stated, a code is a law that may be based on or may incorporate a standard. A standard, however, only becomes a law when it is legally adopted by a jurisdiction or included as part of acode (Figure 2.1). Building and fire codes or standards may be classified as either prescriptiveor performance-based codes/standards. A prescriptive-based (also known as specification-based) code/standard stipulates in detail the types of materials that can be used and how they must be assembled. A performance-based code/ standard describes an acceptable level of performance that an assembly, material, or system must meet without specifically stating how the item is assembled. A performance-based code/standard gives the manufacturer, contractor, or installer greater freedom than a prescriptive-based code/standard does. One obvious weakness of the prescriptive-based code/standard is that it does not provide a uniform level of cost-effective protection. The strength of the performance-based code is that it does provide cost-effective protection based on the actual hazard. For example, prescriptive model building and fire codes/standards generally group all types of retail stores into a single mercantile category. Therefore, a store that sells paint is in the same category with a clothing store, jewelry store, and a grocery store. If the floor space is equal, all other building and fire code/standard requirements will be equal as prescribed for mercantile occupancies. However, the hazards created by the contents of the occupancies are very different, and greater protection may be required for one than for the others. Comparison Between Codes and Standards Codes Address one broad topic Standards Address one specific topic Based on requirements described in standards Establish design, behavior, and installation criteria May be amended when adopted by the AHJ Become law only when adopted by the AHJ Have the force of law when adopted Figure 2.1 Although the terms codes and standards are sometimes used interchangeably, they have different meanings. | Developed through a consensus process Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits 39 and This chapter describes standards and codes, how they are developed, developtheir importance to an inspector. Also included are the processes for ing local codes, amending the model codes, and appealing code requirements. Finally, the permit process is outlined. Standards Standards are an attempt to obtain consistency in design, practice, and materials. For instance, the National Standard Thread (NST) found on fire department connections to automatic sprinkler systems is the result of standards developed over the past century. Standards such as this one ensure compatibility of time-tested, expert-approved materials. Standards offer inspectors a guide of practices and designs that have proven successful. Industry Standard — Set of Juleistic) Re GealESeu criteria that peer, professional, or accrediting organizations A number of organizations develop and publish consensus standards that directly relate to building construction, fire and life safety, and hazardous adopted law unless do not have the force of processes. While these standards ame ce: on eager aeg se eee ea by the jurisdiction’s governing body, t ey are ATS Ue as autho recognize as acceptable practice documents and as industry standards. This section outlines the most commonly accepted standards adopted in North America. The term consensus standard means a document that a committee of industry experts developed and agreed upon before adoption. Most of the national consensus standards that relate to fire and life safety are developed by the following organizations: e National Fire Protection Association® (NFPA®) e ASTM International (originally known as the American Society for Testing and Materials [ASTM]) e Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a private, nonprofit organization that administers and coordinates the voluntary standardization and conformity assessment system. While ANSI does not develop consensus standards, it does accredit member organizations that do. The consensus process is guided by ANSI's principles of consensus, due process, and openness. In Canada, approvals are given by the Standards Council of Canada (SCC) and ANSI, which facilitate standards development through the consensus process. Each Canadian province adopts approved standards independently from the Canadian federal government. National Fire Protection Association® NEPA® develops and publishes the majority of the consensus standards used in U.S. and Canadian jurisdictions. When the need for a standard is recognized, NFPA® invites a number of volunteers with expertise in that field to form a committee to develop a draft. The completed draft is then made available to the public for review and comment. The committee reviews the public comments and then may or may not incorporate them into the finished document. The final version of the standard is then submitted to the NEPA® general membership for adoption. Although there are hundreds of NEPA® standard s, some of the ones that an inspector should be familiar with include the following: 40 Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits @ NFPA® 1™, Uniform Fire Code™ e NFPA® 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems e@ NFPA® 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems © NFPA® 25, Standarfor d the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of WaterBased Fire Protection Systems @ NFPA® 70®, National Electrical Code® @ NFPA® 72®, National Fire Alarm Code® © NFPA® 101®, Life Safety Code® @ NFPA® 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction, Alteration, and Demolition Operations @ NFPA® 704, Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of Materials for Emergency Response e NFPA® 1031, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner e NFPA® 5000®, Building Construction and Safety Code® In addition to standards, NFPA® publishes handbooks that provide examples and illustrations that help inspectors interpret the standards. These handbooks may also be introduced in legal proceedings to demonstrate accepted industry practices. Some of the handbooks that inspectors may use include the following: e Uniform Fire Code™ Handbook (NFPA® 1™) e Life Safety Code® Handbook (NFPA® 101®) @ National Fire Alarm Code® Handbook (NFPA® 72®) e National Electric Code® Handbook (NFPA® 70®) e Automatic Sprinkler Systems Handbook (NFPA® 13) e Fire Protection Handbook® ASTM International ASTM International is a consensus-based standards writing and testing organization. ASTM International develops testing processes that other testing organizations use in the development of safety products. Some ofthe standards that affect the building construction include the following: e E84-07 Standard Test for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials for Fire Tests of Roof Coverings e E£108-07a Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction e £119-07a Standard Test Methods Underwriters Laboratories Inc. Founded in 1894, UL is an independent, not-for-profit product-safety testing and certification organization. Products that bear the UL label have been tested for their intended use and are certified as safe. UL also provides third-party testing and certification for in-service equipment such as annual testing of ground ladders, apparatus fire pumps, and aerial devices on a 5-year cycle. Chapter 2 Standards, Codes, and Permits 41 UL has developed more than 800 standards for safety. Some ofits standards that directly relate to fire and life safety are as follows: for Dry Pipe and Deluge Valves for Fire-Protection e UL 260 (2004) Standard Service © UL 268 (1996) Standard for Smoke Detectors for Fire Alarm Signaling Systems e UL 299 (2002) Dry Chemical Fire Extinguishers for Residential Sprinklers for Fire-Protection e UL 1626 (2001) Standard Service e UL 2244 (1999) Standard for Aboveground Flammable Liquid Tank Systems American National Standards Institute Standardization — Process of making or creating things that meet an established criteria Besides accrediting organizations that develop consensus standards, ANSI includes an appeals process for manufacturers who wish to contest test results of their products or materials. ANSI ensures that access to the standards process is made available to anyone directly or materially affected by a standard that is under development. Thousands of individuals, companies, government agencies and other organizations voluntarily contribute their knowledge, talents, and efforts to standards development. Many ANSI standards are cross-referenced between NFPA® and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) documents (Figure 2.2). Figure 2.2 ANSI labels appear in personal protective equipment indicating that the equipment meets the established design standards. Standards Council of Canada While many Canadian fire and emergency service agencies use the NFPA® professional qualifications standards for training and certifying personnel, either as written or as reference material for locally written standards, none of the standards are Jaw in Canada. ANSI standards are recognized in Canada but are normally used as references in Canadian codes. For instance, Transpor t Canada (TC), which is responsible for a number of key acts and regulati ons 42 Chapter 2 Standards, Codes, and Permits that govern Canada’s transportation system, references ANSI Z26.1-1996, Safety Code for Safety Glazing Materials for Glazing Motor Vehicles Operating on Land Highways, in the Motor Vehicle Safety Act. The SCC is a federal Crown corporation with the mandate to promote efficient and effective standardization. The SCC also represents Canada’s interests in standards-related matters in foreign and international forums. In general, standards approved by the SCC are the basis for regulations that influence fire and life safety. These standards may be developed by the following organizations: e Canadian Standards Association (CSA) e Underwriters’ Laboratories of Canada (ULC) e Canadian General Standards Board (CGSB) e Bureau de Normalisation du Quebec (BNQ) Codes As mentioned previously, codes are legal documents that govern activities at various levels of government. Prior to the creation of standardized model codes, jurisdictions developed their own sets of codes based on local needs or hazards. This action led to a wide variety of interpretations and some confusion among manufacturers and contractors who sold materials in multiple jurisdictions. As a result, organizations were formed to write consensus or model codes that could be applied universally. The term model code is used to describe a set of requirements similar to a standard. A consensus organization such as NFPA® or the International Code Council® (ICC®) develop model codes that contain agreed-upon requirements for such areas as fire and life safety or electrical equipment designs and installations. Codes, like standards, are only enforceable when the AHJ adopts them. In some communities, a model code may be adopted intact with no changes. In other instances, the code may be amended to meet local requirements. An inspector must be thoroughly familiar with the locally adopted code and its amendments. To assist an inspector in interpreting the model codes, explanatory handbooks are also available for some of the codes (Figure 2:3): Consensus organizations also provide training sessions and workshops about model codes. Figure 2.3 Inspectors must be familiar with codes and standards. Handbooks designed to assist an inspector with interpreting model codes are available from standards organizations. Chapter 2 Standards, Codes, and Permits 43 States Currently, there are two model code organizations in the United that, when and one in Canada. Each code organization has a series of codes ral, mestructu adopted, can be used to regulate building components — chanical, electrical, and plumbing — as well as fire and life safety. The model are code organizations and the building and fire codes they have developed as follows: e Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes (CCBFC) — National Fire Code of Canada (NFC) — National Building Code of Canada (NBC) e International Code Council® (ICC®) — International Fire Code® (IFC®) — International Building Code® (IBC®) e National Fire Protection Association (NFPA®) — NFPA® 1™, Uniform Fire Code™ — — NFPA® 101®, Life Safety Code® (occupancy classifications) NFPA® 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction — NFPA® 5000®, Building Construction and Safety Code® In 1994, four model code organizations consolidated into the ICC®. It is possible that some jurisdictions may still be using the older versions of these model codes. The former model code organizations and their building and fire codes are as follows: e Building Officials and Code Administrators (BOCA) International — National Building Code® — National Fire Code e International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO) — Uniform Building Code™ (UBC™) e International Fire Code Institute (IFCI) and the Western Fire Chiefs Association (WFCA) — Uniform Fire Code™ (UFC™) e Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI) — Standard Building Code© (SBC©) — Standard Fire Code NOTE: Prior to 2000, the WFCA published the UFC™ in conjunction with the IFCI. In 2003, a partnership between the WFCA and NFPA® transferred publication of theUFC™ to NFPA® as NFPA® 1™, Uniform Fire Code™. Inspectors who are responsible for facilities that are under the jurisdiction of the United States Department of Defense (DoD) enforce a different set of codes. Those codes are known as the Unified Facility Criteria (UFC). Elements of other model codes and standards may be part of the UFC. An inspector should be familiar with the particular building and fire code that the AHJ has adopted. Although the use of model codes is increasing, it is possible that some jurisdictions still use locally developed codes. In addition, an inspector should be familiar with those codes and standards that are referenced in the adopted code. For instance, ifthe AHJ has adopted the ICC® building code, that code references NFPA® 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, thereby making it a legally binding requirement of the building code. 44 Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits Elements of the adopted electrical, plumbing, and mechanical codes that / ‘ peter once the fire SOS are eka DY the fire code are also important. For instance, the mechanical code includes installation details for smoke damp- installed in air ducts that ers, smoke detectors, and fire wall penetration requirements. Because these assembly such as a wall, floor, or requirements are also found in the fire code, the fire inspector must be familiar with them when reviewing plans or making field inspections (Figure 2.4). to restrict the movement of — Device penetrate a vertical or horizontal ol Oees One Mate Conenuetes smoke between compartments An inspector must be aware that some facilities may have to meet the requirements of multiple codes. For instance, a hospital may have to meet the locally adopted building and fire codes, while a portion of the facility may have to meet NFPA® 1010, Life Safety Code®, because the state department of health regulates that area. In these instances, an inspector may have to enforce the more restrictive code requirement or defer to the authority of another enforcement officer. Another important issue in code enforcement is how codes are applied to new and existing structures. The current adopted edition of the building code applies to all structures that are built while that code is in effect. Any additions or alterations to existing structures will also be regulated by the current code. In some jurisdictions, an alteration to an existing building that meets certain criteria will require that the entire structure be brought up to the current, and stricter, building code requirements. For instance, an existing high-rise structure that was not required to have sprinklers when it was built may be required to have them installed when renovations are done to more than 50 percent of the building. Figure 2.4 Building, mechanical, electrical, and fire codes may be cross-referenced on fire and life safety requirements. For instance, each of these codes requires ventilation systems to contain smoke detectors like the one pictured. Chapter 2 ¢ Standards, Codes, and Permits 45 the same as Generally, requirements for existing structures will remain uae used those applied during the original construction. The current fire inspecto ensure that fire and life safety requirements are met. However, an g tor cannot require the installation of sprinklers, for example, in an existin structure unless changes have been made to the building. Some codes include a phrase like All new and existing structures shall meet this requirement. That phrase does permit the inspector to require stricter code requirements for existing structures. NOTE: Unless inspectors are specifically given the authority, they cannot apply current building code requirements to existing structures. Finally, inspectors must know about the following code-related matters (described in the sections that follow) for their jurisdictions: e Current codes and standards e Consistent codes and standards e@ Performance-based options e Local code development process Code adoption process Current Codes and Standards Fire and life safety inspectors must know whether the codes and standards in their jurisdiction are current. Some codes may be created locally such as a code that regulates the size of advertising signs along streets or highways. Others such as building and fire codes may be model codes that third-party organizations have developed and the jurisdiction has adopted either as written or with amendments. Most of the model codes that jurisdictions adopt are revised on a regular basis. The typical life cycle of a model code edition is 3 to 5 years. A revised edition of the model code in effect in a community does not automatically take effect when the model code organization releases it. The previous (existing) edition remains in effect until the AHJ formally and legally adopts the new edition. For example, a jurisdiction has been enforcing the 2005 edition ofa particular model code. In 2008, the model code organization releases a new edition of the code. Even though the new edition is available, the jurisdiction continues to enforce the 2005 version until its governing body chooses to adopt the 2008 edition (Figure 2.5). It is not unusual for an older edition of a model code to continue to be enforced for a number ofyears after a new edition has been released. On the other hand, some jurisdictions have the legislative authority to automatically adopt a new version of amodel code when it is released. This is nota common or, in many Cases, an accepted practice because of the confusion that occurs regarding the actual inception or enforcement date that may develop with the new revision. Also of concern are local amendments that have been adopted with a previous version of the model code but may have lost their relevance or caused a conflict when the code was revised. An inspector must be familiar with the way a jurisdiction handles these situations and be prepared to assist in the transition process from an old to a newly revised model code. 46 Chapter 2 Standards, Codes, and Permits Model Code Life Cycle and Adoption and Enforcemen Time t Line Model Code Life Cycle 2005 edition 2008 edition a 2006 ee 2007 nla NNN 2011 edition 2009 2010 2011 Local Adoption of Code 2005 t Enforcement Review & Adoption 2008 | 2011 Enforcement | Review & Adoption Enforcement Review & Adoption Figure 2.5 Nationally developed model code editions are written on 3-to-5-year cycles. The time it takes to adopt and amend a model code will cause enforcement of an older edition to be in effect into the next cycle. It is important for an inspector to also become familiar with the other code enforcement and inspections departments within the jurisdiction. Interaction with these other departments allows an inspector to learn of developments within the jurisdiction that might otherwise go unnoticed. Staying aware of remodels or other building modifications or changes in occupancy classifications, for example, is one benefit of these relationships. Other methods for keeping current with building changes include the following activities: e Monitoring business license applications e Monitoring the issuance of business occupancy and activity permits e Conducting an annual occupancy inventory survey Automatic Notification If fire inspections are an integral part of the procedure for obtaining business licenses and permits, inspectors may automatically receive notification when business and commercial changes occur in the community. Consistent Codes and Standards Aninspector should constantly monitor code provisions enacted at all levels of government. Doing so prevents conflicts between these various codes from occurring. Fire and life safety codes, for example, must be consistent with other codes to avoid confusion, duplication of effort, or the possibility of attempting to enforce two contradictory regulations. In addition, the interpretation of fire and life safety codes must be clear and consistent within Chapter 2 ¢ Standards, Codes, and Permits 47 Examples of the purpose and requirements of the fire codes themselves. are as other codes and regulations that may affect fire code enforcement follows: e Housing codes e Zoning ordinances e Subdivision regulations e Building codes e Electrical codes e Mechanical codes e Gas codes e Transportation regulations @ Health regulations e Plumbing codes e Insurance codes and regulations e Handicapped accessibility regulations (such as the Americans with Disabilities Act [ADA] in the United States) e Municipal engineering ordinances Most codes allow the AHJ some degree of latitude for enforcing the code provisions in terms ofinterpretation and judgment. A common sense approach to finding solutions in a cooperative manner is the best option when a conflict occurs between the various codes. It is destructive to the code enforcement process as well as to the professional image ofall involved departments when a code war results. Inspectors from different departments must be willing to communicate and share information (Figure 2.6). Just as vital is the ability to produce creative, alternate solutions. Inspectors should consider willingness to communicate and create major priorities in maintaining an effective fire and life safety inspection program. [uBiiEC Figure 2.6 Multiagency meetings like this one are important in maintaining communication between various code enforcement personnel such as fire and building inspectors. Courtesy of Federal Emergency Management Agency, George Armstrong, Photographer. 48 Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits Safety The primary goal of all municipal agencies should be public safety. Effective communications among all agencies is critical in accomplishing this goal. Inspectors and code enforcement personnel must know which current codes to follow and who has the responsibility for enforcing the various codes. Performance-Based Options Performance-based standards are requirements based on specific performance outcome objectives coupled with specific installation and construction techniques. These requirements are applied to construction assemblies such asa fire wall or fire door assembly. Performance-based standards are combined with acceptance-testing criteria that must be successfully performed to prove the effectiveness of the assembly. The assembly must prove its effectiveness before these materials or methods can be utilized in place of the materials and techniques specified in the model building code. For example, fixed fire-suppression systems are designed in accordance with the very specific requirements found in NFPA® 13. While the approach has proven to be successful, it may not provide the same level of protection that a performance-based design (PBD) system engineered for the specific purpose and operation of a specific structure. The resulting solution must provide a level of safety and dependability that is equivalent or superior to the model code designed system. One benefit of PBD is that the fire-protection solution can be achieved in a more flexible manner that may better meet the needs of the AHJ, building owners/occupants, and the insurance company. Fire Door — Specially constructed, tested, and approved fire-rated door assembly designed and installed to prevent fire spread by automatically closing and covering a doorway to block the spread of fire Fire Wall — Wall with a specified degree of fire resistance that is designed to prevent the spread of fire within a structure or between adjacent structures While PBD provides additional flexibility, there are difficulties associated with enforcing performance-based codes. The AHJ must develop acceptancetesting criteria, methods of evaluating test data, and procedures for approving the outcomes of the testing. Significant technical expertise is required to administer and evaluate these various testing criteria. In most cases, the expertise required to adjudicate these matters is beyond the ability ofinspectors. Professional engineers are often required to handle these matters. Also, inspectors considering PBD options should pay close attention not only to how the assembly functions under the intended use but to how it functions in the manner in which it is actually used. -Performance-Based Design: Roof Truss Systems Performance-based designs have been common in the residential building industry in the design of roof truss systems for many years. The truss system is not designed to carry loads from storage in attic crawl spaces. This design, however, does not reflect normal use by homeowners. The margin of safety in the design usually will allow for some casual storage in these areas, but overloading can lead to sudden, unexpected failure when subjected to a fire condition. The truss engineer's argument that the space was used in an inappropriate manner and exceeded the performance parameters of its design will be of little comfort should an injury or death occur as a result of such a failure. Chapter 2 ¢ Standards, Codes, and Permits 49 Another issue with the enforcement of performance-based codes is how the AHJ ensures the designed performance criteria over the life ofa building or facility. In order for the safety of a building or facility to remain constant, more frequent and complex inspections, evaluations, and continued testing must be performed. It is also vital that the inspectors learn about any changes in a building’s use or structure. This requirement places a great demand on the inspection agency. Inspectors in jurisdictions using performance-based codes must understand their roles in the enforcement process and know about the extra effort required to perform these inspections. Local Code Development Process The increasing use of model building and fire codes has greatly simplified the process of developing an effective fire and life safety code for a jurisdiction. Model codes offer a broad-based, accepted code format that nationally recognized experts have developed. Since model codes represent a consensus of expert opinions, local code developers using these codes are relieved of the task of justifying each code section before formal adoption of the code by the local legislative body. _While jurisdictions take full advantage of the benefits of model codes, special fire and life safety code provisions may need to be developed to meet a local condition or fire department requirement. Code amendments are developed locally or regionally (when similar conditions exist in other nearby communities). For example, the lack of an adequate water supply might justify a code amendment requiring facilities to provide an impounded water source on site (Figure 2.7). Care must always be taken when amendments are developed to avoid conflicts with other portions of the fire and life safety code or other adopted codes of the community. Most jurisdictions have a process in place for developing or amending local codes. That process generally follows the example provided in this section and includes the following activities: e Identifying the problem e Identifying affected stakeholders e Forming a code development task force e Drafting the proposed code ¢ Submitting the code for legal review prior to adoption Figure 2.7 Code amendments can mandate special features at sites such as an impounded water supply if there is insufficient access to the public utility water supply at the site. 00 Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits Problem Identification The first step in any code or amendment development process involves identifying the problem or reason that a new code or amendment is needed. In most instances, the age of the existing fire and life safety code drives any change. Because most model codes are updated with a new edition every 3 to 5 years, most communities update all their codes at the same time. Sometimes, code officials recognize the need for a minor change in the fire and life safety code between major code adoptions. A new condition or situation in a community usually necessitates such a change. Occasionally, a technological change in fire protection is deemed important enough to warrant a change as well. For example, when carbon monoxide detectors became available, many communities adopted fire and life safety code language requiring them. Stakeholder Identification Anytime anew code or amendmentis proposed, the individuals and groups it affects should be included in its development. Collectively these individuals or groups are called stakeholders (Figure 2.8). Stakeholders are composed of all individuals who are affected by the code. Those most often identified as stakeholders include the following: e Members ofthe building industry e Chambers of commerce Stakeholders in the Model Code Adoption Process Figure 2.8 To successfully adopt or amend a model code, a Elected Officials ca a the jurisdiction must enlist the support of stakeholders. These individuals and groups have a major interest in the code and can ensure that it is adopted by elected officials. Chamber of Commerce Citizen Groups Chapter 2° Standards, Codes, and Permits 51 e Insurance companies e Local citizen groups e Others who may have a financial or community interest in the laws governing the community Local Officials as Stakeholders Local elected officials are often included as stakeholders, but this situation is not always the case. Elected officials listen to stakeholders and serve in their elected positions at the discretion of the voters. These elected officials, in fact, represent all stakeholders and are very receptive to their collective voice. Although they are not true stakeholders, it is of utmost importance for the fire code officials proposing adoption of a new code or an amendment to fully inform elected officials of the nature and effect of the changes. The most effective way to adopt a code change or amendmentis to explain the benefits that the new code will bring to the community accurately and realistically. Equally important is the disclosure of the costs to make the changes. It is better to be forthright with stakeholders who may oppose the changes rather than to take a hard position that may suffer defeat when brought before the local legislative body. Effective code change should be an attempt to find common ground. Task Force When the fire and life safety code official determines that a new code or amendment is needed, a code development team or task force should be formed. The task force should be a representative group of the community that includes representatives from the following groups: e Building construction trades e Insurance industries e Fire-protection industries e Allied health service organizations e Local human services agencies e Fire department bargaining unit e Real estate agencies e Local governing bodies @ Other stakeholders The task force should schedule meetings and work sessions during this process. The meetings should be open to the public, while work sessions are spent reviewing broad fire and life safety code proposals. The available model codes can be reviewed to select the one that best meets local needs. Additionally, the type and number ofpossible amendments to the model code can be discussed and recommendations from the task force can be outlined for their inclusion in the code. 02 Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits Depending upon local and state/provincial laws governing open public meetings, the task force may or may not be required to prepare agendas and post meeting information. If this action is required, the local municipal authority, usually the municipal clerk, should coordinate these efforts with the assistance of the fire code official. The minutes of the meetings should be recorded and a transcript prepared for public record. The task force’s final report should be prepared and presented to the local governing body. The report should suggest a group of broad fire and life safety code recommendations that can be used when actually drafting the proposed fire code. Once completed, the report should be presented to the mayor, local legislative leader, and/or the municipal manager. That person usually assigns the fire and life safety code official the task of preparing the new code legislation. Code Draft Process Once the task force has made its recommendations, the actual language of the code is written. Normally, the fire and life safety code official, with the assistance of other fire department members, begins the task of writing the new fire and life safety code. When a model code is being adopted, this process is simplified because the model code may require little or no modification. After the model code has been selected, the preparation of amendments, additions to sections, and removal of sections occurs. When a model code is altered, the fire and life safety code official must take care to avoid conflicts or inconsistencies between sections of the code. The actual process of drafting the code should begin with the most general, broad base of code language and proceed to more specific language. This approach will reduce confusion and the likelihood of misinterpretations. Any local additions or amendments should be inserted alongside the amended code section number. If the proposed code is a model code, any amendments should be numbered using the same general system used in the code. For example, amendments to the JFC® should be numbered so that their reference fits into the base model code in a consistent and seamless manner within the sprinkler section ofthat code (Figure 2.9, p. 54). For example, an amendment to Automatic Sprinklet Systems Section 903 that relates to the installation of sprinklers in residential occupancies, Section 903.2.7, would be numbered as 903.2:7.1; Legal Review Once the new code is written, the jurisdiction’s legal counsel should review it. This review ensures that the code meets the legal standards that the community, state, and federal governments require. The code must protect fundamental rights guaranteed under the federal and state constitutions. In essence, the code may not discriminate against individuals by differentiating how provisions of the code are enforced or interpreted. Most medium-sized or large municipalities have full-time legal staff available to assist the fire and life safety code official in developing the appropriate language to bring the fire code proposal forward to the local legislative body. Small communities, however, may have legal counsel that is retained ina parttime capacity. It is extremely important to seek the counsel’s advice regarding the way anew code proposal is written. Chapter 2 ¢ Standards, Codes, and Permits o3 Amendments to Fire Code Adopted References ted by the International The International Fire Code®, 2003 Edition, as published and copyrigh nts. amendme added and es appendic all Code Council including the The International Building Code®, 2003 Edition, as published and copyrighted by . appendices including International Code Council Amendments to IFC: Key Boxes a key box installed in an approved location. require to authorized is Chief Fire 506.1 The 506.1.2 Key Boxes. The lock box must be an approved model utilized by the Fire Department and shall be installed 60” above finish grade. Authorized lock box order forms are available at the Fire District Administrative Office, Monday through Friday 8:00 am to 4:00 pm. Lock box forms can be transmitted by e-mail or facsimile. Horn & Strobe 901.4.3.1 Horn & Strobes. Additional Horn & Strobe (weather proof) shall be installed in an approved location on the exterior of the building in addition to a water gong or electric bell. Horn/Strobe shall be installed on the front, or address side of the building as approved by the Fire Chief. : Fire Sprinkler Systems 903.1.1 Commercial development. All new commercial occupancies for which a building or construction permit is obtained shall be protected by a fully automatic Sprinkler System. Installation of the sprinkler system shall be in accordance with the requirements of NFPA 13, unless otherwise approved by the Fire Chief. Existing buildings, structures and occupancies will not require retrofitting with fire sprinkler systems to meet current code standards unless: Building fire resistance has decreased; or Building area has increased to more than 2,500 Sq/feet; or Building occupant load has increased; or Building occupancy classification has changed; or Fire or other structural damage in buildings exceeding 50% of the Sq/footage; or As determined by the Fire Chief. Standpipes 905.3.1 Building height. Class | standpipe systems shall be installed throughout buildings where the floor level of the highest story is one floor above the lowest level of the fire department vehicle access, or where the floor level of the lowest fire department vehicle access. story is one floor below the highest level of Fire Alarm Systems 907.2 Where required - New building and structures. All new commercial occupancies for which a building or construction permit is obtained where the occupancy load exceeds 50 or more shall be protected by a fully automatic fire alarm system. Installation of the fire alarm system shall be accordance with the requirements of NFPA® 72, unless otherwise approved by the Fire Chief. All fire alarms systems shall be addressable systems with Class-A wiring. An approved fully automatic fire detection system shall be installed in accordance with the provisions of this code and NFPA® 72. Monitoring shall be by a central station as defined by NFPA® 72 section 3.3.193.1. Devices, combinations of devices, appliances and equipment shall comply with Section 907.1.2. The automatic fire detectors shall be smoke detectors, except that an approved alternative type of detector shall be installed in spaces such as boiler rooms utilities rooms, and janitor’s closet with water heater and sink, where, during normal operation products of combustion are present in sufficient quantity to actuate a smoke detector. . Figure 2.9 Amendments are usually numbered to indicate the section of the model code that they alter or amend. 94 Chapter 2 « Standards, Codes, and Permits It is the responsibility of the fire and life safety code official to explain the purpose ofthe code to the legal counsel. The fire and life safety code official must also clearly describe the provisions of the proposed changes so that the legal language that the counsel prepares completely meets the requirements of the community. Once the legal review has been completed and the code is in a final draft form, the code drafting committee should review it again to guarantee that all of the desired provisions have been included and that the meaning of each section is correct. The final draft of the proposed code is then returned to the fire and life safety code official who prepares the proposal for adoption by the local legislative board. Code Adoption Process Once the fire and life safety code official has received the final draft of the proposed fire and life safety code, the process of preparing a legislative resolution for its formal adoption begins. Each municipality has a legislative procedure for presenting resolutions for approval and inclusion into the local municipal code. Generally, the process will include the preparation of the proposed legislation, study by the legislative body, formal presentation, discussion, and legal action. Preparation The first step in the adoption process is the preparation of the formal resolution to adopt the new fire and life safety code language. This formal resolution should describe the following elements: e Nature ofthe legislation e Location of the legislation within the framework of the municipal code group e Authority of the community to adopt such code language e Need of the community to adopt a new edition of the code to reflect local changes Sunset Provision — Clause in a law or ordinance that stipulates the periodic review of government agencies and programs in order to continue their existence e Authority of the community to enforce the legislation e Term limit or sunset provisions, if any, regarding the proposed code e Proposed implementation date for the code once adopted A cover letter is prepared by the fire chiefor fire and life safety code official and sent to the municipal manager for review. Some municipalities require an additional document, often called a council communication (executive summary), to be included with the manager's letter. The manager then forwards copies to all municipal board members and the clerk for inclusion on the board’s agenda. Study Session — Formal, open Study Session, Consideration, and Passage Once the proposed code has been forwarded to the clerk and scheduled, it is common for the legislative body to include discussion ofthe proposed code during a study session. This session is an opportunity for both proponents and opponents of the legislation to express their views before the more formal board meeting process. Frequently after a study session, members of the governing meeting by a legislative body to study the merits of the proposed legislation and ask questions of the fire and life safety code official and the public regarding the provisions of the proposed code Chapter 2 ¢ Standards, Codes, and Permits 09 developed, that body will request that additional provisions to the code be others. Should to some provisions be deleted, or that modifications be made should EL these requests occur, the fire code official and the fire chief additional for r manage the changes and resubmit the proposed code to the consideration. After the code has progressed through the board study process, the governing body schedules it for formal consideration. The actual presentation of the resolution is usually made to the legislative body by one ofthe following people: e Municipal manager (for example, city manager or county manager) e Member of a legislative body (for example, council member or board member) e Manager of amunicipal department that has oversight on that code e Member of the citizen advisory committee appointed to develop new legislation e Fire and life safety code official acting on behalf of the fire chief Once the proposed code legislation is presented, the fire and life safety code official may be asked to provide a detailed explanation of the proposed code changes. Then, the board president or mayor opens a public comment period during which citizens are encouraged to speak in favor of or in opposition to the proposal. Following discussion, the board chairperson calls fora motion. Once a motion has been made and seconded, a vote of the members of the board present is conducted. In most communities, a simple majority is required for passage ofthe resolution; however, local provisions may require a supermajority for passage of certain types oflegislation. Introduction of New Codes After the resolution is passed, the clerk will post the new legislation and have on file a copy of the entire code available for public review. The effective enforcement date is contained within the resolution; in most cases it is 90 days from adoption. In some communities, the resolution may contain an emergency clause that allows an effective date of less than that normally required. Most often this period is reduced to 30 days. When the new code language is adopted, the fire and life safety code official should immediately begin a formal notification and information process within the community. Public service announcements in local newspapers, radio and television stations, and letters to all who have an interest in the provisions of the code should be prepared and delivered. It is important to continue to present and promote the new code even after its formal adoption. This promotion allows for a smooth transition from the old fire code to the new one (Figure 2.10). NOTE: Unless the building or fire code specifically states that it is retroactive, it cannot be used to enforce current requirements on preexisting conditions. For instance, a structure that was not required to be sprinklered when it was built cannot be required to have sprinklers based on the current edition of the code. However, if the current code is adopted with language such as all new or existing, then sprinklers can be required. 96 Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits Code Adoption and Amendment Process Code official begins code adoption process by setting up the code adoption committee and verifying process through legal counsel. . Public comments solicited on new code. Time for this can vary from a few weeks to several months. : Code adoption committee begins deliberations on new code language and on public comments. This arduous process will take varying amounts of time. ;' . Code adoption committee provides written document with recommendations for any changes or updates to the code official. Figure 2.10 The code adoption process varies between jurisdictions. The one shown is a generalized sample of the process. . Code official develops official document with changes and deletions to be presented to the City Council or other legally organized governing body of the jurisdiction. . City Council provides documents to and hears testimony from the public according to the legally adopted rules for the jurisdiction. City Council adopts the new rules with modifications made during the process. In addition, sets date for final adoption to be effective. — Retention of Old Fire Codes Part of the fire-prevention program should include the requirement for maintaining records of fire and life safety inspections and complaint resolutions. A major part of this archive should include copies of each edition of the fire and building codes, the date of adoption, a list of amendments, and copies of any revisions that were made. This historical data will assist _ the fire and life safety inspector when variances are requested, occupancy categories change, and responding to complaints. Code Modification and Appeals Procedures During the application offire and life safety codes, it may become evident that the code needs to be modified to be more effective or fair. Fire and life safety inspectors should be aware ofthe process for modifying the code. Additionally, citizens may feel the need to appeal a code requirement they perceive to be unfair or overly burdensome. Both the modification process and appeals procedures are presented in the sections that follow. Chapter 2 ¢ Standards, Codes, and Permits o/7 Code Modification | Periodically, it may become necessary to modify a provision of the fire and ae safety code. Requests to modify the code may be brought to the fire and life safety inspector. Most often these requests involve a desire of aproperty Owmel occupant to use alternative materials, products, or systems while still meeting the intent of the adopted code. The key issue in these cases is whether or not the substitution will provide an equal or greater level of protection according to the code requirement. Situations that may generate requests to modify the code may include the following: e Desire to use new building materials or technologies that have not yet been incorporated into the model codes and standards @ Desire to use a material or technology in place of approved materials and methods e Confusion or conflicts that occasionally occur between the different model codes and standards e Desire to implement performance-based design (PBD) concepts e Need to construct special occupancies due to unique circumstances e Desire by the owner/contractor to reduce the cost of construction e Disagreement between the owner/contractor and the fire prevention division regarding the local interpretation and implementation ofa particular code or standard e Belief that the fire code does not apply to the owner/occupant contractor or To receive consideration for a modification of the fire code, an applicant must present a formal written request to the AHJ, usually the fire prevention division. The request is then reviewed and analyzed to ensure that the intent ofthe fire code is being observed and that public safety is maintained. Fire and life safety inspectors must be aware of what, if any, authority they have to allow fire and life safety code modifications. As stated earlier, in most jurisdictions fire and life safety inspectors acting alone have little authority to approve requests for modification of code requirements. The inspector usually processes the requests and receives a formal interpretation from one of the following authorities: @ Superior inspection bureau officer e Staff fire protection engineer e@ Fire marshal ® Code official e Contract fire protection consultant e Local board of appeals After review and an official’s decision, the applicant receives an official reply from the senior fire code official having jurisdiction. The decision is outlined in this correspondence along with any provisions that the official needs fulfilled regarding the request. Also included is a detailed explanation describing the decision and the process that the applicant can use to appeal the decision. Detailed records ofall decisions are generally kept available in 98 Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits the fire prevention bureau because they are official local interpretations of the code as applied by the jurisdiction. An example ofarequest (petition) for the modification of a fire code is provided in Figure 2.11. PHOENIX FIRE DEPARTMENT Fire Prevention Section q “i 150 South City of Phoenix 12th Street Phoenix Arizona 85034-2301 (602) 262-6771 FAX: (602) 271-9243 Petition of Appeal to the Fire Marshal All appeals shall be detailed on this form. Supporting data may be attached and submitted if desired however, all entries and statements on this form shall be complete. Incomplete forms will not be accepted. Log Number: Date Logged Out: Date Logged In: seni Engineer/FPS Familiar with Project: Occupancy Type: pe Compliance Date: Business/Occupancy Name: Address: Business Owner s or Corporate Agent s Name: Mailing Address: Tenant s Name: Mailing Address: Appellant s Name: Mailing Address: This appeal applies to (Check one): 1 A project in the plans review stage. Building Safety Log No. 1 An alleged Fire Code violation. An appeal is hereby made to the Fire Marshal for a deviation from Section Briefly state the requirements being appealed. of the Phoenix Fire Code. nn State in detail what is proposed in lieu of literal compliance with the Fire Code: Phone Number: Appellant s Signature: Building Owner s Phone Number: Building Owner s Signature: Decision of the Fire Marshal (| Approved Denied 1) Approved with Stipulations 1] See Attachment Fire Department Official: made by an inspector. Forms Figure 2.11 Jurisdictions provide a means for appealing or petitioning a decision Department. Fire (AZ) Phoenix of Courtesy online. or are available from the appropriate authority Chapter 2° Standards, Codes, and Permits 99 Appeals Procedures . If an applicant feels that the decision reached was unfair or that the fire code was enforced unfairly or misinterpreted by the enforcement officer, the usual method of seeking redress is to file a petition requesting a hearing before a Board of Appeals. A Board of Appeals usually consists of three to seven members who have experience in the field of fire prevention or building construction. The exact number of members and their professional qualifications are specified by the adopted code. All of the model codes establish an appeals procedure utilizing a Board of Appeals or other empowered body. A Board of Appeals generally has the authority to interpret the fire code, approve an equivalent method of protection or safety, and issue a ruling. It must be noted that although a Board of Appeals usually has broad, interpretive powers regarding the fire code, it is prohibited from changing the direct intent of the code or waiving any portion ofit. Some issues involving the appeals process and the Board of Appeals that the inspector must be particularly familiar with include the following: e Whether or not the inspector can continue to enforce codes on the property during the appeal process e Whether or not the ruling on the question will affect the enforcement of that section of the code or ordinance for other properties in the jurisdiction e How modification of the code will affect the enforcement of other code sections Adopted code regulations usually specify a time limit for submitting an appeal. A period of7 days from the time of the inspection is a common figure; however, periods of 2weeks and up to 30 days are found in many jurisdictions. The Board will then accept or reject the appeal and file an appropriate notice of denial or acceptance. Rules and regulations used by the Board during its hearings are established by the local municipal code or state law (Figure 2.12). Most Board-of-Appeal interpretations and decisions are general in nature and apply to all similar code circumstances within a jurisdiction. When the Board issues a ruling ofthis type, fire inspectors must consistently implement it the same way in similar situations. Figure 2.12 A Board of Appeals holds a routine meeting to decide whether to accept or reject proposed modifications to the local fire code. 60 Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes. and Permits A Board of Appeals occasionally uses a one-time modification, referred to as a variance. This decision is binding only for a particular circumstance and may not be automatically applied to other situations. It is usually applied when a situation arises that is beyond the control of the applicant and cannot be removed or adjusted in a manner that meets the requirements ofthe code. The widening of a roadway that precludes the normal emergency access way to a structure would be an example. An alternate, less efficient, option may be proposed and installed. This type of decision may be cause for concern by the fire inspector because other applicants may expect to receive similar treatment. Often, however, the circumstances that resulted in the variance are somewhat different for subsequent locations. Code Enforcement An inspector must fully understand the steps toward gaining compliance with codes. Inspectors must also understand the prosecution of a case for a fire code violation if prosecution is needed. Although compliance is the primary goal of all fire-prevention code activities, it is occasionally necessary to use stronger measures to implementa fire code’s requirements. When exercising this enforcement power, it is essential that the inspector ensure that the rights of the accused are protected and that due process is practiced. NOTE: Two due process clauses are in the U.S. Constitution, one in the Fifth Amendment applying to the federal government and one in the Fourteenth Amendment applying to the states. The Fifth Amendment’s Due Process Clause also applies to the states under the incorporation doctrine of the U.S. Constitution. Due Process — Conduct of legal proceedings according to established rulesand => principles for the protection and enforcement of private rights, including notice and the right toa fair hearing before a tribunal with the power to decide the case; also called due process of law or due course of law Due Process Clause — Constitutional provision that prohibits the government from unfairly or arbitrarily depriving a person of life, liberty, or property Compliance Procedures In assessing the statutes ofthe local jurisdiction dealing with code compliance, the inspector should know the answers to the following questions: e Is noncompliance with the code a violation of criminal or civil law? e What process has been employed to attempt to achieve compliance? e Have accurate records of all correspondence, communications, and personal contact been kept in accordance with local policy and law? @ What inducements have been offered to gain voluntary compliance? e Are the penalties that can be imposed for noncompliance equitable? e Will the possible penalties induce compliance? Official actions that can be taken to ensure code compliance vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and are dictated by local codes. Itis important for inspectors to fully understand the procedures that are to be followed while keeping complete and accurate records ofall actions taken. These actions are generally enacted in the following order: e Notification — A written inspection form describing the noted infractions of the fire code is provided to the responsible party after an initial inspection. This form is sometimes referred to as a citation or liability notice. e Follow-up inspection — This inspection is conducted after a predetermined time allowed by local code or ordinance. Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits 61 the violation ® Sanction — Most jurisdictions issue some type of sanction if form of the the in is not corrected within a certain time. Sanctions may be Sanction — Notice or punishment attached to a violation for the purpose of enforcing a law or regulation following items: Bi Ciarone ; — Complaints — Fines — Court summonses — Stop-work orders The procedures for issuing sanctions differ; however, each jurisdiction should have a written procedure that details the process. Appendix C contains an example of a citation program. e Prosecution — An inspector or local prosecutor presents evidence supporting the charges brought against the accused for violations of the fire code. A magistrate then weighs the evidence as well as those arguments presented in the defense of the accused before rendering a decision in the case. Case Prosecution Occasionally it is necessary for the jurisdiction to prosecute a fire code violation in court. This situation usually occurs when the property owner/occupant has exhausted all other means of appeal and still is not satisfied with the outcome. As aresult, the inspector and any other inspection personnel who were involved during the inspection and subsequent action may find themselves involved in legal proceedings. Depending upon the local justice system, inspectors may be considered either witnesses or courtroom advisors to the prosecution. In all cases, the inspector is considered to be part of the prosecution on the side of the state or AHJ. They must, however, present unbiased testimony, always based upon fact. In essence, although the inspector may present the AH]J’s side during the trial, the inspector is actually presenting the fire code as it is applied in that locality. In this role, the inspector may assist the prosecuting attorney with information about fire ordinances, technical terms, and facts ofthe case. In order to preserve the case and be as helpful as possible, the inspector should note the following suggestions regarding courtroom procedure and behavior: e Provide evidence that a follow-up inspection of the facility where the infraction is alleged to have occurred was conducted. e Review all files and notes regarding the infractions with the prosecutor before entering the courtroom. e Resist attempts by superiors or prosecution personnel to modify testimony. e Appear in proper uniform or dress neatly. Appearance is important. e Confine testimony to the facts of the case. Avoid hearsay (information from a third party), biased opinion, or irrelevant statements (Figure 2.13). e Remain impartial and do not give the impression that you have a personal opinion or prejudice regarding the trial. 62 Chapter 2 Standards, Codes, and Permits Figure 2.13 It is important that inspectors act professionally on the witness stand. Inspectors must answer questions competently and within the scope of their knowledge. e Limit the information provided to only that which is necessary to answer a given question. Never volunteer information or expand an answer to include information that has not been requested in the question. @ Make responses as brief as possible, while conveying all the information necessary. If the answer calls for a simple yes or no answer, answer yes or no. If it is necessary to explain an answer, request the court’s permission to do so. e If a question is asked that is beyond an inspector’s ability to answer, the inspector should simply state that he or she is unable to answer that question. e Ensure that all physical evidence, exhibits, photographs, notes, reference materials, and other materials pertinent to the case have been reviewed by the prosecutor and have been brought to court. e Answer all questions factually and truthfully. e Anticipate personal attacks or challenges to credibility. e Never become argumentative or unprofessional on the witness stand. Permits Most local agencies have ordinances that require the issuance of permits or licenses for special operations and conditions within their jurisdiction. A permitis an official document that grants a property owner or other party permission to perform a specific activity. Permits may be for single occurrences such as a fireworks display or for a continuing operation or process such as the manufacturing offireworks. The building, fire, and/or code enforcement departments may be assigned the authority to issue and monitor the various types of permits. An inspector must be aware ofall types of permits or licenses by the jurisdiction as well as the application and issuance process. In addition, an inspector should be aware of the permits that have been issued, the locations, and the types of activity that the permits cover. Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits 63 Types or WLI ane fire code defines the types of situations that require a permit Within the codes, the permit requirement is usually contained in the section are relating to the activity requiring the permit. According to the TREO noe two general types ofpermits: operational and construction. Operational permits are issued to allow a person or group to conduct an operation or business for a specified time or until the permit is renewed or revoked. A corstme On permit is issued for the installation or alteration of a system or equipment. NFPA® 1™ does not make this distinction. Typically, permits that relate to fire and life safety are used to control the following activities: e Maintenance, storage, or use of hazardous products e Hazardous operations or processes e Installation/operation of equipment in connection with hazardous operations, maintenance, and storage e Open burning e Large-area tents Permits should only be issued if the condition being permitted meets applicable code requirements or regulations. In general, permits are not issued to allow a party to disregard, deviate, or exceed code requirements in any manner. The purpose of the permitting process is twofold: First, the permitting process should ensure that no hazardous situations or conditions are allowed to develop within the jurisdiction without the knowledge of the authorities. Second, fire and life safety inspection personnel will have the opportunity to ensure that the conditions meet the applicable code requirements. This opportunity allows fire personnel to devote specific attention to potential target hazards within their response area. Permits are usually issued for a specific condition, at a specific location, and for a specific period of time. They are not transferable beyond the conditions stated on the permit. The permit authorizes, by law, the right of entry for the fire inspector at any time to ensure compliance with code requirements and the conditions of the permit. Each model code has requirements for permits and permitting processes. Table 2.1 compares the required operational permits listed in the NFPA® and ICC® fire codes. Each of the codes lists specific activities, operations, practices, or conditions that require permits. When adopting the model codes, local governments may add to or delete from these lists based on local needs. Note that not all activities requiring permits are found in both codes. The ICC® requires the issuance of construction permits for the installation of a fire-protection system or the repair, abandonment, removal, storage, or use ofa particular item. Those items are given in the following list: e Automatic fire-extinguishing systems @ Medical gas systems @ Standpipe systems e Fire alarm and detection systems and related equipment 64 Chapter 2 Standards, Codes, and Permits Pee ty Ee eseSper amen eac a _ Table 241. Aaa = | eieicodeaActivities Requiring Permits — International Code Council® National Fire Protection Association® Aerosol Products Aerosol Products Amusement Buildings Amusement Parks Aviation Facilities Aircraft Fuel Servicing Airport Terminal Buildings Ammonium Nitrate Asbestos Removal Automatic Fire-Suppression Systems Battery Systems Battery Systems Automobile Wrecking Yards Automotive Fuel Servicing Candles, Open Flames, and Portable Cooking Carnivals and Fairs Carnivals and Fairs Cellulose Nitrate Film Cellulose Nitrate Film Cellulose Nitrate Plastic Clean Rooms Combustible Dust-Producing Operations Dust-Producing Operations Combustible Fibers Combustible Material Storage Compressed Gases Compressed Gases Consumer Fireworks (1.4 G) Covered Mall Buildings Covered Mall Buildings Cryogenic Fluids Cryogens Cutting and Welding Operations Cutting and Welding Operations Display Fireworks (1.3 G) Dry Cleaning Plants Dry Cleaning Plants Exhibits and Trade Shows Exhibits and Trade Shows Explosives Explosives Fire Alarm and Detection Systems and Related Equipment Fire Hydrants and Valves Fire Hydrants and Water-Control Valves Flame Effects Flammable and Combustible Liquids Flammable and Combustible Liquids Floor Finishing Fruit and Crop Ripening Fumigation and Thermal Insecticidal Fogging Grandstands and Bleachers, Folding and Telescopic Seating Continued Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits 65 Table 2.1 (Continued) international Code Council® Hazardous Materials National Fire Protection Association® Hazardous Materials Hazardous Materials Production Facilities High-Piled Combustible Storage High-Powered Rocketry Hot Work Operations Hot Work Operations Industrial Ovens Industrial Ovens and Furnaces Laboratories Lumber Yards and Woodworking Plants Lumberyards and Woodworking Plants Liquid- or Gas-Fueled Vehicles or Equipment in Assembly Buildings Liquid- or Gas-Fueled Vehicles Liquefied Petroleum Gases Liquefied Petroleum Gases Magnesium Marine Craft Fuel Servicing Membrane Structures, Tents, and Canopies — Permanent Membrane Structures, Tents, and Canopies — Temporary Miscellaneous Combustible Storage Oil- and Gas-Fueled Heating Appliances Open Burning Open Burning Open Flames and Torches Open Fires Open Flames and Candles Organic Coatings Organic Coatings Organic Peroxide Formulations Oxidizers Parade Floats Places of Assembly Places of Assembly Private Fire Hydrants Private Fire Hydrants Pyrotechnic Special-Effects Material Pyrotechnic Articles Pyrotechnics Before a Proximate Audience Pyroxylin Plastics Pyroxylin Plastics Refrigeration Equipment Refrigeration Equipment Repair Garages and Motor FuelDispensing Facilities Repair Garages and Service Stations Rocketry Manufacturing Rooftop Heliports Rooftop Heliports Solvent Extraction Spraying or Dipping Spraying or Dipping of Flammable Finish Standpipe Systems SS ee eee Continued 66 Chapter 2° Standards, Codes, and Permits BoxeeA Es i Be ey Tosa ws ina : "Table 2.1 (Concluded) International Code Council® . . National Fire Protection Association® Special Outdoor Events, Carnivals, and Fairs Storage of Scrap Tire and Tire Byproducts Tar Kettles Temporary Membrane Structures, Tents and Canopies ’ Tire-Rebuilding Plants Tire-Rebuilding Plants Tire Storage Waste Handling Wildland Fire-Prone Areas Wood Products e Spraying or dipping processes e Private fire hydrants e Fire pumps and related equipment e Industrial ovens e Flammable and combustible liquids e Hazardous materials e Compressed gases e Liquefied petroleum gas e Temporary membrane structures Process The permit process begins when the property owner/occupant recognizes the need to obtain a permit for an operation or condition that will exist on the property. Citizens are not usually familiar with this process, so fire and life safety inspectors and code enforcement personnel are frequently contacted for advice. The inspector should explain the permit process and emphasize that a conversation is not the same as granting permission to begin engaging in the desired activity. The process is detailed in the model codes and includes the following steps: application, review, issuance, and expiration of the permit. Application After inquiring about the need to obtain a permit, the first step in the permit process is for the property owner to obtain a permit application. Most jurisdictions have a specific form that the applicant must complete (Figure 2.14, p- 68). This form may be obtained from a fire and life safety inspector, other code enforcement personnel, or a designated municipal office. Depending on Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits 67 cvor re Aa, City of Long Beach Planning & Building Department 333 W. Ocean Blvd., 4th Floor Long Beach, CA 90802 Building (562) 570-6651 Fax: (562) 570-6753 = Permit = = Ap + lication PP-010 ver. 02.10.03 Approved for PC Only PLEASE PRINT CLEARLY ne TN [ZT OWNER PLEASE CHECIO Clacentror 2. APPLICANT LAST NAME-FIRST NAME _ APPLICANT MAILING ADDRESS E-MAIL ADDRESS . CITY-STATE PHONE [[] LESSEE / TENANT [] pesicner [] CONTRACTOR STATE LICENSE NO. & TYPE ~ CONTRACTOR LAST NAME-FIRST NAME E-MAIL . CONTRACTOR MAILING ADDRESS ADDRESS . CITY-STATE CONTACT PERSON LAST NAME-FIRST NAME . CONTACT PERSON MAILING ADDRESS E-MAIL ADDRESS . CITY-STATE PHONE . DESCRIPTION OF WORK 12. OCCUPANCY GROUP TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION CBC EDITION USED NO. OF STORIES CHANGE OF OCCUPANCY FROM TO: 13. TOTAL SQUARE FEET OF THIS PROJECT COMM. RES. 14. VALUATION OF WORK COVERED BY THIS APPLICATION GAR. [NO. OF DWELLING UNITS 15. 16. FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS [ves [_]no 18. FIRE SPRINKLERS [Jyves [_]no | HEREBY CERTIFY THAT THE INFORMATION ON THIS APPLICATION MISC PROPOSED USE PRESENT USE 17. FIRE STANDPIPES [ves [Jno IS TRUE AND CORRECT. SIGNATURE: DATE ISSUED BY (INITIALS) FOR DEPARTMENT USE ONLY SPECIAL SETBACK HISTORIC STAMP REQ'D a Ee ie PLANNING PC FEES | ZONING APPRV’D | PLANNING STAMP = NOTIFY THE CASHIER WITH ONE OF THE FOLLOWING: = Contractor with Workers’ Compensation a) Developer with Workers’ Compensation La] Owner with Workers’ Compensation Workers’ Compensation Company Name | Contractor without Workers’ Compensation LC] Developer without Workers’ Compensation I] Owner without Workers’ Compensation Expiration Date / Policy No. / This information is available in alternative format by request to the Development Services Center at (562) 570-6651 or (562) 570-6793 TDD. Visit our website at www.longbeach.gov/plan Figure 2.14 Contractors or architects are required to complete building permit application forms before the start of any construction. The form is only one part of the documentation that is required for new construction or alteration of existing buildings. Courtesy of the City of Long Beach, CA. 68 Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits the type of permit being sought and local requirements, the applicant may be required to submit additional documentation along with the application. This additional documentation may include the following documents: e Shop drawings e Construction documents e Plot diagrams e Safety data sheets (SDSs), material safety data sheets (MSDS), or other chemical documentation Typically, a permit processing fee is required when the application is submitted. The amount of the fee varies among jurisdictions and is usually nonrefundable regardless of whether or not the permit is granted. Review Once all required documentation has been submitted, a fire and life safety inspector begins a review ofthe application. The jurisdiction may specify the time frame for completing a review. The inspector must first determine that the applicant has completed all paperwork properly and provided supporting documentation. This check is usually made when the application is received and logged into the review process of the municipality. If the application is incomplete, it can be immediately rejected or the applicant can be requested to submit the necessary additional information. Even if the paperwork appears to be in order, the fire and life safety inspector may need to perform a site visit to further investigate the request. Ifan inspection visit is necessary, it should be scheduled within the time parameters that the local jurisdiction requires. The formal review of the request includes a detailed examination of the submitted documents and a comparison with the fire code requirements. The inspector must determine that the request does not violate the code requirements, or any other pertinent law or ordinance. If the inspector is satisfied that the request conforms to the code, then a permit may be issued. Issuance Ifthe application and optional site visit are acceptable, a permit is then issued. Once issued, the permit must be kept at the location for which it was issued and be readily available for the fire and life safety inspector. A copy of the permit and all information pertinent to its issuance should then be made part of the permanent fire inspection file for that location or facility. Hazardous Material Use Permit Ifa hazardous material use permit has been issued, all essential information regarding the facility and materials contained there should be forwarded to the appropriate emergency response agencies within the community. These agencies include ail fire department divisions and district/battalion chiefs and company officers who are in the response area of the site as well as the municipal telecommunications (dispatch) center. Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits 69 issued. A permit must explicitly explain the conditions under which it has ooo ies that This explanation includes what actions are being allowed, the guideli ble. applica must be followed, and the time frame for which the permit is Most ordinances that grant the authority to issue permits also specify time limits for the activity or use. These time limits vary depending on the circumstance. For example, permits for fuel-handling vehicles at an airport may be issued on a yearly basis. However, a permit to burn a brush pile may be given with a one-week time limit. Each jurisdiction must also have procedures for granting extensions should they be needed. Expiration The permit is enforced for the time specified on it. It may be necessary, however, for the permit to be reissued, renewed, or revoked depending on the situation. In all cases, the inspector should review the current status of the activity and determine if the conditions of the initial permit are still being met. If changes in the permit language are necessary, then the owner/occupant should be required to submit additional documents prior to reissuing or renewal ofthe permit. The fire and life safety inspector has the authority to revoke a permitif, upon inspection, it is noted that the stipulations within the permit are not being followed. Another cause for revocation is an inspection revealing that false statements or misrepresentations of the actual conditions on the property were made. Depending on the problem, a permit may be revoked permanently or temporarily pending correction ofviolations. Summary Locally adopted codes and standards provide the legal basis for the tasks that an inspector performs. Originally developed through a consensus process, codes and standards are not mandatory until they are adopted by the AHJ. Once adopted, the codes and standards can be modified to meet local needs. An inspector should be familiar with the code adoption and modification process as well as the original consensus process. When enforcing or applying code requirements, an inspector should be aware that the owner/occupant has the right to appeal the requirement. The inspector must interpret and apply the code correctly to reduce the chance that it will be appealed. Correct interpretation and application will also ensure that the requirements provide the level of safety and protection intended by the code and the jurisdiction. An inspector must be familiar with the enforcement process, including the potential for prosecution. Although the situation may be rare, an inspector may be called upon to testify as a witness or expert in the prosecution of acode violation. Finally, the inspector must be aware of the local permit process, situations that require permits, and how the permits relate to the fire code. Standards and codes are the instruments that the inspector uses to create a safe environment for the residents and workers in the community. Strong and fairly enforced standards and codes are essential to the reduction in fire and life losses in any community. 70 Chapter 2 © Standards, Codes, and Permits Review Questions 1. What is the purpose of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)? 2. List several disadvantages of performance-based standards. 3. Whatis the first step of the code development process? 4. Inwhat ways cana of anew code? 5. Whatisa sanction? fire and life safety code official notify the community When does a standard become law? What is a model code? How can codes be kept current with building changes? What is the purpose ofa Board of Appeals? seed er CMa SagWhen might an operational permit be issued? Chapter 2° Standards, Codes, and Permits 71 ~ Chapter Contents QOScience of Fire.................- ee ae 76 Fully Developed Stag@saxcccccc-c-cscre eee eee 107 Physical-and Chemical ChangeS.c...y-ecccns.cmeee76 Decay Stage «\.iicca.ciuaceccme ou eee eee ere 108 Modes Of COMMUSTIO Mizereeet areca senses (Me Factors That Affect Fire Development.................008 109 een eA eene Veen ent ect 78 Fire: COntroltNGOny ere. eee ee 114 ce tres eer cree ett mee 83 TEMPS KAtles RE CUGTO Ieee meres ease nese We SEEN ree ntee pec ec teeect tereater ces te tre aniare es came caesar 84 Fuel REMOvall 145 oeli-oustaimed Ghemicall REACTION: ..<::vsecreeeeecee<ereens 95 OXVGeENVEXCIUSIO Meee PrOgucts Of COmDUSHOl eeceseraeeeete eae. cen tee 96 Chemical Chain Reaction Inhibition ..............cccee 116 FUG] crear errs, attrac OVOET eee eaten teen arc GlAS SIAC ATOMS ON INC Set cere eee aaa eer ee te 97 © © Fire Development in a Compartment....... 99 INGIDIenG ta GG eae creat eet mee toe 101 (CHRON IMNNSHCIOL) t venesesh Panecceceeterceeanete sonucentuattioa i natse 102 Divider page photo courtesy of District Chief Chris Mickal. ote SUIMMAl Vines cceccec. int cae enter eo ews oct teat eee ee heen ee ee 116 ee 117 HevieW QUCSTIONS i. wereseee ee ree 117 Heat Release Rate ...............sccsssssssseesseee 107 EVNTELCOYY caer ETRE) esate FLUTE) |bite Fe | cs eeee oe eee ead ar pa Co ene ee ie Re 84 INCIDICNGENAaSG nce ee 101 102 Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) .................. 84 110 PVLOIVSIS crcesctecccevyeresscroeentisetec car enoaetrere 79 BreCara Call pemcetarcres et cect recct seasheeet cs95 Spechtic‘Gravit Viewer csce ees eee MalOGeNaled AGI ace TOMPCratures eeern e-ccesrorc: eee 117 eyserctets tree ee 81 eee 84 BAGcA preree nee te eece seer eer ny cats trees ve statads teesea acs 84 Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) ................ 84 Be VADOMDONSILV Ae. crrtretes cere eee ee 82 atOI MeOMUUSIION pretetrterarrtr prices 110 Job Performance Requirements This chapter provides information that addresses the following job performance requirements (JPRs) of NFPA® 1031, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner (2009) Chapter 4 Fire Inspector | 4.3.8 4.3.14 4.3.15 Chapter 5 Fire Inspector Il 5.3.4 5.3.10 Ja ¢ Fire Behavior ~ Learning Objectives © Fire Inspector | 1. Describe physical and chemical changes of matter related to fire. 2. Describe the four elements of the fire tetrahedron. 3. Explain how the physical states of fuel affect the combustion process. 4, Explain how oxygen concentration affects the combustion process. 5 . Explain the difference between heat and temperature. 6 . Describe sources of heat energy. 7. Discuss the transmission of heat. 8 . Explain the self-sustained chemical reaction involved in the combustion process. 9 . Describe common products of combustion. 10. Distinguish among classifications of fires. . Describe the stages of fire development within a compartment. Summarize factors that affect fire development within a compartment. Describe methods used to control and extinguish fire. Fire Inspector Il Describe the stages of fire development within a compartment. . Summarize factors that affect fire development within a compartment. . Describe methods used to control and extinguish fire. FESHE Objectives Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Objectives: Principles of Code Enforcement None — 74 Chapter 3 « Fire Behavior Chapter 3 Fire Behavior Rapid Fire Development On Monday, June 18, 2007, a fire in a Charleston, South Carolina, furniture store resulted in the death of nine firefighters. The blaze, which is believed to have started ina trash bin located on a covered loading dock between the showroom and warehouse buildings, spread into the showroom. Once the fire extended into the showroom, which was filled with sofas and other types offurniture, it developed rapidly. The large, open-plan showroom contained sufficient fuel and oxygen to support rapid combustion, spreading fire throughout the structure. Firefighters in the building reported that the metal roof girders began to glow red. Within 30 minutes of the initial report of the trash bin fire, the roof supports gave way, the walls were pushed out, and the roof collapsed. Although the exact cause ofthe fire is currently under investigation, some contributing factors to the fire spread are the lack of sprinkler protection, large floor space, and high fuel load in the building. The type of construction and existence of fireproofing of the roof members are unknown at this time. The primary duty ofa fire inspector is to ensure the life safety of both citizens and fire and emergency services responders of the community. This duty is accomplished through the thorough examination ofbuilding plans; inspection of buildings, structures, and facilities within the jurisdiction; and application of fire and life safety codes and standards adopted by the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ). Successful fire inspectors must have a complete knowledge offire behavior. The inspector must be able to recognize how the design ofbuildings and the materials used to construct them affect fire behavior and fire spread. Further, the inspector must be able to recognize how manufacturing processes and human behavior can contribute to fire behavior. During plans review activities and field inspections, an inspector must constantly evaluate the physical characteristics of a building to determine the appropriate level of protection to the occupants. An understanding offire behavior helps an inspector understand why some materials provide greater protection from fire than others and how building designs can either limit or contribute to the spread offire. Inspectors must realize, however, that no building is completely fireproof. The addition of combustible contents, hazardous processes, and fallible humans can compromise the safety of buildings that are constructed of fire-resistant materials. Chapter 3¢Fire Behavior 70 of comThis chapter includes a discussion of physical science in the context interpret bustion and fire dynamics. This knowledge can help the inspector , and conditions found during field inspections, recognize potential hazards for a systems n otectio provide a basis for determining the appropriate fire-pr building or process. The chapter also presents basic concepts related to combustion and fire development in structures as well as fire control theory. Science of Fire The use of fire plays an important role in all societies. The friendly use of fire provides heat, light, and a means for cooking food. Fire can also become a hostile force that threatens lives, property, and the environment when it is out of control. The science offire is an attempt to understand and control fire, and it involves both scientific and commonsense answers to the following questions: e Whatis fire? e How does fire transform matter? e How does fire spread? e@ What products does fire create? e How does fire create products? e Howis fire classified? Fire can take a variety of forms, but each form involves a heat-producing chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidizing agent, usually oxygen. When a material burns, a visible change occurs, generating heat and light. A solid piece of wood is altered into a pile of ash and smoke. Temperatures of nearby air and materials increase. When heat is generated faster than it can dissipate, there is an even more significant increase in temperature. This rapid change in temperature can result in the failure of other, stronger materials, including steel and concrete. Physical and Chemical Changes A physical change occurs when a material or substance remains chemically the same but changes in size, shape, or appearance. Water freezing (changing from liquid to solid) and boiling (changing from liquid to gas) are examples of physical changes. A chemical change occurs when a substance changes from one type of matter into another. Chemical changes usually involve the reaction of two or more substances to form other types of compounds. Chemical and physical changes almost always involve an exchange of energy. Reactions that absorb energy as they occur are called endothermic. For example, converting water from a liquid to a gas (steam) requires the input of energy. Reactions that give off energy as they occur are called exothermic. Fire is an exothermic chemical reaction called combustion that releases energy in the form of heat and light. A fuel’s potential energy is released during combustion and converted to kinetic energy. Oxidation is a chemical reaction involving the combination of oxygen with other materials. Oxidation can be slow such as the combination of oxygen with iron to form rust or rapid as in combustion of methane (natural gas) (Figures 3.l aandb). 76 Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior Figure 3.1a The rust on this sprinkler pipe is an example of slow oxidation. Figure 3.1b A natural gas stove functions through rapid oxidation as methane mixes quickly with oxygen to provide the fuel for combustion. Modes of Combustion Modes of combustion are determined based on where the reaction is occurring. In flaming combustion, oxidation needs a gaseous fuel. When heated, both liquid and solid fuels give off vapors that mix with oxygen and can burn, producing flames. Some solid fuels, particularly those that are porous and can char, can undergo oxidation on the fuel’s surface. This oxidation is known as nonflaming or smoldering combustion. Examples of nonflaming combustion include burning charcoal or smoldering fabric and upholstery (Figure 3.2). For many years, firefighters were taught that three components were needed for a fire to occur: oxygen, fuel, and heat. This relationship was represented by the fire triangle (Figure 3.3). By removing any one of the three components, a fire cannot ignite or continue to burn. The fire triangle provides a reasonable Fire Triangle Fuel | Figure 3.2 Charcoal continues to oxidize after visible flames are no longer present. This form of oxidation is referred to as smoldering combustion. L ; Figure 3.3 The fire triangle symbolically illustrates how the three main components of fire work together. Chapter 3° Fire Behavior 77 Fire Tetrahedron Reducing Oxidizing Agent Agent (Fuel) Chemical Figure 3.4 The fire tetrahedron is a more accurate version of how the components of fire work Chet Reaction together to create flaming combustion. Chemical Chain Reaction explanation for a smoldering fire or one that exhibits surface glowing (nonflaming) combustion. While this simple model is useful, it does not always provide a complete picture of fire behavior. Therefore, it has been replaced by the fire tetrahedron, which more accurately explains flaming combustion, a condition that includes a chemical-change reaction that occurs during the burning process (Figure 3.4). It is composed ofthe following four elements: e Fuel e Oxygen e Heat e Self-sustained chemical reaction Each element of the fire tetrahedron must be in place for flaming combustion to occur. If heat, fuel, or oxygen is removed from a fire, it will be extinguished. If the self-sustained chemical reaction of flaming combustion is inhibited or interrupted, flaming combustion will cease, although the fire may continue to smolder depending on the characteristics of the fuel. Fuel Fuelis the material or substance being oxidized or burned in the combustion process. In scientific terms, the fuel in a combustion reaction is known as the reducing agent. Fuels may be inorganic or organic. Inorganic fuels such as hydrogen or magnesium do not contain carbon. Organic fuels contain carbon. Most common fuels are organic, containing carbon along with other elements. These fuels can be further divided into hydrocarbon-based fuels (such as gasoline, fuel oil, and plastics) and cellulose-based materials (such as wood and paper). Two key factors influencing the combustion process are the physical state of the fuel and its distribution or orientation (horizontal or vertical). A fuel may be found in any of three physical states of matter: solid, liquid, or gas. For flaming combustion to occur, fuels must be in the gaseous state. Heat energy converts solids and liquids into gases. 78 Chapter 3 Fire Behavior Solid Fuel Solid fuels have definite size and shape. Solids may also react differently when exposed to heat. Some solids (wax, thermoplastics, and metals) readily change their physical shape and melt, while others (wood and thermosetting plastics) will not (Figure 3.5). Fuel gases and vapors are created from solid fuels by pyrolysis: the chemical decomposition of a substance through the action of heat. Simply stated, as solid fuels are heated, they begin to decompose and Pyrolysis — Thermal or chemical decomposition of a substance through the action of heat combustible vapors are emitted. If sufficient fuel and heat are available, the process ofpyrolysis generates sufficient quantities of burnable gases to ignite in the presence ofsufficient oxygen. In a compartment (enclosed space within a building or structure) fire, the primary fuels are commonly solids such as wood, paper, or plastic. Pyrolysis must occur to generate the flammable vapors and gases required for combustion. When wood is first heated, water vapor is released as the wood dries. As heating continues, the wood begins to pyrolize and decompose into its volatile components (combustible gases) and carbon. The process is similar with synthetic fuels such as plastics. However, unlike wood, plastics do not generally contain moisture that must be released before pyrolysis can occur. Other factors can contribute to the development of fires in solid fuels. The most common characteristics are surface-to-mass ratio and the distribution and orientation of the fuel. Surface-to-mass ratio. The shape and size ofsolid fuels significantly affect whether they are easy or difficult to ignite. The primary consideration is the surface area ofthe fuel in proportion to the mass, called the surface-to-mass ratio. As the surface area increases, more of the material is exposed to the heat and thus generates combustible pyrolysis products more quickly, making the fuel easier to ignite. Figure 3.5 While many solid fuels decompose into other solids like ash from a fireplace, other solid fuels like the wax in this candle melt into a liquid state when subjected to heat. Surface-to-Mass Ratio Example To produce lumber, for example, a tree must be felled and cut into a log. The surface area of this log is very low compared to its mass, thus the surface-to-mass ratio is low. The log is then sawed into planks. This process reduces the mass of the individual planks compared to the log, but the resulting surface area is increased, thus increasing the surfaceto-mass ratio. The chips and sawdust produced as the planks are sawed into boards have an even higher surface-to-mass ratio. When the boards are milled or sanded, the resulting shavings or dust have the highest surface-to-mass ratio of any of the examples. As this ratio increases, the fuel particles become smaller (more finely divided — for example, shavings or sawdust as opposed to logs), and their ignitability increases tremendously (Figure 3.6, p. 80). Distribution and orientation. The distribution and orientation of a solid fuel relative to the source of heat also affects the way it burns. For example, if one corner of a sheet of !/s-inch (3 mm) plywood paneling that was lying horizontally (flat) is ignited, the fire would consume the fuel at a relatively edge) slow rate. The same type ofpaneling in a vertical position (standing on Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior 79 burns much more rapidly when ignited at the bottom corner or edge. As the wood ignites, the size of the flame increases and more ofthe wood surface is brought into direct flame contact. In this case, more heat is transferred to the solid fuel, speeding fire development. Surface-to-Mass Ratio we Energy Required for Ignition Low Ratio Figure 3.6 This illustration shows how the surfaceto-mass ratio increases as the log is broken into smaller and smaller pieces. The higher the surface-to-mass ratio, the lower the energy needed to ignite the wood. High Energy Boards Sanding Dust High Ratio 80 Chapter 3 Fire Behavior Low Energy Liquid Fuel Liquids have mass and volume, but no definite shape. Liquids assume the shape of their containers. When released, liquids are affected by gravity and flow downhill and pool in low areas. The density of liquids is compared with that of water. Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass ofa given volume ofa liquid compared with the mass (weight) of an equal volume of water at the same temperature. Water has been assigned a specific gravity of 1. Liquids with a specific gravity less than 1 such as gasoline and most (but not all) flammable liquids are lighter than water and float on its surface. Liquids with a specific gravity greater than 1 such as epichlorohydrin (used in making plastics) are heavier than water. Specific Gravity — Weight of a substance compared to the weight of an equal volume of water at a given temperature; specific gravity less than 1 indicates a substance lighter than water: specific gravity greater than 1 indicates a substance heavier than water Liquids lighter than water present a significant challenge when attempting to use water as an extinguishing agent. For example, trying to extinguish burning cooking oil on a stovetop with water will spread the fire rather than extinguish it. The volume of liquid (both water and oil) increase as water is applied, spreading the burning oil across a larger area. Liquid fuels have a number of characteristics that contribute to their abilities to ignite and burn. These characteristics include the following: e@ Vaporization — Transformation ofa liquid to a vapor or gaseous state. In order to burn, liquids must be vaporized. In order to vaporize, liquids must overcome the pressure exerted by the atmosphere (14.7 psi or 102.9 kPa). The rate of vaporization is determined by the vapor pressure of the substance and the amount of heat energy applied to it. Adding heat allows liquids to overcome atmospheric pressure and vaporize more rapidly. e Vapor pressure — Pressure produced or exerted by vapors that a liquid releases. As a liquid is heated, vapor pressure increases along with the rate of vaporization. For example, a puddle of water eventually evaporates (vaporizes). When the same amount ofwater is heated on a stove, however, it vaporizes much mote rapidly because there is more energy being applied. e Flash point — Temperature at which a liquid releases sufficient vapors to ignite but not sustain combustion; commonly used to indicate the flammability hazard of liquid fuels. Liquid fuels that vaporize sufficiently to burn at temperatures under 100°F (38°C) present a significant flammability hazard. e Flammable/combustible liquids — Flammable liquids have a flash point that is less than 100°F (38°C). Combustible liquids have flash points that are greater than 100°F (38°C). The ability to recognize the difference between liquid fuels that are described as flammable and those that are combustible is essential to fire inspections and code enforcement. e Surface area — A liquid’s exposed surface area also influences how quickly a liquid will vaporize. In many open containers, the surface area ofliquid exposed to the atmosphere is limited. When released from its container, a liquid flows onto the ground, increasing the surface area of the liquid exposed to the atmosphere. This exposure results in a proportional increase in the production offuel vapors (Figure 3.7, p. 82). Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior 81 wally with e Solubility — Extent to which a substance (in this case a liquid) diesel, and ne, water. For example, liquids such as hydrocarbon fuels (gasoli it. Oe fuel oil) are lighter (less dense) than water and do not mix with ) will ethanol and nol liquids (called polar solvents) such as alcohols (metha mix readily with water. Factors: — Materials that are miscible in water will mix in any proportion. — Water-soluble liquids present a different problem in that some water-based extinguishing agents, such as many types of fire-suppression ENT val mix with the burning liquid, making the foam ineffective. This SUE atei requires the use of specialized extinguishing agents in fire-suppression systems. Surface Area X Figure 3.7 As a liquid’s surface area increases so does its vapor release rate. ea Vapor Density — Weight of a given volume of pure vapor or gas compared to the weight of an equal volume of dry air at the same temperature and pressure; vapor density less than 1 indicates a vapor lighter than air; vapor density greater than 1 indicates a vapor density heavier than air 82 Chapter 3 Fire Behavior Surface Area 20X Gaseous Fuel Gaseous fuels such as methane (natural gas), hydrogen, acetylene, and others can be the most dangerous of all fuel types because they are already in the gaseous state required for ignition. Gases have mass but no definite shape or volume. When a gas is placed in a container it expands and completely fills the available space. When released from a container into the atmosphere, gases rise or sink, depending on their vapor density relative to air. Gases that are lighter than air (such as methane) tend to rise. Those that are heavier than air such as propane (liquefied petroleum gas) tend to sink, seeking the lowest point on the ground surface (Figure 3.8). Figure 3.8 This fire is actually fueled by vapors that can be seen rising from the liquid fuel on the ground. Vapor density describes the density of gases in relation to air. Air has been assigned a vapor density of 1. Gases with a vapor density ofless than 1 will rise, while those having a vapor density of greater than 1 will sink. However, this presumes that the gas and air are at the same temperature (generally specified as 68°F [20°C]). Heated gases expand and become less dense and when cooled will contract and become more dense. Oxygen The primary oxidizing agent in most fires is oxygen. Air consists of about 21 percent oxygen; therefore, air is normally the means for oxygen to react with fuels and support combustion. Oxidizers In addition to oxygen, other materials can react with fuels in much the same way. These other materials are called oxidizers. Oxidizers are not combustible but like oxygen will support combustion. Table 3.1, p. 84, lists some common oxidizers. Atnormal ambient temperatures (70°F or 21°C), materials can ignite and burn at oxygen concentrations as lowas 14 percent. When oxygen concentration is limited, flaming combustion should diminish, but combustion may continue in the smoldering mode. However, at high ambient temperatures, flaming combustion may continue at considerably lower oxygen concentrations. Surface combustion can continue at extremely low oxygen concentrations even when the surrounding environment is at a relatively low temperature. When the oxygen concentration is higher than normal, materials exhibit very different burning characteristics. Materials that burn at normal oxygen levels will burn more intensely and may ignite more readily in oxygenenriched atmospheres. Some petroleum-based materials will autoignite Chapter 3 Fire Behavior 83 2 : (7) 2 3 wc See See me eR ene ee fableat Common Oxidizers Common Substance sea Use Calcium Hypochlorite (granular solid) Chlorination of water in swimming pools Chlorine (gas) Water purification Ammonium Nitrate (granular solid) Fertilizer Hydrogen Peroxide (liquid) Industrial bleaching (pulp and paper and chemical manufacturing) Methyl! Ethyl Ketone Peroxide Catalyst in plastics manufacture Coutesy of Ed Hartin. Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) — Lower limit at which a flammable gas or vapor will ignite; below this limit the gas or vapor is too lean or thin (too much oxygen and not enough gas) to burn Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) — Upper limit at which a flammable gas or vapor will ignite; above this limit, the gas or vapor is too rich (lacks the proper quantity of oxygen) to burn Heat — Form of energy associated with the motion of atoms or molecules and capable of being transmitted through solid and fluid media by conduction, through fluid media by convection, and through empty space by radiation Temperature — Measure of a material’s ability to transfer heat energy to other objects: the greater the energy, the higher the temperature; measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter, expressed in terms of units or degrees designated ona standard scale Energy — Capacity to perform work; occurs when a force is applied to an object over a distance or when a chemical, biological, or physical transformation is made ina substance 84 Chapter 3 « Fire Behavior (ignite spontaneously without an external heat source) in oxygen-enriched atmospheres. Many materials that do not burn at normal oxygen levels can burn readily in oxygen-enriched atmospheres. -After a fuel has been converted into a gaseous state and mixed with air (oxidizer) in a proper fuel-to-air concentration, combustion can occur. The range of concentrations that supports combustion is called the flammable (explosive) range. The flammable range ofa fuel is reported using the percent by volume of gas or vapor in air for the lower flammable limit (LFL) and upper flammable limit (UFL). Within the flammable range, there is an ideal concentration of fuel and oxygen required for combustion. Table 3.2 presents the flammable ranges for some common materials. The flammable limits for combustible gases are presented in chemical handbooks and documents such as NFPA® 49, Hazardous Chemicals Data, and NFPA® 325, Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases, and Volatile Solids. Because these two standards did not lend themselves to the committee process, NFPA® withdrew them in 1998 and 1999. The information contained in them may be found in the NFPA® Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials. The limits are normally reported at ambient temperatures and atmospheric pressures. Variations in temperature and pressure can cause the flammable range to vary considerably. Generally, increases in temperature or pressure broaden the range and decreases in temperature and pressure narrow it. Heat Heat is a form of energy, and energy exists in two states: potential and kinetic. Potential energy is the energy possessed by an object that may be released in the future. Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving object. Heat is kinetic energy associated with the movement of the atoms and molecules that comprise matter. Before ignition, a fuel has potential chemical energy. When that fuel burns, the chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy in the form of heat and light. Temperature is a measurement of kinetic energy. Heat energy will move from objects of higher temperature to those of lower temperature, for example, heat energy moves away from fuel that is burning toward fuel that is not. This concept is particularly important in understanding fire behavior. Ee Ne a) Commonn Flammable Gases ¢ andtlules. Substance Flammable Range Methane 5%-15% Propane 2.1%-9.5% Carbon Monoxide 12%-75% Gasoline 1.4%-7.4% Diesel 1.3%-6% Ethanol 3.8%-19% Methanol 6%-35.5% Source: Computer Aided Management of Emergency Operations (CAMEO) Temperature Scales Several different scales are used to measure temperature. The most common are the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales. Celsius is the temperature scale used in the International System of Units (metric system) while Fahrenheit is the scale used in the customary system. The freezing and boiling points of water provide a simple way to compare these two scales (Figure 3.9, p. 86). In the study offire behavior, the conversion of energy into heat is particularly important because heat is the energy component ofthe fire tetrahedron. When a fuel is heated, its temperature increases. Applying additional heat causes pyrolysis in solid fuels and vaporization ofliquid fuels, which releases ignitable vapors or gases (Figures 3.10 a and b, p. 86). A spark or other external source can provide the energy necessary for ignition, or the fuel can be heated until it ignites without a spark or other source. Once ignited, the process continually repeats itself producing more fuel vapors and sustaining the combustion reaction. There are two forms of ignition, piloted ignition and autoignition. Piloted ignition occurs when a mixture of fuel and oxygen encounters an external heat source with sufficient heat energy to start the combustion reaction. Autoignition occurs without any external flame or spark to ignite the fuel gases or vapors. In this case, the fuel surface is chemically heated to the point at which the combustion reaction occurs. Autoignition temperature (AIT) is the temperature to which the surface of a substance must be heated for ignition and self-sustained combustion to occur. The autoignition temperature of a substance is always higher than its piloted ignition temperature. While both piloted ignition and autoignition occur under fire conditions, piloted ignition is the most common. Several sources of heat energy exist, and heat is transferred in several ways. The sections that follow describe the common sources for heat energy and the ways that heat is transferred from one surface or material to another. Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior 85 Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales Boiling Point hig ats tae of Water Figure 3.9 This illustration compares important temperature points on the Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales. The illustration also provides temperature conversion formulas. Room ---- Temperature ~~~~~ ---- Freezing Point ag ta ibe of Water == =-- Celsius Fahrenheit Conversion of Temperature OF = (°C x 1.8) + 32 °C =(S[F =32) 1.8 °C = Temperature In Celsius °F = Temperature In Fahrenheit Sources of Heat Energy Heat energy usually comes from one or more ofthe following sources: e Chemical e Light e Mechanical e Nuclear e Electrical e Sound All of these sources of energy can heat a substance. Chemical, electrical, and mechanical energy are the most common sources of heat that result in the ignition ofa fuel. Each of these common sources is discussed in the following list along with the self-heating process: e Chemical heat energy — Energy that is released when two or more chemicals combine and react with one another. Chemical heat energy is the most common source of heat in combustion reactions. When any combustible fuel is in contact with oxygen, oxidation occurs. This process almost always results in the production ofheat. 86 Chapter 3 « Fire Behavior Pyrolysis Vaporization Ignitable mixtu of burnable gases and air Figure 3.10b As a liquid fuel heats, vaporization occurs. The vapors mixing with oxygen in the atmosphere create a combustible mixture that will ignite in the presence of an ignition source. Figure 3.10a When solid fuels are subjected to a heat source, pyrolysis occurs, releasing ignitable vapors. © Self-heating or spontaneous heating— Heating that occurs when a material increases in temperature without the addition of external heat. Normally, oxidation produces heat slowly, and the heat is lost to its surroundings almost as fast as it is generated. An external heat source such as sunlight can initiate or accelerate the process. In order for self-heating to progress to spontaneous ignition, the material must be heated to its autoignition temperature (see information box, p. 89). For spontaneous ignition to occur, the following set of circumstances must be met: Chapter 3 © Fire Behavior 87 — — — The insulation properties of the material immediately surrounding the fuel must be such that the heat cannot dissipate as fast as itis being generated. The rate of heat production must be great enough to raise the temperature of the material to its ignition temperature. The available air supply in and around the material being heated must be adequate to support combustion. e Electrical heat energy — Heat generated as electric current passes through a conductor such as a copper wire. This type of energy can generate temperatures high enough to ignite any combustible materials near the heated area. Electrical heating can occur in several ways, including the following: Figure 3.11 Mechanical heat energy can be generated b — Resistance heating: Heat produced when electric current flows though a conductor. Some electrical appliances such as incandescent lamps, ranges, ovens, or portable heaters are designed to make use of resistance heating. Other electrical equipment is designed to limit resistance heating under normal operating conditions. — Overcurrent or overload: Unintended resistance heating. When the current flowing through a conductor exceeds its design limits, it may overheat and present an ignition hazard. — Arcing: High-temperature luminous electric discharge across a gap or though a medium such as charred insulation. Arcs may be generated when two conductors are separated from one another or by a surge of high voltage, static electricity, or lightning. — Sparking: Luminous (glowing) particles that form and spatter away from the point of arcing. In electrical terms, sparking refers to this spatter. @ Mechanical heat energy — Form of heat energy generated by friction or ; . ; compression (Figure 3.11). The movement of two surfaces against each ae aesaien a EE OF Bt friction between two surfaces. Forms of Mechanical Heat Energy Heat of Compression Heat of Friction Air from compressor As air is forced into the bottle, the number of molecules striking the sides of the container increases. These collisions cause the temperature of the container wall to increase. Friction = Heat 88 Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior other creates heat offriction. This movement results in the generation of heat and/or sparks. Heat of compression is generated when a gas is compressed. Diesel engines use this principle to ignite fuel vapor without a spark plug. Spontaneous Ignition The rate of an oxidation reaction and thus the heat production increases as more heat is generated and held by the materials insulating the fuel. In fact, the rate at which most chemical reactions occur doubles with each 18°F (10°C) increase in the temperature of the reacting materials. The more heat generated and absorbed by the fuel, the faster the reaction causing the heat generation. When the heat generated by a self-heating reaction exceeds the heat being lost, the material may reach its ignition temperature and ignite spontaneously. Table 3.3 lists some common materials that are subject to self-heating or spontaneous ignition. The table also includes potential locations where the materials may be found and the type of storage container or method used for them. A classic example of a situation that could lead to spontaneous ignition is cotton rags soaked with vegetable or animal oil rolled into a ball. If the heat generated by the natural oxidation of the oil and cloth is not allowed to dissipate, either by movement of air around the rags or some other method of heat transfer, the temperature of the cloth could eventually increase enough to cause ignition (Figure 3.12). — eae Table Ky : oS ___ Spontaneous Heating Material Types, Containers, and Locations" S Material Type | Container __ = 2 Locations Charcoal Convenience stores Hardware stores Industrial plants Lumberyards Restaurants Fertilizers, Feed stores Hardware stores Lumberyards Nurseries organic -: Arenas Farms Feedlots Feed stores Linseed oil Tank cars Drums Glass containers Cans Manure Art supply stores Furniture manufacturing and repair facilities Hardware stores Lumberyards Arenas Farms Feedlots Hardware stores Lumberyards Nurseries Figure 3.12 Oily rags or cloth that have been contaminated with vegetable oils and disposed of improperly have the potential to ignite through spontaneous combustion. Chapter 3 Fire Behavior 89 Transmission of Heat The transfer of heat from the initial fuel package (burning object) to other fuels in and beyond the area of fire origin affects the growth of any fire. In order for heat to be transferred from one object to another, the two objects must be at different temperatures. Heat moves from warmer objects to colder objects. For any given substances, the greater the temperature difference between them, the greater the transfer rate. The rate at which heat is transferred is also related to the thermal conductivity of the materials involved. The transfer of heat from object to object is measured as energy flow over time. Heat can be transferred from one body to another by three mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation. Additionally, passive agents can impede the transmission of heat. Descriptions are as follows: e Conduction — Transfer of heat within an object or to another object by direct contact; in other words, heat flow through and between solids. Conduction occurs when a material is heated as a result of direct contact with a heat source (see information box, p. 93). For example, if a metal pipe is heated by a fire on one side of a wall, heat conducted through the pipe can ignite wooden framing components in the wall, or nearby combustibles on the other side of the wall (Figure 3.13). e Convection — Transfer of heat energy from a fluid (liquid or gas) to a solid surface. In the fire environment, this situation usually involves transfer of heat through the movement of hot smoke and fire gases. As with all heat transfer, the flow of heat is from the hot fire gases to the cooler structural surfaces, building contents, and surrounding air (Figure 3.14). As a fire begins to grow, the air drawn into the fire is heated. The hot air and products of combustion become more buoyant and rise creating a smoke column that can cause heat to flow to the surrounding structure and contents. Conduction Figure 3.13 In this example of conduction, the metal pipe transfers the heat of the fire through a wall and into the clothing. 90 Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior e Radiation — Transmission of energy as an electromagnetic wave (such as light waves, radio waves, or X rays) without an intervening medium (Figure 3.15, p. 92). All matter having a temperature above absolute zero will radiate heat energy. Radiant heat becomes the dominant mode ofheat transfer when a fire grows in size and it can have a significant affect on the ignition of objects located some distance from the fire. Radiant heat transfer is also a significant factor in fire development and spread in compartments (see information box, p. 94). A wide range of factors influence radiant heat transfer, including the following: — Distance to or from the heat source. Increasing this distance reduces the effect of radiant heat. — Temperature difference between the heat source and the material being heated. As temperature of the heat source increases, the radiant energy increases by a factor to the fourth power. Doubling the temperature increases radiant heat by a factor of sixteen! — Color and reflective qualities of the heat source and material being heated. Dark-colored materials will emit and absorb heat more effectively than those of lighter color. Smooth or highly polished surfaces will reflect more radiant heat than those that are rough. Figure 3.14 Convection contributes to the rapid spread of fire through the movement of hot smoke and fire gases. Chapter 3¢ Fire Behavior 91 Figure 3.15 Heat transfer through radiation is a significant factor in fire spread and development. e Passive agents — Materials that absorb heat but do not participate actively in the combustion reaction. While the fire triangle consists of fuel, heat, and oxygen, other materials can have a significant affect on both ignition and how afire develops. Examples: — Fuel moisture (the water content of a combustible material) is a passive agent that slows the absorption of heat energy and the ignition and combustion processes (Figure 3.16). For example, a well-watered shrub will be slower to ignite than one that is dehydrated. — Relative humidity and fuel moisture are major considerations in wildland fire development, but the influence of passive agents can be important in structural fires as well. For example, a fire in a newly-constructed wood-frame building (in which the wood is relatively green) may not spread as fast as one in an older building in which the framing members have dehydrated over time. 92 Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior Conduction Conduction results from increased molecular motion. Collisions between the molecules within a substance transfer energy through the substance. The more closely the molecules of a substance are packed, the more readily it conducts heat. Heat flow due to conduction depends on the following items: ¢ Surface area being heated * Temperature difference between the heat source and the material being heated ¢ Thermal conductivity of the material Table 3.4, p. 94, shows the thermal conductivity of various common materials at the same ambient temperature (68°F/20°C). As indicated in the table, copper conducts heat more than seven times more readily than steel. Likewise, steel is nearly forty times as thermally conductive as concrete. Wood is the least able to conduct heat of all of these substances. Therefore, heat is transferred more readily through a steel-frame building than a wood-frame building. Insulating materials retard the transfer of heat primarily by slowing conduction from one body to another. Good insulators are materials that do not conduct heat well and as a result disrupt the point-to-point transfer of heat energy. The best commercial insulators used in building construction are those made of fine particles (such as gypsum) or fibers with void spaces between them filled with a gas such as air. Gases do not conduct heat very well because their molecules are relatively far apart. combustible Figure 3.16 Living trees have a high water content even though they are much more tree live the makes that agent passive a is content water The materials. difficult to ignite. Chapter 3° Fire Behavior 93 os Table 3.4 Liquids and Gases le Flammable Ranges of Common Flammab Substance Flammable Range Methane 5%—-15% Propane 2.1%—-9.5% Carbon Monoxide 12%-75% Gasoline 1.4%-7.4% Diesel 1.3%—6% Ethanol 3.3%—-19% Methanol 6%—-35.5% Source: Computer-Aided Management of Emergency Operations (CAMEO) : Radiation Because it is an electromagnetic wave, radiant heat energy travels ina straight line at the speed of light. The best example of heat transfer by radiation is the heat from the sun. The energy travels at the speed of light from the sun through space (a vacuum) until it collides with and warms the surface of the earth. Radiation is the cause of most exposure fires (fires ignited in fuel packages or buildings that are remote from the heat source origin) (Figure 3.17). As a fire grows, it radiates more and more energy in the form of heat. In large fires, it is possible for the radiated heat to ignite buildings or other fuel packages a considerable distance away. Radiated heat energy travels through vacuums and air spaces that would normally disrupt heat transfer by conduction or convection. Materials that reflect radiated energy will disrupt the transmission of heat. Figure 3.17 This photograph shows the results of radiated heat on a structure adjacent to a fire building. Courtesy of District Chief Chris Mickal. 94 Chapter 3 ¢Fire Behavior Direct Flame Contact A fourth method for heat transfer that has historically been used by the fire service is direct flame contact, which is actually a combination of conduction and radiation rather than an independent method of heat transfer. Self-Sustained Chemical Reaction The self-sustained chemical reaction involved in flaming combustion is complex. Combustion of a simple fuel such as methane (natural gas) and oxygen provides a good example. The complete oxidation of methane results in the production of carbon dioxide and water as well as release of energy in the form of heat and light. While this process seems to be quite simple, it is actually quite complex. As combustion occurs, the molecules of methane and oxygen break apart to form free radicals (electrically charged, highly reactive atoms). Free radicals combine with oxygen or with the elements that form the fuel material (in the case of methane, carbon and hydrogen) producing intermediate combustion products (new substances). At various points in the combustion of methane, this process results in the production of carbon monoxide and formaldehyde, which are both flammable and toxic. When more chemically complex fuels burn, this process involves many different types of radicals and intermediate combustion products, many of which are also flammable and toxic. Free Radical — Atom or group of atoms that has at least one unpaired electron and is therefore unstable and highly reactive Flaming combustion is one example of a chemical chain reaction. Sufficient heat will cause fuel and oxygen to form free radicals and initiate the self-sustained chemical reaction. The fire will continue to burn until the fuel or oxygen is exhausted or an extinguishing agent is applied in sufficient quantity to interfere with the ongoing reaction. In some cases, extinguishing agents deprive the combustion process of fuel, oxygen, or sufficient heat to sustain the reaction. The self-sustained chemical reaction and the related rapid growth are factors that separate flaming combustion from slower oxidation reactions. Slow oxidation reactions such as the rusting ofsteel or the yellowing of paper do not produce heat fast enough to reach ignition, and they never generate sufficient heat to become self-sustained. However, surface combustion also involves oxidation at the surface ofa fuel material without initiation or continuation of the chemical chain reaction found in flaming combustion. Examples of this type of combustion are glowing charcoal briquettes. This distinction is important in that a surface combustion cannot be extinguished by chemical flame inhibition (because there are no flames and related chemical chain reaction). These fires must be extinguished by eliminating or controlling one of the sides ofthe fire triangle (heat, fuel, and oxygen). Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior 95 Halon-Replacement Systems A Halon-replacement extinguishing agent interferes with a chemical reaction, forms a stable product, and terminates the combustion reaction. This process is called chemical flame inhibition. Halon-replacement systems are found in rooms, areas, and occupancies where the use of other firesuppression systems can cause more damage than the actual fire. Rooms containing computer equipment, electrical switching equipment, transformers, or file storage areas are examples. Halon-replacement systems may also be found in processes or storage areas that contain materials that are water-reactive. Magnesium processing plants are typical examples. Products of Combustion Describing products of combustion as heat, smoke, and sometimes light is deceptively simple. As any fuel burns, its chemical composition changes. This change results in the production of new substances and the release of energy. At a very simple level, complete combustion of methane (natural gas) in air results in the production of heat, light, water vapor, and carbon dioxide. In a structure fire, however, multiple fuels are involved with a limited air supply resulting in incomplete combustion. These factors result in extremely complex chemical reactions producing a wide range ofproducts of combustion including toxic and flammable gases, vapors, and particulates (Figure 3.18). The heat generated during a fire is one product of combustion that helps to spread the fire by preheating adjacent fuels and making them more susceptible to ignition. In addition, anyone lacking adequate protection from the heat may suffer burns, damage to their respiratory tract, dehydration, and heat exhaustion. Figure 3.18 Smoke, like that billowing out of this large, warehouse fire contains many of the products of combustion: flammable gases, vapors, and particulates. 96 Chapter 3 © Fire Behavior While the heat energy from a fire is a danger to anyone directly exposed to it, toxic smoke causes most fire deaths. Smoke is an aerosol comprised of fire gases, vapor, and solid particulates. Fire gases such as carbon monoxide (CO) are generally colorless, while vapor and particulates in smoke can give it a variety of colors. Most components of smoke are toxic and present a significant threat to human life. The materials that compose smoke vary from fuel to fuel, but generally all smoke is toxic. Irritants in smoke are those substances that cause breathing discomfort and inflammation ofthe eyes, respiratory tract, and skin. Depending on the fuels involved, smoke will contain a wide range of irritating substances. The toxic effects of smoke inhalation are not the result of any one gas; they are the interrelated effects of all of the toxic products present. Three of the more common products of combustion that can be hazardous to building occupants and firefighters are as follows: e Carbon monoxide (CO) — Byproduct of the incomplete combustion of organic (carbon-containing) materials. This gas is probably the most common product of combustion encountered in structure fires. Exposure to it is frequently identified as the cause of death for civilian fire fatalities and firefighters who have run out of air in their self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). e Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) — Produced in the combustion of materials containing nitrogen and is a significant byproduct of the combustion of polyurethane foam (commonly used in furniture and bedding). HCN is also commonly encountered in smoke, although at lower concentrations than GO: e Carbon dioxide (CO,) — Product of complete combustion of organic materials; is not toxic in the same manner as CO or HCN, but acts as a simple asphyxiant by displacing oxygen. CO, also acts as a respiratory stimulant, increasing respiratory rate. Classifications of Fires Fires are classified by the type offuel involved and the type of extinguishing agent or activity that will be required to control the fire. The classifications of fires determine the type and size of portable fire extinguishers required in a specific type of occupancy. These classifications may also be used to signify the types of contents that a particular building contains. The classifications are described as follows: A fires — Involve ordinary, solid, combustible materials such as wood, e Class cloth, paper, rubber, and many plastics (Figure 3.19, p. 98). Cooling a Class A fire reduces the temperature ofthe fuel and slows or stops the release of pyrolysis products. This method is the best way to extinguish a Class A fire. The application of water from fire-suppression systems or fire department hoselines generally accomplishes the cooling. e Class B fires — Involve flammable and combustible liquids and gases such as gasoline, oil, lacquer, paint, mineral spirits, and alcohol (Figure 3.20, p. 98). Fires in Class B liquids can be extinguished with appropriately applied foam and/or dry chemical agents. Turning off the gas supply extinguishes Class B fires involving gases. Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior 97 Figure 3.19 Class A materials like those pictured here are very common in most fires. Figure 3.20 Class B fires involve flammable or combustible liquids and gases. e Class C fires — Involve energized electrical equipment; unlike the other classes that are determined based on fuel type. Faulty household appliances, computers, transformers, electric motors, and overhead transmission lines are typical Class C fires (Figure 3.21). Electricity, however, does not burn, so the actual fuel in a Class C fire is usually insulation on wiring (Class A material) or lubricants (Class B materials). When possible, the involved electrical equipment should be de-energized (turned off) before extinguishing efforts begin. Any extinguishing agent used before de-energizing the equipment must not conduct electricity. e Class D fires — Involve combustible metals such as aluminum, magnesium, potassium, sodium, titanium, and zirconium (Figure 3.22). These materials are particularly hazardous in their powdered form. Given a suitable ignition source and the right concentrations, airborne metal dusts can cause powerful explosions. The extremely high temperature of some burning metals makes water reactive and other common extinguishing agents ineffective. 98 Chapter 3 « Fire Behavior No single extinguishing agent effectively controls fires in all combustible metals. Class D materials may be found in a variety of industrial or storage facilities. ¢ Class K fires — Involve oils and greases normally found in commercial kitchens and food preparation facilities using deep fryers (Figure 3.23). These fires require an extinguishing agent specifically formulated for the materials involved. Through a process known as saponification, these agents turn fats and oils into a soapy foam that extinguishes a fire. Figure 3.21 Failures in electrical equipment like this transformer can lead to Class C fires. Figure 3.22 Class D fires often burn very brightly and intensely and can also react unfavorably with water making them difficult to extinguish. Courtesy of National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Figure 3.23 Kitchen deep-fat fryers are susceptible to Class K fires and should have the appropriate extinguishing agents present in case of a fire emergency. Fire Development in a Compartment When afire occurs in an unconfined area, outdoors for instance, much of the heat produced by the combustion reaction dissipates into the atmosphere through radiation and convection. When the fibess confined within a comin the partment (compartment fire), the walls, ceiling, floor, and other objects 4 Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior 99 Radiant compartment absorb some ofthe radiant heat that the fire piogu ces. heat energy that is not absorbed is reflected back, continuing to WEE the temperature ofthe fuel and rate of combustion. Hot smoke and air heated by the fire become more buoyant and rise. Upon contact with cooler materials such as the ceiling and walls of the compartment, heat is conducted to the cooler materials, raising their temperatures. This heat transfer process raises the temperature of all materials in the compartment. As nearby fuel is heated, it begins to pyrolize. Eventually the rate of pyrolysis can reach a point where flaming combustion can be supported and the fire spreads. When sufficient oxygen is available, fire development is controlled by the characteristics and configuration of the fuel. Under these conditions, the fire is said to be fuel-controlled. Fire development within a compartment often reaches a point where it becomes limited by the available air supply. When fire development is limited by the air supply, the fire is said to be ventilationcontrolled (Figure 3.24). Fire development in a compartment may be described in terms of four stages: incipient, growth, fully developed, and decay (Figure 3.25). The boundaries between these stages are not always clearly defined however. Despite this limitation, these stages provide a good framework for the understanding of fire development in a compartment. Fuel- and Ventilation-Controlled Fires Figure 3.24 The diagonal Figure 3.25 This line graph illustrates the typical stages of fire development and how those stages relate to increased temperature over time. Note that individual fires will move through these phases at different rates of speed due to different available fuels, oxygen supplies, compartment sizes and shapes, and many other variables. line in this illustration shows that any fire may be a combination of fuel-controlled and ventilation-controlled. All fire personnel, including inspectors, should understand the difference between the two and their significance to fire control. FuelControlled Fire development and the rate of combustion is primarily limited by fuel characteristics and configuration. VentilationControlled Fire development and the rate of combustion is primarily limited by the available air supply. Stages of Fire Development Growth 1112°F (600°C) Rise Temperature Incipient 100 Chapter 3 « Fire Behavior | Fully Developed Fire Decay Incipient Stage The incipient stage starts with ignition. Ignition describes the point when the three elements ofthe fire triangle come together and combustion occurs. All fires occur as a result of some type of ignition. As mentioned previously, ignition can be piloted (caused by a spark or flame) or nonpiloted (caused when a material reaches its autoignition temperature as the result of self-heating) such as spontaneous ignition. At this point in the burning process, the fire is small and confined to the material (fuel) first ignited. The fire may even self-extinguish. Once combustion begins, development ofan incipient fire is largely dependent on the characteristics and configuration ofthe fuel involved (fuel-controlled fire). Air in the compartment must provide adequate oxygen to continue fire development. During this initial phase offire development, radiant heat warms adjacent fuel and continues the process ofpyrolysis. Incipient Phase — First stage of the burning process where the substance being oxidized is producing some heat, but the heat has not spread to other Substances nearby In this early stage of fire development, the fire has not yet influenced the environment within the compartment to a significant extent. Temperature, while increasing, is only slightly above ambient, and the concentration of products of combustion is low. During the incipient phase, occupants can safely escape from the compartment and the fire can be safely extinguished with a portable extinguisher or small hoseline. Fire detection, alarm, and suppression systems are designed to react during this stage ofthe fire, alerting occupants and emergency response organizations, and preventing the fire from developing into the next stage. It is essential to recognize that the transition from incipient to growth stage can occur quite quickly (in some cases in seconds) depending on the type and configuration of fuel involved (Figures 3.26 a and b). Figures 3.26 a and b Fires in the incipient stage are the easiest to extinguish and control. In the incipient stage (a), the development of the fire can be rapid, although the spread is limited to the object of origin (b). Courtesy of National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Chapter 3¢ Fire Behavior 101 | Growth Stage When an incipient fire continues to burn, a plume of hot gases and flames rises As this from the fire and mixes with the cooler air within the room (convection). plume reaches the ceiling, hot gases begin to spread horizontally across de ceiling in what firefighters have historically called mushrooming; in scientific or engineering terms this process is referred to as forminga ceiling jet.Hot gases in contact with the surfaces of the compartment and its contents conduct heat to other materials (including additional fuel). This complex process of heat transfer begins to increase the overall temperature in the room. Table 3.5 lists the factors that influence the development of fuel-controlled fires. As the fire transitions from incipient to growth stage, it begins to influence the environment within the compartment. Likewise, the fire is influenced by the configuration of the compartment and the amount of ventilation. Entrain — To draw in and transport (as solid particles or gas) by the flow of a fluid The first effect caused by the transition into the growth stage is the amount of air that is drawn (entrained) into the plume. Exterior, unconfined fires draw air from all sides, and the entrainment ofair cools the plume of hot gases rising from the fire. Ina compartment fire, the location of the fuel package in relation to the compartment walls determines the amount ofair that is entrained and thus the amount ofcooling that takes place. Fires in fuel packages near walls can only entrain air from three sides. Fires in fuel packages in corners can only entrain air from two sides. Therefore, in both cases, the combustion zone expands vertically, and higher plume temperatures result. Higher plume temperatures significantly affect the tem- _ Tables ___ Factors Influencing Development of a Fuel-Controlled Fire Mass and Surface Area | The greater the surface area for a given mass of fuel, the easier it is for that fuel to be heated to its ignition temperature. Chemical Content The chemical makeup of the fuel has a significant impact on the heat released during combustion. Many hydrocarbon-based synthetic materials have a heat of combustion that is more than twice that of cellulose materials such as wood. Fuel Load The total amount of fuel available for combustion influences total potential heat release. Fuel Moisture While not a factor with all types of fuel, water acts as a thermal ballast, slowing the process of heating the fuel to its ignition temperature. Orientation Orientation in relation to the fire influences how heat is transferred. For example, a wood wall surface is heated by both convection and radiation, whereas the floor is more likely to be heated by radiant heat alone. Continuity Continuity is the proximity of various fuel elements to one another. The closer (or more continuous) the fuel is, the easier and more rapidly fire will extend. Continuity may be either horizontal (i.e., ceiling surface) or vertical (i.e., wall or rack storage). Courtesy of Ed Hartin. 102 Chapter 3 Fire Behavior Figures 3.27 a and b As more and more air is entrained into a fire, the growth stage begins in which fuel packages not affected during the incipient stage become involved in the growing fire. In the laboratory burn, the growth of the fire between illustration a and illustration b is very rapid. Courtesy of National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). peratures in the developing hot-gas layer above the fire and the speed of fire development. In addition, as wall surfaces become hot, burning fuel receives more reflected radiant heat, further increasing the speed of fire development (Figures 3.27 a and b). During the growth stage of a compartment fire, the fire exhibits a variety of traits that indicate changes in the environment. Among these are thermal layering, isolated flames, rollover, and flashover. It is also possible that the fire growth will take an alternative path that does not result in flashover. Each of these traits is described in the sections that follow. Thermal Layering The thermal layering of gases is the tendency ofgases to separate into layers according to temperature. Other terms sometimes used to describe this tendency are heat stratification and thermal balance. The hottest gases tend to be in the top layer, while the cooler gases form the lower layers. In addition to the effects of heat transfer through radiation and convection described earlier, radiation from the hot-gas layer also acts to heat the interior surfaces of the compartment and its contents (Figure 3.28). As mentioned earlier, when a fire develops in a compartment, heated products of combustion and entrained air become more buoyant than the surrounding air and rise to the ceiling in a plume. When these hot gases reach the ceiling they mushroom (spread horizontally through the compartment). The gases continue to spread until they reach the walls of the compartment. As combustion continues, the depth ofthe gas layer then begins to increase. The difference in density between hot smoke and cooler air below causes them Figure 3.28 As a fire grows, the gases It produces form thermal layers with the hottest gases rising quickly to the top of a compartment and the cooler layers settling to the bottom. Courtesy of National Institute of Standards and Technology to separate into two distinct layers. (NIST). Chapter 3¢ Fire Behavior 103 As the volume and temperature ofthe hot-gas layer increase, so does the pressure. The increased pressure in this layer pushes down on the lower layers within the compartment, forcing them out through any openings (doors or windows). The pressure ofthe cool-gas layer is lower, resulting in inward movement of air from outside the compartment. The influx of air from outside the compartment adds more oxygen needed for combustion maintaining the fire and creating more hot gases. At the point where these two layers meet as the hot gases exit through an opening, the pressure is neutral. The interface of the hot- and cool-gas layers at the opening is commonly referred to as the neutral plane. This neutral pressure only exists at openings where hot gases are exiting and cooler air is moving into the compartment. Whenever possible, it is desirable to maintain or raise the level of the hot-gas layer above the floor to provide a more tenable environment for firefighters and trapped occupants. This situation requires effective application of fire control and ventilation tactics. Isolated Flames As the fire moves through the growth stage, pockets of flames may be observed moving through the hot-gas layer above the neutral plane (Figure 3.29). Some people refer to this phenomenon as ghosting. Combustion of these hot gases indicates that portions ofthe hot-gas layer are within their flammable ranges and there is sufficient temperature to result in ignition. As these hot gases circulate to the outer edges of the plume, they find sufficient oxygen to ignite. Figure 3.29 Isolated flames exhibit ghosting, an indication that the layers of combustible gases above the fire have reached their ignition temperature. Courtesy of National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). 104 Chapter 3 « Fire Behavior This phenomenon is frequently observed before more substantial involvement of flammable products of combustion in the hot-gas layer occurs. Ghosting is Classified as a fire-gas ignition, and may be an indicator of developing flashover conditions requiring immediate action by firefighters to prevent that from occurring. Rollover The term rollover describes a condition where the unburned fire gases accumulated at the top of acompartment ignite and flames propagate through the hot-gas layer or across the ceiling. Like ghosting, rollover isa fire-gas ignition (Figure 3.30). Rollover may occur during the growth stage as the hot-gas layer forms at the ceiling of the compartment. Flames may be observed in the layer when the combustible gases reach their ignition temperature. While the flames add to the total heat generated in the compartment, this condition is not flashover. Rollover generally precedes flashover but may not always result in flashover. Rollover Conditions Open Doorway ¢ Superheated vapors ignite ¢ Flame front rolls across celing extending into second room Figure 3.30 Rollover conditions depicted here show how heated gases can move across ceilings to unengaged areas of a compartment or structure. Flashover Flashover is the rapid transition between the growth and the fully developed fire stages but is not a specific event like ignition. Conditions for flashover are defined in a variety of different ways; however, during flashover, conditions in the compartment change very rapidly from partial to full involvement of the compartment. When flashover occurs, burning gases push out of openings in the compartment (such as a door leading to another room) at a substantial velocity (Figure 3.31, p. 106). While scientists and engineers define flashover in a variety of ways, the most useful definition for inspectors and firefighters is when the temperature in a compartment results in the simultaneous ignition of all of the combustible contents in the space. While no exact temperature is associated with this Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior 105 Flashover Conditions Open Doorway ¢ Room temperature in excess of 900°F (483°C) e All combustible surfaces are burning as are the gasses Figure 3.31 This illustration depicts the conditions necessary for a flashover to occur ina compartment fire. occurrence, a range from approximately 900°F to 1,200°F (483°C to 649°C) is widely accepted. This range correlates with the autoignition temperature of CO, one of the most common gases produced by pyrolysis. Just before flashover, several events are occurring within the burning compartment, most notably the following three: e Temperatures are rapidly increasing. e Additional fuel is becoming involved. e The fuel in the compartment is releasing combustible gases because of pyrolysis. As flashover occurs, the combustible materials in the compartment and the gases produced by pyrolysis ignite almost simultaneously. The result is full-room fire involvement. Alternative Path Flashover does not occur in every compartment fire. The following two interrelated factors determine whether a fire within a compartment will progress to flashover: 1. The fuel must first have sufficient heat energy to develop flashover conditions. For example, ignition of discarded paper in a small metal wastebasket may not have sufficient heat energy to develop flashover conditions ina large room lined with gypsum drywall. On the other hand, ignition of a couch with polyurethane foam cushions placed in the same room is quite likely to result in flashover. 2. Ventilation is the second factor. A developing fire must have sufficient Oxygen to reach flashover, and a sealed room may not provide enough. Heat release is limited by the available air supply. If there is insufficient natural ventilation, the fire may enter the growth stage but not reach the peak heat release ofa fully developed fire. 106 Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior While the heat-release temperature is reduced when the fire becomes ventilation-controlled, the temperature in the compartment may continue to rise (although more slowly). When ventilation is increased (due to failure of window glazing or firefighters making entry), additional air increases the rate of heat release (extremely rapidly in some cases). ay It is important to recognize that most fires that grow beyond the incipient stage become ventilation-controlled. Even when doors and/or windows are Heat Release Rate — Measurement of the amount of heat released when a material burns as stated in kilowatts or British Thermal Units (Btu) open, there is often insufficient air to allow the fire to continue to develop based on the available fuel. When windows are intact and doors are closed, the fire may move into a ventilation-controlled state even more quickly. While this situation reduces the heat release rate, fuel will continue to pyrolize, creating extremely fuel-rich smoke. Fully Developed Stage The fully developed fire stage occurs when all combustible materials in the compartment are burning. During this stage, the burning fuels in the compartment are releasing the maximum amount of heat possible for the available fuel and ventilation. The fire is ventilation-controlled because heat release is dependent on the number of compartment openings. Increases in the available air supply result in higher heat release rates. During this stage, hot unburned fire gases are likely to flow from the compartment of origin into adjacent compartments or out through openings to the exterior of the building. These hot gases may ignite as they enter a space where air is more abundant (Figure 3.32). compartment and can be Figure 3.32 A fully developed fire involves everything within a developed fires tend to be fully because air outside of influx rapid a by severely increased ventilation-controlled. Chapter 3 Fire Behavior 107 Figure 3.33 In the decay stage of a fire, most of the fuel has been consumed. Decay Stage A compartment fire will decay as the fuel is consumed or as the oxygen concentration falls to the point where flaming combustion can no longer be supported. Each ofthese situations can result in the combustion reaction coming to a stop (Figure 3.33). However, decay due to reduced oxygen concentration can follow a considerably different path if the ventilation profile of the compartment changes. Consumption of Fuel As the fire consumes the available fuel in the compartment and the rate of heat release begins to decline, it enters the decay stage or hot-smoldering phase. Assuming there is adequate ventilation, the fire again becomes fuel-controlled. The heat release rate drops, but the temperature in the compartment may remain high for some time. — Instantaneous explosion or rapid burning of superheated gases that occurs when oxygen is introduced into a smoldering (oxygen-depleted) fire in a confined space; stalled combustion resumes with explosive force 108 Chapter 3 « Fire Behavior During this stage, the flammable products of combustion can accumulate within the compartment or adjacent spaces. If these products are within the flammable range they can ignite, resulting in a smoke explosion — the ignition of accumulated flammable products of combustion, a form of fire-gas ignition. Unlike ghosting or rollover, however, a smoke explosion involves ignition of amixture of flammable combustion products and air that is within its flammable range. Limited Ventilation When a compartment fire enters the decay stage due to a lack of oxygen, the rate of heat release also declines. However, the continuing combustion reaction (based on available fuel and the limited oxygen available to the fire) may maintain an extremely high temperature within the compartment. Under these conditions, a large volume of flammable products of combustion can Backdraft Sequence Conditions: ¢ Low oxygen ¢ High heat ¢ Smoldering fire ¢ High fuel vapor concentrations Figure 3.34 A smoldering fire may give the illusion of being extinguished; however, an influx of air can reignite it and create a backdraft. ¢ Fresh air enters compartment ¢ Fuel vapor and air mix WARNING! ¢ Vapor/air mixture reaches explosive limit e Backdraft occurs accumulate within the compartment. If these products are above their ignition temperatures, they can ignite explosively when mixed with additional air, resulting in a backdraft. The compartment of Origin may be in the fully developed stage while adjacent compartments may be in the growth stage. In addition, an attic or void space may be ina severely under-ventilated decay stage while adjacent compartments are in the growth orfully developed stage. These variables make the job of reading the fire and assessing the hazards presented by fire conditions a critical task for everyone working inside a burning building. When potential backdraft conditions exist in a compartment, the space is filled with unburned fuel (smoke) that is at or above its ignition temperature. This fuel only lacks sufficient oxygen to burn. Making a horizontal opening provides the missing component (oxygen) and a backdraft results (Figure 3.34). Factors That Affect Fire Development Numerous factors affect the development and spread of a fire. To limit the spread offire in a structure, it may be necessary to require the installation of a fire-suppression system, fire barriers, or additional fire detection and alarm Chapter 3° Fire Behavior 109 the occupants. The folsystems to provide the necessary level of life safety for rtment: lowing factors influence fire development within a compa e Fueltype the fire location) e Availability and location of additional fuels (in relation to e Compartment volume and ceiling height (geometry) e Ventilation (and changes in ventilation) e Thermal properties of the compartment e Ambient conditions (wind, temperature, humidity, etc.) e Effects of changing conditions Fuel Type As discussed in the Fuel section, the type of fuel involved in combustion affects both the amount ofheat released and the time over which combustion occurs. In a compartment fire, the most fundamental fuel characteristics influencing fire development are mass and surface area. Combustible materials with high surface-to-mass ratios are much more easily ignited and will burn more quickly than the same substance with less surface area. Recognizing potential fuels in a building, structure, or facility can help in estimating fire-growth intensity and area. Materials with high heat release rates such as polyurethane foam-padded furniture, for example, would be expected to burn rapidly once ignition occurs. This information can be used to recommend the installation of fire-suppression or early detection systems to the owner/occupant. Availability and Location of Additional Fuels A number of factors influence the availability and location of additional fuels, including the following: Fuel Load — Amount of fuel present expressed quantitatively in terms of weight of fuel per unit area Heat of Combustion — Amount of heat released per unit mass or unit volume of a Substance when the substance is completely burned e Building configuration — The layout of the structure includes the number of stories, avenues for fire spread, compartmentation, and barriers to fire spread. A building may have a high fuel load but be highly compartmentalized with fire doors blocking the spread of hot smoke and fire gases. On the other hand, buildings with open floor plans or unprotected vertical shafts may provide the fire with access to fuel throughout the building (Figure 3.35). e Contents of the building (nonstructurfuel al load) — The contents of a structure are often the most readily available source offuel in a compartment fire. The quantity and nature of building contents significantly influence fire development. When contents have a high heat of combustion and heat release rate, both the intensity of the fire and speed of development will be greater. For example, synthetic furnishings (polyurethane foam) will begin to pyrolize rapidly under fire conditions (even when located some distance from the origin of the fire), speeding the process offire development. @ Construction of the building (structural fuel load) — The materials used to build the building; wall studs, floor and ceiling joists, and roof supports as well as sheathing all contribute to the amount offuel fora fire. Each type of construction is symbolized by a different quantity of fuel. See Chapter 4, Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications, for details on Constru c- tion Types. 110 Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior e Construction/interior finish materials — The type of construction materials used in the building, structure, or facility influences fuel load as well. For example, in wood-frame buildings, the structure itselfis a source of fuel. In addition to structural members, combustible interior finishes such as wood paneling and window coverings can be a significant factor influencing fire spread (Figure 3.36). @ Fuel proximity and continuity — The proximity (in relation to the fire) and continuity of contents and structural fuels also influence fire development. Fuels in the upper level of adjacent compartments will be more quickly pyrolized by the hot-gas layer, and continuous fuels (such as combustible interior finishes) will rapidly spread the fire from compartment to compartment. e Fire location — Similarly, the location ofthe fire within the building influences fire development. When the fire is located low in the building such as in the basement or on the first floor, convected heat will cause vertical extension through unprotected stairways and vertical shafts. Fires originating on upper levels generally extend downward much more slowly. Figure 3.35 Open floor plans in buildings such as hangars offer no impediments to the spread of fire throughout the compartment. Figure 3.36 Interior finishes like wood paneling can contribute to the spread of afire ina compartment or structure. Chapter 3¢ Fire Behavior 111 Nightclub Fires The Cocoanut Grove fire in Boston, Massachusetts, on November 28, . A total of 1942, spread rapidly due to highly combustible interior finishes the fire spread quickly ions decorat ble 492 people lost their lives. Flamma nts occupa the killed heat and smoke thick throughout the nightclub, and were that exits of number limited the as they attempted to escape through available. Just over 61 years later, 100 people lost their lives in another New England nightclub fire. Pyrotechnics ignited combustible interior finish materials (polyurethane foam sound insulation) at The Station nightclub in West Warwick, Rhode Island, resulting in extremely rapid fire development that trapped many of the building’s occupants. Compartment Volume and Ceiling Height All other things being equal, a fire in a large compartment will develop more slowly than one in a small compartment due to the greater volume ofair and structural material that must be heated. However, this large volume of air supports the development of a large fire before ventilation becomes the limiting factor (Figure 3.37). A high ceiling enables a large volume of hot smoke and other fire gases to accumulate at ceiling level. This accumulation may mask the extent of fire development because conditions at floor level remain relatively unchanged. This situation is particularly hazardous because conditions can change rapidly if this hot-gas layer ignites. Ventilation For the most part, all buildings exchange air inside the structure with air outside the structure. In some cases this is due to constructed openings such as windows and doors as well as leakage through cracks and other gaps in construction. In other cases, this air exchange is primarily through the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system (Figure 3.38). When considering fire development, it is important to assess a structure’s preexisting ventilation — the actual and potential ventilation of a structure based on structural openings, construction type, and building mechanical and passive ventilation systems. These ventilation systems could change the ventilation profile under fire conditions. Thermal Properties of the Compartment Thermal properties of the compartment include insulation, heat reflectivity, retention, and conductivity. When a compartment is well-insulated, less heat is lost and more heat remains available to increase temperature and speed the combustion reaction. Similarly, surfaces such as walls or ceilings that reflect heat return it to the combustion reaction, increasing its speed. Materials such as masonry absorb and retain heat energy, sustaining high temperatures for a long period oftime. Other structural materials such as steel conduct heat readily. While not retaining heat to the same degree as masonry these materials can transfer heat to other combustibles through eendueaal 112 Chapter 3 Fire Behavior Figure 3.38 HVAC systems provide the majority of compartment ventilation in most modern construction. Figure 3.37 Compartments with large volumes of air such as this hotel atrium can support development of large fires long before ventilation becomes a limiting factor. spreading the fire (in some cases beyond the compartment or compartments already involved). Thermal windows (those with multiple layers) can also act to contain heat in a developing fire. va | Cold Storage Warehouse Fire In 1999, six career firefighters in Massachusetts died after they became lost and ran out of breathing air in a vacant six-story, cold storage building. The building contained six floors aboveground and a full basement for a total of 94,176 square feet (8 749 m?’). The exterior walls were 18 inches (450 mm) thick and were constructed of brick. Interior walls were covered with 6 to 18 inches (150 mm to 450 mm) of asphalt-impregnated cork or 4 inches (100 mm) of polystyrene and a flammable finish. The same characteristics that made this structure an effective coldstorage warehouse contributed to fire development. Insulation that keeps heat out can also keep heat in. These materials contributed to the rapid fire development and severe smoke conditions in the building, disorienting the first two firefighters and the other four who attempted to locate and rescue them. Dangerous fire behavior is often the result of multiple intersecting factors rather than one simple cause. Ambient Conditions Although ambient temperature and humidity can affect the ignitability of many types offuel, these factors are less significant inside a structure. However, high humidity and cold temperatures can impede the natural movement of smoke. Chapter 3¢ Fire Behavior 113 Figure 3.39 In this fire, strong wind through groundfloor windows has caused the smoke in the structure to plume up and out a hole in the roof. High humidity can also reduce the effectiveness ofvertical ventilation during emergency operations, acting to hold smoke in a building. Strong winds can significantly influence fire behavior, particularly when ventilation changes. Ifa window fails or a door is opened on the windward side of the building, fire intensity and spread can increase significantly (Figure 3.39). Effects of Changing Conditions Structure fires are dynamic with ever-changing conditions. Factors influencing fire development can change as the fire extends from one compartment to another. Additional fuel or high temperatures can also cause windows to break, increasing ventilation. Considering that most fires beyond the incipient stage are or will quickly become ventilation-controlled, changing ventilation is one of the most significant factors in changing fire behavior. Fires burning various building materials may cause changes. Other changes may be the result of actions firefighters take during emergency operations. Fire Control Theory Fire control theory is used in the selection of fire-protection systems and actions taken by firefighters at emergency incidents. Fire is controlled and extinguished by limiting or interrupting one or more of the essential elements in the combustion process (fire tetrahedron). Firefighters influence fire behavior by doing one or more ofthe following actions: e Reducing temperature e Eliminating fuel e Separating the fire from available fuel e Changing the oxygen concentration e Interrupting the self-sustained chemical chain reaction 114 Chapter 3 « Fire Behavior Temperature Reduction One of the most common methods offire control and extinguishment is cooling with water. This process depends on reducing the temperature of a fuel to a point where it does not produce sufficient vapor to burn. Cooling can extinguish burning solid fuels and liquid fuels with high flash points. The use of water for cooling is also the most effective method available for the extinguishment of smoldering fires. To extinguish a fire by reducing its temperature, enough water must be applied to the burning fuel to absorb the heat being generated by combustion. In addition to extinguishment by cooling, water can also be used to control burning gases and reduce the temperature of hot products of combustion above the neutral plane. This reduction slows the pyrolysis process and reduces the potential for extreme fire behavior such as flashover. Water absorbs significant heat as its temperature is raised, but it has its greatest effect when it is vaporized into steam. When water is converted to steam at 212°F (100°C), it expands approximately 1,700 times and can cool a much larger area. It is important to remember that water used for fire suppression, either from sprinkler systems or hoselines, can add considerable weight to a structure. Structural failure or collapse can result from this added weight (Figure 3.40). Fuel Removal Removing the fuel source effectively extinguishes any fire. The simplest method of fuel removal is to allow a fire to burn until all fuel is consumed. While this is not always the most desirable extinguishment method, it is sometimes appropriate. For example, fires involving pesticides of flammable liquid spills Effects of Water Weight on Structures Trusses Separate From Walls Figure 3.40 Structural integrity is compromised with the addition of massive amounts of water during fire-suppression activities. | LNZONANASTASI ASIST Stress EEE Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior 115 may create greater environmental harm if they are extinguished with water, creating substantial contaminated runoff. The best solution may be to allow the fire to burn, minimizing groundwater pollution. The fuel source may also be removed by stopping the flow ofliquid or gaseous fuel by closing a valve or by removing solid fuels in the path ofa fire. This method is preferred when extinguishing pressurized gas fires. Oxygen Exclusion Reducing the oxygen available to the combustion process reduces a fire’s growth and may completely extinguish it over time. In its simplest form, this method is used to extinguish kitchen range top fires when a cover is placed on a pan of burning grease. Dry chemical range hood suppression systems also act in a similar fashion. The extinguishing agent blankets the burning material, separating it from the oxygen in the air. While not generally used for extinguishment in structure fires, limiting the fire’s air supply (ventilation) can bea highly effective fire control action. The simplest example of this method is when a building occupant closes the door to the fire room before leaving the building. This action limits the air supply to the fire and can sometimes prevent flashover. The use of automatic closing devices on fire doors (doors that will resist fire for a specific amount oftime) can limit the spread of fire as well as limit the air supply (Figure 3.41). Chemical Chain Reaction Inhibition Extinguishing agents such as some dry chemicals, halogenated agents (halons), and halon-replacement agents interrupt the combustion reaction and stop flame production. This method of extinguishment is effective on gas and liquid fuels because they must flame to burn (Figure 3.42). These agents do not easily extinguish surface-mode fires because they work on the chemical Figure 3.41 Fire doors are designed to close automatically in case of a fire emergency. | RE UA ANI SEU AT z A SN SRE ER 1 Figure 3.42 This halon-based extinguishing system will have little effect on surface fires but is extremely effective at inhibiting the chemical chain reaction produced in gas and liquid fires. 116 Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior chain reaction of flaming combustion. The very high agent concentrations and extended periods necessary to extinguish smoldering fires make these Halogenated Agent — Chemical compound (halogenated hydrocarbon) that contains carbon plus one or more elements from the halogen series agents impractical in these cases. Halogenated and halon-replacement agents are used to protect equipment such as that in computer rooms that can be damaged by water. Summary Knowledge of fire behavior is essential to successfully fulfill the duties of the fire inspector. Building and fire codes are based on the effects that fire has on building design, construction materials, contents, and processes as well as human behavior. An inspector must be able to evaluate how a building, structure, or facility will respond during a fire. The construction elements such as fire-suppression and detection systems must be assessed to ensure they can handle potential fire conditions. The approval of construction plans will be based on the compliance with building codes that specify materials that will prevent or limit the spread of fire. An inspector must continue to apply fire science during plans review and field inspections. Review Questions What are the four elements ofthe fire tetrahedron? Define conduction, convection, and radiation. Describe the five classes of fire. What are the stages of fire development in a compartment? What are Ww Oe Noo the factors compartment? that influence fire development 1. Whatare the stages of fire development in a compartment? 2. Define thermal layering, rollover, flashover, and backdraft. What are the factors that influence fire development 3. within a within a compartment? 4. What is preexisting ventilation? 5. Howcanfire be controlled and extinguished? Chapter 3 ¢ Fire Behavior 117 | | : Occupancy Classiications Qo -_ Chapter Contents @construction Types ................000000000001423 UnitedcStates GOmStiulCtOMerse cca cee Ganadian COMSUUCTON Ee. scr ctane nee ere INSUILUT ON alOCCUPAlGleSweeeseneereceeseeet eee 139 ere 123 MercantiletO Geral Cle Siac sreeereereee eseeeenee 142 re eae. 129 ResidentiallOGcupanCheSieeeres © O Occupancy Classifications ..................130 tesa eee nee eee 143 Storage OCCUPANCIES J scsace is ccs sauna eee 146 ANSSOTMONY OXRGUIDEIMCNES secnoosscmanncoancénunnncascoudoacsostncensns 131 Utility/Miscellaneous OCCUPANGIES .............:cceeeeeeees 148 BUSINES SSO CCUDANGIOS seek etmermnntet meteac.acee eee 136 GY Multiple-Use Occupancies..........ccsssssssccceeceossseneeseee 148 20 UCU OMEN! WOCUDEMNONES saonsocsouesoansosesssaonosceandeconneosnse TEM SUMIMANY: cocscavers cece sec FAactony/ndustitallOccupanCleS Review: Questions .-cers.-e-u0c..-ceeeee eee Ot seen eee 138 ee eee OL tiie oeP t in c PLE Rse, D i. ee Key Terms ESCAr Quy All beers ee sass cee ec _ gence 123 Maximum Allowable Quantity ................ 148 fe Protected Steel ..........cscsssssssssessescsneeseverses 123 Job Performance Requirements This chapter provides information that addresses the following job performance requirements (JPRs) of INFPA® 1031, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner (2009) _ | Chapter 4 Fire Inspector | 4.3.1 4.3.4 Chapter 5 Fire Inspector Il Braie 5.4.1 Jajd p Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications ~~ Learning Objectives @ Fire Inspector | Describe each of the construction types defined by the model codes. Explain the purpose of occupancy classifications. Compare the occupancy classification groups used by the three main building codes. Describe the types of uses classified as assembly by the model building codes. Describe business and educational occupancies. Compare the factory, industrial, and high-hazard occupancies defined by each model code. aes Compare the International Code Council® (ICC®) institutional occupancies to the NFPA® occupancy JUN AS) are SU eee classifications. eo) Describe various institutional occupancies. 9. Explain the primary concern or hazard found in day-care occupancies. Describe the hazards usually associated with mercantile occupancies. . Compare each of the residential occupancy classifications. Describe storage, utility, and miscellaneous occupancies. Determine the occupancy classification of a single-use occupancy. (Learning Activity 4-/-1) Fire Inspector Il Explain the purpose of occupancy classifications. Compare the occupancy classification groups used by the three main building codes. Describe the types of uses classified as assembly by the model building codes. Describe business and educational occupancies. . Compare the factory, industrial, and high-hazard occupancies defined by each mode! code. . Compare the International Code Council® (ICC®) institutional occupancies to the NFPA® occupancy classifications. Describe various institutional occupancies. . Explain the primary concern or hazard found in day-care occupancies. . Describe the hazards usually associated with mercantile occupancies. Compare each of the residential occupancy classifications. Describe storage, utility, and miscellaneous occupancies. . Compare multiple-use occupancies as described by the three model codes. . Determine the occupancy classification of a multiple-use occupancy. (Learning Activity 4-II-1) FESHE Objectives Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Objectives: Principles of Code Enforcement None 120 Chapter 4 Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications Chapter 4 : Construction Types and el Occupancy Classifications Code Changes After Retirement Home Fire An early morning fire that occurred in a Colorado retirement home in 1991 resulted in the deaths of ten elderly women. Fourteen others were injured. The structure, consisting of 35 rooms, was not equipped with an automatic sprinkler system and was not classified as a long-term care facility even though it was being used as such. Previous inspections had failed to note that many of the residents were nonambulatory and required total assistance from staff members. The fire was ignited by a hot furnace flue that had come into contact with wood structural members in the attic. This terrible loss led to numerous changes in the community's fire codes, including the mandatory installation of sprinkler systems in all care facilities and closer comparison ofthe assigned occupancy classification with the actual occupancy use by the fire inspectors. Construction types and occupancy classifications are two critical elements that an inspector must understand when performing a plan review, issuing a permit, or making a field inspection of a new, renovated, or existing structure. The construction type is based on the fire resistance of the materials and design of the structure, while the occupancy classification is based on the use of the structure. Generally, the type of construction used in a building remains the same for the life of the structure unless a major renovation is undertaken. However, it is not uncommon for an inspector to discover during an inspection that the building’s occupancy has changed since the previous inspection. Occupancy changes may cause a higher level of risk in the building than it was constructed to handle (Figure 4.1, p. 122). When an inspector is preparing to review a set ofplans for the construction of anew structure, it is important to answer the following two questions: 1. What is the building’s purpose or intended use? 2. How and from what materials will the building be constructed? Ifan inspector is reviewing plans for a renovation to an existing structure, issuing a new occupancy permit, or making a field inspection, two further questions must be answered: 3. Have either the purpose or construction materials of the building changed since the last inspection? 4. What affect will those changes have on the fire and life safety provisions for the structure? Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 121 ing Occupancy Changes During Life of a Build au l 1900 Smith Manufa cturin g (Factory Occupancy) 1950 Smith Dry Goods (Mercantile Occupancy) VX LAA Bue Smith Historic Condominiums (Residential Occupancy) Figure 4.1 Occupancy changes are not uncommon during the life of a building. Construction types and occupancy classifications are established by the building codes that are adopted or developed by the local authority having jurisdiction (AHJ). The majority of these building codes are based on model codes that third party organizations such as the National Fire Protection Association® (NFPA®), International Code Council® (ICC®), or the Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes (CCBEC) have written. In order for inspectors to successfully review a plan or conduct an inspection ofa structure, they must have a thorough understanding of these occupancy classifications and construction types. Once they are understood, the inspector can apply the proper code requirements to the building or facility that is under review or inspection. The model building codes were presented in Chapter 2, Standards, Codes, and Permits, of this manual. This chapter provides an overview of the construction types and occupancy classifications established by the model building codes. Each construction type and occupancy group is described and comparisons are made between the model codes. Chapter 5, Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems, provides an introduction to building construction including the various materials and types of structural systems commonly used. 122 Chapter 4° Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications Construction Types The type of construction used in a structure or addition is determined by the architect or structural engineer. The selection of a construction type is determined by the occupancy type, building size, and the presence or lack of an automatic fire-suppression system. Cost is also a factor from the owner’s standpoint. Building construction types are based upon the materials used in the construction as well as the fire resistance oftheir structural components. The sections that follow describe the general characteristics of each construction type specified in the model building codes for the U.S. and Canada. Although there are minor differences between the model building codes, generally these types are common to each. The inspector must be familiar with the specific descriptions of these construction types as they are defined in the locally adopted codes. NOTE: For more information about building construction, please refer to the IFSTA Building Construction for the Fire Service manual. United States Construction Both the International Building Code® (IBC®) and the National Fire Protection Association® (NFPA®) recognize five types (Type I through Type V) of construction. The types are then further divided into subcategories, depending on the code and construction type. Each construction type is defined by the materials and fire performance for each building element of the structure. Although the building codes have subtle differences regarding construction types, there are significant common areas. Every structure is composed ofthe following building elements: e Structural frame Bearing Wall — Wall that supports itself and the weight of the roof and/or other internal structural framing components such as beams and trusses e Load bearing walls, both interior and exterior e Exterior nonbearing walls and partitions e Interior nonbearing walls and partitions e Floor construction @ Roof construction The construction materials and their performance under fire conditions determine the construction type of the structure. Refer to Tables 4.1, p. 124, and 4.2, p. 125, from the /BC® for use as references for this section. Type | et Iconstruction is composed of only noncombustible or limited combustible materials and provides the highest level of safety. Type I construction can be expected to remain structurally stable during a fire for the duration of the fire resistance of the members. All structural members are composed of only noncombustible materials and possess a high fire-resistance rating. Reinforced concrete and precast concrete along with protected steel frame construction meet the criteria for Type I Construction (Figure 4.2, p. 125). Occasionally, specific combustible materials in small quantities are allowed for use within limited parameters in Type I construction. These materials are related to some types of roof coverings, wood trim, finished flooring, and wall coverings. However, it is possible that the owner/occupant may install greater Protected Steel — Steel beams that are covered with either spray-on fireproofing (an insulating barrier) or fully encased in an Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) designed system Chapter 4 ¢ Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 123 Table 4.1 Fire-Resistance Rating Requirements for Building Element (Hours) Building Element Type | Type Il Type Ill Type V Type IV tT [a] 8 [AT e|A [e/a [es] Bearing Walls Exterior Interior 3 2 1 eye 2S 1 2 ic 1 2 2 Aer Oo 6) 1 2 Nonbearing Walls and Partitions Exterior Nonbearing Walls and Partitions Interior’ Floor Construction Including Supporting Beams and Joists | Floor Construction Including Supporting Beams and 129 5lel '8 Oe 14 0 Joists For Sl: 1 foot = 304.8 mm HT = Heavy Timber The structural frame shall be considered to be the columns and the girders, beams, trusses, and spandrels having direct connections to the columns and bracing members designed to carry gravity loads. The members of the floor panel or roof panels which have no connection to the columns shall be considered secondary members and not a part of the structural frame. a. Roof supports: Fire-resistance ratings of structural frame bearing walls are permitted to be reduced by 1 hour where supporting a roof only. Except in Group F-1, H, M, and S-1 occupancies, fire protection of structural members shall not be required, including protection of a roof framing and decking where every part of the roof construction is 20 feet or more above any floor immediately below. Fire-retardant-treated wood members shall be allowed to be used for such unprotected members. In all occupancies, heavy timber shall be allowed where a 1-hour or less fire-resistance rating is required. An approved automatic sprinkler system in accordance with Section 903.3.1.1* shall be allowed to be substituted for 1-hour fire-resistance-rated construction, provided such system is not otherwise required by other provisions of the code or used for an allowable area increase in accordance with Section 504.2*. The 1-hour substitution for the fireresistance exterior of walls shall not be permitted. Not less than the fire-resistance rating required by other sections* of this code. g. Not less than the fire-resistance rating based on fire separation distance (see Table 4.2). *Section numbers refer to sections in the 2006 International Building Code, ©2006. 2006 International Building Code, ©2006, Table 601. Washington D.C.: International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org 124 Chapter 4 ¢ Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications rene Table 4. 2 oe “Fire-Resistance Rating Requirements for Exteriors Walls es ee Based On FFire Separation Distance* ee Fire Separation Distance = X (feet) Types of Construction Occupancy Occupancy Occupancy Group F-1,M, | Group A, B, E, F-2,1, R, S-2, U® For SlI:1 foot = 304.8 mm a. Load-bearing exterior walls shall also comply with the fire-resistance rating requirements of Table 4.1 b. For special requirements for Group U occupancies see Section 406.1.2”*. c. See Section 705.1.1* for party walls. d. Open parking garages complying with Section 406* shall not be required to have a fire-resistance rating. e. The fire-resistance rating of an exterior wall is determined based upon the fire separation distance of the exterior wall and the story in which the wall is located. *Section numbers refer to sections in the 2006 /nternational Building Code, ©2006. 2006 International Building Code, ©2006, Table 602. Washington D.C.: International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org ion Figure 4.2 The partially completed building shown meets Type |! construct specifications. Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 125 amounts of these materials without the knowledge ofthe building or fire department inspectors. The inspector must be aware that the unregulated use of certain materials in Type I construction may contribute to an unacceptable increase in risk and be prohibited. Examples of these exceptions are described in detail in each of the model building codes. Type I construction structures are often referred to incorrectly as being fireproof. This perceived characteristic is frequently used as a reason to limit the requirement for automatic sprinklers or other fire-suppression provisions in these structures. Although the use of Type I construction provides structural stability should a fire occur and limits fire spread in a structure by virtue of fire barriers, it may not, by itself, offer greater life safety or loss reduction. Fire resistance and structural integrity may be compromised by the amount of combustible materials that the owner/occupant places in the structure in the way of furniture, wall and window coverings, stock, and merchandise. Type Il Buildings that are classified as Type II construction are composed ofbuilding materials that will not contribute to fire development or spread. This construction consists of noncombustible materials that do not meet the stricter requirements of those materials used in the Type I building classification. Structures with metal framing members, metal cladding, or concrete-block construction of the walls with metal deck roofs supported by unprotected open-web steel joists are the most common form ofthis construction type (Figure 4.3). Type II construction is normally used when fire risk is expected to be low or when fire-suppression and detection systems are designed to meet the hazard load. The inspector must always remember that the term noncombustible does not always reflect the true nature of the structure. Many times, noncombustible buildings incorporate combustible materials into their construction. This practice is most notable with some combustible roof systems, flooring, and display areas. Additionally, combustible features can be included on the Figure 4.3 All steel construction typifies Type II specifications. guzeus TEEL 126 Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications exterior of Type IJ structures including balconies or wall coverings for aesthetic purposes. Type Ill Type III construction is commonly used when building churches, schools, apartment dwellings, and mercantile structures (Figure 4.4). This construction type requires that exterior walls be constructed of noncombustible materials and interior elements be constructed of any material permitted by the code. Brick, concrete, and reinforced concrete are typical materials used in exterior walls and interior nonbearing walls. Floors, roofs, and interior nonbearing framing and partitions are constructed of small-dimension wood or metal stud systems. Unprotected steel and aluminum nonbearing wall framing members are also found in Type III construction. It is not uncommon to find buildings of Type III construction having wood or steel trusses, while new buildings tend to have more wood trusses and floor joist systems. The inspector should act with caution during the inspection ofthese structures for several reasons, including the following: e Voids exist inside the wooden channels created by roof and truss systems that will allow for the spread ofa fire unless proper fire stopping is applied. @ Old existing Type III structures may have undergone renovations that have contributed to greater fire risk due to the creation of large voids above ceilings and below floors. e Newconstruction materials may have been substituted to replace original materials during renovations. This substitution may result in reducing the load-carrying capacity of the supporting structural member. e The original use of the structure may have changed to one that requires a greater load-carrying capacity than that of the original design. cide Figure 4.4 The outer walls of this structure will be constructed of noncombustible materials so that the building will meet specifications for Type III construction. hime eee CA eT A 6 [P| Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 127 Type IV which Type IV construction is often referred to as heavy timber construction, (greater than 4 is characterized by the use of large-dimensioned lumber ions inches [101.6 mm]) for all structural elements (Figure 4.5). The dimens and roof of all structural elements, including columns, beams, joists, girders, sheathing (planks), must adhere to minimum Figure 4.5 Large-dimension lumber comprises all of the dimension sizing. Any other materials used in construction and not composed of wood must have a fireresistance rating of at least 1 hour. Type IV structures are extremely stable and more resistant to collapse sty to the effects of fire than other construction types that are not protected by a fire-suppression system. When involved ina fire, the heavy timber structural derived from the timbers’ own char that elements form an insulating effect es structural elements in Type IV reduces heat penetration to the inside of the beam. construction. Exterior walls are constructed of noncombustible materials. Interior building elements are solid or laminated wood with no concealed spaces. Fire-retardant-treated wood framing is permitted within interior wall assemblies. Floors and roofs are constructed of wood and generally have no voids or concealed spaces that could provide a means for fire to travel. Modern Type IV construction materials may include small-dimensioned lumber that is glued together to form a laminated structural element. These elements are extremely strong and exhibit the same or improved fire-performance characteristics as the old nonlaminated beam. These elements are used for many types of buildings, most often in churches, auditoriums, and other large, vaulted facilities. A limitation when these glued, laminated beams are used occurs when other materials, not classified as being heavy timber, are employed in the structure. Steel columns or other noncompliant materials supporting the glued, laminated beam are the most common examples ofthis deviation. Structures that have used these materials cannot be classified Type IV. Type V The construction type commonly known as wood frame orframe is Type Vv construction (Figure 4.6). The exterior bearing walls are composed entirely of wood and other combustible materials. Occasionally, a veneer of brick or stone may be constructed over the wood framing. The veneer offers the appearance ofa masonry-type construction while providing little additional fire protection to the structure. Perhaps the most common example ofthis type of construction is a single-family dwelling or residence. Most often, Type V construction consists of framing materials that include wood 2 x 4-inch (50.8 mm by 101.6 mm) studs, steel or aluminum studs, or wood sill plates. Plywood sheets and foam plastic boards along with wood sheathing are nailed or glued directly to the studs. The outside of the framing members is covered with any one of a number of covering materials including shingles, shakes, wood clapboards, sheet metal, plastic siding, and stucco. Exterior siding is attached by nails, screws, or glue or in the case of stucco is spread over a screen lattice that is attached to the framing studs. 128 Chapter 4 Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications Figure 4.6 Type V construction is most commonly known as wood frame construction and found in single-family residential occupancies. Type V construction has evolved in recent years to include the use of wood truss systems in place of the solid floor joist system of years past. The truss system, which is now very common, creates a large, open void area between the floors of a structure rather than the closed channel system found with solid wood floor joists. When wood I beams are used, they are usually constructed of thin plywood attached to 2 x 4’s (50.8 mm by 101.6 mm) forming the top and bottom ofthe truss. These I beams may have numerous holes cut in them to allow for electric, communication, and utility lines to be extended through them. Canadian Construction The National Building Code of Canada (NBC) defines the following three types of building construction: 1. Combustible construction — Construction that does not meet the requirements for noncombustible construction 2. Noncombustible construction — Construction in which the degree offire safety is attained by the use of noncombustible materials for structural members and other building assemblies 3. Heavy timber construction — Combustible construction in which a degree of fire safety is attained by placing limitations on the sizes of wood structural members and the thickness and composition of wood floors and roofs; also it avoids concealed spaces under floors and roofs To enable Canadian code users to understand these definitions, the specifies specific requirements and limitations on materials used for type of construction within the code. These requirements are listed in formats that are easy to read and understand based on the occupancy sification and construction type. NBC each table clas- Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 129 Occupancy Classifications An occupancy classification can be defined as the use of all or a portion ofa building or structure (Figures 4.7 a-c). Occupancy classifications are established because certain occupancies, by their own natures, will have higher fire loads (quantity of combustible materials) and greater numbers of occupants within them than others. For example, the amount of combustibles in an elementary school (educational classification) would not be expected to be as high as in a warehouse (storage classification). By classifying structures using occupancy classifications, building officials and code enforcement personnel can gain a reasonable expectation of the level ofhazarda particular’ building presents. Inspectors should be aware that conditions in buildings rarely remain the same. Changes in ownership, processes, renovations, and economics can result in buildings being used in ways that were not originally intended. For instance, a structure that was originally a warehouse and classified as a storage occupancy may be converted into loft apartments or condominiums. The fireprotection systems originally installed in the warehouse (if it had any at all) will be inadequate for the life safety requirements ofa residential, multifamily occupancy. Exit requirements, including fire-rated corridor walls, signage, Figure 4.7a Warehouse occupancies like the one pictured generally have higher fuel loads because they contain a greater quantity of combustible materials. Figure 4.7b Hotels are classified as residential occupancies, but they often have multiple uses that can make inspecting them a unique challenge for inspectors. 130 Chapter 4 Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications Figure 4.7¢ Occupancies classified as mercantile include retail stores and shopping centers like the one pictured. and emergency lighting, will need to be added to meet higher requirements. Some owners or developers may neglect to make these changes, believing that the structure was already approved for occupancy. Each of the principal model code organizations have developed occupancy classification code language that clearly separates each occupancy into categories of risk based upon the use of the structure or space. Table 4.3, pp. 132-135, offers a reference about how NEPA®, ICC®, and Canadian codes and their occupancy classifications correspond to one another. Although there are many similarities among the various model codes, each has differences and shades of meaning that inspectors must understand. Inspectors should be especially knowledgeable about the particular model code that has been adopted by their AHJ. For the purpose of comparison, Table 4.3 uses very general occupancy classifications. The three model codes are then grouped according to these general descriptions, which are given in the sections that follow. These general classifications are as follows: Assembly » Business e Educational e Day Care e Factory/Industrial e Institutional @ Mercantile e Residential e Residential Board and Care e Storage e Utility/Miscellaneous e Multiple It should be noted that NFPA® 101® separates day care and residential board and care into their own categories while ICC® and NBC group them with similar types of occupancies. Table 4.3 reflects this seperation. The information in the sections that follows is general in nature and most closely follows the current edition of NFPA® 1™, Uniform Fire Code™, and NFPA® 101®, Life Safety Code®. When ICC® codes and Canadian codes differ, this fact is noted. More detailed information can be found in the respective model building code or standard. Assembly Occupancies An assembly occupancy is any building, structure, or compartment (room) | that is used for the gathering of 50 or more persons (Figure 4.8, p. 136). - There are a wide variety ofpossible uses that fall under this general classification, including churches, synagogues, mosques, theaters, restaurants, and arenas. The assembly classification is divided into subclassifications based upon the type ofactivities that take place and the perceived hazard associated with those activities. For example, the requirements for a theater with fixed seats are different than the requirements for a dinner club with moveable tables and Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 131 Table 4.3 Occupancy Classifications National Fire Protection Occupancy International Code Council® (ICC®) National Building Code of Canada (NBC) Assembly Group A Assembly Occupancy Group A Division 1 A-1 - Occupancies with fixed seating that are intended for the production and viewing of performing arts or motion picture films An occupancy where 50 or more people gather for the purpose of amusement, entertainment, consuming food or drink, worship, or similar activities. Special use amusement buildings with no minimum occupant load are also included in this category Occupancies intended for the production and viewing of the performing arts A-2 - Those that include the serving of food and beverages; occupancies have nonfixed seating that is not attached to the structure and can be rearranged as needed Assembly Association® (NFPA®) A-3 - Occupancies used for worship, recreation, or amusement such as churches, art galleries, bowling alleys, amusement arcades as well as those that are not classified elsewhere in this section Group A Division 2 Occupancies not classified elsewhere in Group A Group A Division 3 Occupancies of the arena type Group A Division 4 Occupancies in which occupants are gathered in open air A-4 - Occupancies used for viewing of indoor sporting events and other activities that have spectator seating A-5 - Outdoor viewing areas; these are typically open-air venues but may also contain covered canopy areas as well as interior concourses that provide locations for vendors and other commercial kiosks Business Educational Business Group B Business Group D Buildings used as offices to deliver service-type or professional transactions, including the storage of records and accounts; characterized by office configurations to include desks, conference rooms, Cubicles, laboratory benches, computer/ data terminals, filing cabinets, and educational occupancies above the twelfth grade Occupancy used to deliver service-type or professional transactions, including the storage of records and accounts Business and personal services occupancies Educational Group E Educational Occupancy Buildings providing facilities for six or more persons at one time for educational purposes in grades kindergarten through twelfth grade: religious educational rooms and auditoriums that are part of a place of worship, which have occupant loads of less than 100 persons, retain a Classification of Group A-3 Occupancies used to provide education to six or more people for a minimum of 4 hours per day or 12 hours per week in grade levels kindergarten through twelfth grade Covered under Assembly Group A Covered under Institutional Group 1-4 Occupancy used to provide care to a minimum of four clients for less than 24 hours at a time. Caregivers are neither relatives nor guardians Day Care Covered under Institutional Group B Division 1 and 2 Continued 132 Chapter 4° Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications Table 4.3 (Continued) Occupancy National Fire Protection International Code Council® (ICC®) Industrial Occupancy Group F Division 1 Occupancies used for assembling, disassembling, fabrication, finishing, manufacturing, packaging, repair, Or processing operations Occupancies used for assembling, disassembling, fabrication, finishing, manafacturing, packaging, repair, or processing Operations High-hazard industrial occupancies Examples include but not limited to: aircraft, furniture, metals, and millwork Factory/ National Building Code of Canada (NBC) Factory/Industrial Group F Factory/Industrial F-1 Moderate Hazard Industrial Association® (NFPA®) Factory/Industrial F-2 Low Hazard Examples include but not limited to: brick and masonry, foundries, glass products, and gypsum Subdivisions: ¢ General Purpose ¢ Special Purpose High-Hazard Group H Group F Division 2 Medium-hazard occupancies Group F Division 3 Low-hazard industrial occupancies e High Hazard Buildings used in manufacturing or storage of . materials that constitute a physical or health hazard. High-Hazard Group H-1 - Detonation hazard High-Hazard Group H-2 - Deflagration or accelerated burning hazard High-Hazard Group H-3 - Materials that readily Support combustion or pose a physical hazard High-Hazard Group H-4 - Health hazards High-Hazard Group H-5 - Hazardous production Institutional Group | Ambulatory Health Care Group B Division 1 Group I-1 - Assisted living facilities holding more than 16 persons on a 24-hour basis. These persons are capable of self-rescue Building (or portion thereof) used to provide outpatient services or treatment simultaneously to four or more patients that renders the patients incapable of taking action for self-preservation under emergency conditions without the assistance of others Care or detention occupancies in which persons are under restraint or are incapable of selfpreservation because of security measures not under their control Group I-2 - Medical, surgical, psychiatric, or nursing care facilities for more than five people who not capable of self-preservation or need assistance to evacuate Group I-3 - Prisons and detention facilities for more than five people under restraint Group 1-4 - Child and adult day care facilities Institutional Health Care An occupancy used for purposes of medical or other treatment or care of four or more persons where such occupants are mostly incapable of self-preservation due to age, physical or mental disability or because of security measures not under the occupants’ control Group B Division 2 Care or detention occupancies in which persons having cognitive or physical limitations require special care or treatment Continued Chapter 4 ¢ Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 133 Table 4.3 (Continued) National Fire Protection Occupancy International Code Council® (ICC®) Association® (NFPA®) National Building Code of Canada (NBC) Detention and Correctional Occupancies such as prisons, jails, and detention centers where one or more indicviduals are restrained or secured. Due to the security measures, occupants require assistance for self-preservation Institutional Mercantile Group M Mercantile Occupancies open to the public that are used to store, display, and sell merchandise with incidental inventory storage Mercantile - Occupancies open to the public that are used to store, display, and sell merchandise Group E Mercantile occupancies Residential Group R Residential Occupancy Group C R-1 - Residential occupancies containing sleeping units where the occupants are primarily transient in nature (boarding houses, hotels, and motels) Occupancies that provide sleeping accommodations for occupants other than health care or detention and correctional facilities Residential occupancies R-2 - Residential occupancies containing sleeping units or more than two dwelling units where the occupants are primarily permanent in nature (apartments, convents, nontransient hotels, etc.) R-3 - Residential occupancies where the occupants are primarily permanent in nature and not classified as Group R-1, R-2, R-4, or | R-4 - Residential occupancies shall include occupancies buildings arranged for occupancy as residential care/assisted living facilities for more than 5 but less than 16 occupants (excluding staff) Residential One- and Two-Family Dwelling Unit Structure that contains a maximum of two dwelling units each containing cooking and bathroom facilities Lodging or Rooming House Structure providing sleeping accommodations for a total of 16 or fewer people who are not related on a transient or permanent basis. Food services may or may not be provided Hotel Structure under the same management that provides sleeping accommodations for more that 16 persons. Food services may or may not be provided Dormitory Structure providing sleeping accommodations for 16 or more persons in one room or a series of closely associated rooms. Food services may or may not be provided Continued 134 Chapter 4° Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications eo Occupancy | Table 4.3 (Concluded) International Code Council® (ICC®) National Fire Protection Association® (NFPA®) National Building Code of Canada (NBC) Apartment Building Structure that contains three Residential or more living units with independent cooking and bathroom facilities Covered under Residential R-4 Residential Board and Care Building or portion thereof that is used for lodging and boarding of four or more residents, not related by blood or marriage to the owners or operators, for the purpose of providing personal care Services Residential Board and Care Storage Group S Structures or portions of structures that are used for storage and are not classified as hazardous occupancies Storage Occupancy Covered under Group C Residential Covered under Group F Occupancy that is primarily used for the storage of materials, merchandise, vehicles, or animals Moderate-Hazard Storage, Group S-1 Storage Examples include but not limited to bags, books, linoleum, and lumber Low-Hazard Storage, Group S-2 Examples include but not limited to asbestos, bagged cement, electric motors, glass, and metal parts Utility/Miscellaneous Group U Utility/ Miscellaneous These are accessory buildings and other miscellaneous structures that are not classified in any specific occupancy (agricultural facilities such as barns, sheds, and fences over 6 ft [2 m]) Mixed Use and Occupancy Structure containing two or more occupancies or uses Multiple Mixed Occupancy ; : Structure with multiple occupancy types intermingled Covered under individual lassifications an ee Sa Separated Occupancy Structure containing multiple occupancy types that are separated by fire walls or assemblies This table is a general comparative overview of the occupancy categories for three major model code systems. Readers must consult the locally adopted code and amendments for complete information regarding each of these occupancies. Chapter 4 « Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 135 Figure 4.8 Churches, synagogues, and other places of worship classified as assembly occupancies frequently host gatherings of 50 or more people. chairs or the requirements for a gymnasium with bleachers. The exception to this requirement is the classification used by NFPA® that subdivides the assembly occupancies by occupant load. Assembly Under Different Standards NFPA® divides assembly occupancies into Class A for structures that have occupant loads over 1,000; Class B, occupant loads of 301 to 1,000; and Class C, occupant loads of 50 to 300. The International Code Council® (ICC®) uses five classification groups based upon specific use, A-1 through A-5. The Canadian codes employ four classification divisions that are grouped by their general use. Specific code requirements regarding assembly occupancies should be addressed and information sought from the locally adopted fire and building codes of the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ). Business Occupancies Business occupancies are buildings that provide a working place for large numbers of occupants in an office environment. These structures cmudes the following; General offices Doctor and dentist offices Air traffic control towers City and town halls Courthouses College and university instructional buildings Dry cleaning and laundry facilities Barber and beauty shops Also included by the ICC® are buildings that house outpatient clinics where patients are ambulatory and not incapacitated by anesthetic. NFPA® considers outpatient clinics as ambulatory health care facilities, 136 Chapter 4 Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications Business occupancies are normally divided into group areas and individual working spaces. This division has the indirect positive effect of compartmentalizing the large office space and separating it into fire and smoke zones. With the advent of the open-plan office space concept, this separation was lost. The use of low-level cubicles that could be rearranged allowed a return to the large open-area office spaces. Unfortunately, fire and smoke can move unimpeded throughout these large spaces. Educational Occupancies An educational occupancy is any building or portion of a building that is used for the purpose of education of six or more persons from preschool through the twelfth grade (Figure 4.9). Inspecting educational occupancies can often present significant challenges to an inspector. Educational facilities may have a wide variety of uses that include large spectator events, food preparation, laboratory experimentation areas, and industrial machining areas. The age and capabilities Figure 4.9 Educational occupancies like this school offer of the occupants of an educational facility can vary widely, from prekindergarten through adulthood. significant challenges to inspectors because they house ees ranging from classrooms and assembly occupancies be o machine shops, science labs, and industrial size kitchens. Although these facilities are not intended for 24-hour operations or boarding, it is not uncommon to find maintenance staff and other building personnel in the building at all times. The risk of fire in these occupancies can usually be considered low to moderate; however, these facilities pose hazards due to their high occupant loads and their variety of uses. Because each code describes educational facilities in a different manner, it is important that inspectors be familiar with their jurisdiction’s adopted building and fire codes in order to correctly classify these occupancies. This knowledge is crucial when determining the occupancy load permitted for these structures. NFPA® 101® and NFPA® 5000®, Building Inspection and Safety Code®, describe an educational occupancy as a structure that is used by six or more persons through the twelfth grade that meets for 4 or more hours in a day or more than 12 hours in a week. These codes also allow one person for every 20 square feet (1.85 m’) of classroom space. Laboratories and vocational shops are permitted one person for every 50 square feet (4.64 m’). Gymnasiums, lecture halls, and dinning halls follow the requirements for assembly occupancies. The ICC® building and fire codes also classify occupancies that provide education to individuals through the twelfth grade as educational occupancies. Religious educational rooms and auditoriums associated with a church that have occupant loads of less than 100 are classified with assembly occupancies. Day-care facilities providing supervision or personal care service for six or more children older than 2% years of age are also classified within the educational category. The Canadian codes do not classify educational facilities separately. Instead, these buildings are grouped with Group A Assembly Occupancies. Although schools or other educational facilities are not specifically described in the Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 137 code, the requirements limiting occupant loads are similar to those found in strinthe United States. Vocational training facilities, however, are far more gent, requiring almost double the square meter per person (9.3 m’ verses 4.6 m? [100 ft? versus 49.5 ft?]) than in the ICC® or NFPA® codes. Factory/Industrial Occupancies Each model code classifies manufacturing and processing facilities differently. Each of the model codes further separates this category into several subdivisions that are based upon the relative hazard or risk to life created by the process or activity. NFPA® classifies manufacturing and processing facilities as industrial occupancies. Within this broad classification, the following three subdivisions are described: @ General Purpose e Special Purpose e High Hazard The ICC® codes describe factory/industrial occupancies as buildings that are used in manufacturing, packaging, finishing, assembling, or disassembling products that are not classified as hazardous. Hazardous materials and processes are not included in the ICC® factory/industrial occupancy classification. Factory/industrial occupancies are also not classified for use as storage for storage of products or materials associated with the manufacturing process. Occupancies that contain hazardous materials or involve processes that generate hazardous materials or that constitute a physical or health hazard may need to be classified as high-hazard occupancies by the ICC® codes. Group F: Division 1 High-Hazard Industrial Occupancies Bulk plants for flammable liquids Flour mills Bulk storage warehouses Grain elevators for hazardous substances Lacquer factories Cereal mills Mattress factories Chemicals manufacturing Distilleries Spray painting Group F: Division 2 Medium-Hazard Occupancies Aircraft hangars Mattress factories Box factories Planning mills Candy plants Printing plants Cold storage plants Repair garages Television studios admitting a viewing audience Factories Warehouses operations Dry cleaning plants Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications Group F: Division 3 Low-Hazard Occupancies Creameries Storage garages including open air Factories Parking garages Laboratories Storage rooms Power plants Workshops Samples display rooms The Canadian codes divide factory and manufacturing facilities into three subdivisions listed as Group F Factory/Industrial Occupancies. Examples are given in the chart on p. 138. An inspector should inspect the structure based upon those requirements that pertain to the structure’s primary use. For example, offices and administrative areas should be inspected as business occupancies; cafeterias and dining areas as assemblies; and warehouse areas as storage areas (Figure 4.10). Institutional Occupancies Buildings classified as Group I Institutional by the ICC® codes are occupancies in which people with physical limitations due to health or age are cared for or provided medical treatment. Additionally, this broad classification includes facilities where individuals are detained for penal or correctional purposes (Figure 4.11). Equivalent occupancy classifications contained in NFPA® 1™ and NFPA® 101® include the following: Health Care Ambulatory Health Care Detention and Correctional Residential Board and Care Day Care (portions of the occupancy requirements) Figure 4.10 The warehouses in this factory complex should be inspected based upon the criteria for storage areas. Courtesy of Dave Warwick Aerial Photography. oo Fle 1 SSE Figure 4.11 In an institutional occupancy like this jail, facility employees must assist the egress of inmates in case of a fire emergency. yy, noss ‘ena ied SH Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 139 The Canadian codes classify these occupancies as Group B Care or on s tion Occupancies, dividing the group into Divisions 1 and 2. These division broadly encompass all the provisions found in the ICC® code for this occupancy classification. Examples are in the following chart: Group B: Division 1 Occupancies Group B: Division 2 Occupancies Jails Children’s custodial homes Psychiatric hospitals with detention quarters Reformatories with detention quarters Psychiatric hospitals without detention quarters Convalescent homes Penitentiaries Reformatories without Police stations with detention quarters detention quarters Prisons Hospitals or sanatoria without detention quarters Infirmaries Nursing homes Orphanages Health Care and Ambulatory Health Care Occupancies _Health care occupancies are facilities that provide health or medical services to four or more individuals who cannot evacuate themselves during an emergency without assistance from staff or emergency responders.A broad range of conditions may result in the inability of patients to escape, including age and mental, physical, or security provisions. This occupancy classification is identified only in NFPA® 1™ and 101. The ICC® codes include similar requirements that are included as part of Group I Institutional I-2, a subclassification. The Canadian codes include similar provisions within their Group B Care of Detention Occupancies classification. As is the case with several other occupancy Classifications, differences between the various codes exist. NOTE: In institutional/health care facilities, an inspector may find that more than one fire and life safety code applies. The local code may be applied to the design of the building, while NEPA® 101® may be applied to areas such as long-term care in order for the institution to obtain Medicare certification. When this situation occurs, both code documents are used in conjunction with each other to ensure that all requirements are met. Ambulatory health care occupancies are buildings or portion s of buildings that provide medical services to four or more patients on an outpatient basis (Figure 4.12). Patients in these facilities may be incapable of self preservation without assistance due to anesthesia or medication. Urgent care facilities are 140 Chapter 4» Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications Figure like the four or regular 4.12 Outpatient clinics one pictured serve more patients on a basis but may still have occupants who would not be able to escape the building without assistance during an emergency. included in this category due to the nature of the treatment and inability of patients to take care of themselves. The ICC® codes classify outpatient care facilities as Group B Business Occupancies. Detention and Correctional Occupancies As defined in NEPA® 1™ and NFPA® 101®, detention and correctional facilities are locations where the occupants are held under restraint or security. Locks are present on the doors where occupants are kept in these occupancies. In emergency situations, the occupants of these facilities are prevented from taking anything but limited life-preservation actions without direct assistance from staff personnel. The ICC® codes include these facilities within the classification of Group I Institutional Group I-3. The Canadian codes classify these facilities as Group B, Care or Detention Occupancies. Residential Board and Care Occupancies Residential board and care occupancies are described in NFPA® 1™ and NFPA® provided 101® as locations where lodging, boarding, and personal care are NFPA® . operator or to four or more residents who are unrelated to the owner the delivery differentiates these occupancies from other occupancies through similar classify codes ICC® of personal care services to the residents. The the while ial occupancies within Group | Institutional or Group R Resident n Occupancies Canadian codes employ either the Group B Care or Detentio or Group C Residential Occupancies. and welfare Staff members in these facilities are responsible for the safety Staff memcare. g nursin of the residents, but they do not provide medical or that they have taken bers typically provide meals for the residents and ensure monitor the well-being of the their medications. Additionally, staff members residents. residents but do not prescribe or medically treat of a residential board and It is important that the evacuation capabilities prompt, or impractical. The care occupancy are properly classified as slow, on the resident posing the most occupancy as a whole must be classified based of the facility has slow evacuation significant risk. For example, if one resident , the entire occupancy must capabilities and the rest have prompt capabilities determining which classification be classified as slow. The requirements for in NFPA® 101 and NFPA® each occupancy falls under can be found in detail to Life Safety. 101A, Guide on Alternative Approaches Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 141 Day-Care Occupancies Day-care occupancies are facilities that provide care, maintenance, and supervision of persons of any age for periods ofless than 24 hours per day (Figure 4.13). Someone other than a relative or legal guardian provides client care in these facilities. An inspector must be aware ofthe locally adopted code because the numbers of clients that establish these occupancies differ in each code. The different model codes provide requirements for these facilities. Each, however, differs in how they classify these facilities. NFPA® 101® for example, separates day-care facilities into a separate classification category. The ICC® model codes include provisions for day-care facilities within the classifications of Group E Educational and Group I Institutional Group I-4. The inspection of a day-care facility must be tailored to meet the specific needs of the residents. By understanding the capabilities of the occupant groups being served, whether by age group or physical condition, the inspector can best observe and mitigate potential fire and life safety hazards. Age groups that are capable of ambulatory self-rescue and can recognize dangerous situations pose a lower risk than nonambulatory, developmentally disabled individuals for example. When examining a mixed-care facility, the highest or greatest risk population defines the level of care that is applied to the entire facility unless each of these risk populations is segregated into individual group, supervisory, and/ or fire areas. An inspector must measure these risks individually and find a balance that provides both safety and security for all occupants. Figure 4.13 Code requirements for day-care facilities vary based upon the jurisdiction. Mercantile Occupancies Each of the model codes defines a mercantile occupancy as any building that is used to display or sell merchandise. Mercantile occupancies include the following types of establishments: e Department stores e Pharmacies (Figure 4.14) @ Supermarkets e Shopping centers @ Malls @ Other retail locations Mercantile occupancies contain both large quantities of combustible materials and the potential for high life loss, The arrangement of the merchandise, both on display and in storage, can result in high fire loads of Class A materials and at the same time restrict exit access for customers. Displays of 142 Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classi fications Figure 4.14 Drug stores and pharmacies are mercantile occupancies that present many fire hazards because of the wide variety of products on the store shelves and in stockrooms. products are rarely fixed to the floor and can be moved to create new access patterns in the showrooms. Changes in displays can alter the original automatic sprinkler discharge patterns, thereby decreasing the level of protection in the structure. Residential Occupancies Generally, residential occupancies are those structures that provide sleeping accommodations under conditions other than those defined for health care or detention and correctional occupancies. All model codes require that residential occupancies meet minimum fire and life safety requirements. Some of those requirements are included in codes separate from the building code suchas one- and two-family dwelling codes. NFPA® further divided residential occupancies into the following categories: e One- and Two-Family Dwelling Unit e Lodging or Rooming House e Hotel e Dormitory e Apartment Building One- and Two-Family Dwelling Unit those NEPA® 1™ and NEPA® 101 define one- and two-family dwellings as d detache g structures that have no more than two dwelling units, includin upon the units, semidetached units, and duplexes (Figure 4.15). Depending Figure 4.15 Single-family dwelling homes must meet all the standards of local model building codes; however, it is not necessary to inspect individual dwellings on a regular basis. Chapter 4 Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 143 kind offire separation between units, walls that are constructed in a eerie complex determine their occupancy classifications. A complex of dwelling units separated by a complete fire-rated wall allows the dwellings to be classified as individual units. codes. One- and two-family dwellings are not exempted in the model However, they are not subject to periodic inspections in most jurisdictions. An exception is Department of Defense (DoD) military base housing. A home owner, however, may request municipal inspectors to conduct a voluntary fire-prevention inspection. Lodging (Boarding) or Rooming House Lodging (boarding) or rooming houses are facilities that provide sleeping accommodations for rent. The management may or may not provide meals, but separate cooking facilities are not included for individual occupants. NFPA® 1™ and NFPA® 101® use this classification to describe occupancies that include guest houses, foster homes, bed and breakfasts, and motels that provide 24-hour accommodations for 16 or fewer individuals without cooking facilities. The ICC® and Canadian codes include provisions that are similar to these within the broader occupancy classification of Group R Residential. Examples are as follows: e Guest houses e Foster homes e Bed and breakfasts e Motels Usually a boarding or rooming house is a separate, distinct occupancy. When a single building shares space with a boarding or rooming house with services and operations intermingled, the most restrictive code provisions for these occupancies are applied. A boarding or rooming house cannot be located above a mercantile occupancy unless it is separated by a 1-hour fireseparation wall or the mercantile occupancy is equipped with an approved automatic fire sprinkler system. Knowing the number of individuals permitted to be housed in these facilities is the most common problem that an inspector faces during an inspecti on. In order to increase capacity, new rooms are often created in areas that were not designed to serve in that capacity. Often, the inspector will find that the exit halls have been converted into sleeping or living areas. These modifications may eliminate or block exit passageways. Additionally, the inspector must ensure that the maximum number of residents does not exceed 16 individuals. Hotel The model building codes define hotel as any build ing or group of buildings that provides sleeping rooms for transients. Hotels presenta wide range offire and life safety challenges for the inspector. In addit ion to sleeping accommodations, hotels often include the following occupancie s: e Meeting rooms @ Convention areas @ Casinos 144 Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications e Ballrooms e Theaters e Kitchens e Restaurants e Bars and lounges e Storage areas e Swimming pools e Physical fitness centers e Boutique retail shops e Business offices e@ Vehicle parking garages e Mechanical spaces An inspector must consider the requirements and challenges that each of these separate occupancy classifications or uses poses to the rest of the facility. Unless they are wholly separated from other building elements, each of these occupancies affects occupant fire and life safety considerations during an inspection. The ICC® and Canadian codes do not have occupancy categories that separately identify hotel uses. Each describes these occupancies within the -sidential group classification. The ICC® codes include hotels within broz Group & Residential Occupancies and the Canadian codes include them as Group C Residential Occupancies. Dormitory A dormitory is any building or portion ofa building in which sleeping accommodations are provided to 16 or more persons who are not related (Figure smaller 4.16). The sleeping accommodations may be in one room ora series of dining rooms. Individual cooking facilities are not provided, but acafeteria or may houses sorority and y fraternit hall may be part of the facility. Residential and y, universit fall into this category according to the ICC®. Fires in college, in recent boarding school dormitories as well as fraternity and sorority houses fire and d improve for years have caused an increased awareness ofthe need life safety in these types ofstructures. Figure 4.16 Inspectors should take special care inspecting college dormitories. Recent fires in such occupancies have raised awareness about fire and life safety hazards in these residential occupancies. Chapter 4 ¢ Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 145 Apartment Building Apartment buildings may be single or multistory structures containing three or more independent dwelling units with cooking and bathroom facilities in each. Units may have direct access to the exterior ofthe building or be designed with interior corridors that lead to protected or unprotected stairways. Apartment buildings that are greater than 7 stories may be considered as high-rise structures and may require greater fire and life safety protection. Because ofits location, age of occupants, age of the structure, and the economic status of the occupants, each apartment building presents a unique set of problems to a fire inspector (Figures 4.17 aand b). Fire-protection features and requirements applied to each building must be evaluated based upon the levels of risk that are present. All design features of the apartment must be maintained throughout its inhabited life. The inspection division should keep official records as part of the building’s permanent file and use them as a reference for all inspection activities. An additional concern for an inspector is whether or not the building’s occupancy has changed. Often, stores or other business-type occupancies have been added to an apartment building. Some of these changes introduce a higher level of hazard than when the structure was simply an apartment building. An inspector must ensure that proper fire separations, as directed by the code, have been included between the apartments and the new occupancies that have been added to the original structure. Another concern is structures that were originally intended for other uses such as warehouses, factories, and office buildings that have been converted into residential occupancies. These conversions usually result in multiple apartments or individually owned condominiums in structures that were not intended for residential use. Increased fire and life safety requirements are usually made during the plan-review stage of the conversion project. Figure 4.17a hallways that ceilings, and requirements Old-style apartments generally have interior provide access to individual units, high heating systems located in basements. Code are generally based on those in effect at the time of construction 146 Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications Figure 4.17b Apartments constructed in the past 50 ye share common elements, including exterior bi naive | heating and cooling systems, and lightweight Sean er materials. Fire walls may be required between specific =" numbers of units to prevent fire spread through common attic spaces. Storage Occupancies Occupancies that are used to store goods, merchandise, products, vehicles,or (animals are generally referred to as storage facilitie’. Each of the model codes approaches this classification in somewhat different ways. NFPA® uses a broad approach that includes the following facilities: e Warehouses (Figure 4.18a) e Aircraft hangars e Storage units (Figures 4.18 b and c) e Grain elevators (Figure 4.19) e Freight terminals e Barns e Parking garages e Stables «an ite ih Figure 4.18a Of the commonly encountered types of storage facilities, local jurisdictions may authorize periodic inspections of warehouses that may be part of an industrial complex or individual facilities used for storing materials during transit. Figure 4.18b Large-capacity storage buildings may be designed to contain multiple areas that are rented for _ storage. These facilities typically contain climate-control systems. Inspections may be permitted by the AHJ but only of the general facility and not individual units. Li i Figure 4.18c Individual storage units may contain a wide variety of contents depending on the policies of the facility owner. Inspectors will rarely have authority to inspect the individual units unless there is a complaint filed. during Figure 4.19 Grain elevators are used to store grain contents transit from farms to food production plants. The of dust that ies quantit large te genera can rs elevato of these create fire and explosion hazards. eg SP peeror Chapter 4° Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 147 Maximum Allowable Quantity — Maximum amount of a hazardous material to be stored or used within a control area inside a building or an outdoor control area; maximum allowable quantity per control area is based on the material state (solid, liquid, or gas) and the material storage or use conditions (Source: International Fire Code®, 2006 edition) ncy clasThe ICC® codes, however, describe storage within several occupa sifications. The primary one is Group S Storage, while the storage of hazard- H ous goods in excess of maximum allowable quantities falls into the Group Hazardous classification. A fire inspector must be familiar with the locally adopted code family and amendments to adequately conduct an inspection ofthese structures. Each of the codes addresses the level of hazard presented by the contents ofa given facility. The combustibility or flammability of the contents inside a storage facility usually determines the classification of the occupancy. Additional consideration must be given to the method ofstorage that is being employed in the facility. Utility/Miscellaneous Occupancies In one final occupancy classification, the ICC® is alone. The utility/ miscellaneous classification is used for buildings or structures that do not fit any of the other classifications. Generally, the buildings or structures are incidental or accessory to the primary occupancy and may not pose a hazard to it. Examples of utility and miscellaneous occupancies are as follows: e Barns e Livestock shelters e Carports (Figure 4.20) e Towers e Sheds e Fences over 6 feet (1.8 m) in height e Retaining walls Figure 4.20 Carports like these are miscellaneous occupancies that are incidental to the primary occupancy. They are classified as miscellaneous because it is unlikely that they will pose direct hazards to the occupancies to which they are attached. 148 Chapter 4 Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications Multiple-Use Occupancies Determining occupancy classification for a structure that only has one type of function or activity in it is a relatively simple task. When structures have two or more very different types of activities occurring within them, determining occupancy classification is considerably more complicated. Multiple-use occupancies usually require inspection personnel to determine which parts of the facility fall under a particular occupancy classification. Inspectors making a routine inspection should have records available to them that indicate what occupancy classifications have been assigned in the past. This information can be found on previous inspection reports or occupancy certificates. In most cases, inspection personnel will only need to verify that the structure still falls under the same classification. The inspector should consult with the building official ifachange is found or suspected. In general, NFPA® 101® does not require the separation of occupancies in the same structure. Local code ordinances may choose to require separations, but this requirement varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. The following two situations concerning mixed occupancies are of particular importance to inspection personnel: 1. Buildings that have different uses in distinctly different portions of the building 2. Buildings that have different uses in an intermingled manner that make it impractical to separate portions of the building for different classifications An example of the first situation would be a high school with a large auditorium. The majority of the building would be classified as an educational occupancy. However, the auditorium would be considered a place of assembly. Each portion of the building would be required to meet the code requirements applicable for that type occupancy. Inspection personnel are less likely to encounter examples of occupancies fitting the second situation, yet they represent the greatest challenge to the inspector. An example ofthe intermingling of uses might be alarge commercial printing operation (industrial occupancy) that has bulk paper storage (storage occupancy) throughout the facility. NFPA® 101® recommends that the most restrictive fire and life safety requirements of the occupancies involved be enforced in this situation. Depending on the particular situation, this recommendation could mean that either all of the requirements of one type of occupancy will take precedence or that various requirements from each of the two occupancies will be used. In the ICC® building code, Chapter 5, General Building Heights and Areas, inciSection 508, the ICC® includes two divisions for multiple occupancies: dental use and mixed use. ry use, or The Canadian codes do not address the issue of mixed use, accesso hed in approac are uses these incidental use of occupancies the same way that occupancies the United States. The codes require separations between these occupancies when in most instances, and it totally restricts combinations of a high-hazard occupancy is involved. Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 149 Incidental Use use shall conAccording to the ICC®, any area thatis designated as incidental the building of n portio form to the occupancy requirements of the building or protection must itis located in. Therefore, fire separation walls, assemblies, or as Institutional such group conform to the requirements for the primary use conform or Mercantile. If this condition is not possible, then the building must following to the requirements of a mixed-use occupancy as defined in the include section. Examples ofincidental-use areas as listed in the ICC® codes the following locations: e Furnace rooms e Parking garages e Incinerator rooms e Laboratories and vocational shops, located in Group E Educational and Group I Institutional, Group I-2 (medical), Occupancies that are not classified as Group H High Hazard under Factory/Industrial Occupancies e Waste and linen collection rooms that are over 100 square feet (9.3 m’) The model code usually requires fire-resistance-rated separations regarding incidental use. Where permitted, an automatic fire-extinguishing system without a fire barrier can be installed as long as construction features separate the rest of the building from the incidental-use area. These construction features must be capable of eliminating the passage of fire from the incidental-use area to other portions of the structure. When they are used, partitions must extend from the floor of the use area to the bottom ofa fire-resistance-rated floor or ceiling above. Doors leading into these areas must be self-closing or the automatic-closing type that activates when the fire alarm is activated. Doors in these areas shall not have air-transfer openings and must meet the provisions outlined in NFPA® 80, Standard for Fire Doors and Other Opening Protectives. Mixed Use Structures containing multiple-occupancy types are considered to be mixed occupancies. Each is individually classified by its primary occupancy classification and separated from the other occupancies by the appropriate fire wall separation. When the entire structure is protected by an automatic firesuppression system, the fire-resistance rating may be reduced. Some occupancy classifications are not permitted to share the same building regardless offire separation or fire-suppression system. For instance, Assembly and Educational Occupancies are not permitted in the same building with a Factory/Industrial High Hazard Group H-1 Occupancy classification. The inspector must remember this fact when old buildings are altered for multiple uses. The ICC® further divides mixed occupancies into accessory, nonseparated, and separated occupancies. Accessory. Accessory occupancies are subsidiary to the main occupancy of a structure and limited to no more than 10 percent ofthe area of the story on which they are located. This limitation does not include accessory assembly occupancies that are less than 750 square feet (69.7 m?) that remain as part of 150 Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications the main occupancy classification. Similarly, assembly areas that are accessory to ICC’s® Group E Educational Occupancies are not considered separate except when applying the code’s assembly occupancy requirements. Examples would be cafeterias and theaters attached to schools. Except for Group H High-Hazard Groups H-2, H-3, H-4, or H-5 Occupancies, which must be separated from all other occupancies, other occupancy types do not require separation except for those particular requirements of the individual classification. Examples of accessory uses could include a storage area accessory to an office building, an office area accessory to a manufacturing area, or a sales area accessory to a storage area. Nonseparated. Nonseparated occupanies are buildings or portions ofbuildings that have two or more occupancy uses each classified according to its own use. The restrictive provisions outlined in the ICC® codes regarding high-rise buildings and fire-protection systems are applied to the entire structure. Separated. Entire structures or portions of structures that have several occupancy types contained within them are referred to as separated occupancies. Each occupancy within the structure is classified individually with each fire area complying with the provisions ofits occupancy type for that portion of the building. The ICC® codes contain tables that describe the minimum separation in these types of occupancies. Separation between each of these occupancies is defined in the ICC® codes and in Table 4.4, p 152. Summary The ability of an inspector to determine the construction type and occupancy classification ofa structure is critical to the success or failure of aninspection. The construction type is established by the architect or construction engineer. The appropriate occupancy classification must be assigned during the plans review process and verified when the certificate of occupancy is issued before the owner/occupant takes possession of the structure. During periodic inspections and when alterations to the structure are made, an inspector must ensure that the fire and life safety requirements are consistent with the current use and alterations. Model building and fire codes provide the inspector with the guidelines for ensuring that life safety requirements are met. Because the information in this chapter is general in nature, it is critical that inspectors become familiar with the particular codes applicable in their jurisdictions. Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 151 Table 4.4 of Occupancies (Hours) Separation Required A’, E 1 | Re F-2, | B,F-1, |S-2°4,U7] MP, S-1 H-1 H-2 H-3, H-4, H-5 oceupaney |S [us| s [Ns] Ss[NS|s [Ns| s [ns] s [NS| Ss[NS] S_NS 3 AE | a ea | a ea fe ee of ee ee ee a 25S 2 || = [en ||| | | ee ae |. oe) eee aeesifo|-|-[- [oe[of E TE C E aes) | EE | For Sl: 1 square foot = 0.0929 m* S = NS N = NP Buildings equipped throughout with an automatic sprinkler system installed in accordance with Section 903.3.1.1.* = Buildings not equipped throughout with an automatic sprinkler system installed with accordance with Section 903.3.1.1.* No separation requirement. = Not permitted. a. For Group H-5 occupancies, see Section 903.2.4.2.* b. Occupancy separation need not be provided for storage areas within Groups B and M if the: 1. Area is less than 10 percent of the floor area; 2. Area is equipped with an automatic fire-extinguishing system and is less than 3,000 square feet; or 3. Area is less than 1,000 square feet. c. Areas used only for private or pleasure vehicles shall be allowed to reduce separation by 1 hour. d. See Section 406.1.4.* e. Commercial kitchens used need not be separated from the restaurant seating areas they serve. *Section numbers refer to sections in the 2006 /nternational Building Code, ©2006. 2006 International Building Code, ©2006, Table 508.3.3. Washington D.C.: International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org 152 Chapter 4 © Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications Review Questions 1. How many types of construction are recognized by the International Building Code® (IBC®)? 2. What is heavy timber construction? 3. What type of occupancy is a jail? 4. How many stories must an apartment building be to be considered a highrise structure? 5. List several types of incidental-use areas. 1. Whatis an occupancy classification? 2. List several types of business occupancies. 3. What are some of the hazards commonly associated with mercantile occupancies? 4. What type of occupancy is an aircraft hangar? 5. Whatis a separated occupancy? Chapter 4 ¢ Construction Types and Occupancy Classifications 153 nstruction ee ~~ Chapter Contents © © Construction Materials eee Wood .. rae L158 Structural Systems.. paneer awe 59 Concrete Structures ......... MASON srcrsponnce Sa SeenONeSeter ieee Ra ih eateteam sonar MOG Steel-Framed Structures... Concrete ....... Ree sata Masonry Strlehures.cnee- eee Steel aeerty cere Wood oe SroroMBSAaneesaenniesere PooEAMORA EOGECE OW, CLINE eI 169 GlaSSeeeee Nene. tascites Tos vale rateeee ae eee ae ven AO) Gypsum Board. 2 PLAS TT Citeenr ctr ee tana cktae,ote retreat RE ORR pS coat Fall) RC eeeeeeens tree akcneet tee eae We fete an Mane ea ent Peete sO) ecco eo eee 183 Structures SuiNimaryisc-.ee ee eee LG Review Questions (vO Rie tat need Og. : pte ee ee Concrete ACmMixture ..............:::0ccccceeeeeeees 166 Mushroom Capital ...........cccccccsssesssseeeeees 179 Concrete Block Brick Faced................... 184 PilaStericcenc tsetse eee eee 186 COlDG bree rceerireec serra eee eeececses asitiseeee ss 178 Pony: Wallice COLDelN Otc oececcaerettesscrttr eres 186 ROOT: DOCK ie rcrccccurssrerecteeratircot ryconve seers 177 DOP ame ieee recat cost sceececceassssevcncearnsryreretne 179 Scart JO cceectceeet eee sree eee 161 Exterior Insulation and Finish Siliceous Aggregate ...........:cccccessssseeees 169 SVSTCINSI(ELRS) Rerestrycresccesacaeueesessencseen 176 SIUM Veer ee tcc cceesece eens. err eeeeer eee ere 172 ne oe ersee ns tee ees 172 FAPe DAM DG leeemcecenrerertsteraensccatcnsscsotenness ars169 SUDCIPIAStICIZONcccssescetcece terre eescneemeee 166 EiPeEROTARC AINE Ser ecocccartscnceccesssreeccncscstencees 174 THErMoOplastic ........cecseeeeeeseeteeeetenteeesees 173 EIR Gs LOD ree eeeerte rere ieereerereseedentreseeeschot194 Thermosetting Plastics ...........ccccceeees 173 AL ThYUSt Plate ssivcscviccssceesvtrecascearescceveseepacgess 191 edessen eeree ere Pr Pee PPMP Pre ere eee 179 Job Performance Requirements This chapter provides information that addresses the following job performance requirements (JPRs) of NFPA® 1031, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner (2009) Chapter 4 Fire Inspector | 4.3.4 Chapter 5 Fire Inspector Il 5.3.3 5.4.5 149 Gg Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Learning Objectives o th Describe the common forms of wood Fire Inspector | products. Discuss the common construction materials used in the building of structures. - Describe the methods used to reduce the combustibility of wood. Describe the common forms of wood products. _ Describe the forms in which masonry materials are produced. Describe the methods used to reduce the Discuss the use of concrete as a building material. combustibility of wood. _ Describe the forms in which masonry materials are produced. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of steel as a construction material. _ Discuss the use of concrete as a building Discuss the use of other metals as construction materials. material. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of steel as a construction material. Discuss the use of other metals as construction materials. 8. Describe the uses of glass in construction. 9. Explain the use of gypsum board in building construction. 10. Discuss the use of plastic construction materials. . Describe the uses of glass in construction. . Explain the use of gypsum board in building construction. ihe Explain the uses, advantages, and disadvantages of fabric as a construction material. Discuss the use of plastic construction materials. Describe the uses and advantages of concrete in construction of buildings. . Explain the uses, advantages, and disadvantages of fabric as a construction material. Explain how steel components are used in construction. . Describe the use of masonry construction. Describe the uses and advantages of concrete in construction of buildings. . Describe the use of wood construction. Explain how steel components are used in construction. 14. Describe the use of masonry construction. FESHE Objectives By Describe the use of wood construction. Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Objectives: Principles of Code Enforcement Fire Inspector II . Discuss the common construction materials used in the building of structures. :; 156 Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 9. Identify appropriate codes and their relationship to other requirements for the built environment. Chapter 5 Building Construction: § McCormick Place Fire, 1967 The McCormick Place fire that occurred in Chicago in 1967 demonstrated the manner in which unprotected steel frames can fail under fire conditions. McCormick Place was a large exhibition hall and theater complex built in 1960. It was designed to host a variety of conventions and trade shows. The overall dimensions of the building were 1,080 x 345 feet (329 m by 105 m). The structural system of the main exhibition floor made use of massive steel trusses not only for support but also to provide unobstructed floor space to accommodate trade shows. Two floor levels beneath the main exhibition floor, which were also used for trade shows, were constructed of reinforced concrete. The steel trusses that supported the roof varied in depth from 16 to 10 feet (4.8 m to 3 m). The vertical height between the exhibition floor and the lower chord ofthe roof trusses varied from 31 feet (9.5 m) to 40 feet (12 m). Eighteen of these main roof trusses were spaced at intervals of 60 feet (18 m) along the length of the main exhibition hall. A secondary truss system provided lateral stability between the main trusses and supported open-web, steelroof joists. The roof was poured gypsum on gypsum form board. The exterior walls were precast concrete wall panels supported by concrete-encased steel columns. The steel truss columns that supported the roof trusses were protected with 3 inches (76 mm) of sprayed fiber fireproofing to a height of 20 feet (6 m). An additional layer of metal lath and plaster surrounded the fiber fireproofing and extended to the bottom ofthe roof trusses. The roof trusses themselves, however, were unprotected. The building had no automatic sprinkler system protecting the exhibition areas. Some sprinkler protection had been provided for maintenance shops and a vehicular tunnel. Eighteen hose stations were distributed on the main exhibition level. On Sunday evening, January 15, 1967, workers were completing the setup of amajor housewares show that was scheduled to run for the next week. The trade show included a total of 1,234 exhibits (608 were set up on the main exhibition level). The exhibition booths were constructed of a variety of materials, with plywood and wood fiberboard the main materials used. Some of the booths were over 15 feet (4.6 m) in height (space was available for sales meetings on a second level). The construction ofthese exhibition booths is significant because these booths provided the bulk of the fuel for the fire. At approximately 2:05 a.m., Monday morning, a fire was discovered near the floor level of one of the booths near the west side ofthe exhibition hall. Subsequent investigation indicated that the cause was probably faulty, temporary wiring. Although three city fire alarm boxes (Continued) Chapter 5 ¢ Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 157 McCormick Place Fire (Concluded) received by telephone at 2:11 were located on the main exhibition floor, the first alarm was fire. a.m. Custodial employees attempted unsuccessfully to control the glass exit doors. The first fire companies arrived at 2:14 a.m. and found fire visible through attack. At 2:16 a.m., Engine companies immediately proceeded to lay three lines for an interior 4 minutes of the first-arriving battalion chief requested a second alarm. Within approximately surrounded nearly ves themsel found their arrival, the firefighters who had entered the building required. were alarms by the fire. At 2:20 a.m. a third alarm was requested. Ultimately, nine AlWithin 30 to 45 minutes of the report of the fire, collapse of the roof trusses occurred. this of though the fire would not be declared under control until 9:46 a.m., the main portion mammoth exhibition hall was destroyed in less than an hour. The conventional wisdom at the time had been that the enormous interior volume of an exhibition hall would provide a means of dissipating the heat of a fire within the space. Furthermore, the large mass of the steel in the truss members seemed unlikely to reach a temperature at which they would fail given their height above the exhibition hall floor. From a structural standpoint, these mistaken assumptions regarding the amount of fuel that can exist in an assembly occupancy and the consequent release of heat in a fire were significant. A fire inspector must remember that the physical properties of building materials andthe laws of structural mechanics are constant. This specific example illustrates that when unprotected steel is exposed to sufficient heat, failure should be anticipated despite the specific structural design that may be employed. Basic to the duties of inspections and code enforcement personnel is the ability to recognize commonly used building construction materials and structural systems. Whether the inspector is performing plans review or field inspections, the ability to recognize building materials and systems and compare them to the building code requirements for a particular occupancy classification is essential. This chapter provides an overview of the commonly used building materials and the structural building systems found in North America. Chapter 6, Building Construction: Components, contains information on other building components such as walls, roofs, floors, doors, and windows. Construction Materials Throughout history, humans have built buildings from some very diverse materials including straw, sod, snow, and animal skins. In modern practice the materials most commonly used for construction are as follows: e Wood @ Masonry ® Concrete e Steel e Other metals (aluminum, cast iron, copper, zinc) e Glass 158 Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems @ Gypsum board e Plastics @ Fabric Building materials have a variety of properties or characteristics (such as strength, density, appearance, durability, thermal conductivity, and resistance to corrosion and insects) that determine their usefulness in various architectural applications. However, because each building material is different in its basic composition, not all of the properties are shared. Concrete, for example, will spall when exposed to heat; steel will not. There is no point, therefore, in attempting to compare the spalling of concrete with steel. However, some basic properties of materials are shared and these include the following: e Combustibility e Thermal conductivity e@ Rate of thermal expansion e Variation of strength with temperature The behavior of building materials in fires is affected by their overall quality as well as their inherent properties. It is appropriate and useful, therefore, for the inspector to have a basic knowledge ofthe properties of the common building materials that will be encountered during plans reviews and field inspections. Wood Wood exists in nature and consequently is cheap to produce and is renewable. These factors have made wood acommon building component for centuries. As a building material, wood has some disadvantages. Wood is never dimensionally true. Weather conditions can change its size and shape. Furthermore, wood does not shrink or swell uniformly. Wood can have defects such as knots, knotholes, decay, insect damage, splits, and warpage. One serious and fundamental drawback to wood as a building material is its combustibility. Despite advantages that exist in its construction, a building constructed of wood can be completely destroyed by fire. The structural members provide a large amount offuel for combustion, and the voids created in floor, attic, and wall cavities result in many square feet (square meters) of combustible surface area surrounded by large volumes of air for combustion. The varied properties of wood also affect its use in construction. The strength of wood varies significantly with species, grade, and direction of load with respect to grain. Wood is stronger in a direction parallel to the grain than against the grain. The allowable compressive strength parallel to the grain varies from 325 to 1,850 psi (2 275 kPa to 12 950 kPa) for commercially available grades and species of framing lumber (lengths of squared wood used for construction). The strength of wood is affected by its moisture content. Wood ina living tree contains alarge amount ofwater (Figure 5.1a, p. 160). When the tree is cut, the water begins to evaporate. As the water leaves the wood, either naturally or through drying, it begins to shrink and increase in strength. It is possible to dry lumber to any moisture content, but most structural lumber has a moisture content of 19 percent or less (Figure 5.1b, p. 160). Chapter 5 ¢ Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 159 Figure 5.1a Living trees have a much higher moisture content than lumber. Over time and as it is cut, wood loses its moisture and becomes increasingly more combustible. Courtesy of Paul Pestel. Figure 5.1b Once cut and removed from the forest, trees are converted into lumber in sawmills. In addition, the material that is removed to make lumber is used to create particle board and other pressed materials. Courtesy of Paul Pestel. Lumber is graded for both structural strength and appearance. Lumber that has a higher grade costs more. However, in a given structure only a few critical columns or beams may require a high structural grade. The grading of lumber permits it to be used more economically by allowing the designer to specify a higher grade where it is needed and a cheaper, lower grade in less critical members. Wood products for construction use take the following specific forms: Solid lumber Laminated members Panels Manufactured members Wood products may be treated with fire-retardant chemicals. Such treatments can reduce but do not eliminate the ability of the product to burn. Fireretardant treatments are discussed later in this section. Solid Lumber Solid lumber includes boards, dimension lumber, and timbers (Figure 5.2). Boards have a nominal thickness of 2 inches (50 mm) or less. Dimension lumber has a nominal thickness of 2 to 4 inches (50 mm to 100 mm). Timbers have anominal thickness of 5 inches (125 mm) or more. Dimension lumber is Figure 5.2 Lumber comprises most frame construction on small structures like single dwelling homes. 160 available in lengths from 8 to 16 feet (2.44 m to 4.88 m) in 2-foot (0.6 m) increments. In addition, members for use as rafters can be supplied in lengths up to 24 feet (7.3 m). Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Laminated Members Laminated members are produced by joining small, flat strips of wood together with glue. The beams produced by this method are known as glulam beams. The advantage to manufacturing laminated members is that sizes and shapes can be produced that are not available from solid pieces cut from trees. Laminated members can be formed into curves or given varying cross sections. Laminated members can be produced in depths ranging from 3 to 75 inches (75 mm to 1 900 mm) and lengths up to 100 feet (31 m). To obtain the necessary length from shorter pieces, scarf joints are used. Scarf joints permit the glue to transmit tensile and compressive forces along the length of the member. The laminating of members permits higher quality control than in solid members because defects can be cut out of the smaller strips before lamination (Figure 5.3). — Term used to describe wood members produced by joining small, flat strips of wood together with glue; glulam is an abbreviation for glued-laminated — Connection between two parts made by the cutting of overlapping mating parts and securing them by glue or fasteners so that the joint is not enlarged and the patterns are complementary Panels Wood panel products include plywood, composite panels, and nonveneered panels. Panel products possess several advantages from a construction standpoint and are widely used for roofs, subflooring, and siding (Figure 5.4). While solid wood pieces are stronger in the direction parallel to the grain, Figure 5.3 Laminated members have fewer defects than solid lumber because defects can be removed in the creation of laminated members. Figure 5.4 Plywood, shown applied to a structural framework, is a type of panel product often used in wall, floor, and roof construction. Chapter 5 « Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 161 two major axes. Panels panel products are more equal in strength along their e fewer pieces require less labor when used in building construction becaus need to be handled. their expoWood panel products are graded for their structural use and panel that sure durability. A grade stamp appears on the back of astructural exposure for lity indicates its intended structural application and its suitabi may be to water. The span rating of 82/16, for example, indicates that the panel oring subflo as or used as roof sheathing on rafters 32 inches (800 mm) apart on joists 16 inches (400 mm) apart. Manufactured Members Manufactured members are prefabricated from components such as dimension lumber, panels, adhesives, and metal fasteners and then shipped to the construction site for erection. Manufactured members include trusses, box beams, I beams, and panel components. Manufacturing members away from the job permits greater quality control and more efficient use of materials than assembly at the construction site. Trusses for floors and roofs can be produced from either pre-engineered designs or through the use of computer programs. Computer programs can precisely engineer the constituent parts ofa truss based on the required span and pitch. Structural panels consist of an interior frame or plastic foam core to which a skin of plywood or waferboard is attached. The panels can be as small as 4 feet (1.2 m) in width or may consist of a complete wall including openings for windows. A common use of manufactured panels is in the mobile home and modular housing industries. Fire-Retardant Treatment Wood can be treated to greatly reduce its combustibility. Building codes permit the use of fire-retardant-treated wood for certain applications within fire-resistive and noncombustible type construction. Fire-retardant wood resists ignition and has increased fire endurance when compared with nontreated wood. However, wood that has received a fire-retardant treatment is not completely noncombustible and should not be confused with materials that are fire resistive. NOTE: Recently Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) has tested and approved materials that can be applied to wood to make it completely noncombustible. Although these products are not readily used and are relatively new on the market, their use will become more prevalent in the future. The inspector should research the types of materials and their availability locally. The two main methods of fire-retardant treatment of wood are pressure impregnation and surface coating. Surface coating primarily is used to reduce the surface burning of wood. Pressure impregnation of wood is performed by placing the wood to be treated in a large cylinder in which a vacuum is created. The vacuum draws air out of the cells of the wood. The cylinder is then pressurized, anda solution containing the fire-retardant chemicals is introduced. The pressure forces the 162 Chapter 5 ¢ Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems fire-retardant chemicals into the cells of the wood. Pressure impregnation has the advantage of producing a treatment that is permanent when used under proper conditions. A number of fire-retardant chemicals are available for this pressurization process. They are proprietary formulations, however, and their exact formulations generally are not available. The fire-retardant treatments most commonly used are combinations of inorganic or organic salts. Pressure impregnation has the advantage of producing a treatment that is permanent when used under proper conditions. Any of the following chemicals may be used in the treatment: e Ammonium phosphate e Boric acid e Ammonium sulfate e Zinc chloride e Ammonium polyphosphate e Sodium dichromate Fire-retardant treatment of wood is beneficial but has some disadvantages and limitations. Some treatments may use chemicals that are water soluble, prohibiting their use for exterior applications. Others can be used in interior applications where high humidity does not exist. Some fireretardant chemicals may adversely affect the structural strength of wood under conditions of elevated temperature and humidity. For example, there have been cases of the structural failure of fire-retardant-treated plywood used in roofs. The design strength of fire-retardant structural lumber is less than that of nontreated lumber. The amount of the reduction in design strength varies with the specific treatment, but in the past, reductions of 10 to 20 percent have been used in design calculations. Fire-Retardant-Treated Plywood A common use of fire-retardant-treated plywood is for roof sheathing in multifamily dwellings. Some building codes permit the substitution of 4 feet (1.2 m) of fire-retardant-treated plywood at a party wall separation in place of a fire-rated parapet above the roof. The fire-retardant-treated plywood also can be used in institutional buildings for the entire roof assembly. However, the fire-retardant-treated plywood used in roofs can be subjected to elevated temperatures for prolonged periods due to solar radiation. Temperatures may reach 170°F (77°C) between the roof covering and the roof sheathing. These elevated temperatures may prematurely cause the chemical reaction that produces the char. The formation of the char results in loss of strength of the plywood. Masonry Masonry isa durable building material. The use of masonry is one of the oldest and simplest of building techniques dating back thousands of years. The existence of centuries-old masonry structures is not uncommon. The fundamental construction technique consists of stacking the individual masonry units on top of one another and bonding them into a solid mass through the use of a bonding agent. Chapter 5 « Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 163 s. However, deteMasonry units are inherently resistive to fire and insect of time. One drawrioration of mortar joints frequently occurs over a period on technique of laying back to the use of masonry is that the basic constructi joined by mortar individual units by hand is labor-intensive. Masonry units als, including the or some other binding agent can be made of several materi following: e Brick e Concrete block e Stone @ Clay tile block e Gypsum block Mortar is an inherent part of masonry construction; its primary function is to bond the individual masonry units into a solid mass. It also serves to cushion the rough surfaces of the masonry units permitting uniform transmission of the compressive load from unit to unit. Mortar provides a seal between masonry units and is important in the final appearance of a masonry wall. Most mortar is produced from a mixture of portland cement, hydrated lime, sand, and water. Portland cement functions as the bonding agent. Brick Bricks are produced from a variety oflocally available clay and shale. Bricks are manufactured by placing clay in molds and then drying the bricks after removal from the molds. The bricks are fired in a kiln during which they are subjected to temperatures as high as 2,400°F (1 300°C). This intense heat converts them to a ceramic material (Figure 5.5). Concrete Block Concrete blocks are also known as concrete masonry units (CMUs). The most commonly used concrete block is the hollow concrete block (sometimes referred to as cinder block) (Figure 5.6). Hollow concrete blocks are produced inanumber of sizes and shapes, but the most commonly used is the nominal 8- x 8- x 16-inch (200 mm by 200 mm by 400 mm) block. Because the concrete block is larger than a brick, it is somewhat more economical to use because it takes the place of several bricks. In addition to the hollow block, concrete masonry units can be produced as either bricks or as solid blocks. Figure 5.5 Bricks are heat kilned, ceramic masonry materials that provide excellent fire resistance and longevity. 164 Chapter 5 « Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Figure 5.6 Concrete blocks (cinder blocks) are more economically viable than brick in masonry construction. Figure 5.7 While stone can be laid with mortarlike bricks or concrete blocks to form load-bearing components, the stone on this home is an exterior veneer attached to the structural frame. Stone Stone masonry consists ofpieces of rock that have been removed from a quarry and cut to the size and shape desired. The principal types of stone used in construction are granite, limestone, sandstone, slate, and marble. Stone can be used in one of two ways in construction. It can be laid with mortar to form walls similar to brick or concrete block, or it can be used as an exterior veneer attached by supports to the structural frame of a building (Figure 5.7). Clay Tile Block and Gypsum Block Clay tile blocks and gypsum blocks were once widely used for construction of interior partitions. Clay tile blocks have been used for foundations and walls in areas where clay is available as a building material. The blocks are hollow, providing a space for fill material. However, the blocks do deteriorate over time and are susceptible to damage from water and freezing temperatures. Structural glazed tile is still frequently used where a smooth surface is desired such as in a shower room. ble for Gypsum blocks can be used for internal partitions but are not applica diminished in exterior use due to their ability to absorb water. Their use has buildings. modern practice, although they can be found in many existing Concrete . It is used for paveConcrete has many applications in building construction concrete masonry units. Its ment, foundations, columns, floors, walls, and materials, which are usually advantages are that it can be made from raw concrete does not burn, locally available and are low in cost. Like masonry, with soil. It can be placed in and it resists insects and the effects of contact Concrete types include the forms to create a variety of architectural shapes. following: Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 165 e Ordinary stone e Gypsum e Structural lightweight e High early strength e Insulating lightweight e Expansive Concrete is produced from portland cement, coarse and fine aggregates, and water. The aggregates used in concrete are inert mineral ingredients that reduce the amount of cement that otherwise would be needed. The coarse aggregates consist ofgravel or stone, and the fine aggregate is sand. The cement combines with the water to form a paste that coats and bonds the pieces of fine and coarse aggregate. The aggregates compose a large percentage of the total volume of concrete. Concrete Admixture — Substance added to concrete to aid in imparting color, controlling workability, waterproofing, controlling the hardening process, and entraining air Superplasticizer — Admixture used with concrete or mortar mix to make it workable, pliable, and soft while using relatively little water Clinker — Stony matter fused together by heat The strength of a concrete structure can depend on a number of factors. These factors include admixtures, the use ofreinforcing bars, and the waterto-concrete ratio used to mix the concrete Admixtures Different types of concrete can be produced for specific purposes by varying the ingredients or adding chemicals (generally known as admixtures) to the concrete mixture. An admixture known as superplasticizer can be used to produce a mixture that flows more freely. For example, the density of concrete can be reduced by using a lightweight aggregate such as shale or clinker. Reinforced Concrete Because concrete is weak in tension, it cannot be used alone where tensile forces occur in a structure. To resist the tensile forces, concrete is reinforced through the use of steel reinforcing bars (rebar) placed within the concrete before it hardens (Figure 5.8). Steel has a high tensile strength and expands with changes in temperature at the same rate as concrete. Although the steel used in reinforced concrete is not fire resistive, the concrete that surrounds it acts as noncombustible insulation to protect it from the heat of the fire. The overall fire resistance of the reinforced concrete depends on the depth of cover of the concrete over the steel and the quality of the concrete. Figure 5.8 Concrete will be poured around the rebar shown to create the reinforced concrete needed in this exterior wall. 166 Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Water-to-Cement Ratio The single most important factor in determining the ultimate strength ofconcrete is the water-to-cement ratio. Water is a necessary ingredient in concrete because it reacts with the cement powder in the hydration process. An amount of water greater than that required for curing is added to the concrete mix to increase its workability as it is placed in the forms. Some of this excess moisture evaporates and leaves microscopic voids in the hardened concrete. A portion of the excess moisture remains locked in the concrete. If too much water has been used in the mix, the final product will not achieve its desired strength. The presence of excess moisture in the concrete also produces spalling of the concrete under conditions of either freezing or exposure to fire. Steel Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon. Common structural steel has less than three tenths of one percent carbon. Cast iron by contrast has a carbon content of three to four percent. The higher carbon content of cast iron produces a material that is hard but brittle, while the lower carbon content of steel makes it less likely to fracture or break. Steel is the strongest of the structural materials. It is nonrotting, resistant to aging, and dimensionally stable. The complex industrial process by which it is produced is subject to tight control, resulting in a product with generally consistent quality (Figure 5.9). Steel is a relatively expensive material, but its strength and the variety of forms in which it is produced allow it to be used in smaller quantities than other materials. Steel is used for applications varying from heavy beams and columns to door frames and nails. steel as a structural Of major concern to the inspector are the disadvantages of disadvantages. these overcome to employed methods building material and Even though steel is flame resistant, it can still melt when exposed to tremen- dous levels of heat. The inspector must be able to recognize the materials that are commonly used to provide fire protection for steel. Figure 5.9 Steel frameworks like the construction shown are becoming more and more popular because of steel’s strength and resistance to aging. Chapter 5 ¢ Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 167 Disadvantages Steel possesses two inherent disadvantages. One is its tendency to rust when exposed to air and moisture. Inspectors should be alert to the presence of rust because it is an indication ofdeterioration of the steel and a weakening ofthe structure. In particular, they should notice exposed steel fire escapes that can become unsafe due to the rusting of supports and attachment points. Steel can be protected from rusting in several ways. Methods include painting the surface with a rust-inhibiting paint and coating the material with zinc or aluminum. Steel can also be produced using ingredients that resist rust as in the case ofstainless steel. The other disadvantage is the loss of strength when steel is exposed to the heat ofa fire. To members ofthe fire service, the deterioration ofthe strength of steel at elevated temperatures is its most significant characteristic. The fires normally encountered do not create temperatures hot enough to melt steel. However, they are hot enough to greatly weaken steel. Because temperatures in excess of 1,200°F (650°C) are regularly encountered in compartment fires, some degree of failure of unprotected steel can be anticipated. The loss of steel’s strength due to increased temperature is gradual. Rather than failing when it reaches a certain temperature, steel loses its strength over time as temperature increases. The quickness with which unprotected steel fails when exposed to fire depends on several factors, including the following: Mass of the steel members e Intensity of the exposing fire e Load supported by the steel Type of structural connections used to join the steel members Unprotected steel structural members that have less mass require less heat to reach the temperature at which they begin to fail. Members such as bar joists or slender trusses are expected to fail early when exposed to a fire. Massive steel beams and girders frequently stay in place under severe fire conditions (Figure 5.10). Figure 5.10 Unprotected steel members such as bar joists and slender trusses will fail more readily during a fire than more massive steel beams and girders. Courtesy of Ed Prendergast. 168 Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Fire Protection In order to use steel in fire-resistive designs, it must be protected from the heat ofa fire. The most common method ofprotecting steel is through the use of an Siliceous Aggregate — Coarse insulating material. In old buildings, the steel framework was encased in brick, : ‘ lavril clay tile, or concrete. A steel column encased in 3 inches (75 mm) of concrete NIE MONS Glee brorel stone, or sand with which silica, cement. and water are mixed to with a siliceous aggregate would have a fire-resistance rating of 4hours. This method is effective but it increases the weight and cost of astructural system. Therefore, other methods using lightweight materials were developed to protectine steel structure. form concrete Currently, structural designers prefer to use lightweight materials for the fire protection of steel. Examples of materials that can be used to fireproof steel include the following: e Metal lath and plaster e Multiple layers of gypsum board e Sprayed-on cementlike coating e Mineral and fiberboards The sprayed-on coatings have densities ranging from 12 to 40 pounds per cubic foot (192 kg/m*to 640 kg/m‘) and are especially popular where surface appearance is not important. The lighter weight insulating materials are usually more fragile than the heavier materials and are more susceptible to being damaged or dislodged from the steel. The most recent development in protection ofsteel is the use of intumescent coatings: materials that expand when exposed to the heat ofa fire to create an insulating barrier. These paint-like coatings can be applied in thicknesses of a fraction of an inch (millimeter) and provide fire-resistance ratings of up to 3 hours. Membrane Ceilings Steel floor support systems are frequently protected using a suspended insulating ceiling tile known as a membrane ceiling. The suspended ceile ing tile acts as a thermal barrier to the heat of a fire below. The membran ceiling is popular with designers because it allows ductwork and electrical conduit to be hidden above the ceiling while providing an attractive finished ceiling surface. Fy ; tae Stetok When a membrane ceiling is installed, all of the details specified for its exist for installation must be adhered to. Where penetrations of the ceiling ed increas as such ns, light fixtures or ventilation ducts, special provisio of y integrit the n maintai to insulation or fire dampers, may be required the ceiling. Fire Damper— Device installed in air ducts that penetrate fire-resistant-rated vertical or horizontal assemblies; prohibits the transfer of heat or flames through the ducts at the point where the duct passes through Heresy Other Metals on of buildings. These metals Metals other than steel are used in the constructi include aluminum, cast iron, copper, and zinc. applications but its lower Aluminum occasionally is used for structural r cost limit its use. Aluminum strength, higher thermal expansion, and greate , window and door frames, is used for applications such as roof panels, siding Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 169 and hardware. Aluminum has a melting point of 1,220°F (660°C) and under fire conditions will melt and drip. If aluminum panels are used for roofing, they cannot be expected to provide a safe surface for firefighters. Aluminum is also an electrical conductor. Aluminum siding may become electrically energized if overhead electrical service wires contact the siding where the wires enter the building. Cast iron was used in buildings in structural framing before the 20" century. Cast iron columns can still be found in old buildings. A few structures were built with complete cast iron fronts (Figure 5.11). However, in modern practice, steel has completely displaced cast iron because cast iron is a brittle material. Cast iron tends to fail by fracturing rather than by yielding as in the case ofsteel. Copper and zinc have very limited uses in buildings because they are not as strong as steel. Because ofits attractive color, copper is used for decorative purposes in applications such as gutters and sheet metal roofing. Zinc is used for construction hardware such as mounting brackets, foot plates, and other parts used to secure structural members like joists and rafters. It is also used in the production ofnails. Figure 5.11 Cast iron facades were popular before the turn of the 20" century but are no longer practical in modern construction. These facades can fall from the structure during a fire or may fracture and fall when cooled during fire-fighting activities. Glass Glass is present in most buildings. Its obvious use is for windows, skylights, storefronts, and other applications where the transmission of light is desirable. The architectural applications of glass extend to gothic church windows, partition walls, and the exterior curtain walls of buildings (Figure 5.12). As is the case with other building materials, several different types ofglass are produced. The most commonly encountered glass types are as follows: ¢ Ordinary, single-strength annealed — Glass produced by slowly cooling the hot glass during its production, which permits the release of thermal stresses that would form if the glass were cooled rapidly. ¢ Heat-strengthened — Glass having a residual surface compression greater than 3,500 psi (24 500 kPa) and less than 10,000 psi (70 000 kPa), which makes it stronger than annealed glass of the same size and thickness. Asa result, the material is more resistant to thermally induced stresses, cyclic wind pressures, and impacts by windborne objects. Compressive stresses are also induced, but the stresses are not as great as those in fully tempered glass. Heat-strengthened glass costs less than fully tempered glass but is not as strong as fully tempered glass. e Fully tempered — Glass having a residual surface compression in excess of 10,000 psi (70 000 kPa), which is produced by cooling the exterior surfaces with air while allowing the inner core to cool more slowly, resultin g in compressive stresses in the edges ofthe glass that give it greater strength (about four times stronger than annealed glass). When this glass is broken, the internal stresses are released producing small granules ofglass rather than large sharp-edged chunks. Fully tempered glass is used in windows that might be subject to high wind forces and exterior doors that people might walk into accidentally. 170 Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems e Laminated — Glass that consists of two layers of glass with a transparent layer of vinyl bonded into the center. When laminated glass is broken, the inner core ofvinyl holds the broken pieces of glass in place. This glass may be found in security windows used for drive-in bank tellers and similar applications and can be used to reduce noise transmission because it is a good barrier to sound. e Glass block — Glass produced either as solid or hollow non-load-bearing units with different surface patterns that create varied light patterns and typically available in sizes ranging from 6 x 6 inches (150 mm by 150 mm) to 8 x 8 inches (200 mm by 200 mm) and 3 or 4 inches (75 mm or 100 mm) ; in thickness. Individual glass blocks are assembled into panels with either mortar ora silicone sealant between individual blocks, which are then secured to the sur- Figure 5.12 Glass exterior walls do not help support the structure. Instead, buildings like rounding wall using steel channels or specially designed anchors. Any _ ‘hls one feature curtain walls of masonry or other structural load above a glass block assembly must be supported independently. Fire-resistive factors: glass attached to the framework to give the building a more appealing look and provide large — Glass block is not a fire-resistive material. It cannot be used where a —-Quantities of natural light. fire-rated wall assembly is required. — Glass blocks that carry fire ratings of 45, 60, and 90 minutes for use as window assemblies are available and may be used for the protection of limited-size openings in fire-rated walls when permitted by the local building code. — Glass block alone cannot be substituted for a fire-rated wall. Glass is noncombustible but not fire resistive. When heated, internal thermal stresses cause glass to shatter and fall out ofits frame. However, the following types ofglass are suitable where fire resistance is required: e Wired glass — Glass made by rolling a mesh of wires into a sheet of hot glass. When the glass breaks, the wires hold the glass in place permitting it to act as a barrier to a fire. Wired glass is used in both interior and exterior applications, in fire doors, in windows adjacent to fire escapes, in corridor separations, and to protect against exterior exposures. Wired glass is usually produced ina thickness of 44-inch (6 mm). For 4-inch (6 mm) wired glass, the maximum allowable area for one piece of glass is 1,296 square inches (836 100 mm’). Fire-resistive factors: Wired glass provides a 45-minute rating when used in a listed fire door or fire window frame. The — Wired glass is also used in fire doors having a 90-minute rating. square maximum allowable area of wired glass in these doors is 100 inches (64 500 mm’). These fire-rated e Fire-rated glass — Glass that does not use interior wires. A 45-minute glass panels are made froma combination ofglass and plastic. (2 145 100 inches square rating can be attained for panels as large as 3,325 — available. However, mm7’), and fire ratings as great as 90 minutes are also glass. Architects fire-rated glass is considerably more expensive than wired the wire within e frequently find the use of wired glass objectionable becaus the glass. the glass may detract from the visual appearance of Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 171 Itis often architecturally desirable to use glass where a fire-rated partition gue is required without resorting to wire glass or fire-rated glass. A simple sprinic automat relatively inexpensive alternative often suggested is to use klers discharging on the glass surface to keep the glass cool. However, simply directing sprinkler discharge at glass may not be an acceptable substitute for a fire-resistive assembly. The water tends to form irregular rivulets as it flows down the surface resulting in thermal stresses and causing failure in the glass. However, a special sprinkler has been developed that can be used in combination with heat-strengthened or tempered glass where a rating of up to 2 hours is required. The design ofthe sprinkler incorporates a deflector that is designed to wet the entire surface ofthe glass. Pony Wall — Non-load-bearing wall that is less than 36 inches (910 mm) high These sprinklers must be installed on both sides of the glass for interior applications. The height of the protected glass panel is limited to 13 feet (3.9 m). A 36-inch (910 mm) high pony wall at the base ofthe glazing is also required. Gypsum Board . Over the period of the last five decades, gypsum board has become a widely used interior finish material. The installation of gypsum board requires less labor than lath and plaster and, therefore, is an inexpensive substitute for plaster. Itis so commonly used and plays such a significant role in fire-resistive assemblies that it deserves special mention as a building material. Gypsum board is also known as gypsum wallboard, plasterboard, Sheetrock®, and drywall. Lath and Plaster Wall Construction Prior to the advent of gypsum board, the most common interior finish was lath and plaster. The lath, strips of wood 2 inches (50 mm) wide and % inch (6 mm) thick, were nailed horizontally to the wood wall studs. A %-inch (6 mm) space was left between each strip. A %-inch (6 mm) thick layer of plaster was applied over the lath and pressed into the spaces as a means of holding the plaster in place. A top coat of plaster was applied as a finish coat that would be painted or covered with wall paper or canvas. Although lath and plaster construction is no longer used, an inspector will encounter existing structures built before 1960 that contain lath and plaster walls. During renovations, it may be necessary to require the replacement of lath and plaster with gypsum to meet current building code requirements. Calcined — Process that heats a substance to a high temperature but below the melting or fusing point, causing loss of moisture, reduction or oxidation, and decomposition of carbonates and other compounds Slurry — Suspension formed by a quantity of powder mixed into a liquid in which the solid is only slightly soluble Gypsum board is used in such fire-resistive assemblies as corridor partitions, stair enclosures, shaft walls, column protection, and membrane ceilings and in the protection of individual beams and girders. Assemblies using gypsum board can have fire-resistance ratings from 1 hour to 4 hours. Gypsum board consists of a core of calcined gypsum, starch, water, and other additives that is sandwiched between two paper faces. The inner core is produced as slurry, and the core and paper facing are passed between rollers to produce the desired thickness. Although gypsum board has a paper facing, it has a very low surface flammability because ofthe relative thinness of the paper facing compared to the thickness of the inner core material. When exposed 172 Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems to fire, heat is conducted through the paper to the inner core. The moisture in the gypsum core acts to absorb the heat. The paper facing is scorched but contributes little to progressive burning. Several types of gypsum board are produced for different purposes such as the following: e Regular gypsum board — Used for most applications e Water-resistant gypsum board — Produced with a water-repellent paper facing for use where it may be exposed to moisture e Type X gypsum board — Used in fire-rated assemblies e Type C gypsum board — Used in fire-rated assemblies e Foil-backed gypsum board — Used to eliminate the vapor barrier in outside walls e Gypsum backing board assemblies — Used as a backing layer in multilayer e Coreboard — Used for shaft walls and solid partitions Gypsum board is available in thicknesses varying from %4-inch (6 mm) to %4-inch (20 mm); 1-inch (25 mm) gypsum board is used only for coreboard. Type X gypsum board used in fire-rated assemblies is produced with glass fibers that act as reinforcement. The glass fibers provide tensile strength for the inner gypsum core and prevent its deterioration when exposed to fire. Type C gypsum board contains vermiculite that expands as it is exposed to heat. This expansion allows the gypsum to maintain its integrity and remain dimensionally stable for longer periods of exposure. Plastic The term plastic encompasses a large number of synthetic, organic materials of high molecular weight that can be formed by pressure, heat, extrusion, and other methods. Plastics usually are made from resins, polymers, cellulose derivatives, caseins, and proteins. Thermosetting and thermoplastic are the two major types of plastics. Thermosetting plastics are those that are hardened into a permanent shape in the manufacturing process and are not subject to softening when reheated. Examples of thermosetting plastics are vulcanized rubber and Bakelite. Thermoplastics can be reheated, melted, and remolded into new shapes. iti of p plastic, p plastics are also subdivided into In addition to the two broad types of 20 to 30 major groups. Further variations can be Daeaneed) within the yo groups by varying the chemistry of individual materials. The large variety of plastics available permits their use in many different applications. In building Thermosetting Plastics — Synthetic polymers that soften when initially heated but then harden into a permanent shape; will not soften or melt when reheated Thermoplastic — Synthetic material made from the polymerization of organic ineceneeoT Pantin when heated and hard when cooled construction, plastics are used for such components as the following: e Siding e Floor covering Insulation e Tub and shower enclosures Vapor barriers Sprinkler piping Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 173 Figure 5.13 One popular use for plastics in construction is as pipes and pipe fittings, shown here in the construction of interior walls. ° Lighting fixtures e Skylights and roof domes e Pipe and pipe fittings (Figure 5.13) Despite their variety, plastics share certain common characteristics. Plastics are human-made materials. Most plastics are based on the carbon atom, classifying them as organic materials even though they do not occur naturally. The molecules in plastics are actually long polymers consisting of repeating groups of atoms. Variations in the fundamental chemistry of plastics account for their differing properties. Plastics can be flexible or stiff, tough or brittle, transparent or opaque. The strength ofplastic materials is close to that of wood although glass-fiber-reinforced plastic may be nearly as strong as steel. Plastics are not usually used for structural applications in buildings because oftheir generally lower strength and their greater tendency to bend. Table 5.1 lists the major groups of plastics that are used in building construction and their typical applications. It must be emphasized that the materials listed in this table are major plastic groups. These groups have specific plastics contained within them. For example, contained within the vinyl group are vinyl acetate, vinyl alcohol, vinyl butyral, vinyl chloride, and vinyl fluoride. The increasing use of plastics in construction increases the amount of combustible materials both inside and outside a structure. The inspector must realize the flammability and increased fire hazard posed by the use of plastics. Some plastics, used as thermal barriers, may be invisible to the inspector once the structure is completed while others, used for external veneer, may be difficult to recognize. The sections that follow address these issues. Fire Retardant — Chemical applied to a material or another substance that is designed to retard ignition or the spread of fire 174 Flammability The flammability of plastics is of fundamental interest to an inspector. Just as with their other properties, the flammability of plastics varies widely. Some plastics, such as cellulose nitrate, burn so rapidly that they constitute a Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems unique fire hazard. Other plastics may burn slowly and stop burning when the ignition source is removed. Fire retardants can be added to some plastics to reduce their flammability and ignition sensitivity. However, even plastics with low flammability are subject to deterioration and may evolve toxic gases at temperatures above 500°F (260°C). Plastic materials frequently exhibit burning properties different from other materials. For example, nylon usually melts and drips when it burns. Foam plastics burn more intensely when tested on a large scale than when tested in small samples. Some plastics generate enormous quantities of heavy smoke. The products of combustion of some plastics are more toxic than nonplastic materials. The combustion of vinyl chloride, for example, produces hydrogen chloride, the gaseous form of hydrochloric acid. Hydrogen chloride is corrosive as well as toxic and increases the damage done to sensitive electrical equipment. _ Table 5.1 Plastics Commonly Used in Construction Plastic Group Construction Application Acrylonitrile-Butadiene Styrene (ABS) Water and gas supply lines, drain and waste systems Acrylics Skylights, translucent ceiling panels, light diffuser, and glazing Cellulosics Piping and pipe fittings, outdoor lighting fixtures Epoxies Adhesive for sandwich panels, floor tiles, and patching concrete Flourocarbons Chemical piping Nylons Carpeting, fabric in airsupported structures Phenolics Electrical parts, foamed insulation, and sandwich panels Fire Hazards Because of the wide varieties of reaction to heat, the use of plastics in building construction increases the fire hazard to the extent that it increases the amount offuel in a building and the toxicity of the products of combustion. This issue is important where plastics are used in buildings that are classified as either noncombustible or fire resistive under the provisions ofa building code. The use of plastic shower enclosures in a fire-resistive hotel, for instance, may provide a path for vertical com- Polycarbonates Safety glazing, lighting fixtures, and lighted signs Polyesters Translucent sheeting, molded bathtubs, shower stalls, and sinks Polyethylene Vapor barrier in wall assemblies, wire and cable insulation Polystyrene (foamed) munication of fire through a plumbing chase. In some applications, the introduction ofplastic maPolyurethanes the example, For significant. terials into a building is not use of plastic pipe in a building of wood construction Vinyl increases the amount offuel available, but the increase in used is small compared to the overall amount of wood the structure. However, where large amounts ofplastic are used, such as foam plastic in wall insulation, the fire hazard is greatly increased. Special treatment such as covering the surface ofthe insulation witha noncombustible surface material or providing automatic sprinklers is required in these instances. Duct and pipe insulation, insulation in freezers, refrigerators, walls, and ceilings Wall and ceiling insulation, pipe and duct insulation, upholstery Tile flooring, gutters, molding, window frames, siding, and exterior finish Thermal Barriers (13 mm) of gypsum Building codes require that a thermal barrier of % inch from the interior of s plastic e wallboard or equivalent material must separat when foam plasthe building. Exceptions to this basic requirementare made foam plastic used ina tic is covered with aluminum or steel facing and when the foam plastic roof covering is supported by a structural sheathing. When tic sprinklers is used in a thickness greater than 4 inches (100 mm), automa are required in addition to the thermal barrier. Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 175 Exterior Veneers Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems (EIFS) — Exterior cladding or covering systems composed of an adhesively or mechanically fastened foam insulation board, reinforcing mesh, a base coat, and an outer finish coat; also Known as synthetic stucco . Arecent development in plastic application is the use of plastic as an exterior veneer on building walls known as Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems (EIFS). EIFS can consist of fiberglass insulation, gypsum board, and expanded polystyrene bead board or extruded foam with a hand-troweled finish coat. EIFS may also simply consist of foam plastic panels attached to an existing exterior wall. The finished product closely resembles a stucco or etchedconcrete finish. EIFS are an economical way to improve the appearance ofan existing masonry wall that has become deteriorated. EIFS, however, can be ignited from an exterior ignition source or from the radiant heat of an exposed fire. For these reasons, it is important that an inspector recognize the use of EIFS ina building’s construction. Fabric Membrane Structure — Weather-resistant, flexible or semiflexible covering consisting of layers of materials over a supporting framework Structures that make use of fabrics as a part of their enclosing surfaces are known as membrane structures. The use ofvarious kinds offabrics for shelters or structures is not anew concept. Canvas and other materials have long been used for tents and similar applications. However, fabrics have been developed that can be used as part of the enclosing walls and roofs of permanent structures (Figure 5.14). The materials used for these applications include Teflon®-coated fiberglass and rubber-coated nylon fabrics. Membrane structures possess several advantages from a design standpoint. The fabrics weigh less than other roof systems. Fabric roofs weigh about 2 pounds per square foot (9.8 kg per m*). They can usually be erected in less time thana rigid structural system. The fabric of themembrane can flex and absorb some ofthe stresses from seismic and wind forces. Finally, the use of fabric permits the development of innovative architectural shapes. There are also disadvantages to the use of membrane structure. Fabrics cannot support compressive forces. They must be supported by cables and masts or a tubular framework. Membrane structures can also be supported by internal air pressure. The support system must provide sufficient rigidity to avoid shaking or flapping. Similarly, the fabrics used in membrane structures cannot be used to support building appliances such as lighting or heating equipment. This equipment must be supported from the framework that supports the membrane. Whena Figure 5.14 Membrane buildings use lightweight fabrics held under pressure to create walls and roofs. 176 Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems membrane structure is required to be equipped with an automatic sprinkler system, the sprinkler piping must also be supported from the framework used to support the surface material. Fabrics are considerably thinner than other assemblies used for roof systems. This presents a problem of ensuring adequate thermal insulation. To overcome this, two layers of material separated by a distance ofseveral inches (millimeters) can be used. The intervening air space acts as a thermal barrier. The materials used in membrane structures must be noncombustible. The membrane structures then can be classified as noncombustible by building codes. Membrane structures can also be used in fire-resistive construction in those instances where a building code only requires a noncombustible roof for a fire-resistive building. Structural Systems From an inspector’s viewpoint, construction types and basic structural systems of buildings are related. The construction types result from the materials and structural systems used in buildings. For example, reinforced concrete or protected steel framing is found in Type I, fire-resistive buildings. The use of unprotected steel results in a building being classified as a Type II, noncombustible building. Wood and masonry together are found in ordinary construction (Type III) and heavy timber construction (Type IV). An inspector must keep in mind, however, that these relationships are not absolute. For example, masonry curtain walls can be found ina building with a steel frame, and unprotected steel beams can be used to support a concrete slab. Furthermore, basic structural systems can be used in combination. It is possible for a building to use both reinforced concrete and a steel frame for different parts of the building. The design of astructural system involves the blending of the properties of one or more of the construction materials into a unit that will withstand the forces applied to it in a reliable, economical, functional, and attractive manner. Concrete Structures Concrete is used in the construction ofall buildings most commonly to form foundation stem walls, floor slabs, driveways, and walks. It may aise be used for interior and exterior walls, roof decks, and the floors of upper stories as well Roof Deck — Bottom components of the roof assembly that support the roof covering; may be constructed of as stairways and elevated walkways. Concrete can also be used to create roof such components as plywood, and may also be the construction system for entire structures. iis. Neer EELS tiles and decorative interior finishes. Concrete may be precast or cast-in-place eae ci an ee Precast Concrete Precast concrete is placed in forms and cured at a precasting plant away from the job site. Precast structural shapes, including slabs, wall panels, and colp. umns, are transported to the job site and hoisted into position (Figure 5.15, 178). The primary advantage to precasting is a higher degree of quality control. and The precasting forms can be located ina sheltered environment. Mixing a high pouring of the concrete can be more mechanized and efficient, and degree of control can be exercised over the ingredients. Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Wi Figure 5.15 Precast concrete construction ensures high-quality control because the concrete components are factory-created and brought to the construction site rather than poured on site. Precast concrete buildings can be built using whole precast modular units; however, precast parts assembled into a framework for the building are more common. Therefore, from a construction standpoint, precast concrete structures have more in common with steel-framed buildings than with cast-inplace concrete buildings. Precast elements can be assembled in several ways to create a structural system. A framework can be used to support precast slabs. Precast slabs can also be supported on precast load-bearing wall panels or a combination of wall panels and girders. Precast exterior wall panels frequently are used in combination with a steel framework. A variety of techniques such as bolting, welding, and posttensioning can be used to connect precast structural elements. In the simplest of precast designs, precast slabs simply rest by the force of gravity on a bearing wall or column. Simple designs of this type are not inherently rigid, and the slabs may need to be laterally tied together to resist horizontal forces. Corbel — Bracket or ledge made of stone, wood, brick, or other When columns are used to support precast beams, corbels (ledges that project out from the column and support the beam) may be cast into the column. ee Short steel beams that are cast into precast columns can also be used to sup- column teed to'support a beam, cornice, or arch port precast beams. PRES beams can be secured to the column through the use of steel angles cast into the column or through the use of posttensioned steel cables. A major disadvantage to using precast concrete is the need to transport the finished components to the job site. Transportation increases costs and limits the size of the shapes that can be precast. In addition, some parts of buildings such as foundations cannot be precast and must be cast at the building site. Cast-in-Place Concrete Cast-in-place concrete is a unique material. It does not develop its design strength until after it has been placed in the location where it will be used. Castin-place concrete permits the designer to cast the concrete in a wider variety of shapes (Figures 5.16 a and b). However, great care must be exercised in the mixing, placing, and curing of the concrete to ensure good quality. If proper techniques are not used at every step, poor quality concrete will result. 178 Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems TT i ith ifce be Figure 5.16a Cast-in-place concrete requires frames built on site into which mixed concrete can be poured. In this example, forms are being constructed for a basement or ’ jienna Pe Figures 5.16b The casts provide the finished shape of the concrete design such as this concrete sound-barrier wall around a housing edition. foundation wall. For example, using sand from an ocean beach as a shortcut introduces salt into the concrete that, in turn, would result in corrosion and deterioration of the reinforcing steel. In addition, if the concrete is vibrated excessively as it is placed in the forms, segregation of the aggregate results. The heavy coarse aggregate settles at the bottom ofthe mixture, and the water and cement rise to the top. Some buildings are constructed with structural systems that use bearing walls formed from cast-in-place concrete. However, a more typical design is to construct a concrete frame. Common cast-in-place concrete systems include the following: e Flat slab — Simple system that consists of a slab of concrete supported by Drop Panel — Thickened concrete panel that extends a minimum of 4 inches (100 mm) in all directions from the top of a column to provide support for the concrete slab concrete columns; varies in thickness from 6 to 12 inches (150 mm to 300 mm). Because shear stresses can develop in the concrete where the slab intersects the supporting columns, the area around the columns is reinforced with additional concrete in the form of drop panels or mushroom capitals. In buildings that are designed to support light loads, this additional reinforcing is not necessary. The system is then known as a flat plate. e Slab and beam — Frame that consists of a concrete slab supported by concrete beams. Slab and beam systems may use only beams or may be designed using beams and girders. wafflee Waffle construction — Construction that derives its name from the the from results pattern like pattern of the bottom ofthe concrete slab; the This design placement of square forms over which wet concrete is placed. concrete sary unneces of weight provides a thicker slab while eliminating the of the slab. Reinforcing steel placed in the bottom of the inthe bottom half slabs of this type formwork provides reinforcement in two directions, and are also known as two-way slabs. Mushroom Capital — Flaring conical head on a concrete column Flat Plate — Plain floor slab about 8 inches (200 mm) thick that rests on columns spaced up to 22 feet (7 m) apart and depends on diagonal and orthogonal patterns of reinforcing bars for structural support because the slab lacks beams; simplest and most economical floor system Concrete Systems enclosed by a nonbearBuildings supported by a concrete frame are usually or enclosure and can ing curtain wall. The curtain wall is the building’s exteri glass, steel panels, and be made ofa variety of materials such as aluminum, Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 179 masonry. The choice of material is determined by architectural style, thermal al insulation properties, and cost. A curtain wall tends to conceal the structur details of abuilding and makes it difficult to accurately identify the structural system by observation alone. It is difficult to know with certainty whether a concrete frame building was constructed with ordinary reinforcing or posttensioned reinforcing. It may also be impossible to distinguish between cast-in-place concrete and precast concrete after a building is completed. Some systems such as stucco and EIFS may appear to be concrete. One source of information is the building department or permit office file containing the original construction documents that were submitted with the building permit application. The fire department's inspection file may also contain a description of the construction system used. Frequently, all that an inspector can do is to be familiar with prevailing construction methods in the jurisdiction. Knowledge of the type of concrete system provides the inspector with important information for a number of different reasons. First, the information can be used by fire-suppression personnel in determining the structural integrity of a building that has been exposed to fire or structural shock. It also gives them an idea of the amount ofwater that the structure can support and the effort necessary to cut drain and ventilation holes into the concrete. Second, it provides the inspector with information necessary when reviewing future plans for alterations or additions to the structure. For instance, a concrete system that is designed for a light load will not support a heavy piece of equipment without additional columns or supports. Steel-Framed Structures In building design, steel is generally used for the construction of a structural framework that supports the floors, roof, and exterior walls. Several different techniques can be used to construct a steel frame. Steel structural shapes can be used to construct a frame of columns, beams, and girders. Steel also can be used in heavy or lightweight trusses to support roofs and floors. Rigid frames and arches can be constructed from steel. Steel cables or rods can support roofs. Lightweight steel studs can be used to construct exterior walls. Because steel is a strong but very dense material, it is not efficient to use it in the form of solid slabs or panels as is done with concrete. Steel in sheet form, however, is used for applications such as floor decking and exterior curtain walls. Beam and Girder Frames As in the case ofprecast concrete construction, the design of the connections in steel-framed buildings is extremely important. The connection ofa beam to a column not only transfers the load between members, it determin es the rigidity of the basic structure. Some means of bracing must also be provided to resist wind load and other lateral forces that would tend to cause distortion of the building. Beam and girder steel frames can be classified as follows: e Rigid — Connections between beams and columns are designed to resist the bending forces resulting from the supported loads and lateral forces; sufficie nt rigidity exists between the beam and the column so that no change occurs in the angle between the beam and the column as loads are applied. 180 Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems e Semirigid — Connections are not completely rigid but do possess enough rigidity to provide some diagonal support to the structure. When rigid connections are not used, lateral stability for a frame must be provided through the use of diagonal bracing or shear panels. Shear panels are reinforced walls located between columns and beams to brace them laterally. Ideally, ashear wall should be continuous from the foundation ofa building to the highest story at which it is needed. e Simple — Joints are designed primarily to support a vertical force. Some angular change between beams and columns could occur if some form of diagonal bracing is not provided. Steel Trusses Steel trusses provide a structural member that can carry loads across greater spans more economically than can beams. Steel trusses can be fabricated in a variety of shapes to meet specific applications, and they are frequently used in three-dimensional space frames (Figure 5.17). Two commonly encountered applications of the basic steel truss are the open web joist and the joist girder. Open web joists are mass produced and are available with depths of up to 6 feet (2 m) and span up to 144 feet (44 m). However, they are more frequently found with depths ofless than 2 feet (0.6 m) and spans of40 feet (12 m). The top and bottom chords ofan open web joist can be made from two angles, two bars, ora J-shaped member. The diagonal members can be made from flat bars welded to the top and bottom chords, or they can be a continuous round bar bent back and forth and welded to the chords. When round bars are used for the diagonal members, the open web truss is known asa bar joist. Bar joists are very often used in closely spaced configurations for the support of floors and roof decks. Bar joists are frequently simply supported on a masonry wall to support a roof. In multistory buildings, they are supported by the steel-framing beams and used for the support of the various floor decks. Joist girders are heavy steel trusses that are used to take the place of steel beams as part of the primary structural frame. Steel joist girders are open web, primary load-carrying members (designed by the manufacturer) used for the support of floors and roofs. Figure 5.17 These steel trusses will eventually be used to carry heavy loads over a greater span than beams of a similar size. Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 181 Rigid Frames widely used for the conSteel rigid frames with inclined roof members are ngs, and a variety of struction of one-story industrial buildings, farm buildi one-story rigid-frame other applications. The inclined top members of the rigid frames usuconfiguration allow an increase in interior clear space. Steel are fabricated by ally are used for spans from 40 to 200 feet (12 m to 60 m) and welding or bolting together steel shapes and plates. the The top of the rigid frame is known as the crown, and the points where The knees. the as known are inclined members intersect the vertical members memcrown and the knees are designed as rigid joints with no rotation between bers. The vertical members, however, may or may not be rigidly connected to the foundations depending on the wind loads that are anticipated. One-story, rigid-frame structures must be braced diagonally to prevent lateral deflections. Providing diagonal cross members in the roof plane and vertical wall plane accomplishes the bracing needed to meet rigid-frame requirements. Steel Arches Steel arches are used to support roofs on buildings where large unobstructed floors are needed. These include occupancies such as gymnasiums and convention halls. Steel arches can be constructed to span distances in excess of 300 feet (90 m). Steel arches can be designed as either girder arches or trussed arches. A girder arch is constructed as a solid arch that may be built up from angles and webs with across section similar to that of abeam. A trussed arch is built using truss _ shapes as shown in Figure 5.18. Steel Suspension Systems The strength ofsteel allows its use in very slender forms such as rods and cables. The drawing of steel bars through a die to produce wire greatly increases the strength of the steel. It is possible to produce wire for use in bridge cables with strengths as high as 300,000 psi (2 100 000 kPa). However, such slender shapes are subject to buckling and, therefore, are limited to the support of tension forces. Steel rods and cables are sometimes used in suspension systems to support roofs. Suspension roof systems can provide large unobstructed areas similar to arches without the reduction in vertical clearance at the sides of the building that occurs with an arch. As with arches, applications include sports complexes and convention halls. Cantilever Roof — Roof structure extending from the ais ecargos Is y Steel suspension systems make possible some unique designs. One useful application ofa suspension system is for a cantilever roof (Figure 5.19). It should be noted that the rods that support the overhanging roof are supported by vertical masts which, in turn, are balanced by other steel rods anchored to a support. Steel Columns Because of the high compressive strength of steel, the cross section of steel columns can be very small compared to their length. Because of this slenderness, the possibility of buckling is greater than with columns made of other materials. In the design ofasteel column, engineers must evaluate this 182 Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Figure 5.18 A steel trussed arch incorporates numerous truss shapes to form a span of arch that can vary in size to support roofs. Figure 5.19 Cantilever roof construction allows builders to provide overhanging roofs over walkways along the exterior walls of a structure. possibility and take steps to prevent buckling. Furthermore, heat from a fire will reduce the yield point of the steel and can cause an unprotected slender column to buckle easily. Steel columns can vary from simple single-piece members, such as cylindrical pipes, to complex tower assemblies. The most common column cross sections are the hollow cylinder, rectangular tube, and the wide flange shape similar to the cross section of anI beam. The stability of columns is critical to the structural integrity of buildings or under circumstances other than fires such as seismic forces, vehicle impact, any under the shifting of a foundation. The inspection of a structural collapse means of circumstance must include an evaluation of the columns and their become to column a by support. It is possible for a beam thatis simply supported or buckle. dislodged and fall off the supporting column ifitshould shift Masonry Structures including primarMasonry can be used for a variety of purposes in architecture trim. However, work stone ily decorative functions such as a masonry fence or uction of walls. the main interest for an inspector is in its use for the constr Chapter 5 ¢ Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 183 basic Satie: Masonry can be used to construct bearing walls that provide the curtain tural support for a building, or it can be used for non-load-bearing ly common most the , walls or partition walls (Figure 5.20). In modern practice e encountered load-bearing masonry walls are constructed from brick, concret as such ls, materia y masonr block, or a combination of brick and block. Other gypsum block and lightweight concrete block, are limited to non-load-bearing partition walls. Stone masonry is used primarily as an architectural veneer. Masonry exterior walls can be found with a variety of interior framing systems including unprotected steel, protected steel, and wood. Therefore, masonry walls can be encountered in both fire-resistive and non-fire-resistive buildings. Masonry buildings are found with many types ofinterior framing including the use of masonry columns or interior bearing walls. Interior bearing walls in multistory buildings provide lateral support for the structure as well as support for the vertical loads. Wood and steel trusses are commonly used to support the roofs of buildings with masonry walls. Cast iron was frequently used for columns in buildings built in the 19" century but is not used in contemporary construction. The traditional, and most basic, masonry structure consists of exterior load-bearing walls that support the wood floors and the roof of a building. The interior wood floors and roofs consist of wood joists and rafters. This type of construction was so commonplace in the 19" century and early part of the 20°" century that it bears the designation ordinary construction. Masonry Walls The thickness of masonry walls varies from a minimum of 6 inches (150 mm) to several feet (meters). The thickness of amasonry wall depends on the height of the building and the method of construction used. Concrete Block Brick Faced — Wall construction system that includes one wythe of concrete blocks with a brick wythe attached to the outside Header Course — Masonry unit laid flat on its bed across the width of a wall: with its face perpendicular to the face of the wall; used to bond two wythes 184 When a masonry wall is constructed, the masonry units are laid side by side in a horizontal layer known as a course. The horizontal courses of brick are laid on top of each other in a vertical layer known as a wythe. The simplest brick wall consists ofawall with a single wythe. Multiple wythes are commonly provided to supply the necessary strength and stability in a masonry wall. A brick wythe is commonly used in combination with a concrete block wythe. Such a design is referred to as concrete block brick faced. Mortar is spread between the masonry units to provide for bonding and the uniform transmission of vertical loads between the courses (Figure 5.21). In an ordinary, nonreinforced wall, the strength and stability of the wall are derived from the weight of the masonry and horizontal bonding between adjacent wythes. When bricks are used to construct a masonry wall, the bricks can be placed in various positions either for reasons of appearance or for strength. When bricks are placed end-to-end, they create a stretcher course. When the bricks are placed vertically on end, a soldier course is created. One means of providing a horizontal bond between the wythe is to place a course ofbricks across two wythes with the ends of the bricks facing outward. A course ofbricks laid in this manner is known as a header course. The existence of header courses in a wall is one means that can be used to identify the method of construction of amasonry wall. Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Horizontal bonding can also be accomplished through the use of different types of corrosion-resistant metal ties. The metal ties are commonly used when the wall consists of bricks and concrete blocks. An exterior brick wall usually is constructed with a vertical cavity between the exterior wythe and interior wythes. The cavity prevents the seepage of water through the mortar joints to the interior of the building and increases the thermal insulating value of the wall. In the case ofacavity wall, the placement of metal ties is especially important because the use of a brick header course usually is not practical. Figure 5.20 Masonry construction like that used in this former warehouse converted to a restaurant has been used to construct a wide range of structures for centuries. Typical Brick Wall Construction Terminology Header Stretcher Figure 5.21 This illustration shows the various terms used to describe masonry construction. Course Soldier Chapter 5 ¢ Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 189 story buildings must be Walls that provide the structural support for multi buildings because greater in thickness than those that support single-story support the weight of the masonry units in the lower portions of a wall must sed, the dead load ingen upper portion ofthe wall. As the height of awall is increa keep the compressive must be supported at the base of the wall increases. To l stability, the stresses within acceptable limits and to provide greater latera bearing area of thickness of the wall at the base must be increased as the loadthe wall increases. makes The increasing weight of a load-bearing wall with increased height tive alterna than costly very tall masonry structures largely impractical or more y designs unless the masonry is reinforced with steel. Nonreinforced masonr walls usually are limited to a maximum height of around six stories, and these are usually found in old structures built in the early part of the 20" century (Figure 5.22). In contemporary practice, when a building is to be more than two or three stories in height, the use of a steel or concrete structural frame usually is more economical than a masonry bearing wall. However, exterior masonry curtain walls may be used in combination with a steel frame in multistory design and will give the appearance of amasonry bearing wall. If a masonry wall is reinforced with steel, the required thickness to support a load can be reduced. By using reinforced masonry, it is possible to construct buildings with load-bearing walls to a height of twenty stories having a wall thickness of only 10 inches (250 mm). Masonry walls are reinforced either to permit the construction ofa tall building or to provide lateral stability against horizontal forces such as seismic shock. Placing vertical steel rods (similar to those used with reinforced concrete) ina cavity between two adjacent wythes ofa brick wall effectively reinforces masonry walls (Figure 5.23). The cavity is then filled with grout (a mixture of cement, Buttress — Masonry structure that is built against a wall to provide additional support or reinforcement Pilaster — Rectangular masonry pillar that extends from the face of a wall to provide additional support for the wall; may also be for decorative use only and not provide any support Corbelling — Use of a corbel to provide additional support for an arch aggregate, and water). Placing the steel rods in the openings in the individual blocks and filling the opening with grout reinforces concrete block walls in a similar manner. The reinforcement of masonry walls can take other forms and can include such architectural features as buttresses and pilasters. Interior masonry walls, such as those that enclose stairwells or elevator shafts, provide interior support. In general, wherever masonry walls intersect, they will mutually support and reinforce each other. Of course, openings must be provided in masonry walls for doors and windows. Adequately supporting the weight of the masonry units over these openings poses a problem because the mortar joints between the individual bricks or blocks provide little tensile support. Support of the masonry over an opening is accomplished through the use ofa lintel (a beam over an opening ina masonry wall), an arch, or corbelling. Lintels frequently are steel angles but also can be reinforced concrete or reinforced masonry. Wood lintels have been used in the past but are not used in modern practice because of shrinkage problems. In designing lintels, engineers assume that it is not necessary for a lintel to support the complete weight of the masonry wall above the lintel. It is assumed that a lintel is required to support only the weight of a triangular section of the 186 Chapter 5 « Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Nonreinforced Masonry Wall Design Reinforced Brick Wall Reinforcing Steel Cement Grout Figure 5.23 In a reinforced brick-wall design, two layers of masonry construction surround a space filled with grout surrounding rebar. Figure 5.22 Nonreinforced masonry walls as shown must be thicker at the base than at the top and constructed appropriately to handle vertical and horizontal stress without additional reinforcement. wall as indicated in Figure 5.24, p. 188. This assumption is made because a certain amount of arching tends to occur between the masonry units above the opening, which reduces the load on the lintel. However, if the height ofthe wall above the opening is shorter than the height ofthe triangular section, it is assumed that the lintel must support the entire weight of the masonry above the opening. An example would be a lintel over the opening for a garage door in a one-story building. Lintels and, to a lesser extent, arches are the most common methods ofsup- porting loads over openings in masonry walls. Corbellng is used only where the architectural style makes it attractive. A parapetis an extension of a masonry wall that projects above the roof. Parapets are found on exterior masonry walls and fire separation walls of buildings with combustible roofs (Figure 5.25,p.189). The purpose ofa parapet on an exterior wall can be both architectural and functional. A masonry parapet may be used to enhance the architectural appearance ofa building. However, a parapet may also be required by a building code to provide a barrier to the communication offire between closely spaced buildings. Interior Structural Framing As noted earlier, the interior structural framing used in masonry buildings can include unprotected steel, protected steel, and wood. Frequently, the framing can consist of acombination of these materials rather than one material deck, for throughout. It is not uncommon to have a wood or concrete floor Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 187 Openings in Masonry Walls ul it i! a 4 Corbelling Figure 5.24 Openings in masonry walls are typically lintels, arches, or corbels. Particular to lintels is the triangular calculation of the actual weight the lintel supports. Lintel Live Load — Items within a building that are movable but not included as a permanent part of the structure; force placed upon a structure by the addition of people, objects, or weather example, supported by steel beams, which in turn are supported by a masonry wall. In any case, joists, beams, or trusses are used to transfer the live load of the building contents. Early masonry buildings commonly used wood flooring, joists, beams, and columns exclusively for interior framing. Masonry buildings with wood interior framing are classified as ordinary (Type V) or heavy timber (Type IV) depending on the size of the wooden structural members. Buildings with heavy timber interior framing were originally designed to support the weight of machinery in industrial mills. In many applications, such as residential and small commercial buildings, the wood joists or beams simply rest on the masonry wall in an indentation in the wall known as a beam pocket. The beam pocket is several inches (millimeters) deep to provide an adequate bearing surface for the beam. A metal strap may be provided to function as a horizontal tie between the masonry and the end ofthe beam. 188 Chapter 5 « Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Typical Parapet Wall Parapet Figure 5.25 Parapet walls extend above the roof of a structure. They have a general, architectural appeal, but they also help prevent spread of fires between closely spaced buildings. Roof Support Joist Roof Deck The end of a wood joist or beam will be cut at a slight angle (Figure 5.26, p. 190). This angle is known as afire cut. The purpose of a fire cut is to allow the beam to fall away freely from a wall in the case of structural collapse without acting as a lever to push against the masonry. Fire cuts in joists, however, do not necessarily prevent the collapse of amasonry wall. When a beam transmits a large load to a masonry wall, the wall may be increased in thickness at the point of support with a pilaster to reduce the compress stresses in the masonry. Wood roof trusses, for example, are frequently supported on pilasters. Steel beams and trusses are supported on masonry bearing walls in a manner similar to wooden structural members. When precast concrete slabs are used for a floor or roof system, the load can be distributed uniformly along the length of the masonry wall. Fire Resistance The fire resistance of a masonry wall depends on the type of masonry units used and the thickness ofthe wall. Hollow concrete blocks may have little fire resistance and may spall and crumble when exposed to a fire. Walls constructed with fire-rated concrete masonry units or bricks can have fire-resistance ratings of 2to 4 hours. Walls that have a thickness of 18 inches (450 mm) or more will have an inherently high degree of fire resistance. A well-constructed masonry wall that has not been undermined or weakened will usually be the last structural component to fail in a wood-joisted building. Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 189 Fire Cut Figure 5.26 Fire cuts, the diagonal cut in the wood joist shown, allow wood components attached to masonry walls to fall away from the wall under fire conditions without causing the wall to collapse. Masonry walls, however, do collapse under fire conditions and pose a danger to firefighters. Several factors determine the likely fire behavior of a building using a masonry structural system. Some of these factors are obvious and can be detected by visual observation. Other factors are subtle and not capable of detection in the course ofa fire. The exterior fire-resistive walls of masonry construction do more than provide structural support; they also tend to reduce the communication of fire from structure to structure. Building codes usually require less clearance (separation) between buildings with masonry or other fire-resistive exterior walls than between buildings with combustible exteriors. Of course, the existence oflarge window or door openings in a fire-resistive wall can still create an exposure problem. Deterioration An inspector should be aware that masonry walls are subject to deterioration over a period of years. The deterioration can be the result of erosion of mortar between the bricks because of exposure to the elements, or the formation of cracks and misalignment of a wall can occur because ofthe shifting of the foundation (Figure 5.27). Wooden interior members can rot if they have been exposed to moisture from causes such as roof or plumbing leaks. The resulting sagging of the interior members affects the stability of the masonry walls. Masonry deterioration is a slow process occurring over many years. The deterioration may not be visible during inspections. In some cases, only a structural engineer can recognize deterioration that can result in full or 190 Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Figure 5.27 Settling foundations, poor construction, and deterioration of mortar over time can cause cracks in masonry construction like those shown. Inspectors should note such weaknesses in masonry because cracks can make walls more likely to collapse under fire conditions. partial collapse of old buildings. Additionally, any structural deterioration that has occurred will certainly contribute to structural failure under fire conditions. It is possible for masonry walls to be repaired when deterioration occurs. Leeony eine COME SEL perform the repairs, the stability of a structure will not be compromised. One means of reinforcing a masonry structure is through the use of tension rods extended through the masonry walls and attached to thrust plates on the outside. The thrust plates are usually visible on the outside of a building and usually indicate that the building has undergone repairs. Thrust Plate —Steel plate located on the exterior of a masonry building to which a ue OMIOar ten Sea Wood Structures Wood has been used as a basic construction material for centuries and continues to be one of the fundamental structural materials. It is encountered in a wide variety of building applications in all localities. Wood is almost always used ina frame structural system. Perhaps the only use of wood for solid wall construction similar to that of amasonry-bearing wall is the use ofsolid logs in alog cabin. The distinguishing characteristic of awood-frame building is that the basic structural system is combustible. The fundamental combustibility of wood contributes fuel to a fire. In addition, the structural integrity of the woodframing members is lost as the wood is consumed, and structural failure will occur. As with other materials and structural systems, the trend toward lighter weight, more precisely engineered wood assemblies increases the speed with which failure can occur ina fire. Wood-frame buildings, especially light wood-frame buildings, have numerd ous concealed spaces within the walls, attics, and floor spaces. These conceale course spaces provide an avenue for the spread offire and must be opened in the spaces d conceale of fire fighting to check for extension of fire. In addition, the Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 191 g exhausts, and chimcontain heating ducts, electrical wiring, plumbing, cookin ility of fires originating neys. These building components give rise to the possib within the concealed spaces. systems most Several basic construction types use wood. The wood-framing framing frequently encountered can be classified into two basic types: timber also be (Type IV) and light wood framing (Type V). Post and beam framing may following encountered in some areas. Each of these types is discussed in the brick ramed sections. Various types of exterior wall coverings as well as wood-f veneer are also presented at the end ofthis section. Small wood frame structures such as private garages and single-family dwellings may be constructed using only carpentry techniques without engineering analysis. However, large or custom-designed wood structures are engineered in the same manner as buildings constructed using steel or other materials. Engineered wood structures can be built several stories high, but because of limitations in the basic strength of wood, it is usually not economical to use wood frames in buildings taller than three stories. Heavy Timber Heavy timber framing evolved from hand-hewn wooden timbers that were painstakingly cut from logs. Until the development of water-powered sawmills approximately two centuries ago, the production of boards was a slow and laborious procedure. In aheavy timber design, the basic structural support is provided by a framework of beams and columns that are made of wooden timbers (Figure 5.28). The basic concept is not unlike that which was previously described for steel-framed structures. As with steel structures, trusses or beams can be used to support the roof. The exterior walls are non-load-bearing panels with an exterior siding that may be any ofseveral materials. Ordinary corrugated sheet metal is sometimes used for the exterior walls of small storage or industrial buildings with heavy timber frames. In heavy timber design, the columns are not less than 8 x 8 inches (200 mm by 200 mm) and beams (except roof beams) are not less than 6 x 10 inches (150 mm by 250 mm). Just as with other framing systems, methods used to join the joists, beams, and columns affect the integrity of wood-frame systems. A connection between members must be capable of transferring a load from member to member. In light-frame construction, nails, staples, or screws may be adequate. However, in the case of heavy timber framing, the loads carried are greater and the connection usually will incorporate through bolts, special brackets, and the bearing of one member directly on another. Figure 5.28 Though not widely seen, heavy timber construction, like this log-built building, is heavyduty construction that shares basic concepts with steel-framed structures. 192 ia GLa eye Specialty Meats ses Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems — Older timber construction made use ofa type ofjoint known as a mortise and tenon joint. In this method, one timber member is cut to fit into a recess ina mating member. This method ofjoining members is highly labor intensive and, therefore, costly. In modern construction, mortise and tenon joints are used only in rare cases where the designer desires a particularly artistic or quaint appearance. Heavy timbers cut from a single log are usually not available in lengths greater than 20 feet (6 m). When greater spans are needed for heavy timber framing, glulam beams or timber trusses are used. Post and Beam Post and beam framing is a form of wood-frame construction in which the columns (termed posts) and the beams are of dimensions less than those used in heavy timber framing but greater than those used in light-frame construction. The posts are usually 4 x 4 inches (100 mm by 100 mm) or 6 x 6 inches (150 mm by 150 mm). The posts are usually spaced at 4 to 12 feet (1.3 m to 4 m) (Figure 5.29). The posts and beams used in the framing create square or rectangular shapes that must be braced to provide diagonal stability. Using diagonal bracing at the intersection of the post and beam or using wall panels can alleviate problems with diagonal stability. Post and beam construction once was fairly common butis usually more laborintensive than light-frame construction. However, post and beam construction has enjoyed some resurgence in popularity because of the use of prefabrication, which reduces labor costs. In both heavy timber framing and post and beam framing, the interior wood surface is left exposed. Architecturally, the exposed warm and rustic surface of the wood creates an attractive finish. From a fire-protection viewpoint, leaving the wood framing exposed offers some advantage because it eliminates combustible voids that would provide avenues for communication offire. ral Ny las flethal MIVA eee ll4 eer Bars UPB eae did wih val * 4 frame will be left exposed so that the Figure 5.29 When this post and beam construction project is completed, the wood finish. interior the provides also framework of the building Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 193 Light Wood wood-frame construction. The most popular form of wood framing is known as light al pieces of lumber Light wood framing makes use of 92-inch (50 mm) nomin mm). The walls are measuring 2 x 4 or 2 x 8(50 mm by 100 mm or 50 mm by 200 are 2 x 40r2 x 6 (50 mm formed from vertical members known as studs, which 16, or 24 inches by 100 mm or 50 mm by 150 mm) pieces of lumber spaced 12, rted byjoists or (300 mm, 400 mm, or 600 mm) on center. The floors are suppo s. The two trusse light or trusses, and inclined roofs are supported by rafters framing. basic types oflight wood framing are balloon framing and platform Balloon framing. Balloon framing is a construction style used in wood frame buildings composed of closely spaced members (studs) that are continuous from the sill to the top plate of the roof line (Figure 5.30a). The term balloon frame came from the fragile appearance ofthe thin, closely spaced studs compared to more massive timber construction. In balloon-frame construction, the exterior wall studs are continuous from the foundation to the roof. The joists that support the second floor are nailed directly to the studs. The vertical combustible spaces between the studs in balloon-frame construction provide a channel for the rapid communication of fire from floor to floor. Unlike timber wood framing, light wood framing is usually not left exposed. The framing is usually covered with an interior finish of plaster or drywall. The interior finish will act to retard the spread offire into the stud spaces. However, once the fire spreads into the stud space or if the fire should originate in the stud space, it can readily spread from the vertical cavity into the horizontal joists and into the attic space. Therefore, a fire in a balloon-frame building is generally more difficult to control than one in a platform-frame building. Platform framing. In platform framing (which is also known as western framing), the exterior wall vertical studs are not continuous (Figure 5.30b). The first floor is constructed as a platform upon which the exterior vertical studs are erected. After the first-story studs are erected and braced, double 2 x 4 (50 mm by 100 mm) pieces of lumber (known as plates) are laid horizontally along the top of the studs. The second-story framing is erected on the platform formed by the story joists and flooring. Fire-Stop — Materials used to prevent or limit the spread of fire in hollow walls or floors, above false ceilings, in penetrations for plumbing or electrical installations, or in cocklofts and crawl spaces In a platform frame, the plate installed on the top of the studs provides a fire-stop that tends to block the spread of fire from floor to floor within the walls. In balloon-frame buildings, fire-stopping must be provided in addition to the structural members. From a construction standpoint, platform-frame buildings are easier to erect than balloon-frame buildings. The flooring of each story can be used as a platform on which to work while erecting additional walls and partitions. However, greater shrinkage occurs in a platform frame than in a balloon frame. This is because the shrinkage of wood is relatively greater in a direction perpendicular to the wood grain. A platform-frame building makes use of more horizontal members in its frame, which results in greater vertical movement at different points. This vertical movement causes undesirable effects such as cracking of plaster and misalignment of door and window openings. 194 Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Balloon Framing Example Platform Framing Example Joist oa | || | cH ) Ay \ " | | || ly » : »< fe 1S Wy S / Z ey 7 | 4 3 W £ I co | iq | } S| : E [A A/\- IF ie| a | | qi \ \. | | Z BI 6 3 “aoe Al tJ “a | a oO. iZ € Subflooring Sheathing Foundation Sheathing Wall Figure 5.30a Balloon-frame construction is named for Figure 5.30b Platform framing differs from balloon framing its fragile appearance when compared to more massive | member construction. This cross section depicts the various _ jn that fire-stops are included in the construction as shown in components present in balloon-frame construction. this illustration. Exterior Wall Materials In addition to the structural framing, the exterior walls of awood-frame building include the following items: e Sheathing — Material that provides structural stability, insulation, and an underlayer for the siding (plywood is the most common sheathing) e Siding material — Wood boards, wood shingles, asphalt shingles, asbestos cement shingles, and aluminum e Insulation — Loose fill material such as granulated rock wool, granulated cork, mineral wool, and glass wool Loose insulation can be either blown into stud spaces or packed by hand. Cellulose fiber and shredded wood can also be used as loose insulation material. They can be treated with water-soluble salts to reduce their combustibility. However, a fire in such materials will progress in a slow smoldering manner. Foam plastics as insulation has attracted considerable attention in recent insulayears. Building codes impose stringent regulations on the use of foam The surface. its over rapidly spread tion because it is combustible and flames can fire a of ity use of a combustible insulation in walls also increases the possibil Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 195 an electrical malfuncstarting within the wall, which is due to the possibility of that foam insulation tion igniting the insulation. Typically, a code will require t or retard be faced with a thermal barrier such as gypsum wallboard to preven surface ignition of the foam. wall will The extent to which the presence of foam insulation ina wood-frame of an air space. increase fire spread within the wall depends on the existence development fire surface, If an air space exists between the foam and the wall plastic within the wall space will be rapid because the fire will spread over the is space the , however If, space. the surface and have air available from within h throug s completely filled with the foam, the fire would have to burn upward the material and would progress much more slowly. Brick Veneer A wood-frame building can be provided with an exterior facing of brick. Such construction is termed brick veneer. Brick veneer construction provides the architectural styling of brick at less cost than a full masonry wall. The brick veneer adds little to structural support and must be tied to the wood-frame wall at intervals of 16 inches (400 mm). However, the brick veneer does add to the thermal insulating value ofthe wall (Figure 5.31). The external brick layer of a brick veneer building protects the wood-frame structure from external exposure. However, since the main structural support is still provided by an internal wood frame, there is little difference between a brick-veneer building and an ordinary wood-frame building in terms offire behavior. From the outside it can be difficult for an inspector to visually determine if a building has brick-bearing walls or brick-veneer walls. One frequently used rule is that in a brick-bearing wall every sixth course of brick is a header course with the ends ofthe brick facing out. However, this is only a general rule because some masonry bearing walls may make use of horizontal ties instead ofaheader course, and occasionally brick-veneer walls are constructed with half-bricks that resemble a header course. Summary The inspector must have a clear understanding of the materials that are used to construct a building and the common structural components ofbuildings. This knowledge is necessary to evaluate the structure’s ability to resist the effects of fire. Combined with the construction types (presented in the previous chapter), the inspector can readily categorize a building and determine the necessary code enforcement approaches and applications that apply to it. The type of construction determines the needed protection systems and structural separations that some occupancy classifications require. The building materials and the structural systems are components of the specific building type and will add to or subtract from the fire-resistive nature of the building. The inspector must have a strong working knowledge ofthese building elements and how they reduce risk in case a fire does occur. 196 Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems Brick Veneer Construction Detail Approximately 1 in (25 mm) Air Space Brick Veneer ee ET ee Studs 2x 4in (50 mm x 100 mm) Interior Finish Figure 5.31 Brick veneer buildings are basically wood-frame buildings with an exterior protective masonry veneer applied. This illustration depicts the construction of a brick veneer and how it is attached to a wood frame. Holes 2 ft (0.6 m) on Center —,. disadvantages of wood as a building construction 1. What are some material? 2. In what ways can fire-retardant treatment be applied to wood? How can glass be used when fire resistance is required? 4. What advantages are presented by the use of fabric as a construction material? 5. Discuss several ways in which masonry walls can be reinforced. How can stone be used in construction? Why does cast iron tend to fail? Discuss cast-in-place concrete systems. How are joist girders used? tered? Ale What wood-framing systems are most frequently encoun BOSS eee carta aN Chapter 5 © Building Construction: Materials and Structural Systems 197 J ¥ i ; a ; a : a i a ; rs e } ~ Chapter Contents 202 ee ee 227 Fite DOOIS i: sects atts cet Fire WAIIS ....csssscecsssssseeersenneeeeeetssseeetitssssneeeeerssts 202 Party Walls ......sssssscsccccccecesesssssessesssesssseesssessesssetenieees 204 Fire Partitions and Fire Barriers .......ssssssesesssssee 205 anno eee 228 ete seae Classifications ..onte TEStinG aloe ae eee ge oe nee enee roe 229 229 age see Flames and HardwWaleses EMelosure andi oiatt Walls oy ccs rcceererescten. ctriaeeverscrenns 206 Construction and Operational Types ..........sssceses+eee-- 930 SPO WallSte. eee ttt caer errr ecrect 206 monet menee e GuntatneWallS mee Movable Partitions .....sssessstesetenserensernsersnse 207 ROOES o...e seer WOCS eer eet ett meee 208 ena Meee tear 208 PLUSSOS ete eee A erect tre eetarsaase ea csnetec eateara erence es 208 ROOUCOVERINGS Swann etwan eee tes come WindOWS ee cece... 235 eee ere ae ee 235 Tibet tka OS Se ee 235 GOmpOnents’ hese Acie coats eae ee 238 Bire WindOWS «cus. c ee 938 GeCitIty (at haces oe ke ee 209 Interior Finishes .............cecceccecceeeeees 239 FIOOMS 20... eeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees ra CONSTMGTIONIV Ale tial Seaeemeenteeee eee eae allt Flame=Spread!RatinQS.. oc as.nccaeee eee eee 240 Smoke-Developed RatingS .occcccec-ccccccccssssseessseeeesececees 949 FOOL SUPPOFS..n.rssnsestsiesten entices 212 RIO ORCOVENINGS zecteeien cu, wena seer ee eee 215 Floor Penetrations and Openings..ru.sccssncstan 216 Ceilings gta ie a ah ci StAHTS oes ae nea cea Aig e eee e te eetete tee te tees tees 217 Basi OINDORGtS anc cates eer MeansiOnegreSSimeuts. DOOIS Stes, ek cn ta ee Operational Types.sa. lowe se kes ee hee tre 218 ees 2419 eee ee ee eee ee 222 293 Styles and Construction Materials ........cccccccsccecssssee. 225 Fire-Retardant Coatings ..cccscssssesnseransereeeeen 243 Building Servicést eee ee 243 Elevator Hoistways and DOO ......cccccscccscsseecssseeeeees 244 MOVING StaiSi7422 ence ee ee ee ee 246 Utility Chases and Vertical Shafts... sass 247 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning OY SICINS icc e oa tap neue pee eee ec 250 COnVeyOr-oyStemS sa\scunce sete 200 Electrical: Systemes Seite eee een 250 SUMIMALy .s2elivtalt Sian ae 296 Key Terms DeadsEnd iCOmidO iescesececcncesenccearteteessascs 230 PAlrA DOU iiesecccccaesinvascivvecsnccecessctevenseneteuseards 203 DICIOCEI Cteterrrrssee escerete recesses csscsacetil 254 Refriqge@tamtccccrcccrevee <ncacnasetscartens evaversgars 251 EXNAUSE OV STC peers ceecers: eoececccctesncewcseces 249 Return-Air PlONUm............::c:ssseeeeeeeeeeeeeees 217 Fire-Protection Rating...........::sssssseeeseseees 228 Steiner Tunnel TesSt.............:::ceseeeeeeeeeeeeees 240 Fire-Resistance Rating ............s..cscseee 202 Surface-Burning Characteristic ............. 240 Flame-Spread Rating ............::cceeseeeeeeseees 240 Travel, DIStaNnCG veccccccsesetcccasaetsreccctcnteaecncrs 225 Job Performance Requirements nts (JPRs) of This chapter provides information that addresses the following job performance requireme (2009) Examiner Plan and NFPA® 1031, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector Chapter 4 Fire Inspector | 4.3.4 Chapter 5 Fire Inspector Il 5.3.3 5.4.5 1aj g Building Construction: Components Learning Objectives Fire Inspector | Discuss fire walls. . Identify a party wall. _ Describe fire partitions and their purposes. . Describe the use of a curtain wall. . Discuss roof types and roof coverings. . Discuss various characteristics of floors. Describe common characteristics of ceilings. . Describe types of stairs and their common components. . Explain how stairs are protected when used as part of the means of egress. Differentiate among doors based on the type of operation. . Describe doors by their style and construction. 9. Explain how stairs are protected when used as part of the means of egress. Differentiate among doors based on the type of operation. . Describe doors by their style and construction. Explain how fire doors are classified based on the model building codes. Differentiate among fire doors based on the type of construction and operation. Describe types of windows and their common configurations. Differentiate among fire doors based on the type of construction and operation. Explain how interior finishes can contribute to fire spread. Explain how interior finishes can contribute to fire spread. . Explain how elevators are designed to decrease the chance of fire spread. Describe moving stairs and how they are protected to prevent fire spread. Explain fire protection considerations of utility chases and vertical shafts. Describe the components of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system. . Discuss conveyor and electrical systems found in building construction. 200 Describe common characteristics of ceilings. COR oe a 2 Describe types of stairs and their common components. Explain how fire doors are classified based on the model building codes. Describe types of windows and their common configurations. eG i 2 Describe fire partitions and their purposes. Describe the use of a curtain wall. Discuss roof types and roof coverings. Discuss various characteristics of floors. Fire Inspector Il Discuss fire walls. Identify a party wall. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components . Explain how elevators are designed to decrease the chance of fire spread. Describe moving stairs and how they are protected to prevent fire spread. . Explain fire protection considerations of utility chases and vertical shafts. . Describe the components of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system. Discuss conveyor and electrical systems found in building construction. FESHE Objectives Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Objectives: Principles of Code Enforcement. Sh Identify appropriate codes and their relationship to other requirements for the built environment. Chapter 6 | Building Construction: Components -MGM Grand Hotel and Casino Fire, 1980 An electrical ground fault inside a wall at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas on the morning of November 21, 1980, resulted in a fire that killed 87 people and injured over 700. While the majority of the fire damage was limited to the casino and restaurant areas, the majority of the deaths were due to smoke inhalation on the upper floors of the 26-story hotel. The final investigation of the fire indicated that smoke spread through the structure by way ofthe elevator hoistway. The lack of an automatic vent at the top of the hoistway caused the smoke to mushroom into the upper floors. Contributing factors in this tragedy included a lack of hoistway and stairwell pressurization, lack of pressurization in the elevator lobby areas, and inadequate sealing of the elevator and lobby doors. Besides a building’s structural components, an inspector must also be familiar with other components that affect the fire and life safety of the occupants. Additional building components consist ofthe following: e Walls e Roofs e Floors e Ceilings e Stairs e Doors (and Fire Doors) e Windows e Interior Finishes e Building Services Building codes define the design and construction of each of these comThe ponents and the relationship they have to the occupancy classification. s, sprinkler c presence or lack of fire-protection systems, including automati also standpipes, special-agent systems, and fire detection and alarm systems d addresse are systems affect construction components. These fire-protection in later chapters of this manual. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 201 Walls discussed in The use of walls as part of the building’s structural system was . HowSystems Chapter 5, Building Construction: Materials and Structural support. ever, some types ofwalls are used for purposes other than structural es such purpos nal Within a building, interior walls subdivide areas for functio types as security, privacy, and separation of occupancies (Figure 6.1). Other of interior walls such as fire walls and walls used to enclose stairwells and elevator hoistways are provided primarily for fire-protection purposes. Walls constructed for any purpose affect the development offire ina building. Fire-rated partition walls act as barriers to the spread offire. Walls that have flammable finishes will contribute to the spread of fire. Poorly constructed exterior walls also contribute to the spread offire between buildings or from floor to floor in a multistory building and could contribute to the early collapse ofastructure during a fire. Therefore, the design of walls, whether load-bearing or not, is a topic that is extensively addressed in all building codes. Inspectors will encounter several types of walls while performing plans review and field inspections, including the following: e Fire walls e Party walls e Fire partitions e Enclosure and shaft walls e Curtain walls e Movable partitions Fire Walls Fire walls are erected to limit the maximum spread offire. They are constructed with sufficient fire resistance and structural stability to act as an absolute barrier to a fire under conditions of a total burnout on either side. Fire-Resistance Rating — Identifies the amount of time a material or assembly of materials will resist a typical fire as measured on a standard time-temperature curve Fire walls are typically constructed of masonry although other fire-resistive materials such as concrete or gypsum board can be used (Figure 6.2). Fire walls can be constructed with fire-resistance ratings of 2or more hours. The highest rating required by the building codes is 4 hours. The rating used depends on the occupancies being separated and the reason for the separation. Building codes typically allow a reduction in the hourly rating of fire walls when a building is equipped with an automatic sprinkler system. A complete automatic sprinkler system will also allow building areas to be large, which in effect eliminates the need for fire walls in some cases. It is not unusual, therefore, to find large or even unlimited-area industrial, warehouse, and mercantile facilities that are protected by sprinkler systems yet are constructed without fire walls. Construction Types Fire walls can be constructed either as freestanding walls or tied walls. Free- standing fire walls are self-supporting and independent ofthe building frame. Freestanding fire walls are usually found in buildings of wood-frame or masonry construction, although they may also be used in noncombustible buildings. 202 Chapter 6 « Building Construction: Components Typical Fire Wall Construction <a Fire Wall Structural Joist or Beam Masonry Wall Figure 6.1 Interior walls, shown under construction, divide structures into compartments that provide privacy, security, and can help limit the spread of fire in a building. Freestanding walls must be designed to resist a lateral Figure 6.2 Fire walls, like the one in this cross section, may load of at least 5 pounds per square foot (0.24 kPa) as __ be rated for fire resistance up to 2 hours and constructed of referenced in NFPA® 221, Standard for High Challenge | masonry materials or gypsum board. Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls. Tied fire walls are erected at a column line in a building of steel-frame or concrete-frame construction. Ina steel-frame building, any steel members that may be incorporated into the fire wall must be provided with the same degree of fire resistance required for the fire wall. The structural framework must have sufficient strength to resist the lateral pull of the collapse of framework on either side. No combustible structural members may penetrate through a fire wall. Where combustible members are framed into a fire wall, they must be designed to fall away freely from the wall under fire conditions. Fire walls must extend beyond walls and roofs to prevent the radiant heat of flames from igniting adjacent surfaces (Figure 6.3, p. 204). This extension is accomplished by continuing the fire wall through the roofin the form ofa parapet. Building codes determine the parapet height above a combustible roof. The height varies from 18 to 36 inches (450 mm to 900 Parapet — Portion of a wall that extends above the level of the roof mm). Fire walls subdivide a building into smaller areas so that a fire in one portion of a building is limited to that area and does not destroy the entire building. For example, fire walls could divide a 100,000 square foot (9 290 m*) ofa factory into four 25,000-square-foot (2 323 m’) areas. The containment fire to one area greatly reduces potential economic loss, enabling a business within to recover more quickly. Fire walls also can separate various functions of a plant, separating hazardous processes and storage from the remainder be can operation the facility. For example, a hazardous chemical blending of achemiseparated from shipping, warehousing, and other departments cal factory. Chapter 6 Building Construction: Components 203 Figure 6.3 Fire walls are required by building codes to separate specified numbers of residencies. The fire wall prevents fire from extending from one group of units to the next, though attic spaces, and between roofs. Openings All door openings in fire walls must be protected by either automatic or selfclosing fire doors. If a fire wall is required to have a fire-resistance rating of 4 hours, the openings frequently will be protected with a 3-hour rated fire door on each side. The reason for requiring two doors is that it is not uncommon for fire doors to be obstructed in some manner or to malfunction. The provision of two fire doors increases the probability that at least one of the doors will close under fire conditions, and protection will be provided at the opening. When ducts for heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems penetrate fire walls that have a fire-resistance rating of 2hours or greater, the ducts must be equipped with fire and smoke dampers within the duct. Rated activating devices and smoke detectors are installed in the ducts, causing the dampers to operate. Party Walls A party wallis a wall that lies on a lot line between two buildings and is common to both buildings. Party walls are erected to limit the maximum spread of fire. Party walls are not uncommon in old masonry construction. They may be found separating adjacent mercantile occupancies or between residential units in row house or town house construction (Figure 6.4). Party walls are almost always load-bearing walls. Party walls frequently function as fire walls and extend througha building from the basement through the roof and are capped witha parapet. Inspectors must be aware that it is not uncommon for building owners or occupants to breach party walls for a variety of reasons. It is possible for fires to communicate from building to building through unprotected openings in party walls. The existence of openings through party walls may not be readily apparent from the exterior. They may exist only on one level and may have been created to accommodate pipes or ducts rather than large and more obvious door openings. A very common location for breaches in party walls is in attic areas and cocklofts. 204 Chapter 6 « Building Construction: Components Figure 6.4 Party walls such as those that separate the residences in this row of town houses must be constructed as fire barriers between the i ilt a ——- residences on either side of the party wall. ty Most importantly, it is against code regulations to breach a party wall for any reason. Ifan inspector discovers this condition, it is extremely important to require the building owner to correct the condition as soon as possible and notify fire-suppression forces of the existence of these breaches. Fire Partitions and Fire Barriers Fire partitions and fire barriers are interior walls used to subdivide a floor or area of a building but do not qualify as fire walls. Fire partitions may not extend continuously through a building. These walls are erected from a floor to the underside of the floor above or to the bottom ofa fire-rated floor/ceiling assembly. Fire partitions are typically 1-hour-rated structures, while fire barriers can be 1- to 4-hour-rated structures. Fire partitions, with varying fire-resistance ratings, are frequently required for applications such as corridor walls and occupancy separations. Fire barriers are used for area separations, hazard protection, stairwells, and shafts. They are also used to create areas of refuge in health care facilities. The provision offire-rated corridor walls in residential apartment buildings, for example, is an important means ofprotecting an exit corridor from a fire in an apartment. The construction offire barriers is identical to fire partitions except that partitions are allowed to terminate at the bottom of a fire-rated floor/ceiling assembly and fire barriers are required to terminate at the floor or roof deck. When the floor area of a building is subdivided with fire-resistive partitions or walls, it is said to be compartmentalized. The fire-rated walls tend to contain fire to one area and prevent its spread. Naturally, any openings in these fire-rated walls such as doors, windows, and access panels nullify the value of the partitions unless these openings are protected by fire doors, shutters, or other rated building components. Fire partitions and fire barriers can be constructed from a wide variety of materials including lath and plaster, gypsum wallboard, concrete block, or combinations ofthese and other materials. The material chosen depends on the required fire resistance and the construction type of the building. For example, the partition wall separating adjacent units in an apartment building may be required to have a 1-hour fire-resistance rating. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 209 fire-resistive A common method used to accomplish this requirement ina applied to both structure is to use %-inch (12 mm) fire-rated gypsum board assembly could not be sides of 22-inch (64 mm) steel studs. However, such an m wallboard used for a load-bearing application. If the 42-inch (12 mm) gypsu studs, the were applied to both sides of2- x 4-inch (50 mm by 100 mm) wood used in a be could partition would have a 1-hour fire-resistance rating and partiload-bearing application in a wood-joisted building. The wood stud ng buildi sistive fire-re a tion could not be used for a load-bearing partition in because the structural components in fire-resistive buildings are themselves required to be fire resistive. Enclosure and Shaft Walls Enclosure walls are used to encompass vertical openings such as stairwells, elevator shafts, and pipe chases that extend from floor to floor ina building. The purpose of enclosure walls is to block the vertical spread offire through a building and, in the case of stairwells, protect a means of egress. The fireresistive walls used for shaft and enclosure walls must be fire barriers. Enclosure walls are required to have a fire resistance of 1 or 2 hours, depending on the height ofthe building. Enclosure walls are usually non-loadbearing; however, load-bearing masonry stair enclosures are found in some old buildings. Most common construction materials can be used for enclosure walls, including gypsum board with steel or wood studs, lath and plaster, or concrete block. Hollow, clay-tile enclosure walls exist in old, fire-resistive structures. Fire-rated glass can also be used in conjunction with stair enclosures. Asin the case offire barriers, the use offire-rated glass provides a fire barrier while permitting observation ofthe stair enclosure, which can enhance security. Curtain Walls When a building is constructed using a structural frame for its main structural support, the exterior wall functions only to enclose the building and is known as acurtain wall (or sometimes as cladding). The design function ofa curtain wall is to separate the interior environment from the exterior environment. Although curtain walls are not limited to buildings with steel frames, the concept of the curtain wall came into existence with the development of the steel-framed skyscraper. Because the frame provided the main, structural support, the exterior wall did not need to be load-bearing. In fact, at each floor of the building, the frame itself could support the exterior wall. Itis not unusual for a gap to be created between the edge of the floor and the curtain wall (Figure 6.5). This opening may be several inches (millimeters) wide and provide a path for the communication of fire up the inside of the curtain wall. To prevent this situation from happening, suitable fire-stopping material must be provided to maintain the continuity of the floor as a fireresistive barrier. Curtain walls are frequently constructed using combinations of glass and steel, glass and stainless steel, or glass and aluminum (Figure 6.6). However, curtain walls may also be constructed with materials such as lightweight concrete, plastic, fiberglass, and a variety of metal panels with core materials such 206 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components Curtain Wall Installation Method Figure 6.6 Glass exterior curtain walls like the one shown Structural Steel Beam ~~ must be constructed to withstand the weather and control heat loss to the interior of the structure. Curtain Wall Panel ; Figure 6.5 This cross section of a curtain wall shows the small gap created between a curtain wall and structural members of a building. as expanded paper honeycombs and compressed glass fiber. In any case, they must also be constructed to resist wind, rain, and snow and to control heat loss, noise transmission, and solar radiation. Because a curtain wall is non-load-bearing, it lacks the inherent fire resistance that is a byproduct of a more massive load-bearing wall. Some curtain wall assemblies such as those made of aluminum and glass have no fire resistance. However, building codes may require that exterior walls, including curtain walls, have some degree of fire resistance to reduce the communication of fire between buildings. The required fire resistance depends on the separation distance between buildings and the building’s occupancy. It is not uncommon for buildings such as high-rise office buildings and apartments to be constructed with curtain walls that are noncombustible but have no fire resistance. This situation is possible because they are separated far enough from other buildings so that the building code does not require any fire-resistance rating. Movable Partitions Movable interior partition walls make it possible to subdivide the interior ofa building to suit different needs. A large hotel banquet room, for example, can be subdivided with movable partitions to accommodate different size functions (Figure 6.7, p. 208). Movable partitions are never load bearing and can be made from several materials such as wood, vinyl, fabric, and metal. They are usually mounted on an overhead track and may be either power-operated or hand-operated. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 207 Figure 6.7 These moveable partitions are neither load bearing nor fire resistive but are useful for changing the size of assembly areas in large, multiuse compartments. Movable partitions extend from floor to ceiling and are constructed in whatever length is necessary to meet the desired function. Movable partitions are usually not fire resistive, although fire-resistive movable partitions with ratings of lor2 hours are available. Fire-rated movable partitions are used where it is desired to temporarily separate different functions within a building such as the separation ofa display crate storage area from meeting rooms in a convention hall. Roofs Roofs are a fundamental part of all buildings, with the primary function of providing protection from the weather. At the same time, roofs can contribute to the fire hazard of the building. The combustibility of thatched roofs was one of the first hazards addressed in the earliest building regulations adopted in Colonial America. In more modern times, fires that communicate from building to building by way of combustible wood shake shingles continue to plague some communities. Roofs may also contain a fire, preventing it from ventilating, and contributing to greater fire loss within the structure. The inspector should be able to identify the important characteristics of roof construction, including roof types, trusses, and coverings. Knowing the major characteristics of the various roof types is helpful to fire-suppression forces because of the inherent dangers. Types From a fire-protection standpoint, building roofs can be broadly classified into three categories: flat, pitched, and curved (Figure 6.8). No matter what type of roof structure is being used, the important considerations from the inspector's standpoint are the structural stability and load-carrying capacity verses the span length, the performance of the roof covering under adverse conditions such as wind, and the fire characteristics and classification of the materials used. Trusses A truss is a framed structural unit made of a group of triangles in one plane (Figure 6.9). Trusses are very common and important roof-support systems. Trusses use less material and are lighter than a comparable beam or joist for an equal span. However, the reduced mass of their components and the 208 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components Basic Types of Roof Designs Figure 6.8 Three basic categories of roofs are shown: (a) flat, (b) curved, and (c) pitched. NOODLILt ic NNOOOooo oOo |DOOOOOoOO _— Aa. XX" a ,. SS ee ae ( 2 ase LS cathodeAVE LT LE SD | P2/NS IR i. ‘eZ a i aiaceemeest | am, peememes Se (sar: adi a= Figure 6.9 Roof trusses can support the same weight as beams but are of lighter weight construction; however, they hide concealed spaces near roofs that can communicate fire. am. S/o : VE ee” interdependence of those components make them vulnerable to early failure under fire conditions. Furthermore, ceilings are often suspended from a roof truss creating an attic concealed space. Truss roof construction has replaced much of the conventional joist/rafter roofs in today’s construction market because it is a less expensive way to get the same quality product. A myriad of different types of trusses are available and generally the differences lie in the span lengths and loading capacities. Span lengths run from 10 feet (3 m) to over 60 feet (18 m). Roof Coverings Roof coverings provide the water-resistant barrier for the roof system. The type of roof covering used depends on the form of roof structure, slope of the roof, climate, and appearance desired. Some other factors that affect the choice of roof covering include the following: e Maintenance requirements e Required wind resistance e Durability e Fire resistance Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 209 and roll roofing. Fog, salt For example, hail can puncture asphalt shingles roofing. In some regions, air, smoke, and other pollutants tend to corrode metal and winter temroofs are subjected to summer temperatures over 100°F (38°C) action of the roof peratures below 0°F (-18°C) with resulting expansion and contr whether the roof is covering. The type of roof covering can vary, depending on flat, pitched, or curved. e 6.10a). Wood roof shingles and shakes pose serious fire potentials (Figur can shakes or s Burning embers from an exposing fire landing on wood shingle buted easily ignite them. In some parts of the country, wood shingles have contri to fires involving entire neighborhoods. a However, wood shingles and shakes can be pressure-impregnated with g-code buildin meet and bility fire-retardant chemical to reduce their combusti requirements. Experience with pressure-impregnated wood shingles and shakes indicates that the treatment remains effective after exposure to the elements. Fire-retardant shingles and shakes are shipped to the job site with a paper label identifying them. Once in place, however, identification of fire-retardant shingles or shakes can be difficult. Asphalt shingles are fundamentally combustible (Figure 6.10b). They tend to drip and run under fire conditions and produce a characteristic heavy black smoke. However, asphalt shingles used for roofs are typically produced with a grit surface that reduces their ease of ignition and permits their use under the provisions of building codes. Clay, slate, and cement tiles are noncombustible and produce fire-resistant roof coverings that have excellent resistance to flying embers (Figure 6.10c). Flying embers, however, can be blown under tiles such as Spanish tiles that do not lie flat and could ignite the roof deck. Metal roof coverings are noncombustible and will protect the structure from flying embers (Figure 6.10d). However, metal will melt when exposed to intense internal or external temperatures. Unlike a roof with a tar or wood covering that will self-ventilate rapidly, a metal roof can retain the fire until extreme temperatures exist and the roof melts and collapses. Roof coverings also have installation requirements that dictate the use of appropriate fastening methods. Underlayment requirements based on the slope of the roof, the type and amount offasteners to be installed, and flashing requirements to protect the edges of the roofing materials are also dictated. Many of the materials used for roofing can inherently meet the fire-resistance requirements because they are noncombustible. Others such as wood shakes and singles have no inherent fire-resistance characteristics but can have additives impregnated to add the fire-resistance characteristics. Other important issues include the installation of many different types of materials from plastics to polyurethane foam and to the insulation of the roof structure. The old method of using ballasted roof coverings is being replaced with new unballasted roof coverings. Ballasted roofs employ a method of holding down the roof covering such as using rock over tar paper. The rock helps with the concerns from fire and provides wind resistance. The codes also provide information about rework and replacement. For example no more than two layers of roofing material can be installed on any roof. 210 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components , Figure 6.10a Shake shingles present a considerable fire danger because they communicate fire very easily from rooftop to rooftop. Figure 6.10b Asphalt shingles are very popular roof coverings because they provide good resistance to the weather and protection from burning embers from external fires. Figure 6.10c Clay, slate, or cement tiles like the Spanish tiles shown add a greater weight load to roof components than asphalt but also prevent flying embers from nearby fires from igniting a structure. Figure 6.10d Metal roof coverings are noncombustible and very hardy; however, under extreme fire conditions, metal roofs will weaken and melt. Floors A floor is a horizontal plane within a structure upon which people stand and work. It must be sturdy, comfortable, and provide a safe work environment. Generally, some type of floor covering is placed over a subfloor, which is designed to support the live load. The inspector should be familiar with the materials used in floor construction, floor-support systems, and the effects of penetrations in floor assemblies. Construction Materials Floors may be constructed of a variety of materials depending on the design and use ofthe building and the weight of the equipment or materials that the floor will support. Some ofthose materials include the following: e Concrete — Can be either cast-in-place, precast, or posttensioned; common in fire-resistive construction because concrete is inherently fire resistive (Figure 6.11a, p. 213). The method of designing a concrete floor depends on the structural system used in the design of the basic building. Characteristics: — Often structurally self-supporting such as posttensioned concrete in a floor system. Either steel beams or trusses may also be used to support a concrete floor slab. In these cases, the fire resistance ofthe floor depends on the fireproofing of the supporting steel. Chapter 6 ¢ Building Construction: Components 211 and the span between _— Thickness depends on the live load to be supported supports. to enhance the appear__ Underside can be covered with a ceiling material the underside ance ofthe ceiling for the floor below; also very common for to be left exposed to form the ceiling of the floor below. cement or epoxy e Terrazzo — Consists of marble and stone chips that are setin is dry; excellent cement resin and then ground to a smooth finish when the It isa material for its inherent flame-resistive properties (Figure 6.11b). mental, popular floor finish that is durable and decorative; used in govern commercial, and residential buildings, including the living quarters of fire stations. e Clay tiles — Sometimes referred to as Mexican Paver Tiles; are used in interior and exterior commercial and residential applications; flame resistance of clay is excellent. They are usually attached to rough concrete or wood subfloors with a layer of mortar. e Bricks — Have been used for flooring for many years; can be laid directly onto the soil subfloor or secured with mortar to the concrete slab (Figure 6.1lc). The bricks may be full height or thin brick veneer. © Wood — Consists ofasubfloor made ofplanks or sheets of plywood covered with a finished hardwood floor that is finished and sealed (Figure 6.114). Wood floors were the primary type of flooring until the mid-twentieth century when concrete slab construction became popular. Today, a wide variety of hardwood, wood veneer, and simulated wood products are available. These new products can be glued to a subfloor or designed to be free floating, held in place by trim molding on all sides but not glued in place. Flame resistance: — Consider that the finish usually required on wood floors can be questionable regarding flame resistance. — Consult manufacturers before accepting wood floors in areas where flame spread is an important factor such as hospitals, detention areas, and large assembly areas. Floor Supports Floors that are installed over a crawl space or above grade level must have some form of support beneath them. The type of support may be masonry, wood, or steel. In old buildings, there can be a wide array of materials or structures that support the floor. Tile Arch System Early fire-resistive structures sometimes made use of a masonry tile arch system in combination with steel beams (Figure 6.12). These masonry arch systems may be found in multistory office or mercantile buildings that were built around the turn of the 20" century. Inspectors may encounter tile arch supported floors during renovation projects involving historic structures in alterations of buildings for others uses, and during the inspection of existing structures that are still in use. 212 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components Figure 6.11b This terrazzo floor comprised of marble and stone chips held together with an epoxy resin is an Figure 6.11a Concrete flooring is fire resistant but may show the effects of spalling under fire conditions. Figure 6.11c A masonry or brick floor provides excellent flame resistance. It may be laid on soil subfloor or mortared directly to a concrete slab. excellent, flame-resistant floor covering. Figure 6.11d Wood floors are extremely popular. They are = manufactured in a wide variety of styles and types. Typical Masonry Tile Arch Supports Figure 6.12 Built around the turn of the 20" century, masonry tile arch supports like the elliptical and circular arches illustrated were used in conjunction with steel beams in fire-resistive construction. Circular Arch Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 213 Steel is that The important thing to remember about steel as a building component be can it quicker heat will affect the member. The thinner the material, the affected unless it is protected in some appropriate manner. When fire-resistive construction is desired, any steel must be protected by fire-resistant materials that have been tested by an independent testing agency such as Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL). Materials commonly used include gypsum board, concrete, or a sprayed-on material. Three methods ofsteel structural support systems include the following: © Open web joists (bar joists) or trusses — Composed ofaframework ofsteel beams in the form of a truss that is used to support a floor assembly. The floor assembly may be precast concrete panels, wood decking, or corrugated steel decking covered with lightweight concrete having a minimum thickness of2 inches (50 mm) e Steel beams — Used to support precast concrete slabs. They can also be used to support the metal deck and concrete flooring. e Light gauge steel joists — Produced from cold rolled steel and available in several cross sections; a fairly recent development in construction to support flooring (Figure 6.13). Like open-web steel joists, the light gauge joists can be used to support metal deck or wood panel flooring systems. Wood Wood floor supports can be weakened and ultimately destroyed in the course ofa fire, which could lead to floor collapse. Also, wood floor systems typically have combustible voids through which fire can travel rapidly. Wood flooring is often covered by carpet, ceramic tiles, and other decorative floor coverings. These coverings may be added to provide a more durable surface, to level off areas that have settled, or merely to cover surfaces that are showing severe wear. When floor coverings are added, often no consideration is given to the additional loads that are being imposed on floor supports. From a fire-protection standpoint, the most substantial wood floors are those found in heavy timber buildings (Type IV construction). The floor decking in Type IV construction is a minimum 3-inch (76 mm) thick plank with a l-inch (25 mm) finished flooring. The planks are cut with tongue-and-groove edges so that they fit together. This technique distributes loads among adjacent planks and reduces sagging or movement between members. The floor decking is supported by 6 x 10-inch (150 mm by 250 mm) beams. In ordinary wood-frame construction, the wood floors are less substantial than Type IV construction and are typically supported by joists. The floor deck is plywood or nominal 1-inch (25 mm) board subfloor covered by a finished flooring. The joists vary from 2 x 6 inches to 2 x 14 inches (50 mm by 150 mm to 50mm by 350 mm) spaced 12 to 24 inches (300 mm to 600 mm) apart, depending on the live load being supported. Building codes may require bridging (wood or metal diagonal bracing or solid blocking) between joists (Figure 6.14). The purpose of bridging is to keep the floor supports from twisting under a load. 214 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components Common Lightweight Flooring System Wood Floor Bridging System Finish Minimum i 2 in (50 mm) Lightweight Concrete Corrugated : Steel Decking F Subflooring oats Flooring ae \ Steel Open Web Joists Figure 6.13 Lightweight flooring systems produced from cold rolled steel are very recent developments in construction. This cross section illustrates one of many pvatabie: (50 mm x 150 mm) to 2x 14in (50 mm x 350 mm) joists Bridging 12 to 24 in (300 mm to 600 mm) 5 eA gidute SAE TNS GOSS Seen Qneat oie eiGis e308) of ordinary wood-frame construction. The less massive components found in the flooring systems of ordinary masonry or wood-frame construction are more vulnerable to fire than those used in heavy timber construction. This vulnerability is a special concern in floor systems that use lightweight wood trusses. Prefabricated floor trusses may provide the same strength with less material than solid joists; however, the smaller individual members in the trusses burn much more quickly than do solid joists and timbers. In addition, the trusses do not provide barriers to the fire, and a fire can spread in all directions through floor and ceiling spaces. Laminated beams also are frequently used in floor-support systems. Although laminated beams are produced from individual smaller pieces of lumber, they generally exhibit a fire behavior similar to that ofsolid lumber. Masonry Masonry and concrete floors supports are the best from a fire-protection standpoint. Normally because concrete does not have great tensile strength, it must be reinforced with steel. The amount and size of the steel component vary with the carrying capacity and span of the member. Concrete and masonry are excellent building components because of the inherent fire resistance of the materials. The major disadvantage is the weight of the material or assembly. The fire resistance of the member depends on the amount of material that is covering the steel reinforcement. Floor Coverings A variety of finishing materials may cover floor construction materials, including the following: e Carpet e Paint e Laminated wood e Vinyl e Ceramic tile Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 219 finish material such as A structural floor system usually is covered with a and sound deadening carpeting, ceramic tile, or laminated wood for appearance system beneath. (Figure 6.15). The finished flooring can conceal the actual floor tive wood-finish A concrete floor, for example, can be covered with a more attrac such as plywood floor. Of more significance to an inspector isa combustible floor a material such as that is supported by wood trusses and can be covered with system ina carpeting. Therefore, in any given situation, the exact type of floor building may not be readily apparent to an inspector. not At one time, the flammability of floor coverings, such as carpeting, was fire a from considered significant in overall building fire safety because the heat rises to the ceiling of aroom. It was assumed that anything located at floor level would be at the coolest part of the room. Floor coverings, therefore, would be the last part ofaroom to become involved. However, fires that spread over the surface Figure 6.15 Carpeting is an example of a floor covering added for its appealing appearance and sounddeadening ability. of some thick carpeting can increase the fire hazard within a structure. The codes currently contain requirements limiting the flammability offloor coverings. Currently there are two classes offloor finishes: Class land Class II. Floor finishes are classified by the amount of heat that can be applied to the material before it ignites and fire spreads. Class Ican withstand higher temperatures before igniting than Class II can withstand. Like the classifications for interior finishes, the more critical the fire exposure, the higher the classification required. Generally the exits, exit passageways, and corridors require Class I interior floor finishes. However, the use of an automatic sprinkler system will decrease the requirement to Class II. Floor Penetrations and Openings The fire resistance of a floor assembly plays a primary role in preventing the vertical communication of fire and products of combustion through a building. Building codes, therefore, contain requirements that vertical penetrations offloors for purposes such as elevator shafts, stairwells, and service shafts be provided witha fire-resistive enclosure. However, it is frequently desirable from an architectural or operational perspective to have communicating openings between floors. Examples ofthese are atriums (large vertical spaces), convenience stairs that may connect two or more floors occupied by one tenant in an office building, escalator openings, and covered malls. Ideally, all vertical openings should be enclosed. In many cases, an architect can specify that doors be held open by automatic devices that release upon activation of a smoke detector. Fire-rated glazing can also be used to enclose a vertical opening. However, building codes make provisions for atriums and mall buildings by requiring automatic sprinkler and smoke management systems. Figure 6.16 Unprotected openings can typically be found around pipes and cables. Unprotected openings can allow fire to spread between floors and compartments. 216 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components An unprotected opening is one without any provisions to stop the passage of fire and the products of combustion. Small vertical openings can allow fire and smoke to spread as efficiently as a chimney. Vertical openings that are commonly left unprotected include the annular (or ring-shaped) space around pipes and cables where they pass through floor and ceiling decks (Figure 6.16). Ceilings Ceilings as a distinct building component usually do not play a structural role. They can be installed simply to provide an attractive interio r finish. However, a ceiling frequently has a functional role in the design ofa building. Ceilings can be designed to control the diffusion of light, control the distribution ofair in aroom, act as asound barrier, and act as part ofa fire-resistive assembly to separate one floor from another. In addition, the space above the ceiling can be used to conceal air-con ditioning ducts, electrical and communications wiring, and plumbing and sprinkle r piping (interstitial ceiling space). Ceiling materials such as gypsum board or mineral tiles are often a component offire resistance that the building codes require for the floor/ceiling system (Figure 6.17). The most important item to mention is that the interstitial space can be used as a return-air plenum and when that is the case, the fire inspector must ensure that materials, wires, ducts, pipes, etc. are noncombustible or rated for plenum use. Return-Air Plenum — Unoccupied space within a building through which air flows back to the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system; normally is immediately above a Ceiling and below an insulated roof or the floor above Ceiling materials can be either attached directly to the underside of floor joists or trusses or installed at a distance below the floor supports, creating a large concealed space. It is not uncommon for old buildings to have a new ceiling installed below an existing ceiling as a means ofcreating newinterior decor. As in the case of finished flooring, ceiling materials can conceal the type of floor or roof structure above. Figure 6.17 Lay-in ceiling tiles are often made of gypsum board. The tiles shown also feature a recessed sprinkler as part of the building’s automatic sprinkler system. Stairs Stairs are the basic architectural features of buildings that provide access to different levels of the structure or a means of egress from upper levels. The building codes specify when a stair is part of the means of egress and also the protection requirements in hours of fire resistance. Stairs that are a part of the required means of egress must provide protection for the occupants as they travel to safety. Stairs meeting these requirements are called protected or enclosed because they are built to resist the spread of fire and smoke. Stairs that are not required to be a part of the means of egress system and typically connect no more than two levels are called access or convenience stairs. Stairs can be classified as either interior or exterior stairs, depending on their location. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 217 of all stair Inspectors must be able to recognize the types and components safety life and fire the designs. It is also necessary to be able to recognize of egress in a requirements for stairs that are part of the designated means structure. Basic Components All types of stairs have similar components as shown in Figure 6.18. Building codes specify the exact acceptable dimensions, typically expressed as minimum and maximum tread and riser measurements, also known as the stair’s rise and run. The design or layout ofa set of stairs may take any of several different forms (Figures 6.19). Regardless of the type of stair, the building and fire codes specify requirements for construction and use of stairs. Stairway rise and run are specified at 4 to 7 inches and 11 inches (101.6 mm to 177.8 mm and 279 mm) minimum, respectively, in both the NFPA® and International Code Council® (ICC®) codes. No matter what configuration the stairs are in (switchback, straight, scissor, etc.), the riser and tread of each step must be within the limits set. Also each successive step cannot differ in size from the one before or after by more than 3/s inch (9 mm). Several other stair configurations, including spiral stairs, winders (circular stairs), and alternating tread stairs, are allowed by the codes under very specific conditions. Stair Components and Dimensions Baluster » a Figure 6.18 This illustration shows the locations of the various components involved in staircase construction. Stringer (Carriage) 218 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components H f andrail Although fire escapes, escalators, and fixed ladders have been used as a means ofegress in the past, they are no longer allowed as components in the required means of egress from normally occup ied spaces. Another device used for some time was the slide escape. It is no longer allowed by modern building and fire codes. Means of Egress The protection of a stairwell from the products of combus tion is extremely important. Not only can a stair serve as a chimney to spread smoke and fire to upper levels of a building, but it also provides a means of escape from all Six Types of Stair Designs Straight Run Circular Return Folding Figures 6.19 Stairs can be constructed using a variety of layouts and designs, including straight run, return, scissor, circular, folding, and spiral. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 219 rment in visibility levels ofthe structure. Studies show that even a minor impai so it is important significantly impairs the ability of people to safely egress, as possible. free that stairs meant for use as escape routes are as smoke in stairways, Because ofthe potential for fire and smoke to gather and spread required in the model codes provide a high level of protection for most stairs stairways typithe means ofegress. The sections that follow describe types of cally considered when assessing stairways as a means of egress. Protected Stairs Interior protected stairs are critical components of the life safety system ofa building. Protected stairs are enclosed with fire-rated construction, usually with either a 1- or 2-hour rating, depending on building height. Also, protected stairs generally serve two stories or more and are part of the required means of egress. They are the primary egress paths from floors above or below grade level and can adversely affect the safety of occupants if they do not maintain a tenable atmosphere. Stair enclosures are considered sterile, highly protected parts of the means of egress because of their importance in overall building life safety. Asa result, protected stair enclosures are constructed of noncombustible or limited-combustible materials and have a required interior finish classification. Generally, stair enclosures are required to be isolated from the rest of the building. The only penetrations permitted in the enclosure are for light and fire-protection devices. Penetrations for building services are prohibited. Self- or automatic-closing fire-rated doors are required. This requirement indicates the high level of protection that the codes give to stair enclosures. Exterior Stairs Exterior stairs may be either open to the air or enclosed (Figure 6.20). Enclosed exterior stairs must comply with requirements similar to those of interior protected stairs. Open stairs are naturally ventilated but may be partially enclosed from the weather. They typically have at least two adjacent sides open to natural ventilation. When provided as a part of the means of egress, even open exterior stairs are generally protected by limiting or protecting the openings in the building’s outside wall near the stairs. Thus, these stairs have some level of protection from smoke and fire from inside the building that might impair the egress path on the stairs. Fire Escapes Fire escapes are open metal stairs and landings attached to the outside of a building. The lowest flight may consist of a swinging stair section to limit unwanted access. Building codes have not permitted fire escapes in new construction for many decades. Fire escapes that have been in place for many years may not be able to support the required live load created during emergency evacuations or fire-suppression operations. Fire escapes usually are anchored to the building and are not supported at ground level (Figure 6.21). These anchor 220 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components Figure 6.21 Exterior fire escapes are no longer built in new construction but still exist on older buildings. Fire escapes should be thoroughly inspected for Stability because many fail under load during emergencies. Figure 6.20 Exterior enclosed stairs are a good means of egress because they can be protected from fire and smoke that develop inside a building. CHMM M Mh CAUTION points are subject to the freeze-thaw cycle, corrosion from pollution and weather, and temperature changes. The mortar in which the anchors are set may suffer from deterioration or may have originally been inadequate for the expected load. Because many old fire escapes have failed when loaded with people or fire service personnel during an emergency, it is important that inspectors look closely for signs of structural deterioration. If there is any question about the integrity ofa fire escape, an inspector should request that a structural engineer verify its condition. Smokeproof Stair Enclosures Building codes require a smokeproof stair enclosure under certain circumstances such as stairs serving a high-rise building. Stair enclosures using either active or passive smoke control may be defined as smokeproof. A mechanical ventilation system actively keeps a stair enclosure free of smoke, even when a door is open to the fire floor. Activated by automatic fire/ smoke detection equipment, a mechanical ventilation system is designed to keep smoke out ofthe stair enclosure by pressurizing the shaft (Figure 6.22, p. 222). The system should be specially designed for the particular installation. A properly designed, installed, and maintained system should allow firefighters to begin suppression operations while occupants are still using the stairs for escape. The structural soundness ofa fire escape may not be apparent; therefore, use extreme caution during an inspection. The fire escape structure itself may be severely weakened because of constant exposure over a period of years. Fire escapes pose a high level of potential danger because of their rusted and weakened components combined with inadequate inspection and maintenance procedures. NOTE: Building codes specify maximum allowable pressures in the stair enclosure to allow the doors in the enclosure to be opened with a reasonable amount offorce. Referto the applicable code for specific mechanical ventilation system design guidance. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 221 Pressurized Stairwell Figure 6.22 A pressurized stairwell incorporates a ventilation system that pushes air into rather than out of the stairwell. This pressurization has the Pressurized Stairwell added effect of keeping smoke from a fire in an adjoining floor from entering the stairwell. Smokeproof stair enclosures using natural ventilation have an opening to the outside air by way ofa vestibule, balcony, or smoke shaft. Regardless, the design protects the stairway enclosure from smoke by providing a passive means for smoke to be vented to the outside before it enters the stair enclosure. Unprotected Stairs Unprotected stairs are those that simply are not protected from fire and smoke in the building they serve. Because they are not enclosed with fire-rated construction, they may serve as a path of spread for fire and smoke and will not protect anyone using them from exposure to the products of combustion. The building codes typically allow the use of unprotected stairs in buildings when they connect only two adjacent floors above the basement level. These stairs are sometimes referred to as access or convenience stairs and can be used as part of an exit system in a two-story building. Open stairs used as part of the means of egress are only allowed in buildings equipped with an automatic sprinkler system in particular occupancies. The inspector should consult the adopted code to obtain guidance in the use of open stairs. Doors Doors vary widely in operation, style, design, and construction. The door manufacturing industry is large enough that it constitutes a specialty within the field of building construction. A single-family dwelling, for example, may have a dozen or more different doors, and a large hotel may have hundreds of doors. 222 Chapter 6 ¢ Building Construction: Components From an architectural perspective, the type, size, and location of doors are determined by the following factors: e Physical access requirements e Volume of movement between spaces e Frequency of use e Requirements for weather tightness e@ Privacy desired e Code requirements for fire resistance e Code requirements for building egress e Appearance @ Security To perform plans reviews and field inspections, the inspector must be able to recognize the basic operational types ofdoors, design styles, and construction materials used in door construction. This information is contained in the sections that follow. Operational Types Doors may be classified by the way they operate. Generally, the following five types of doors are used in modern building construction (Figure 6.23, p. 224): e Swinging e Vertical e Sliding e Revolving e Folding Swinging Doors A swinging door rotates around a vertical axis by means ofhinges secured to the side jambs of the doorway framing. It may also operate on pivot posts supported at the top and bottom. A swinging door can be either single or double leaf. It may also be single acting, swinging in one direction, or double acting, swinging in two directions. Generally swinging doors are required as exit doors in a means of egress, although other types of doors can be used under very specific conditions. Sliding Doors A sliding door is suspended from an overhead track and may use steel or nylon rollers. Floor guides or tracks are usually provided to prevent the door from swinging laterally. A sliding door can be designed as surface sliding, pocket sliding, or bypass sliding. A sliding door’s main advantage is that it eliminates a door swing that might interfere with the use ofinterior space. A pocket sliding door, which slides into the wall assembly, is frequently used within residential units because it is out of sight when open. Sliding doors are also used for elevators, power-operated doors in storefront entrances, and fire doors to protect openings that are nota part of the means of egress. Sliding doors are never allowed as a part of ameans of egress because they slow the travel of people through the door opening. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 223 Five Types of Doors Figure 6.23 These five types of Swinging i ap | Sliding doors are used in most modern construction and are classified based upon how they operate. Vertical Revolving Folding Doors A folding door is hung from an overhead track with rollers or glides similar to those used by a sliding door. A folding door can be either bifolding or multifolding. Folding doors may be found in residential occupancies, in places of assembly to divide large conference areas into smaller rooms, and as horizontal fire doors. Horizontal fire-door assemblies must meet very specific requirements and be tested and listed for use in a means of egress. Vertical Doors A door that opens ina vertical plane is known as an overhead door and is often found in industrial occupancies for applications such as loading dock doors, garage doors, freight elevator doors, and fire doors protecting openings that are not part of the required means of egress. A vertical operating door can be a simple single leaf that is raised in vertical guides along the edge of the doorway, or it can consist of two or more horizontal panels. Vertical rolling doors that consist of interlocking metal slats are commonly used in factories and warehouses. A door that operates vertically is usually provided with some type of counterbalance mechanism, either actual weights or springs, to help overcome the weight ofthe door. A vertical door can be raised manually, raised mechanically via chain hoist, or power-operated. A swinging door can be installed in 224 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components large overhead doors to act as a means of egress when required to meet the travel distance for the space. The swinging door must meet the requirements of the code. Travel Distance — Distance from any given area ina structure to the nearest exit or to a fire extinguisher Revolving Doors A revolving door is constructed with three or four section s or wings that rotate in a circular frame. A revolving door is designed to minimi ze the flow of air through a door opening to reduce building heating or cooling losses. A revolving door prevents the movement of hose or equipment into a building, which can present a problem for firefighters. Furthermore, a crowd of people attempting to flee in an emergency cannot move through a revolving door as quickly as they can through a comparable swinging door. To overcome these restrictions under emergency conditions, the wings of the revolving door must be collapsed to provide an unobstructed opening. Several types of mechanisms hold the wings of revolving doors in place within the door unit. Old models use simple chain keepers or stretcher bars between the wings. New models use spring-loaded, cam-in-groove, or bulletdetent hardware. Most models employ a collapsing mechanism that allows the wings to open to a book-fold position when the wings are pushed in opposite directions. Building codes require this feature to provide rapid exiting from a building. However, the use of revolving doors in a means of egress is severely limited and must provide a swinging door within 10 feet (3 m) of the revolving door. Codes limit the amount offorce required to collapse the wings to 130 pounds (578 N). However, this force may be exceeded if provision is made to reduce the collapsing force to 130 pounds (578 N) under emergency conditions. Styles and Construction Materials In addition to describing doors by their method of operation, doors can be classified by style and construction material. Door styles are mainly ofinterest to an architectural designer. However, the construction material of adoor influences its effectiveness as a fire barrier and the degree to which it can be forced open during an emergency. Doors are constructed from wood, metal, and glass. Wood doors may be panel or flush designs and may contain glass components. Aluminum and carbon steel are the metals used most commonly in doors, but stainless steel, bronze, and copper are also used. In addition, doors are sometimes manufactured with a veneer of hardboard, fiberglass, or plastic. Fire resistance of the door is not based on the materials of construction. Rather, the doors are manufactured in accordance with specific requirements that have been tested and listed by an independent testing laboratory such as UL. Wood Panel and Flush Doors A very common type of swinging door is the wood panel door. A panel door consists of vertical and horizontal members that frame a rectangular area. Thin panels of wood, glass, or louvers are placed within the framed rectangular area. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 225 ts of flat face A flush door (sometimes referred to as a slab door) consis are attached panels that are the full height and width of the door. The panels gs to acto a solid or hollow core. A flush door can be designed with openin flush doors commodate glass vision panels or ventilation louvers. In the past, door is were constructed from one solid piece or slab of wood. Today, a flush ken unbro , constructed of wood components finished to present a smooth surface on both sides. Solid-core doors are formed with an interior core of laminated blocks of wood, particleboard, or a mineral composition (Figure 6.24). The core is covered with two or three layers of surface material, which is usually plywood. Ifa wood solidcore door is intended for exterior application where security is a concern, a layer of sheet metal may be attached to the exterior surface to increase resistance to physical attack by an intruder. Standard solid-core doors are 1% inches (45 mm) or 13/s inches (35 mm) thick. A hollow-core door is constructed with spacers between the face panels to provide lateral support. The interior spacers consist of a grid or honeycomb of wood, plastic, or fiberboard. Hollow-core doors are less expensive and lighter than solid-core doors. However, they have minimal thermal or sound-insulating value and usually are used for interior applications. Solid-core doors are better fire barriers than either panel doors or hollow-core doors. A solid-core door that has not been specifically designed as a fire door will act as a significant barrier to fire if it is closed at the time of the fire. Comparison Between Solid- and Hollow-Core Doors Figure 6.24 Doors may be either solid or hollow core. Hollow-core doors are less expensive than solid-core doors; however, they are not as fire resistant. Ty i RED TEA | i] FY ie Hollow Core 226 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components Glass Doors Glass doors are used for both exterior and interior applications. They are found in almost all occupancies, but they are most commonly used in office and mercantile buildings. Glass doors can be either framed or frameless. Ina frameless glass door, the door consists ofa single sheet of glass to which door hardware such as handles are attached. In a framed door, the glass is placed within and is surrounded by a metal or wood frame with the required door hardware attached to the frame. Codes require glass doors to be made of tempered glass that resists breakage. In addition, various plastics such as Lexan® or Plexiglas® are often used inthe framed door to provide additional security. Metal Doors A common type of metal door is a hollow metal door made from steel or aluminum. A hollow metal door can be either panel or flush and is normally 1% inches (45 mm) thick. A flush door consists of smooth sheet metal face panels ‘/20 inch (1 mm) thick. Vertical sheet metal ribs within the door spaced 6 to 8 inches (150 mm to 200 mm) apart separate the face panels ofa steel door from one another. A sound-deadening material can be placed between the ribs. An aluminum flush door usually has a core of hardboard and honeycombpatterned paper. A metal door can also be constructed of heavy corrugated steel. In this type of door, a steel frame supports one or two corrugated sheets. A door made with two corrugated sheets has an interior core material such as Styrofoam®. Fire Doors Fire doors protect the openings in fire-rated walls. The use offire doors to block the spread of fire is an established fire-protection technique. Fire doors can be found in industrial buildings that date back to the end of the 19" century. When properly maintained and operated, fire doors are very effective at limiting the spread of fire and total fire damage (Figure 6.25). Fire doors differ from ordinary (nonfire doors) in their construction, their hardware, and the extent to which they may be required to close automatically. Figure 6.25 Some building codes require an automatic fire door that covers the elevator door when activated. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 227 To qualify as a rated fire door, the entire assembly including the door, hard- a test bya ware (hinges, latches, locks, etc), door seal, and frame, must pass third-party testing agency. The door assembly is certified as a single unit fora e, specified time. Fire-resistance classifications, testing, frames and hardwar and construction types are described in the sections that follow. Glass panels in fire doors must achieve the same test results as the rest of the assembly. Classifications The lightly constructed panel doors or glass doors used in general construction cannot act as barriers to the high temperatures developed in a fire. Therefore, fire doors are designed, constructed, tested, and certified to meet specific fire-resistance needs. The following three methods of classifying fire doors currently exist: 1. Hourly fire-protection rating — Indicates the length of time the door will resist fire before it is breached. Fire doors are rated as 4 hours, 3 hours, 1% hours, 1 hour, */4, hour, and 1/3 hour. 2. Alphabetical letter designation — Indicates the type of opening thatis to be protected based on the location and required level of protection. This form of classification is no longer used; however, existing fire doors that use the Fire-Protection Rating — Designation indicating the duration of a fire-test exposure to which a fire door assembly or fire window assembly was exposed and for which it successfully met all acceptance criteria alphabetical letter designation will be encountered during field inspections and building alterations. See information box below for examples of this designation. 3. Combination of hour and letter — Indicates the fire-protection rating and the type of opening for which the door assembly has been tested and certified. This classification may be found on existing fire doors, although the system is no longer used. Alphabetical Letter Designations Letter designations have historically been used to describe the fire door. These letter designations are no longer used, but they are included here because they may be encountered in a historical perspective or in existing buildings. The letter designations are described as follows: * Class A— Openings in fire walls and in walls that divide a structure into separate fire areas * Class B— Openings in vertical shafts such as stairwells and openings in 2-hour rated partitions * Class C— Openings between rooms and corridors having a fire resistance of 1 hour or less ¢ Class D— Openings in exterior walls subject to severe fire exposure from the outside of a building ¢ Class E — Openings in exterior walls subject to moderate or light exposure from the outside Some examples of fire door classifications that an inspector may find include the following: ¢ A fire door intended to protect an opening into an exit stairwell classified as a Class B door ° A fire door with a combination classification such as a Class B 14-hour rating, meaning that the door is intended to protect an opening ina vertical shaft and has a 1¥2-hour rating 228 Chapter 6 Building Construction: Components A few apparent inconsistencies may be encountered in regard to fire-door classifications, and an inspector should be aware of them. For example: e A code may permit an opening in a 2-hour-rated stairwe ll enclosure to be protected with a 12-hour-rated fire door rather than a 2-hourrated door. e Acode may also require two 3-hour-rated fire doors to protect an opening in a 4-hour-rated wall and may not permit a 3-hour-rated door to be used in combination with a 1%-hour-rated door to satisfy the requirement. @ A '/s-hour-rated door may be found being used as a smoke barrier and an opening to a corridor. The reason for a difference between the rating of a fire wall and a fire door assembly is that the test criteria for the two are different. In the case of fire walls, it is assumed that there are combustibles located close to the wall on the protected side that can be ignited. Fire doors are assumed to have a clear space on the protected side. Testing Fire doors are tested in accordance with the procedures contained in NEPA® 252, Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Door Assemblies, which is also designated | ASTM E-152 (from ASTM International, originally known as the American Society for Testing and Materials). The test procedure uses a furnace to expose the fire doors to the same time and temperature curve used to establish the fire-resistance rating of structural assemblies. However, the conditions for passing the test for door assemblies are not as rigid as those required for fire-rated walls. For fire doors, the primary criterion for acceptability is that the fire door remains in place during the test. Some warping of the door is permitted, and intermittent passage of flames is permitted after the first 30 minutes ofthe test. There is also no maximum surface temperature rise permitted on the unexposed side of the door. In addition to the fire exposure test, a fire door assembly must remain in place when subjected to a hose stream immediately following the fire test. The use ofa hose stream subjects the door assembly to cooling and impact effects that might accompany fire-suppression operations. A door with a !/3-third-hour rating may not be subjected to the hose test. >. Lu Y) a8 Lu = x O © = Ww = EDT DENVER, CO < = 00 4 re ch=, “ae i Sa Sa] |wra a? wee A” aa wa ee /< 3 bi Pa.) vee Bn) a] nage zon —— £1668 | 4 Rated fire doors are identified with a label indicating the door type, the hourly rating, and the identifying logo of the testing laboratory (Figure 6.26). Building and fire inspectors can use fire door labels to identify fire doors in the field. However, it is not uncommon for the labels to be painted over in the course of building maintenance. There has also been at least one documented case of counterfeit laboratory labels. Frames and Hardware For a fire door to effectively block the spread offire, it must remain closed and attached to the fire-rated wall under fire conditions. Therefore, a fire door must be equipped with hardware that holds the door closed under the stresses and pressures of fire exposure. In addition, when fire doors are installed in Figure 6.26 Inspectors should look for labels such as this one when attempting to determine a door’s fire rating. a frame, the frame must also withstand exposure to a fire. The testing offire doors includes frames and hardware, which are also listed by the testing laboratories for use with fire doors. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 229 e or fireThe hardware used on fire doors is referred to as either builder’s hardwar includes and doors fire g door hardware. Builder’s hardware is applied to swingin to a hinges, locks, latches, bolts, and closers. Builder’s hardware can be shipped sliding both on used is re job site separate from the fire doors. Fire-door hardwa and swinging fire doors and is normally shipped with the fire doors. Construction and Operational Types The construction and operation of fire doors can depend on the type of occupancy, the amount of space around the door opening, and the required fire-protection rating for the door. Most fire doors will be constructed of metal and may roll, slide, or swing into place when released. Fire doors for special types ofsituations have also been developed and are described in the sections that follow. Information on glass panels and louvers in fire doors as well as automatic closing devices is also provided. Rolling Steel Fire Doors ' Dead-End Corridor — Corridor in which egress is possible in only one direction An overhead rolling steel fire door is commonly used to protect an opening ina fire wall in an industrial occupancy or an opening in a wall separating buildings into fire areas. An overhead rolling steel fire door may be used on one or both sides ofawall opening. One architectural advantage of an overhead rolling fire door is that itis relatively inconspicuous and does not use wall space next to the opening. This type of door cannot be used on any opening that is required to be part of the means of egress. This type of door is constructed ofinterlocking steel slats with other operating components such as releasing devices, governors, counterbalance mechanisms, and wall guides. An overhead rolling door ordinarily closes under the force of gravity when a fusible link melts, but motor-driven doors are available (Figure 6.27). Inspectors should be aware that without a conventional swinging door at the location, the overhead rolling fire door may cause a dangerous dead-end corridor when it closes. Horizontal Sliding Fire Doors Horizontal sliding fire doors are often found in old industrial buildings, are usually held open by a fusible link, and slide into position along a track either by gravity or by the force of a counterweight. Several different materials are used to construct horizontal sliding fire doors (Figure 6.28). Horizontal sliding doors cannot be used to protect openings in walls that are required parts of ameans ofegress. A common type of sliding fire door is a metal-covered, wood-core door. The wood core provides thermal insulation, while the sheet metal covering protects the wood from the fire. Because wood undergoes thermal decomposition when exposed to heat, a vent hole is usually provided in the sheet metal to vent the gases of decomposition. The metals used to cover the wood core include steel, galvanized sheet metal, and terneplate (a metal composed of tin and lead). Smooth galvanized sheet metal is used on wood-core doors known as kalamein doors. Fire doors made with terneplate are commonly referred to as tin-clad doors; although strictly speaking, the metal used is not pure tin. 230 Chapter 6 « Building Construction: Components Figure 6.27 Overhead rolling fire doors close under the force of gravity when the fusible link that holds them in place melts due to the heat from a fire. Counterbalance !nclined Fusible Link Figure 6.28 Old industrial buildings often contain horizontal sliding fire doors like the one illustrated. 4 in (100 mm) Vent Hole Protective Shoe Counterweight Tightening Wedge Swinging Fire Doors Swinging fire doors are available with ratings of 3 hours to 20 minutes and can be constructed from a variety of materials including the metal-clad wood style shown in Figure 6.29, p. 232). Swinging fire doors are commonly used in stairwell enclosures or corridors that require a fire door. A swinging fire Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 231 Swinging Metal-Clad Fire Door Fusible Link Figure 6.29 This older, swinging, metal-clad fire door Closing Weight SA i\ be S incorporates a fusible link and a counterweight system to automatically close the door in case Of fire. eS | Ne is VV Es en Kei Weight \\ \ kal door has the disadvantage of requiring a clear space around the door to ensure closure. However, a swinging door is a good choice when the door is located in a corridor where it must remain open during normal day-to-day operations. When fire doors are needed on either side ofawall, the swing ofthe doors may impede an exit path through the doors. When this situation arises, both doors are required to swing in the direction of exit travel. A fire-resistive-constructed vestibule between the doors provides the space needed for the doors to swing in the same direction. Special Types Special types of fire-rated fire doors are available for freight and passenger elevators, service counter openings, security (bullet-resisting) doors, dumbwaiters, and chute openings. A horizontal-folding fire door has also been developed, which is motor driven and requires electrical power for operation . A signal from a smoke detector or fire-alarm system initiates the door’s closing. A battery powers the motor if the regular power supply is interrupt ed. If 232 Chapter 6 ©Building Construction: Components a fire-rated partition is required and the designer does not wish to provide a fixed wall to create an unobstructed floor plan, a horizontal-fol ding fire door is frequently used. Glass Panels and Louvers A fire door is often provided with glass vision panels. The vision panels enhance safety and security by permitting observation through a door when the door is in the closed position. Any glazing material used in fire doors is required to be fire rated. At one time, only fire doors with ratings up to 1% hours were permitted to have glass panels. Currently, doors with ratings up to 3 hours can be equipped with glass panels. There are restrictions on the allowable area of glass in fire doors. Fire doors with ratings of 1, 1%, and 3 hours can have glass panels up to 100 square inches (64 500 mm’) in area per door. Fire doors with ratings of % hour can have a total glass area consistent with their listing, but an individual piece cannot exceed 1,296 square inches (836 100 mm’). Fire doors with ratings of 1/s hour can have fire-rated glass up to the maximum area to which they were tested. Itis also sometimes desirable to install louvers in a fire door to permit ventilation while the door is closed such as in the case ofa furnace room enclosure. The louvers in a fire door must close in the event offire to protect the opening. Usually, the closing of louvers is accomplished by means ofa fusible link. Swinging fire doors with ratings up to 1% hours can be equipped with louvers. The door manufacturer may not produce the louvers themselves. Testing laboratories list the louvers separately. Only those fire doors that are listed for the installation of louvers can have louvers installed. Closing Devices To perform its function, a fire door must be closed when a fire occurs. However, it is normally desirable for fire doors to remain open or to be easily opened to allow for ordinary movement of building occupants. Fire doors can be either automatic or self-closing. An automatic door is normally held open and closes automatically when an operating device is activated. A self-closing door is normally closed and will return to the closed position if it is opened and released. The devices that operate fire doors are listed as follows: e Fire door closers — Used for overhead rolling, sliding, or swinging fire doors. It either can incorporate a hold-open device or be self-closing. Figure 6.30, p. 234, illustrates one type of overhead rolling fire door closer that incorporates a fusible-link device that is held open to release the door under fire conditions. Self-closing fire door closers are commonly used for applications such as stairwell doors and doors from hotel rooms to corridors. One commonly used self-closer uses a spring hinge to close the door when released. e Electromagnetic door holders— Can be used with swinging, sliding, or rolling fire doors. It is intended to be used with a suitable door closer. Figure 6.31, p. 234, illustrates a typical arrangement of an electromagnetic door holder. It is used in conjunction with a smoke detector, which releases the holder. This arrangementis very useful in areas with a large volume oftraffic such as school stair enclosures. Having the fire doors held open prevents Chapter 6 ¢ Building Construction: Components 233 Figure 6.31 Magnetic door holders like this one are connected to a smoke detection system. When the system is activated, the electromagnetic charge in the door holder is deactivated closing the door automatically. Figure 6.30 Fusible links may still be found on overhead rolling fire doors. the practice of blocking the doors in an open position. The smoke detectors are sufficiently sensitive so that the doors are quickly closed under fire conditions. Electromagnetic door holders are also often used for corridor doors in health care occupancies where they can be released by operation ofa fire alarm system. e Door operating devices— Intended for use with sliding fire doors that are mounted on either a level or inclined track. This device consists of an electric motor that opens and closes the door for normal usage. A fusible link disconnects the door from the operating device under fire conditions and allows the door to close by means of aspring-powered door closer ora system of suspended weights. For a fire door to close, some type of detection device must first sense a fire or the smoke from a fire. The oldest and simplest detection device is a fusible link that melts from the heat ofa fire. A fusible link has the advantage of being inexpensive, relatively rugged, and very easy to maintain. However, because it depends on heat from a fire, it is slower to operate than devices that react to smoke or the rate-of-temperature rise. A significant amount of smoke may flow through a door opening before a fusible link can release a fire door. When a smoke detector is used to activate a fire door, the door closes more quickly. It also permits easy testing of the fire door. A smoke detector costs more and requires periodic cleaning. As with all smoke detectors, they must be properly positioned with respect to dead-air spaces or ventilation ducts. 234 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components Windows Although not primarily provided for fire-suppression purposes, long been relied upon as a means oflight, ventilation, access, and buildings constructed in the 19" century were designed with to provide interior light. Many buildings were designed with or light shafts to provide ventilation. windows have rescue. Factory large windows interior courts However, modern buildings often rely on their heating and air-conditioning systems for ventilation and artificial lighting for illumination. Elimination of windows that can be opened enhances energy efficiency in buildings because it reduces air infiltration around windows. Consequently, some buildings are designed with windows that cannot be opened or without windows altogether, resulting in increased tactical difficulties for ventilation and access. To be able to recognize windows on plans, in construction documents, and during field inspections, inspectors must be familiar with window components, types, security elements, and fire windows. Each ofthese items is described in the sections that follow. Components Awindow consists ofa frame, one or more sashes, and all necessary hardware to make a complete unit. Awindow frame includes the members that form the perimeter of a window, and it is fixed to the surrounding wall or other supports. Window Assembly Components Cripple Studs The term sash refers to a framed unit that may be included within a window frame, and it may be fixed or moveable (Figure 6.32). The sill is the lowest horizontal member of the window frame and supports the weight of the hardware and sash. Window Head All windows contain glass, known as glazing. The glass may be single-, double-, or triple-glazed; that is, there may be one thickness of glass, two thicknesses separated by an inert gas, or three thicknesses separated by voids filled with gas. Some window and door panels may also have retracting shades located in the void. Windowpane Window Double Stud Types Windows can be broadly classified into fixed (nonoperable) or movable (operable). Windows that contain both fixed and moveable characteristics are generally included in the moveable classification. Subflooring Sole Plate Figure 6.32 This illustration identifies and locates the various parts of a typical window , Floor Joists assembly. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 230 Fixed Windows A fixed window consists only of a frame and a glazed stationary sash. A fixed window can be used alone or in combination with movable windows. The large windows found in mercantile occupancies and high-rise office buildings are Common examples of fixed windows (Figure 6.33). Other terms used to describe fixed windowsare display Wwin- Figure 6.33 Fixed windows like those in this multistory dows, picture windows, _ building are designed to let in light but cannot be opened and deadlights. Fixed like conventional windows. windows may be found in many applications including over (transom) and around doors, in skylights, in residential applications, and along the fronts of retail shops. Movable Windows A movable window is designed in several common configurations. Types of movable windows are as follows (Figure 6.34): Double-hung —Has two sashes that can move past each other in a vertical plane. A double-hung window is commonly used in residential occupancies because it permits circulation through the top and bottom of the window opening. Balancing devices consisting of counterweights, springs, or a spring-loaded coiled tap hold the moveable sashes at the desired position. Windows that use counterweights are found in old buildings. Single-hung — Has only the lower sash openable. Balancing devices consisting of counterweights, springs, or a spring-loaded coiled tap hold the moveable sash at the desired position. Casement — Has a side-hinged sash that is usually installed to swing outward. It may contain one or two operating sashes and can be opened fully for ventilation. Horizontal sliding — Has two or more sashes of which at least one moves horizontally within the window frame. Inathree-sash design, the middle sash is usually fixed; in a two-sash unit, one or both sashes may be movable. Awning — Has one or more top-hinged, outward-swinging sashes. This arrangement permits the window to be open during rain. Hopper windows are similar in design to awning windows except they are hinged at the bottom. Jalousie — Includes a large number of narrow overlapping glass sections swinging outward (basic concept of the awning window). The individu al pieces of glass are about 4 inches (100 mm) in width. The glass sections are supported at their ends by an operating mechanism. Jalousie windows are popular architecturally because the amount of opening can be varied for ventilation without admitting rain. 236 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components Types of Movable Windows il| Sliding Figure 6.34 A variety of movable windows are illustrated. Projecting = S|a : Vertical Pivot Chapter 6 ¢ Building Construction: Components 237 slides upward or e Projecting — Swings outward at the top or bottom and ed by a push operat is downward in grooves. The projected window usually bar that is notched to hold the window in place. a central e Pivoting — Has a sash that pivots horizontally or vertically about axis. Part ofa pivoting window swings inward and part swings outward when it is opened. A window of this design provides the full area of the window opening for ventilation. Security Unfortunately, windows may also provide an access point for intruders. Consequently, means are frequently provided to increase the security of windows especially those windows that are accessible from the ground or adjacent roofs. -~Acommon method for providing window security is to fasten metal bars or screens to the exterior of the window frame or to the building itself (Figure 6.35). The metal bars may be fastened to the Are la 772 building, embedded in masonry, or mounted on hinges and locked with padlocks or other locking devices. Security windows are _ Figure 6.35 Security grilles on windows may available with movable sashes _ help to secure a building from intruders, but andtized bars so thatthe windows they can make access to extinguish a fire more aan difficult for firefighters. can be opened for ventilation while maintaining security of the premises. While preventing unlawful entry is the primary reason for installing security bars or grilles, they also have a negative affect on fire and life safety. The bars or grilles can prevent the escape of trapped occupants and can slow the access time for emergency responders. An inspector should be aware of the restrictions placed on theinstallation of security bars and grilles as defined by the local building and fire codes. Fire Windows A fire window is manufactured with steel frames. Wood or aluminum frames are not suitable because these materials would burn or melt. The glazingina fire window must naturally be fire rated also. Several types offire-rated glass are manufactured. Wire glass is the most commonly used for exterior openings because some ofthe other types of fire-rated glazing use an interior gel that is not suitable for exposure to cold temperatures. A fire window is used where it is necessary to block the communication of fire through a window opening. For example, when windows are located in the facing walls of closely spaced buildings, they become potential paths for the commu- 238 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components nication offire between buildings. When wind ows are adjacent to fire escapes or exterior stairs, flames mushrooming out of the windows can block the escape of building occupants attempting to flee down the fire escape or stairs. Windows that overlook the combustible roof ofa neighboring building can permit fire communication from a burning roof into a taller adjacent building. In these cases, building codes usually require protec tion of the window opening. It is possible to use means other than fire windows for the protection of window openings in exterior walls. Alternate methods could include exterior automatic sprinkler systems and steel shutters. However, fire-rated windows are usually the most practical froma standpoint of cost or appear ance. Interior Finishes Historically, the primary focus of building design with respect to fire has been on the basic structure of the building, the construction material s, and the structural system. However, in evaluating the overall behavior of a buildin g under fire conditions, it is important to consider the fire behavio r characteristics of the materials used for the interior finish. The term interior finish is generally applied to the materials used for the exposed surfaces ofthe walls and ceilings ofabuilding. It can include materials such as plaster, gypsum wallboard, wood paneling, ceiling tiles, plastic, fiberboard, fabric, and other wall coverings (Figure 6.36). Interior finishes may or may not be the structural materials. For example, if wood paneling were applied over a concrete block wall, the wood paneling would be considered the interior finish. However, ifa masonry wall is left exposed as part of the decor of a restaurant, the surface of the masonry is part of the interior finish and part of the structural components. Figure 6.36 The interior furnishings in this living room can all contribute to a fire in the compartment. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 239 w frames, chair railings, Building codes may define doors, door and windo als such as drapand wainscotings as interior finishes. Hanging fabric materi they are applied eries and curtains are not treated as interior finishes unless treatments such to a ceiling or wall. Building codes usually exclude surface ess ofa sheet of as paint that is no thicker than '/2s inch (0.9 mm) (the thickn typing paper). emphasized The affect that interior finishes have had on fire behavior has been years, by a number of fires that have occurred in the past century. In recent the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) has attempted to r. study the relationship between various types of finishes and fire behavio the to ute contrib to The combustibility of an interior finish has been shown behavior of fire in the following four ways: 1. Contributes to fire extension by flame spread over its surface 2. Affects the rate of fire growth to flashover 3. Adds to the intensity of a fire because it contributes fuel 4. Produces smoke and toxic gases that can contribute to the life hazard Asaresult of actual fire experience, UL and other organizations developed testing methods to establish flame-spread ratings for interior finish materials. Ratings based on smoke spread were also developed. In an attempt to provide an acceptable level of protection, fire-retardant coatings have also been developed, tested, and approved. Each of these topics is discussed in the sections that follow. Flame-Spread Ratings Surface-Burning Characteristic — Speed at which flame will spread over the surface of a material Because interior finishes typically cover a large area and are relatively thin compared to structural components, interior finishes pose a great, potential danger. For example, if wood paneling is used over a concrete block wall, fire can spread rapidly over the surface of the paneling even though the quantity of wood is small compared to the concrete block. The early investigations of the role of interior finish materials, therefore, logically concentrated on evalu- Flame-Spread Rating ating the speed with which flame can spread over the surface of a material — Measurement of the propagation of flame on the surface of materials or their assemblies as determined by recognized standard tests (surface-burning characteristic). Steiner Tunnel Test — Test apparatus consists of a horizontal furnace 25 feet (7.6 m) long, 17% inches (445 mm) wide, and 12 inches (305 mm) high; a 5,000 Btu (5 270 kj) flame is produced in the tunnel and the extent of flame travel across the surface of the test material is observed through ports in the side of the furnace; determines the flame-spread ratings of various materials 240 The Steiner Tunnel Test is the most commonly used method for evaluating surface-burning characteristics of materials. A. J. Steiner, an engineer at UL, developed this test in the late 1940s. The test is referred to as the tunnel test, but it is formally identified as ASTM E-84 and UL-753. It is also found in NFPA® 255, Standard Method of Test of Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials. The tunnel test produces a numerical evaluation ofthe flammability of interior materials, which is known as the flame-spread rating. The flame-spread rating developed in the tunnel test is a means of comparing the surface flammability of a material to standard materials under controlled test conditions. For comparison, red oak flooring was assigned a flame- and smoke-spread rating of 100 during a 10-minute tunnel test. All materials are tested against this rating. Building codes use the flame-spread ratings of materials to establish some control over interior finishes. The codes establish three classifications ofinterior finishes using letter designations as shown in Table 6.1. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components or Wall and Ceiling Finish Requirements by Occupancy‘ Sprinkler System Protection! Exit Enclosures and Exit | Passageways*" Group Sprinkler System Protection Rooms and Enclosed Spaces® and Exit Passageways?” A-1 & A-2 eects A-3', A-4, . ; B, E, M, F ae H E 2 E z R-2 R-3 Caer U i ee ee [eie ee BR eten Caeae SOMA A EeOMIS| SE ona s|7) a Bates EM No Restrictions p ae 8 B 8 Ee Cc Sw No Restrictions For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm 1 square inch = 0.0929 m? a. Class C interior finish materials shall be permitted for wainscoting or paneling of not more than 1,000 square feet of applied surface area in the grade lobby where applied directly to a noncombustible base or over furring strips applied to a noncombustible base and fireblocker as required by Section 803.4. 1.* b. In exit enclosures of buildings less than three stories in height of other than Group I-3, Class B Interior finish for nonsprinklered buildings and Class C interior finish for sprinklered buildings shall be permitted. c. Requirements for rooms and enclosed spaces shall be based upon spaces enclosed by partitions. Where a fire-resistance rating is required for structural elements, the enclosing partitions shall extend from the floor to the ceiling. Partitions that do not comply with this shall be considered enclosing spaces and the rooms or spaces on both sides shall be considered one. In determining the applicable requirements for rooms and enclosed spaces, the specific occupancy thereof shall be the governing factor regardless of the group classification of the building or structure. d. Lobby areas in Group A-1, A-2, and A-3 occupancies shall not be less than Class B materials. e. Class C interior finish materials shall be permitted in places of assembly with an occupant load of 300 persons or less. f. For places of religious worship, wood used for ornamental purposes, trusses, paneling, or chancel furnishings shall be permitted. g. Class B material is required where the building exceeds two stories. h. Class C interior finish material shall be permitted in administrative spaces. i. Class C interior finish material shall be permitted in rooms with a capacity of four persons or less. j. Class B materials shall be permitted as wainscoting extending not more than 48 inches above the finished floor in corridors. k. Finish materials as provided for in other sections* of this code. |. Applies when the exit enclosures, exit passageways, corridors or rooms and enclosed spaces are protected by a sprinkler system installed in accordance with Section 903.3.1.1 or 903.3.1.2." * Section numbers refer to sections in the 2006 International Building Code, ©2006. 2006 International Building Code, © 2006, Table 803.5. Washington D.C.: International Code Council. All rights reserved, www. iccsafe.org Reproduced with permission. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 241 materials Typical use of the classifications of materials is to restrict the and to spreads ame in vertical exits and exit corridors to those with low-fl re, permit materials with a higher flame-spread rating in other areas. Therefo most of exits vertical the in d materials with a Class A (0-25) rating are require rs occupancies, and those with a Class B (26-75) rating are required in corrido that provide exit access. Class A, Class B, or Class C materials may be required in other rooms and spaces, depending on the occupancy. The rooms of health care and assembly occupancies, for example, require either Class A or Class B interior finish materials. Rooms in other occupancies would be permitted to have Class C materials. Building codes generally allow an increase in the flame-spread rating ofinterior finish materials in buildings equipped with automatic sprinkler systems. However, the maximum flame spread rating allowed is 200. | The flame-spread rating, while useful, is NOT an absolute measure of the spread of fire travel. The flame-spread rating may not produce an accurate correlation with the actual behavior of a material ina fire. This inaccuracy is due to the affect of factors such as room shape and dimensions and the fuel load within the compartment upon surface burning. Furthermore, differences between field applications and test conditions create a differing behavior in the field. The thickness of the test specimen will have an affect on the flame-spread rating. A thick material, for example, will have thermal insulating properties different from a thin material. When interior finish materials are intended to be used in varying thicknesses, they must be tested at those thicknesses. The flame-spread rating developed in the tunnel test does not apply to floor coverings. However, ifa floor covering such as carpeting is used for a wall or ceiling finish, it must meet the same flame-spread criteria as other wall and ceiling finishes. Field Identification The actual determination of the flame-spread rating requires the test procedures of the ASTM E-84 tunnel test. Unfortunately for inspectors, there is no way it can be positively determined in the field. The relative surface _ burning can be assumed for some interior surfaces such as concrete block or plaster. Other materials such as corrugated paper can usually be assumed to have a higher flame-spread rating. However, the flame-spread rating of many materials, especially composite materials, simply cannot be determined when encountered in the field unless the manufacturer can be identified and contacted. This situation poses difficulties for inspection personnel in the field. Smoke-Developed Ratings In addition to the flame-spread rating, the tunnel test provides one other measure of flammability: the smoke-developed rating, which is a measure of the relative visual obscurity created by the smoke from a tested material. It is measured by means ofa photoelectric cell anda light source located at the 242 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components end of the tunnel furnace. Flame-retardant coatings can have an effect on this smoke-developed rating as well as the fire-spread rating in testing and field situations. As with the flame-spread rating, red oak is used asa standa rd and has the same rating of 100 for smoke. Therefore, under test conditions, a material that has a smoke-developed rating of 200 produces smoke that is twice as visually obscuring as red oak. Codes limit the maximum smoke-develo ped rating to 450 or 4.5 times the amount generated by red oak flooring. It is very important to remember that the smoke-developed rating is not an indication ofthe toxicity of the products of combustion ofthe interior finish materials. The tunnel test would not detect or measure a completely transpar ent product of combustion such as carbon monoxide. Furthermore, the tunnel test does not measure the combined effects of heat, irritation, and toxicity. Fire-Retardant Coatings The flame-spread rating of some interior finishes, most notably wood materials, can be reduced through the use of retardant coatings. Several types of fire-retardant coatings are available including the following: e Intumescent paints @ Mastics e Gas-forming paints e Cementitous and mineral-fiber coatings These types of coatings behave in different ways. For example, intumescent paints expand upon exposure to heat to create a thick, puffy coating that insulates the surface beneath the wood. The mastic coatings form a thick, noncombustible membrane over the surface of the wood. Fire-retardant coatings are valid treatments for the reduction of surface burning when applied as directed but are susceptible to misuse. They must be applied at a specified rate of square feet (meters) per gallon (liter) and may require more than one coat. Do not trust products that have not been tested by a reputable laboratory. Fire-retardant coatings only affect the coated surface. They do not affect the untreated back side of a panel. In addition, a material that is listed as a fire-retardant coating does not increase the fire resistance of structural components or assemblies unless it has also been tested and listed for use in a fire-resistive assembly. However, because fire-retardant coatings can be field-applied, contractors may attempt to substitute them as an inexpensive cure for other fire-protection shortcomings. Building Services Buildings are large systems that contain a variety of services and subsystems designed to provide safety, convenience, comfort, and efficiency for occupants. A building may also have services and subsystems provided specifically fora special purpose, depending on the particular use ofthe facility. All services and subsystems can have a potential affect on fire and life safety, either positively or negatively. Subsystems must be appropriately designed, installed, inspected, tested, and maintained in order to contribute Chapter 6 ¢ Building Construction: Components 243 x machine, positively to the overall building system safety. As with any comple system. entire a defective subsystem can have detrimental effects on the e Some of the most important fire and life safety features built into a structur on lizati tmenta include compartmentalization and fire resistance. Compar contain is the act of dividing the structure into areas that resist fire spread, on limited quantities of combustibles, or are easily protected by fire-suppressi systems. Many building services and subsystems penetrate the built-in structural elements that create compartmentalization. The perfect fire-safe building would not have any doors, stairs, ductwork, combustible materials, elevators, or utility spaces, making it completely unusable. It is an inspector’s responsibility to ensure that the designer and owner have installed and maintained building service in compliance with applicable fire and life safety building codes. The sections that follow address the fire and life safety aspects of building services and subsystems such as elevator hoistways and doors, moving stairs, utility chases, vertical shafts, HVAC systems, conveyor systems, and electrical systems. Elevator Hoistways and Doors Anelevator hoistway is the vertical shaft in which the elevator car travels and includes the elevator pit. The pit extends from the lowest floor landing to the bottom of the hoistway (Figure 6.37). Hoistways are constructed offire-resistive materials and equipped with fire-rated door assemblies. Hoistways have the potential to act as a vertical chimney to spread fire and smoke throughout a building. If the hoistway is not vented at the top, the accumulated hot gases and smoke may tend to mushroom or spread horizontally into the upper floors. To prevent mushrooming, the model building codes require venting at the top of practically every hoistway built today. Elevator hoistway enclosures usually are required to be fire-rated assemblies with a 1- or 2-hour rating, depending on the particular situation. The integrity of the rated hoistway assembly must be maintained. Any penetrations through the hoistway walls must be done with the installation of an appropriately rated assembly such as a listed and labeled door and frame. No wiring, ductwork, or piping should be run within the hoistway unless it is required for the elevator itself. In low-rise buildings, the entire hoistway enclosure may consist of gypsum, cement block, or other easily penetrated material. In tall buildings constructed of reinforced concrete, the elevator hoistway may be enclosed on three sides with poured concrete, leaving only the wall that faces the elevator car doors to be built of block. This design serves to stiffen the entire building against wind load. The three common types of hoistways are as follows (Figure 6.38): e Single — Shafts that contain only one elevator car. They are normally found in private installations and in small buildings with a small number of occupants. e Multiple — Installations with more than one elevator in a common shaft. A large building may contain more than one multiple hoistway, but each hoistway is limited by codes to no more than four elevators. The elevator cars within a given hoistway usually are not separated by walls or partitions. 244 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components e Blind — Express elevators that serve only upper floors of tall buildings; can be single or multiple. There will be no entrances to the shaft on floors between the main entrance and the lowest floor served. In single-car hoistways, however, access doors are provided for rescue purposes. Generally, these doors are found every three floors. Elevator Hoistway Elevator Equipment Room Figure 6.37 Elevator hoistways are constructed of fire-resistive materials and feature a pit beneath them that extends below grade level. Grade Level Figure 6.38 Elevator hoistways come in three varieties, which are chosen based on the size of the structure. Common Types of Hoistways Single Multiple Elevator Equipment Grade Level Chapter 6 ¢ Building Construction: Components 245 Hoistway doors are rated assemblies that work in conjunction with the car doors and, with the exception offreight elevators, depend upon the car doors for their power. Hoistway doors are of the same types as car doors with one addition. On some hoistways a swinging door is installed. Swinging doors are like regular doors in that they are hinged at one side, and they swing outward from the hoistway. Like most other hoistway doors, swinging doors are not powered, so they are equipped with a handle for manual operation. With this type of hoistway door, the elevator car door will usually be of the single-slide type. Elevator hoistway doors cannot completely prevent the passage of smoke from the hoistway into the building because some door clearance is required for operation. The model codes typically will require a lobby arrangement with rated doors separating the lobby from the rest of the building. This separation provides an additional barrier to prevent the passage of smoke and fire gases into the rest of the building. The swinging door is typically provided to meet the requirement of an additional barrier from smoke travel out of the hoistway. Hoistway door assemblies will be listed and labeled for a fire-resistance rating; the most common is 1% hours. The fire-resistance rating should be clearly visible on the label, which is on the hoistway side of the door. The hoistway door assembly must be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions in order to satisfy the listing criteria. Any hardware such as floor sill, header, and closure equipment must also be labeled. Figure 6.39 Escalators are commonly found in structures and facilities containing large numbers of people. They are not considered part of the mean of egress according to most building codes. In order to prevent people from pushing hoistway doors open and perhaps falling into an open shaft, hoistway doors are equipped with locks that prevent the doors from opening when an elevator car is not at the landing. In addition to the mechanical locks, hoistway doors are quipped with electrical interlocks that must be closed in order for the car to operate. All the doors of ahoistway must be closed, or the elevator will notrun. Asa result, a moving car will stop if a hoistway door is open. Moving Stairs Moving stairs, commonly called escalators, are stairways with electrically powered steps that move continuously in one direction (Figure 6.39). Escalators are commonly found in retail stores, malls, transportation terminals, convention centers, and other facilities that contain large numbers of people. Moving escalators should not be used during emergency operations. The steps usually move at speeds ofeither 90 feet per minute or 120 feet per minute (27.4 m/min or 36.5 m/ min). Each individual step rides a track. The steps are linked together and move around the escalator frame bya chain called the step chain. The driving machinery is located under an access plate at the upper landing. Continuous handrails also move at the same speed as the steps. Escalators require periodic maintenance and may be out of service for lengthy periods. 246 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components The vertical openings created by escalators may be protected from fire in the same manner as other vertical openings. In certain situations, alternative methods of fire protection may be used, including use of the sprinkle r draft curtain method. The sprinkler draft curtain consists of an 18-inch (450 mm) deep panel draft stop suspended from the ceiling and a row of automatic sprinklers outside the draft stop. A rolling shutter at the top of the escalator can also provide vertical opening fire protection. A partial enclosure uses separate fire-rated enclosures for both the up escalator and the down escalator. Moving Walkways _ Avvariation on the escalator is the moving walkway or sidewalk common to many airport terminals (Figure 6.40). Similar to the conveyor belt mentioned in the Conveyor Systems section, the moving walkway transports people horizontally or on a slight incline. Other locations where moving _ walkways may be found are museums, zoos, theme parks, and large transportation centers. Figure 6.40 Moving walkways function in a similar fashion to escalators and share the same purpose: moving people at a pace faster than walking. Utility Chases and Vertical Shafts Utility chase is a term generally applied to the vertical pathways in a building that contain building services. These include plumbing, electrical raceways, telecommunications, data cables, and ductwork for HVAC and grease. Vertical shafts are provided for refuse chutes, linen chutes, light shafts, and material lifts: Knowledge of chases and shafts is critical because they can provide a vertical path for smoke and fire as well as serve as the area of origin for fires. Vertical shaft enclosures are built with fire-rated construction methods but contain combustible materials such as pipe and electrical wiring within the shaft. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 247 Pipe Chases A pipe chase contains piping needed for building services such as hot and cold potable water, drain lines, steam and hot water for heating, and sprinkler risers (Figure 6.41). One or more pipe chases can be provided in a building depending on building size and design. As with any vertical opening ina building, pipe chases can spread smoke and fire to other floors of the building if not properly protected. The model building codes specify shaft-enclosure protection to be fire-resistive construction. Some buildings do not have pipe chases but rather use mechanical equipment rooms instead. Pipes, electrical raceways, and other services pass through mechanical equipment rooms on each floor, stacked one above the other. The fire-rated assemblies enclosing these rooms serve to separate the utility space from the rest of the building. There may or may not be fire-rated horizontal separation between the mechanical rooms. Residential Plumbing Though not installed in a chase, plumbing pipes in residential and small commercial buildings of wood-frame construction typically form pathways in walls that are capable of spreading fire and smoke. Plumbing fixtures drain into a vertical pipe connected to the underground sewer pipe, which also extends above the roof to ventilate the system. This pipe typically travels through walls and horizontal layers and can serve as a pathway for fire and smoke if it does not fit tightly or is not fire-stopped at the penetrations. Figure 6.41 Pipe chases, like other vertical openings in a structure, must be provided with fire-resistive construction since they can communicate the spread of fire as easily as a staircase or other vertical opening. 248 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components Refuse Chutes A refuse chute provides for the removal of trash and garbage from upper floors of buildings (Figure 6.42). A large vertical chute extends through the building and has openings on each floor for depositing trash. The chute terminates at grade level or in a basement where the refuse is collected for disposal and may be compacted and stored awaiting disposal. + HOUSEKEEPING A refuse chute is required to be constructed of noncombustible material with rated doors. A fire-rated enclosure must surround a refuse chute. Automatic sprinklers may be required at the top of the chute and in its termination room. A fire in a properly designed, installed, and maintained refuse chute should be contained within the chute. Because of poor maintenance or loss of operational integrity, it is common for some smoke to leak out of the chute through the doors. Smoke is transferred throughout floors, and there may be heavy smoke in upper floors. Inspectors should be aware of these weak points and ensure that the components ofthese vertical shafts are intact. Linen Chutes Linen chutes provide for the removal of soiled linen from upper floors of hotels, health care facilities, and similar occupancies. A linen chute is another example of a vertical shaft. Linen chutes are separated from the corridor by fire-rated construction and protected in a similar manner as that for refuse chutes, including automatic sprinklers in many instances. Grease Ducts Figure 6.42 Refuse chutes generally extend the entire height of a building and therefore can communicate smoke and fire throughout a structure if they are not constructed with proper fireresistant materials. A grease duct travels vertically and carries grease vapors to the outside of a building. A grease duct is installed as part of aventing system for commercial cooking appliances that produce grease-laden vapors. Typically, grease ducts are installed over deep-fat fryers and grills. A proper installation has no areas such as dips or horizontal runs where grease may become trapped. Some design applications include horizontal ducts, but the grease-removal system precludes the likelihood of grease-laden waste material in the horizontal sections. The application, design, and protection required for grease ducts are specified in codes. A single exhaust duct is one that serves one exhaust hood only. It typically will have a single fire-suppression system for the entire system, including the appliance, hood, and all ductwork. Amanifold exhaust duct system serves more than an exhaust hood. The duct is smallest as it leaves each single exhaust hood and increases in cross-section as it joins with another branch duct. Manifold ducts typically have separate fire-suppression systems for each hood. Each branch duct, however, will operate simultaneously for the protection of the common duct. These normally will be found in areas such as food courts in shopping malls. Because ofthe common ductwork, fire may spread over large areas within the building if the system has not been properly maintained. Some exhaust systems have additional grease-removal devices somewhere in the duct system known as extractors. They may be located in false ceiling l spaces, in a mezzanine, or on the roof. These systems may present additiona links fire hazards due to the accumulation ofgrease on filters and the fusible that activate the fire-suppression system. Exhaust System — Ventilation system designed to remove stale air, smoke, vapors, or other airborne contaminants from an area Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 249 Grease extraction and control equipment may be installed to remove odors from the exhaust stream. Most are installed on the roof but may also be located in ceiling spaces. The extractor may contain filters, electrostatic precipitators, catalysts, odor absorbers, or even gas-fired afterburners. Some systems are designed with water wash or odor-control chemical spray systems. As with refuse and laundry chutes, a grease duct is designed to withstand a fire inside the duct without causing the surrounding structure to ignite. The use of noncombustible duct materials, solid connections, and minimum clearances from any combustible building components help ensure that grease ducts do not communicate fires. Acommercial cooking venting system may require automatic fire-suppression equipment. A fire in a grease duct and hood system will likely involve cooking greases and oils, which is a Class B fire. Codes require the use of fire-suppression agents that will effectively extinguish a burning liquid. Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Systems HVAC systems are provided in buildings primarily to maintain a comfortable environment for occupants. In addition to maintaining a comfortable temperature, they also regulate the intake of outdoor air and the recirculation of indoor air. As is the case with all building systems, HVAC systems have the potential to significantly affect any fire event. The components that compose use of the structure (Figure 6.43). require one small unit consisting space connected to a duct system cated on roofs provide both heated Figure 6.43 HVAC systems are used in modern construction fo create a comfortable atmosphere inside a building. The various components of a HVAC system vary based on the size and In northern climates, buildings may only of a furnace and fan unit in a mechanical that distributes the air. Multiple units loand cooled air to service larger structures such as shopping malls. An inspector should review the HVAC system shop drawings or approved mechanical plans to determine the type, size, and location of the following ’ : , : components and the required fire-protec tion equipment: HVAC systems are illustrated. HVAC System Components Intake of Outdoor Air Exhaust bs \ Filters Exhaust of Return Air Air Duct i Heating Coil Air Duct Return Air 250 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components @ Outside air intakes — Draw outside air into the system. The location of the outside air intake should minimize drawing in combustible, flammab le, or toxic substances, vehicle exhaust, or smoke from fires in nearby structures. e Fans— Move the air throughout the system and also move smoke and heat if introduced into the system. e Airfiltration devices — Clean the air; can be filters of different types or electrostatic equipment (or both). Details: ; — Filters should be made of approved materials to minimize their fire potential. Filters using liquid adhesives may present a combustible liquid hazard; adhesives should be appropriately stored. — Electrostatic equipment can presenta significant electrical equipment hazard by providing an ignition source for accumulated dust particles. e Air heating and cooling equipment — Uses a great variety of types of equipment to heat and cool the air circulated in buildings. Details: — — Heating equipment: Can be fuel-fired such as a natural gas, propane, or oil burner, or heat may be produced with electricity or steam. Each method has particular hazards associated with the fuel. Cooling equipment: Use refrigerants and halogenated refrigerant replace- Refrigerant — Substance used ments such as butane or propane. Hazards are limited mainly to issues with the electrical equipment, but refrigerant replacements may pose within a refrigeration system to provide the cooling action greater hazards. e Air ducts — Distribute the air of the HVAC system; provide a direct means of spreading fire, heat, and smoke from one area to another. HVAC ducts commonly penetrate fire-rated assemblies. The many code requirements for ducts include allowable materials and the use of smoke and fire dampers. Sometimes interstitial spaces such as the space between a suspended ceiling and the roof deck are used as a return-air plenum, which is less expensive than installing ducts to carry return air. This design technique is limited by the codes and if done improperly can result in very dangerous exit conditions during a fire. Transom Ventilation It was common practice in the past to install transoms above doors in corridors, using the corridor as a ventilation plenum. This design technique would pull smoke from a room directly into the corridor and thus contaminate the exit path before the occupants could safely evacuate. Several tragic fires showed this technique to be dangerous. Codes now require most corridors to be protected from fires in rooms off the corridor. Unfortunately, it is still possible to find recent installations of HVAC systems that use the corridor as a plenum even though itis strictly prohibited by the codes for most installations. Inspectors should be especially aware of the dangers of using the corridor as a plenum and familiar with the applicable code requirements. Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 201 An HVAC system, by nature, is able to carry fire and smoke throughout a building and can create untenable conditions in an area ofa building far from a fire event. The HVAC system can quickly transport products of combustion to the otherwise uninvolved area and contaminate the atmosphere. The codes recognize the potential hazards of these systems and have addressed these issues for quite some time. Codes may require the installation of smoke or fire dampers to protect duct penetrations through fire-rated assemblies (Figure 6.44). A smoke damper usually is actuated by an associated smoke detector and may also be actuated by an automatic alarm signal from the building fire alarm system. The damper closes by active mechanical action. A fire damper is usually a spring-loaded shutter that is held open by a fusible link. The shutter closes when the fusible link melts in response to heat and releases the spring-loaded mechanism. Combination smoke and fire dampers close in response to either heat or smoke. Most codes require that an HVAC system over a certain capacity, usually 2,000 cubic feet per minute (cfm) (56.63 m*/min), be provided with an internal duct smoke detection device to turn off the system automatically when smoke is detected. The intent is to prevent the system from spreading and recirculating smoke from a fire either outside or inside the HVAC unit. Duct smoke detection devices should never be considered a substitute for area smoke detection devices. Because an HVAC system can be fuel-fired and also contains electrical equipment, it presents a fire hazard. Codes require certain furnaces over a particular size, usually expressed as a British thermal unit (Btu) rating, to be enclosed with fire-rated construction. This requirement applies to large commercial units and does not apply to the typical residential or householdsize system. HVAC equipment should always be installed and used in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications. Installations that use listed and labeled equipment in accordance with the applicable codes and manufacturer's speci- Figure 6.44 Smoke dampers in ductwork protect penetrations in fire-rated assemblies and are usually activated in conjunction with smoke or fire alarm systems. 252 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components fications have an excellent safety record. Problems usually occur in situations where the system is not compliant in some Way with the codes and standards. HVAC systems may contain unusual hazards that should be identified during plans review and field inspections. Conveyor Systems A conveyor system is used to transport items and materials and typically found in manufacturing or storage occupancies. Types of conveyors include belt, roller, chain, and bucket systems. The most common conveyor system is the horizontal conveyor, which must pass through fire barriers in many installations. A water-spray or a closing fire door usually protects conveyor penetrations. A primary concern for conveyor penetrations during a fire is incomplete door closure. Several methods are used to prevent incomplete door closure, including automatic stop controls, breaks in the conveyor, and multiple layers of doors. Regardless of the specific method, door closures should be designed as fail-safe as possible and should be routinely inspected and tested. Electrical Systems Electrical systems have equipment that may be installed in separate rooms or vaults or in buildings separate from the main structure. The installations may be above or below grade level or on individual floors. Electrical service panels, switch gear, generators, and transformers may be required by codes to be separated from the rest of the building by fire-rated construction. Each of these electrical system components is presented in the sections that follow. Figure 6.45 Master switches control electricity entering and exiting a circuit breaker or fuse box panel and should be turned off if any electrical work is being done inside a building. Electrical Service Panels All structures that have electrical power systems will have electrical service panels. Service panels distribute the electrical power that arrives at the panel into individual circuits. Circuits are designed to distribute the electricity evenly, preventing wiring from becoming overloaded and ensuring adequate power for equipment connected to the circuit. Circuit breakers also prevent overloads from occurring and turn off power to the circuit if there is a short. Although circuit breakers have replaced fuses in electrical systems, fuse boxes will still be found in existing commercial and residential structures built before 1950. The service panel would contain screw-in fuses designed to open and interrupt the energy supply when a short occurred. Fuses may still be found on electrical equipment such as air-conditioning units. Within either the circuit breaker or fuse box service panel, master control switches are present. These master switches control all the electricity that enters the panel. When it is necessary to work on the panel or turn off power to the entire building, these switches may be used (Figure 6.45). Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components 203 7 Switch Gear | Switch gear is aterm used to describe electrical equipment that is used to isolate circuits and energized equipment. It may be located in electrical power stations, in an industrial complex, or within an electrical equipment room. ihe switch gear contains multiple circuit breakers or switches that will preventa short in the system or reset a short that has occurred. Generators The loss of electrical power can be costly to the operation of some types of businesses. To prevent potential damage and maintain business continuity, many companies have installed auxiliary power supplies that rely on generators. These generators may be limited to operating the fire-protection systems and emergency lighting systems or have the capacity to provide power to the entire building or operation. Generators are generally located in basement areas. Natural gas and for the generators. A power transfer a loss of power and turns it off when outside a building but may also be found diesel are the main types of fuel supplies switch starts the generator when there is the primary power supply reengages. Transformers Transformers convert high-voltage electricity supplied by the electric utility service to an appropriate voltage for use in a building. Some dedicated transformers supply special systems and equipment in industrial and commercial buildings. Transformers may be high or low voltage. Transformers generate heat, and the method of cooling them directly affects the hazard presented to emergency response personnel (Figure 6.46). The two most common cooling methods are as follows: 1, Air-cooled transformers — Use the surrounding air to cool the transformer through fins and heat sinks installed on the body ofthe transformer (also called dry transformers). Hazards presented by air-cooled transformers are those of any energized electrical equipment; that is, electrocution or fires caused by shorts, arcs, and sparks. Dielectric — Material that is a poor conductor of electricity; usually applied to tools that are used to handle energized 2. Oil-cooled or oil-filled transformers — Contain oil to conduct heat away from the core and also to electrically insulate internal components to keep them from arcing. In addition to the hazard of being energized electrical equipment, they also have the potential to be the source of acombustible liquid leak. Because the oil also provides electrical insulation, it must have dielectric properties. Oil properties: — Some old transformer cooling oils contained highly hazardous polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) because they have excellent dielectric properties. Transformers containing PCBs are required to be labeled. — New oils are much less toxic and may contain a type of oil that is less flammable. electrical wires or equipment Rooms or vaults that contain electrical gear or transformers should be protected with sprinklers if the building has an automatic sprinkler system. However, some power utility companies may not allow sprinkler protection for their equipment because of the potential damage that would result from an accidental release of water onto the equipment. Fires involvin g electrical 254 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components equipment usually result in a shutdown ofthe equipment early in the incident. When the energy is turned off, the fire is generally Class A, involving insulation and other common combustibles. Emergency Power Supplies Backup power supplies for buildings and building systems may consist of generators, batteries, or combinations of both. Some occupancies such as correctional, detention, and health care facilities may be required by codes to have emergency power systems. Other types of occupancies may have an emergency power supply because ofthe facility’s function such as data processing, telecommunications, and electrical utilities. Buildings such as covered malls or buildings with atriums are required to have smoke-management systems and also emergency backup generator systems (Figure 6.47). Emergency power supplies that require batteries commonly use lead-acid type storage batteries (also known as wet cells, gel cells, starved electrolyte cells, sealed cells, maintenance-free cells, and flooded cells). Because of the materials they contain and their potential electrochemical reactions, these batteries present significant potential hazards. Lead-acid batteries contain the following two hazardous materials: 1. Sulfuric acid — Reacts with other materials and can cause a fire through chemical reaction; also hazardous to humans by causing injury due to skin contact and can cause serious injury or death when acid vapors are inhaled. The sulfuric acid in lead-acid batteries also releases flammable hydrogen gas during battery charging and also during contact with some metals. The batteries can undergo unusual electrochemical reactions such as thermal runaway or a battery fire, which may require an emergency response. 2. Metallic lead — Is a toxic heavy metal. Both long-term and short-term exposures Can Cause heavy metal poisoning with potentially severe health effects. Figure 6.46 Electrical transformers located outside res buildings generate heat and must have a cooling solution in place to function safely and efficiently. Figure 6.47 Emergency backup generators like this one are required systems in malls and buildings with large atriums. Chapter 6 ¢ Building Construction: Components 295 and they often Large numbers ofthese batteries may be found in buildings, rooms or even are overlooked when assessing the hazards ofa facility. Entire containentire floors of abuilding may contain lead-acid batteries. The areas spill. acid liquid a n ing the batteries are not usually diked or sealed to contai es are Small uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) containing lead-acid batteri comput to next or found near fire alarm system control panels, under desks, ers in many offices. Summar pha aia make a building habitable are incorporated into a building’s structural system. Exterior walls, roofs, and floors enclose the structural components to define a building’s limits. Within these components, interior walls, floors, and ceilings further divide the space to create individual work and living compartments or rooms. Stairs, doors, and windows provide access to a structure and between the individual spaces. Walls, floors, and ceilings are finished with interior finishes that may or may not contribute to fire spread by increasing or limiting the fuel load of the compartment. Building services include elevators, HVAC systems, and others that may also increase or decrease the inherent fire hazards within a building. An inspector must be able to evaluate these building components and determine the level offire protection provided by them. Review Questions 1. What is the purpose offire walls? 2. Why do fire escapes pose a high level of potential danger? 3. In what ways does the combustibility of an interior finish contribute to the behavior offire? 4. Whatis asmoke-developed rating? 5. List three components of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system. What are the classifications of roofs? How are steel beams used? How are fire doors tested? What is a fixed window? ee Cl eke What are some examples of conveyor systems? 256 Chapter 6 © Building Construction: Components x 4 x T ' aT G vu i s “ E La 7 4 E , Means of Egress ; __ Chapter Contents © Means of Egress System....... a ere Tne ee ee ene 263 2 at te, Bon! 264 EXIT UmIMatlomneaniGshialiKiiiG Steememerreeecueneet eee: 2/6 © Occupant Loads Means of Egress Determinations ......... 284 Summary....... Review Questions “chapter Job Performance Requirements This chapter provides information that addresses the following job performance requirements (JPRs) of NFPA® 1031, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner (2009) Chapter 4 Fire Inspector | 4.3.2 4.3.3 Chapter 5 Fire Inspector Il 5.3.1 5.3.5 5.4.2 Jo J ~ Means of Egress Learning Objectives Fire Inspector | Describe the parts of a means of egress system. . Describe the term public way. . Describe means of egress components. . Discus exit illumination and markings. . Explain the importance of establishing occupant load. . Determine occupant load of a single-use structure. (Learning Activity 7-I-1) & = on oom Fire Inspector Il Explain the importance of establishing occupant load. . Calculate the occupant load of a multiuse structure. (Learning Activity 7-II-1) . Explain means of egress capacity. . Explain total exit capacity. . Determine exit capacity. (Learning Activity 7-II-2) Mos Gy TS Go =a) = . Explain exit arrangement considerations. SIRES FESHE Objectives Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Objectives: Principles of Code Enforcement None , 260 Chapter 7 * Means of Egress Chapter 7 Means of Egress ) Chicago Nightclub Tragedy, 2003 Twenty-one people lost their lives and scores were injured as the result of astampede for the exit by patrons of aChicago nightclub in 2003. The victims were attempting to escape downa single stairway exit from the second story of the establishment after security personnel used pepper spray and Mace® to break up an altercation. As many as 1,500 people stampeded toward the front door to escape the fumes. This single exit proved inadequate to handle the number of individuals attempting to evacuate the premises. Although the second floor of the club was restricted from use after the discovery of 11 building code violations the previous summer, it was in use the night of the tragedy. The ability of occupants to evacuate a structure rapidly and safely in the event of a fire or other emergency is a primary aspect of building design. Unfortunately, over the past century, many lives have been lost during emergencies because exits were blocked, locked, improperly marked, poorly designed, inaccessible, or limited in capacity. Even a properly designed and maintained means of egress (path ofexit from a building) cannot function effectively when the total occupant load (number of persons who may occupy a building at any one time) has been exceeded and too many people are trying to move through the same exit at the same time. Some ofthe largest loss-of-life fires in history provide examples of exit inadequacies and exceeded occupant loads. Tragedies, including The Station nightclub fire in West Warwick, RI, (2003, 100 deaths), the Happy Land social club fire in New York City (1990, 87 deaths) and the Imperial Food Products plant fire in Hamlet, North Carolina (1991, 25 deaths), only reinforce the need to enforce the occupant loads and means of egress requirements of local building and fire codes. Fires that occur in facilities where occupants have limited evacuation Ccapabilities are also of constant concern. Greater inspection vigilance and more 7.1, corrective actions are required to protect residents and caregivers (Figure been the p- 263). Hospitals and facilities for people with special needs have : site of numerous tragedies such as the following Chapter 7 ¢ Means of Egress 261 Twentieth Century Fire Disasters in the United States 262 Location Facility Type Fatalitites June 30, 1900 Hoboken, New Jersey Port 326 September 20, 1902 Birmingham, Alabama Church 115 December 30, 1903 Chicago. Illinois Theater 60 March 4, 1908 Collinwood, Ohio School 176 January 13, 1908 Boyertown, Pennsylvania Theater 170 March 25, 1911 New York, New York Plant 145 April 13, 1918 Norman, Oklahoma Hospital 38 May 17, 1923 Candem, South Carolina school 76 December 24, 1924 Hobart, Oklahoma School 35 May 15, 1929 Cleveland, Ohio Clinic Ves) July 24, 1931 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Nursing home 48 April 23, 1940 Natchez, Mississippi Dance hall 198 September 7, 1943 Houston. Texas Gulf Hotel 595 July 9, 1944 Hartford. Connecticut Circus tent 168 June 5, 1946 Chicago. Illinois Hotel 61 December 7, 1946 Atlanta, Georgia Hotel 119 December 12, 1946 New York Plant 37 April 5, 1949 Effingham, Illinois Hospital 77 January 7, 1950 Davenport, lowa Hospital 41 March 29, 1953 Largo, Florida Nursing home 35 April 16, 1953 Chicago. Illinois Plant 35 February 17, 1957 Warrenton, Missouri Nursing home 72 December 1, 1958 Chicago. Illinois School 95 November 23, 1963 Fitchville, Ohio Nursing home 63 July 16, 1967 Jay, Florida Prison 37 January 9, 1970 Marietta, Ohio Nursing home 27 December 20, 1970 Tucson, Arizona Hotel 28 June 30, 1974 Port Chester, New York Disco 24 October 24, 1976 New York Social club ae May 28, 1977 Southgate, Kentucky Night club 164 November 21, 1980 Las Vegas, Nevada Hotel 84 January 9, 1981 Keansburg, New Jersey Hotel 30 December 31, 1986 Puerto Rico Hotel 96 October 5, 1989 Norfolk, Virginia Nursing home 12 March 25, 1990 New York Social club 87 September 3, 1991 Hamlet, North Carolina Plant 25 Chapter 7 © Means of Egress Figure 7.1 In assisted living centers and nursing homes, many residents will not be able to reach a means Sn i ; oy [ — oo of egress unassisted te te during an emergency. Old facilities may also lack modern fire-protection systems. Courtesy of Colorado Springs (CO) Fire Department. CRYSTAL SPRINGS ESTATE =e @ Saint Anthony’s Hospital fire in Effingham, Illinois, 1949 (75 fatalities) e Residential board and care facility fire in Marietta, Ohio, 1970 (27 fatalities) e Adult living facility fire in Johnson, Tennessee, 1989 (16 fatalities) e Nursing home facility fire in Hartford, Connecticut, 2003 (16 fatalities) e Group care facility fire in Anderson, Missouri, 2006 (10 fatalities) An inspector performs a vital role in community fire and life safety. Beginning with the plans review process for new buildings or remodeling ofexisting buildings, an inspector ensures that the occupancy classification is correctly designated and that the means of egress meets local fire and building code requirements. During annual inspections, an inspector monitors the condition of existing means of egress and ensures that conditions have not changed in the occupancy, use, or exit requirements for the structure. Means of Egress System The means ofegress system is one of the most important factors to be considered in determining whether the design and construction ofa structure can be considered safe. The means of egress system is composed of three basic elements: exit access, exit, and exit discharge. Together, these elements allow a person to exit a structure in a safe manner when a fire or other emergency occurs. The means of egress system relies on a number of components to protect the occupants and guide them during their escape. The components may be active fire-protection systems such as automatic sprinkler systems or passive fire protection such as fire-resistance-rated construction of doors, walls, etc. Other components of the means ofegress system include exit signs, illumination, door hardware, and handrails. The model codes define a means ofegress as a continuous and unobstructed path of vertical and horizontal egress or exit travel from any occupied point in a building or structure to a public way. The means of egress system may pass through intervening room spaces, doorways, corridors, passageways, balcoNFPA® nies, ramps, stairs, courts, yards, and horizontal exits according to 101®, Life Safety Code®. In addition, the means of egress may also be required to be accessible to persons who are wheelchair bound. Chapter 7 ¢ Means of Egress 263 Public Way — Parcel of land such as a street or sidewalk that is essentially unenclosed and used by the public for moving from one location to another The means ofegress must terminate in a public way or an area of refuge. A public way is a street, alley, or similar parcel of land essentially open to the outside that is used by the public. A public way must also have a minimum width and height of 10 feet (3 m) (Figure 7.2). With the enactment of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), areas of refuge were required in some occupancies as a means of protecting persons who are wheelchair bound. Areas of refuge provide an interim safe haven between the hazard and the public way. The design of the area of refuge must meet the requirements of the ICC/ANSI 117.1, Standard on Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities, from the International Code Council®/American National Standards Institute. Elements As mentioned earlier, the means of egress system consists of three basic elements: exit access, exit, and exit discharge (Figure 7.3). In order to fulfill their intended functions during an emergency, each of the three elements must be free from obstructions at all times. No furnishings or decorations may be allowed to obstruct or conceal an exit or exit access. Each element is described in the sections that follow. Escalators, Elevators, and Moving Walkways None of the model codes permit escalators, elevators, or moving walkways to be considered as part of a means of egress in new occupancies. However, some jurisdictions may allow old escalators to be counted as part of the means of egress in certain occupancies. These situations are very limited and should not be assumed to exist in all municipalities. For the most part, an inspector should not allow these devices to be counted as part of the means of egress or contribute to the calculation of exit loads. Exit Access The exit access leads from an occupied portion of a building or structure to the exit (Figures 7.4 a and b, p. 266). Examples of an exit access include the following items: e Corridor leading to the exit opening e Aisle within an assembly occupancy that is designed to accommodate and conduct people to an exit e Pathway leading from inside a space to an exit e Unenclosed ramp or stairs e Occupied room or space Exit The exit is separated from the area of the building from which escape is to be made. It is a protected path consisting of exit compo nents constructed of approved fire-resistance-rated assemblies that includ e walls, floors, doors, and other design features so that the occupants Can proceed with reasonable safety to the exit discharge (Figures 7.5 a and b, p. 266). Examples of exits include the following items: 264 Chapter 7 © Means of Egress Minimum Dimensions of a Public Way Figure 7.2 Model building codes establish the minimum dimensions for a public way. Figure 7.3 The elements of a means of egress are the exit access, exit, and exit discharge. e Doors at ground level that lead directly to the outside of the building (See Components section for more information.) e Exit passageway to the outside e Horizontal exit e Stairway that is enclosed by fire-resistance-rated walls and self-closing rated doors (smokeproof enclosure) Chapter 7° Means of Egress 269 Exit Access in an Assembly Occupancy NS ee 4 Exit Access [eh ES a | he 4 | B is wwe 1h >=SiROS BS SS ®= fe We BPeEE ie) | Oe5 es GS FS AS Bi 6SS) mie MlOn EWS BEBE RRB EERE ttt at ot RERERE HEM cikheehe BERR RPA EEE ERR se Pe BiQe peeb pee Exit Access m x< Figures 7.4 a and b These two examples illustrate an occupancy’s exit access, the route occupants travel to leave occupied areas and locate an exit. Example of an Exit Figures 7.5 a and b Exits should be clearly marked and constructed with design features that make them safe means of egress for occupants even under emergency conditions. Exit passageways. Exit passageways are designed to connect an interior exit stair to an exit door on the exterior of the structure; they must be constructed of the same fire-resistance-rated material as the exit Stairs. Simply, an exit passageway is similar to an exit stair enclosure except that it is constructed in . . . . . ; ‘ a horizontal plane. In buildings with extremely large areas such as shopping malls, large factories, or industrial complexes, the exit passageways can be used to shorten the travel distance to an exit. An exit passageway must be wide enough to accommodate the total capacity ofall exits that discharge through it. Therefore, its design must be calculated using the expected occupant load for that portion ofthe structure and not just the immediate occupant load. 266 Chapter 7 © Means of Egress Horizontal exits. Horizontal exits are commonly used in (but not limited to) high-rise buildings and hospitals as a means of passing through a fire-barrier wall that separates two fire compartments in a structure (Figures 7.6 a and b). Two basic types of horizontal exits are (1) a means of egress from one building to an area of refuge in another building on approximately the same level and (2) a means of egress through a fire barrier or firewall to an area of refuge at approximately the same level in the same building that provides protection from smoke and fire. These exits require fire walls or fire-barrier walls with at least a 2-hour fire-resistance rating. A 12-hour fire-rated door assembly would be installed in the fire barrier to permit movement between the two compartments. Doors must swing in the direction of exit travel necessitating double doors ifthe area on both sides of the wall is used as part of the mean of egress. Horizontal exits may be substituted for other exits if they do not compose more than 50 percent ofthe total exit capacity of the building. Smokeproof enclosures. Stairways or stair enclosures (sometimes referred to as smoke towers) are designed to limit the penetration of smoke, heat, and toxic gases into the stairway. Smokeproof enclosures provide the highest degree of fire protection of stair enclosures that the model codes require (Figures 7.7 a and b, p. 268). Access to a smokeproof enclosure is made through a vestibule or outside balcony. This arrangement prevents smoke from entering the stairwell when corridor doors are opened. The stair enclosure may be made smokeproof by pressurizing the stair enclosure or by using either natural or mechanical ventilation. Exit Discharge The exit discharge exists between the termination ofthe exit and the public way (Figures 7.8 a and b, p. 268). Inspectors frequently discover that the exit discharge is blocked or cluttered to such a degree that occupant safety is compromised. Two examples of exit discharges: (1) exterior walkway along the side of astructure from the exit to a public way and (2) privately owned drive or alley that connects the exit to a public way. Example of a Horizontal Exit Compartment Fire-Barrier Wall }Minimum 2-Hour Fire-Resistance Rating Compartment B two compartments. Figures 7.6 a and b Horizontal exits include doors that close automatically to complete a fire barrier between Chapter 7 ¢ Means of Egress 267 Smokeproof Enclosure Examples Outside Vestibule Building J Wall Open To ee Atmosphere Up L/ \ Corridor Guard Open Air Rail Balcony Up my Protected Stairway Protected Stairway Figures 7.7 a and b Smokeproof enclosures protect stairways on the exterior of a structure from the communication of smoke and fire and also provide the highest level of means-of-egress protection that model codes-require. Example of an Exit Discharge Public Way Discharge Figures 7.8 a and b An exit discharge between an exit and a public way must remain free of clutter and obstructions. 268 Chapter 7 » Means of Egress Components Each of the model building and fire and life safety codes defines and describe s the means of egress components. As mentioned previously, the compone nts may be active such as an automatic sprinkler system or passive such as doors, walls, floors, etc. The emphasis of this chapter is on passive components. An inspector should be aware of any exemptions in the means of egress requirements that are permitted in structures fully protected by automatic sprinkler systems. Passive components provide two benefits to occupants: First, passive components separate occupants from fire, smoke, and other hazardous elements during escape from the structure. Separation is achieved with fire-resistancerated doors, walls, ceilings, floors, stairs, ramps, fire escapes, ladders, and slides. In addition, panic hardware, handrails, and guardrails assist occupants in opening doors and protect them on stairs and ramps. Second, passive components consist of lighting and signs intended to guide or direct occupants to exits or areas ofrefuge. Doors Two of the most important life safety functions of doors are to (1) act as barriers to the movement of fire, smoke, and other toxic gases and (2) serve as components of a means of egress system. When doors serve as components of a means of egress, they must be constructed so that the way of exit travel is obvious. Exit doors are usually required to open in the direction of travel toward the primary exit (Figure 7.9). Exit doors also provide a means of access for fire and emergency services personnel. Direction of Exit Door Swing Direction of Egress Traffic Exit Discharge Direction of Exit Door Swing Figure 7.9 Doors that are part of a means-of-egress system must open in the direction of occupant travel as depicted in this illustration. Chapter 7 ¢ Means of Egress 269 Each door opening must be wide enough to accommodate the number of people expected to travel through the door in an emergency. In new buildings, each of the model code organizations requires that doors serving as a component of a means of egress be at least 36 inches (914.4 mm) wide, but no more than 48 inches (1 219 mm) wide, to provide a minimum of32 inches (813 mm) of clear unobstructed width (Figure 7.10). There are exceptions to this rule for existing buildings and other special situations. The floor or landing on each side of the door must be level and at the same elevation on both sides of the doorframe. While the building is occupied, the exit doors must open easily. If50 or more people are in a room or occupancy, the exit requirements for the building take on a higher level of significance and additional exiting system requirements must be met. Panic Hardware — Type of doorlatching assembly incorporating a device that releases the latch upon the application of a force in the direction of egress travel Doors that open into corridors or hallways must be placed so that the door does not obstruct more than one-half of the required exit width during any point in its swing (Figures 7.11 a and b). Panic hardware may be required based upon occupancy classification and occupant load. If panic hardware is required, occupants should be able to cause the latch to release by applying a forceofnot more than 15 pounds (67 N) and set the door in motion by applying a force of not more than 30 pounds (133 N) (Figure 7.12). In buildings that do not require panic hardware on exit doors, the model building codes define the types of locks that may be installed on the doors. In most cases, deadbolt locks that do not require the use of keys, specials tools, or special knowledge to operate and that operate with the action of the latch may be installed on exit doors. Thumb-turn bolts that operate independently of the door latch are examples of unacceptable locking devices on the egress (inside) side of exit doors. For a complete discussion of these requirements, an inspector should refer to the locally adopted building and fire codes. Minimum Door Width in the Means of Egress Figure 7.10 Exit doors are required to have specific widths like those illustrated. 270 Chapter 7 © Means of Egress Exit Access S336 in (914.4 m) Se Maximum Dimension of Doors Opening into Means of Egress Exit Access SY X = Minimum Required Width 0.5x = Maximum Allowed Door Swing Figures 7.11 a and b Doors opening into means-of-egress corridors must not impede the ability of occupants to navigate the corridor to available exits in an emergency. Inspectors must also be familiar with self-closing doors that are activated be fire-detection, water-flow, or other alarm devices. Self-closing doors — usually held open by magnetic devices — close automatically to provide a smoke or fire barrier in a fire-barrier wall. Self-closing doors may also be found in the following locations: e@ Openings into mechanical or electrical spaces e Walls separating connected buildings e Walls that separate two different occupancy use groups (Figure 7.13). An increased desire for security over the past few decades has led to the use of a variety of locking devices and systems. An inspector should be aware of the types of devices permitted in the local jurisdiction and inspect all security devices during field inspections. For instance, some high-rise structures have devices that prevent reentry from exit stair enclosures. Once in the stairway, the only way out is the exit door at ground level. Figure 7.12 Typical panic hardware on an exit door should be easy to operate for any occupant. Figure 7.13 Self-closing doors provide an automatic impediment to the communication of fire and smoke. Chapter 7° Means of Egress 271 Other security devices cause exit doors to remain locked until activated by exit fire-detection, water-flow, or other alarm devices. In some occupancies, doors are equipped with panic-type hardware that activates an alarm when the door is opened. This type of door may have a delayed activation feature that allows the door to open between 15 and 30 seconds after the alarm activates (Figure 7.14). Health care facilities may also have security devices on some doors to prevent an unauthorized exit from the facility. Drug and alcohol rehabilitation and mental health units lock exit doors to prevent patients from leaving the ward, floor, or facility. In these situations, alarm devices (fire-detection, water-flow, etc.), key pads, or similar staff-activated devices control exit door locks. A loss of power in the facility allows the doors to open. Owner/occupants may also install security bars or grilles over exit doors to prevent unauthorized entry. Security bars have been responsible for many fatalities and for slowing access by fire and emergency services personnel. Operation oflocks on the egress side of the security bars must conform to the requirements for exit doors (Figure 7.15). Walls Figure 7.14 Panic hardware may be designed to serve two purposes: First, the hardware allows exit through a door that cannot be opened from the outside and second, the hardware activates fire-alarm devices. Fire-resistant-rated walls are used to separate designated exits from other parts of the building or structure. The fire-resistance-rating is based on the type of occupancy, type of building construction, and whether the building has an automatic sprinkler system or not (Figure 7.16). An inspector must be familiar with the building code that was in effect when the structure was built. Modifications to the structure or changes in the occupancy classification may require changes in the exit-wall requirements. An inspector should also look for any concealed penetrations in the walls above decorative-type ceilings. The wall finish (paint, wallpaper, fabric, or other materials) is also dictated by the type of occupancy group. Generally, NFPA® permits only the use of Class A (0-25 flame-spread rating) or Class B (26-75 flame-spread rating) interior finishes in exits or exit-access corridors. Figure 7.15 Security grilles like the gate on this loading dock’s overhead door may prevent unauthorized entry but can be a barrier to a means-of-egress system. 272 Chapter 7 © Means of Egress Figure 7.16 The 1-hour fire-resistive walls in this hospital corridor are designed to protect the means of egress from fires originating in adjacent spaces. Ceilings Ceilings complete the enclosure for the exit or exit-access corridor. Depending on the design requirements, walls may extend to the bottom ofthe roof deck or next floor or to the ceiling ofthe exit. In the first case, the ceiling may conceal heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) ductwork, wiring, oractasa return-air plenum. This ceiling will be decorative in nature and may not have any fire-resistance rating. Where the ceiling is part ofthe fire-resistance-rated walls, the ceiling must have the same rating as the walls. Floors Flooring (as well as subflooring) in the means of egress must be constructed with approved materials allowed by the building code. An inspector must pay particular attention to these areas because it is not uncommon to find that unapproved materials have been used during remodeling ofa structure. The type offloor covering is the most frequent source of concern due to the flammability of the materials used. Floor coverings must meet flame- and smokegeneration tests for the given means ofegress and be installed in accordance with the appropriate code. Stairs In multistoried buildings, exit stairs are critical components of the means of egress. Stairways must be at least 44 inches (1 117.6 mm) wide unless the total occupant load of all floors served by the stairway is less than 50 people, in which case, stairways must be at least 36 inches (914.4 mm) wide (Figure 7.17). Other requirements include the following: Figure 7.17 All exit stairways must have handrails and each flight of stairs between landings must be no longer than 12 feet (3.6576 m). e Stair treads must be solid and slip-resistant. e Landings must be provided so that no flights ofstairs are greater than 12 feet (3.6576 m) high. e Handrails are required for both sides of the stairs. e Stairs that are exceptionally wide may be required to have intermediate handrails in the middle of the stairs. e Stair treads and risers must be in good condition to prevent tripping. To provide a protected path oftravel and to qualify as an exit, fire-resistant construction must separate interior stairs from other parts of the building. The construction that encloses the exit must have at least a 1-hour minimum fire-resistance rating when the exit connects three stories or less. This minimum applies whether the stories connected are above or below the story at which the exit discharge begins. When the exit connects four or more stories, the separating construction must have a fire-resistance rating of at least 2 hours. Again, there are some exceptions to this general rule. An inspector must consult the code to determine exact requirements. Chapter 7 ¢ Means of Egress 273 A self-closing, fire-resistance-rated exit door must protect any opening in the exit stairs (Figure 7.18). The stairway door must have a 1-hour rating when used ina 1-hour-rated enclosure and at least a 12-hour rating when used ina 2-hour-rated enclosure. The only permissible openings in exit stairs are those that allow people to enter the stairs from the building and those that empty to the exit discharge. Exterior stairs are permitted to serve as exit stairs if they meet the applicable code requirements for outside stairs. Additional information on exit stairs may be found in any of the model codes, including occupancy-specific requirements that these codes may require. Inspectors should ensure that exit stairways are not used for any purposes other than as a means ofegress. These areas frequently tend to be depositories for trash, excess furniture, or product storage. All debris must be removed from the stair area so that egress is not impaired. Stairwells are also necessary as an access for fire-suppression operations. Ramps Ramps became common elements in many occupancies in the U.S. with the adoption of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990 (Figure 7.19). Ramps are easier for the elderly, infirm, or handicapped to traverse. Each model code addresses the requirements for ramps in a similar manner. New ramps must be at least 44 inches (1 117.6 mm) wide with a maximum slope of 1 to 12 (1 foot [0.30 m] of rise for every 12 feet [3.6576 m] of horizontal distance). The standard way of defining 1 to 12 (or 1: 12) is 1 inch (25.4 mm) in 12 inches (304.8 mm), although 1 foot (0.30 m) in 12 feet (3.6576 m) gives the same result. The maximum length for a single ramp is 30 feet (9.14 m) without a landing (Figure 7.20). Figure 7.18 Self-closing exit doors in stairways are similar to those in corridors but are required to have fire ratings applicable to the stairways that they protect. Figure 7.19 The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 requires providing exit ramps as an alternative for individuals who have difficulty with steps due to age or disabil ity. 274 Chapter 7 * Means of Egress Dimensions of an Exit Ramp Figure 7.20 Exit ramps must meet specific rise, width, and length requirements. (1 1176 mm) Fire-resistance-rated construction similar to that used for exit stairs must enclose and protect interior exit ramps. Exterior ramps must offer the same degree of protection as exterior stairs, with some exceptions for certain occupancies. An inspector should consult the provisions of the locally adopted code and amendments to adequately address this issue. Fire Escape Stairs, Ladders, and Slides Because they are extremely unsafe and unreliable, external fire escape stairs may not be used as any part of ameans of egress in new construction (Figure 7.21). Where still allowed on old buildings, these stairs may constitute only Some: ofthe : reasons‘di that required. of the required means of egress one-half : : ; inspectors should be wary of these installations when inspecting buildings that still have fire escape stairs are as follows: Figure 7.21 Exterior fire escape stairs may be poorly maintained, obstructed, or badly deteriorated andisneuid neu be eons ioctec a sole means of egress in buildings where they are installed. e Often poorly maintained, rusted through, or unsecured to the wall e May be wet or icy e Often exposed to high winds e Often covered with garbage and other debris @ May be inaccessible due to locked or secured access windows and doors Fire escape stairs have also lost favor because many occupants are not accustomed to using them on a regular basis. Some persons who have a fear of heights may find them uncomfortable to use, slowing the progress of other people behind them. People with physical impairments cannot safely access them. Chapter 7° Means of Egress 279 To avoid trapping occupants, fire escape stairs must be exposed to the smallest number ofdoor or window openings as possible. Each of the model codes provides detailed guidelines for the protection of openings that may expose fire escape stairs. Windows may be used as access to fire escapes in existing buildings if they meet certain criteria concerning the size of the opening. Windows used for this purpose must open with a minimum ofeffort or in some cases open outward in a manner that does not obstruct the exit path. Access to fire escape stairs must be directly from a balcony, landing, or platform. Fire escape ladders are only allowed for limited purposes if approved by the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) (Figures 7.22 a and b). Fire escape slides, also called slidescapes, may be used as a means of egress where they are specifically authorized. They must be of an approved type and rated at one exit unit per slide with a rated capacity of 60 persons. Exit Ilumination and Markings NFPA® has cited lack fatalities occurring in over the past century. NFPA® standards for of adequate illumination as contributing to hundreds of nightclubs, theaters, apartment buildings, and hospitals Two of these incidents resulted in the development of exit requirements, illumination, and markings. The illumination and marking of exits vary with each type of occupancy classification but are consistent among model code organizations. When exit illumination is required, it must be continuous during periods of occupancy. Any required exit illumination must be arranged so that the failure of any single lighting unit such as a defective lightbulb will not leave any area in darkness. Battery-operated units may not be used for primary exit illumination but may be used as backup supplies. Figures 7.22 a and b Fire escape ladders (a) and fire escape slides (b) are two additional means of egress that are not universally authorized throughout all jurisdictions. However, where they are allowed, they must meet all applicable codes enacted by the AHuJ. 276 Chapter 7 ¢ Means of Egress Illumination Emergency lights are powered by batteries or an auxiliary power system and provide illumination when normal power is lost. Emergency lightin g is required in certain occupancies such as places of assembly, educati onal facilities, health care facilities, and high-rise structures and may also be required in underground or limited-access structures, depending on the specific code requirement (Figure 7.23). The emergency lighting system must provide the proper amount of illumination (1 foot-candle [10 lux] for 90 minutes) when normal power for lighting is interrupted. Floors must be illuminated at not less than 1 foot-candle (10 lux) at floor level. A reduction of0.2 foot-candle (2.2 lux) is permitted in auditoriums, theaters, concert or opera halls, and other places of assembly during performances as long as the lighting automatically adjusts to 1 footcandle (10 lux) when a fire alarm is activated. Figure 7.23 Emergency lights like these must have an auxiliary power source to ensure proper illumination in the case of a primary power failure during an emergency. Markings Markings consist of signs that direct occupants through a structure to the nearest exit and are required in most occupancy classifications (Figure 7.24). These illuminated exit signs must be positioned so that no point in the exit access is more than 100 feet (30.48 m) from the nearest visible sign. The letters on exit signs must be at least 6 inches (150 mm) high and the principal strokes ofthe letters at least %4-inch (19 mm) wide. Exit signs may be wired into the building electrical system or be selfilluminating. In the case of wired exit signs, they must have an auxiliary power source — usually an internal battery or a separate electrical circuit powered by an auxiliary power supply such as a generator. Floor proximity exit signs or floor-level exit signs, along with floor proximity egress path markings, have become popular in some jurisdictions and are required in some occupancy classifications within the various code families. These signs are designed to allow occupants crawling low through smoke to identify the location of an exit as they crawl along a floor (Figure 7.25, p. 278). Floor-level signs are used in addition to standard ceiling-level signs; they are not a substitute. Figure 7.24 Exit markings should be illuminated at all times and provided with secondary powered systems to ensure that they are also illuminated during emergency situations. The requirements for illumination and character size for floor-level signs are the same as those described earlier in this section. The NFPA® Life Safety Code®, and other model codes, specifies that the bottom ofa floor proximity exit sign must be between 6 and 8 inches (150 mm and 200 mm) above the floor surface. Auxiliary Power Auxiliary power can originate from batteries or from a generator. When a generator is used to power emergency lighting and exit signs, it should be connected to the building’s electrical system by a switchover device that activates the generator when the building power supply is terminated. Depending on code requirements, natural gas, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), or diesel may be used to fuel generators (Figure 7.26, p. 278). An inspector should be familiar with the test procedures for both the auxiliary power supply and emergency lighting system. Codes require a monthly and annual test of the system, both of which an inspector should observe. Chapter 7¢ Means of Egress 2/77 ca cc = 7 pa Figure 7.25 Floor-level signs are used in addition to conventional exit signs and are placed at a height lower than the anticipated level of smoke in an emergency. Courtesy of Floyd Luinstra. Figure 7.26 Auxiliary power systems are necessary to ensure that emergency power activates when the primary power in a structure fails or is deactivated due to an emergency. Occupant Loads The term occupant load refers to the total number of persons who may occupy a building or a portion of it at any one time (Figure 7.27). The occupant load for a building or room should be established during the plans review process. A building official or plans examiner usually calculates these occupancy loads. The approved maximum occupant load for a structure or room must be visible and legible and posted on a sign near the entry to the structure or area used for assembly. posof ibeSEEHOS of the modg) codes’is tonants the passat official or Addi ionally, it provides a means to Se cuael how Ww many people may safely exit a structure during an emergency. Figure 7.27 Inspectors are responsible for calculating occupancy loads and ensuring that the maximum occupancy is Regarding the number of exits, the model code organizations specifically provide the building official or plans examiner the means to determine the following information: clearly posted and adheredto by ® Capacity of each individual means of egress the owner/occupant. e Total capacity of all means ofegress e Number of exits required @ Maximum travel distance to an exit For purposes of fire and life safety, inspectors must be able to determine the occupant load ofexisting occupancies during fieldi inspections. Allinspectors should be familiar with the methods for completing these calculations. In particular, an inspector must be able to calculate a new occupant load whena structure changes occupancy classifications. An inspector will need to verify 278 Chapter 7 * Means of Egress that the occupant load for a given location is still correct and that a sign is posted im an appropriate place. Because each occupancy classification is different , any change may necessitate different requirements regarding exits. The method for determining occupant load is the same for each of the model codes. Each code assigns an occupant load factor per person based on the type of occupancy; that is, the maximum floor area allowed per person stated in square feet (m*). The formula for determining the occupant load of a structure, room, or area is as follows: Occupant Load = Net Floor Area = Area per Person (Factor) (1) For example, a stage or platform occupant load is calculated using 15 square feet (1.3935 m’) per person while the audience area with nonfixed seating would use 7 square feet (0.6503 m?) per person in moveable chairs. The occupant load factor is divided into the square footage (m7?) of the room to determine the maximum occupant load. A 150-square foot (13.94 m2) stage would be capable of holding 10 persons, while a seating area of 7,000 square feet (650.32 m*) could accommodate 1,000 occupants. Table 7.1, p. 283, provides the International Building Code® (IBC®) maximum floor area allowances per occupant. The table contains the words gross and net to describe the allowable square feet (m’) per occupant in various types of occupancies. The term gross means the entire square footage (m2) of a space measured wall to wall with no deductions. The term net means the gross square footage (m*) minus any space taken up by equipment, furniture, or other space that is not used for the occupancy ofthe space. For example, gross is used in business occupancies by determining the total, or gross, area with no deductions for desks, files, movable partitions, or other items. In an assembly occupancy like a pool hall, only the clear floor space available for use is calculated — the gross area of the space minus the area taken up by the pool tables, counters, restroom spaces, office areas, and storage spaces. Examples | and 2 illustrate how occupant loads can be calculated for singleuse occupancies. Example calculations are in both Customary System units and International System ofUnits (SI). Example 1: Occupant Load Calculation for Single-Use Occupancy An inspector must calculate the occupant load of a building that was formerly a warehouse and has recently been turned into a nightclub. The area of this facility measures 100 feet by 150 feet (30.48 m by 45.72 m). As a nightclub, it will contain unconcentrated tables and chairs around a large dance floor. The inspector would use the following steps to determine the occupant load: Step 1: Determine the total square footage (m’) of the nightclub by multiplying the facility’s length by its width: (100 feet x 150 feet) = 15,000 ft’ In SI (30.48 m x 45.72 m) = 1 393.54 m’ continued on page 280 Chapter 7 ¢ Means of Egress 279 concluded from page 279 Example 1: Occupant Load Calculation for Single-Use Occupancy Step 2: Consult Table 7.1, p. 283, to determine the maximum allowable floor area per person in an assembly occupancy with unconcentrated tables and chairs. Step 3: Allow 15 square feet (1.3935 m?) per person based on the requirements found in Table 7.1 for an assembly occupancy, unconcentrated with tables and chairs. Occupant Load = (15,000 ft? + 15 ft?) = 1,000 persons In SI Occupant Load = (1 393.54 m? + 1.3935 m*) = 1,000 persons NOTE: The 1,000 person occupant load will also depend on an adequate number of exits being present. Example 2: Occupant Load Calculation for Single-Use Occupancy An inspector has been given architectural plans for a new building being constructed. The building will be used as a single-story parking garage, 100 feet by 75 feet (830.48 m by 22.86 m). Given the dimensions of the building, the inspector would use the following steps to determine the maximum occupant load for the structure: Step 1: Determine the floor area of the facility using the following dimensions: 100 feet by 75 feet (30.48 m by 22.86 m). (100 feet x 75 feet) = 7,500 ft? In SI (30.48 m x 22.86 m) = 696.77 m? Step 2: Consult Table 7.1, p. 283, to determine the maximum allowable floor area per person in a parking garage. Step 3: Divide the area per person, 200 square feet (18.58 m2), into the floor area of the structure to determine occupant load: Occupant Load = (7,500 ft? = 200 ft?) = 37 persons In SI Occupant Load = (696.77 m? = 18.58 mv) = 37 persons Q Inspectors will frequently encounter buildings that are used for more than one purpose or that contain more than one occupancy classification. Inspection personnel must know how to calculate the occupancy load for multius e occupancies and multiple occupancies in one structure when they are encountered. In general, the following procedure for making the calcula tions is the same for each of the model codes: 280 Chapter 7 Means of Egress I. Multiuse occupancy — For a building or a portion of a building that has more than one use, the occupant load is determined by the use that allows for the largest number ofpersons to occupy the building. 2. Multiple occupancies in one building — For a building or a portion of a building that contains two or more distinct occupancies, the occupant load is determined by calculating the occupant load for each ofthe occupancies separately and then adding them together. Examples 3 and 4 highlight each ofthese two possibilities. Example 3: Occupant Load Calculation for Multiuse Occupancy Inspectors are assigned to determine the occupant load on a new youthoriented entertainment facility being constructed within their jurisdiction. The building’s main room is 100 feet by 250 feet (30.48 m by 76.2 m). Depending on the day of operation, this room is used as either a dance hall or an exercise area. The inspector would use the following steps to determine the occupant load. Step 1: Determine the floor area in the main room. (100 feet x 250 feet) = 25,000 ft? In SI (30.48 m x 76.2 m) = 2 322.5 m? Step 2: Consult Table 7.1, p. 283, for the floor area per person that is required for this occupancy. A dance hall is considered a concentrated use and each person is allowed 7 square feet (0.6503 m?). An exercise area is calculated at 50 square feet (4.645 m*) per person. Step 3: Use Formula 1, p. 279, to determine occupant load. Occupant Load (when used as a dance hall) = (25,000 ft? + 7 ft?) = 3,0/1 persons Occupant Load (when used as an exercise area) = (25,000 ft? + 50 ft?) = 500 persons In SI Occupant Load (when used as a dance hall) = (2 322.5 m? + 0.6503 m*) = 3,571 persons Occupant Load (when used as an exercise area) = (2 322.5 m? + 4.645 m*) = 500 persons Given these results, and the requirement that the occupant load is based on the maximum number of people that will use the facility at one time, the maximum occupant load for this building should be established al o.or persons: Chapter 7 ¢ Means of Egress 281 Example 4: Occupant Load Calculation for Multiple Occupancies in One Structure An inspector has been given plans for a new single-story mercantile store. The inspector must determine the occupant load for this structure. The sales floor portion of the building is 100 feet by 125 feet (30.48 m by 38.1 m) and contains general displays for the merchandise. A storage area is located at the rear of the building for storage of additional stock and shipping and receiving activities. It is 75 feet by 75 feet (22.86 m by 22.86 m). The inspector would use the following steps to determine the occupant load: Step 1: Determine the floor area of the facility. Floor area of the Sales Area = (100 feet x 125 feet) = 12,500 ft? Floor area of the Storage Area = (75 feet x 75 feet) = 5,625 ft? In SI Floor area of the Sales Area = (30.48 m x 38.1 m) = 1 161.28 m? Floor area of the Storage Area = (22.86 m x 22.86 m) = 522.58 m? Step 2: Consult Table 7.1 to determine the maximum allowable area per person per square foot (m?). Mercantile occupancies are allowed 30 square feet (2.787 m*) per person for single-story structures. The storage area is allowed 300 square feet (27.87 m°) per person. Step 3: Determine the occupant load for each portion of the structure. Occupant Load for the Sales Area = (12,500 ft? + 30 ft?) = 416 persons Occupant Load for the Storage Area = (5,625 ft? + 300 ft?) = 718 persons In SI Occupant Load for the Sales Area = (1 161.28 m? + 2.787 m?) = 416 persons Occupant Load for the Storage Area = (522.58 m? = 27.87 m2) = 18 persons Step 4: Determine the occupant load for the whole building. 416 Persons (Sales) + 18 persons (Storage) = 434 Persons (Total Occupant Load) Please note that these examples are simply for illustration. 282 Chapter 7 © Means of Egress Table 7.1 Maximum Floor Area Allowances per Occupant Function of Space Floor Area In Square Feet Per Occupant Accessory Storage Areas, Mechanical Equipment Room 300 gross Agricultural Building 300 gross Aircraft Hangars 500 gross Airport Terminal Baggage claim: Baggage handling 20 gross 300 gross Concourse Waiting areas Assembly Gaming floors (keno, slots, etc,) Assembly with Fixed Seats Assembly without Fixed Seats Concentrated (chairs only — not fixed) Standing space Unconcentrated (tables and chairs) 100 gross 15 gross 11 gross See Section 1004.7* 7 net 5 net 15 net Bowling Centers, allow 5 persons for each lane, including 15 feet of runway, and for additional areas Business Areas fnet 100 gross Courtrooms — other than fixed seating areas 40 net Day Care 35 net Dormitories Educational Classroom area Shops and other vocational room areas 50 gross 20 net 50 net Exercise Rooms 50 gross H-5 Fabrication and Manufacturing areas 200 gross Industrial Areas 100 gross Institutional Areas Inpatient treatment areas Outpatient areas Sleeping areas 240 gross 100 gross Kitchens, Commercial 200 gross 120 gross Continued Chapter 7° Means of Egress 283 Table 7.1 (Concluded) Function of Space Floor Area In Square Feet Per Occupant Library Reading rooms Stack area 50 net 100 gross Locker Rooms 50 gross Mercantile Areas on other floors Basement and grade floor areas Storage, stock, shipping areas 60 gross 30 gross 300 gross Parking Garages 200 gross Residential 200 gross Skating Rinks, Swimming Pools Rink and pool Decks 50 gross 15 gross Stages and Platforms 15 net Warehouses 500 gross For Sl: 1 square foot = 0.0929 m? * Section number refers to sections in the 2006 International Building Code, ©2006. 2006 International Building Code, © 2006, Table 1004.11. Washington D.C.: International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved, www.iccsafe.org Means of Egress Determinations In addition to determining how many people may safely occupy a particular room or building, inspectors must also determine the number of exits aroom or building must have to effectively evacuate the room or building. The first step is to determine the capacity of the means ofegress, which is the number of people who can move along the means of egress. Next, the inspector must determine the arrangement of the exits from the room or building. Finally, the effectiveness of the means of egress must be established. Capacity In addition to determining how many people may safely occupy a particular room or building, code officials must also determine whether rooms or buildings contain enough exits for occupants to exit safely during an emergency. The means of egress capacity must be at least equal to the occupant load, determined by the floor area and based upon the occupancy type. Ifa building or room has a means of egress Capacity that is lower than the floor area occupant load, additional exits must be constructed to handle the entire floor area occupant load. 284 Chapter 7 © Means of Egress To determine the required width of the means of egress, an inspector must apply a numerical factor expressed in terms ofinches (millimeters) per person. The most common numerical factors that are expressed in the codes are 0.3 inches (7.62 mm) per person for stairways and 0.2 inches (5.08 mm) per person for ramps or level exit components (Table 7.2). Each of the model codes has factors other than these for selected occupancies. For example, buildings that are considered hazardous occupancies use 0.7 inches (17.78 mm) per person for stairways and 0.4 inches (10.16 mm) per person for ramps or level exit components. Each of the model codes also makes allowances based on whether the occupancy has an automatic sprinkler system. Inspectors should consult the code used in their jurisdiction for specific information on means of egress width factors. To determine the exit capacity, the inspector must use mathematical calculations that are based on the established minimum exit widths required in the model building codes. The capacities of each individual means of egress are added together to provide the total exit capacity for the room or building. This figure can be used to determine the number ofrequired exits. Exit Capacity To determine the capacity of an exit, it is necessary to calculate the capacity for each of the three means of egress elements: (1) exit access, (2) exit, and (3) exit discharge. Each element must be measured in clear (unobstructed) width at the narrowest point. The element that has the smallest capacity will determine the total capacity for the entire means of egress. Example 5, p. 286, is used to illustrate this point. For example, a means of egress has the following dimensions: e Exit access — Corridor that is 44 inches (1 117.6 mm) wide e Exit — Stairway that is 44 inches (1 117.6 mm) wide e Exit discharge — Alley that is 12 feet (3.6576 m) wide » Egre ir ean a vidthp a Without Sprinkler System Stairways (inches per occupant) Other Egress Components (inches per occupant) With Sprinkler System? Stairways (inches per occupant) Occupancies other than those listed below Other Egress Components (inches per occupant) 0.15 Hazardous: H-1, H-2, H-3, Institutional: |-2 For Sl: 1 inch = 25.4 mm . . NA = Not applicable with e accordanc in a. Buildings equipped throughout with an automatic sprinkler system Section 903.3.1.1 or 903.1.2.* Code, ©2006. * Section numbers refer to sections in the 2006 International Building D.C.: International Code Council. 2006 International Building Code, © 2006, Table 1005.1. Washington fe.org www.iccsa reserved, rights All . permission with Reproduced Chapter 7° Means of Egress 285 Example 5: Calculating Egress Capacities A corridor is a level exit component; therefore, it is capable of handling one person for every 0.2 inch (5.08 mm). Thus: Corridor Capacity = (44 in = 0.2 in) = 220 persons In Sl Corridor Capacity = (1 117.6 mm + 5.08 mm) = 220 persons The numerical Thus: factor for stairs is 0.3 inches (7.62 mm) per person. Stairway Capacity = (44 in + 0.3 in) = 146 persons In SI Stairway Capacity = (1 117.6 mm + 7.62 mm) = 146 persons The alley is considered a level component, so the 0.2 inch (5.08 mm) per person factor is used. In order for the calculation to be done correctly, the alley’s dimensions must first be converted from feet (meters) to inches (mm). 12 feet x 12 inches/foot = 144 inches In SI 3.6576 m x 1 000 mm/m = 3 657.6 mm Thus: Alley Capacity = 144 in + 0.2 in = 720 persons In SI Alley Capacity = 3 657.6 mm = 5.08 mm = 720 persons The smallest number for the three computations is 146 persons, so the total capacity of the means of egress will be 146. Total Exit Capacity In order to calculate the total exit capacity of aspace or building, it is first necessary to determine the capacity of each exit and then add the resulting figures together. The procedures for determining total exit capacity differ depending on whether the exit is at grade level or not. See Examples 6 and 7. Example 6: Calculating Total Exit Capacity (Business Occupancy) Clear Width — Actual . Tera opening size of An inspector is reviewing plans for a new business occupancy that shows the building has three swinging exit doors that have a clear width of 36 inches (914.4 mm). These exits are all on ground level. The inspector would use the following steps to determine the total exit Capacity: Step 1: Determine the numerical factor that should be used for a level egress in a business occupancy classification. From Table 7.2, p. 285, we can determine that level components may be rated at 0.2 inches (5.08 mm) per person. 286 Chapter 7 ¢ Means of Egress Step 2: Determine the capacity of each exit: Exit Capacity = 36 in + 0.2 in = 180 persons In Sl Exit Capacity = 914.4 mm + 5.08 mm = 180 persons Step 3: Determine the total exit capacity. Because three doors are the same size, the calculation is relatively simple. Total Exit Capacity = 180 persons x 3 = 540 persons Example 7: Calculating Total Exit Capacity (Residential Occupancy) An inspector is assigned to determine the total exit capacity for a new four-story apartment building. There are two exits from each floor, and the stairways have a clear (unobstructed) width of 44 inches (1 117.6 mm). The inspector would use the following steps to determine the total exit Capacity: Step 1: Determine the numerical factor that should be used for a stairway in a residential occupancy. Based on Table 7.2, p. 285, stairways are rated at 0.3 inches (7.62 mm) per person. Step 2: Determine the capacity of each exit stairway. Stairway Capacity = 44 in + 0.3 = 146 persons In SI Stairway Capacity = 1 117.6 mm + 7.62 mm = 146 persons Step 3: Determine the total exit capacity. Because there are two stairways of the same size, the calculation is relatively simple. Total Exit Capacity = 146 persons x 2 = 292 persons Stairways must be able to accommodate the greatest number of people expected to occupy any single floor above. While evacuating, not everyone from all floors will be in the same area of the stairwell at the same time (Figure 7.28, p. 288). For example, by the time the people from the third floor reach the second floor, the people from the second floor should have exited the building. The International Code Council® (ICC®) model codes also state that the means of egress cannot become narrower in the direction ofegress travel or beyond any point where two or more exits converge. The total of the exit capacities cannot be less than the sum ofall the capacities. In exiting multistory structures, it may be necessary to use the emergency notification system to alert occupants to exit in order of proximity to the emergency (or fire) floor. Therefore, the three floors closest to the fire floor exit first, then the next three, and so on until the structure is completely evacuated. In some jurisdictions, high-rise structures are required to have designated fire wardens on each floor to perform this control function. Chapter 7 ¢ Means of Egress 287 Stairwell Capacity Figure 7.28 Each arrow in this illustration represents the occupants’ escape into the stairway enclosure. The stairway must be able to accommodate the greatest number of people on any floor above that portion of the stairway. Required Number of Exits Inspection personnel and building officials must be familiar with the requirements for the minimum number ofexits in the buildings they inspect. General information on minimum number of exits may be found in the Means of Egress chapters of the model codes. In addition to the general requirements, there are special requirements and exceptions in the various chapters of the codes that pertain to specific occupancy types. In most cases, all of the codes require that there be at least two exits from any balcony, mezzanine, story, or portion thereof that has an occupant load of 500 persons or less. For occupant loads greater than 500 persons, generall y a minimum of three separate exits are required with four or more required at 1,000 people. The codes also specify that the exits should be as remote from each other as possible. This spacing helps minimize travel distance to an exit. It also increases the chances of finding an alternative exit if the closest exit is unreachable due to fire conditions. Each of the model codes has special exceptions that allow only one exit in certain situations. Inspectors must consult the code and amendments adopted in their jurisdictions to determine the situations in which one exit is permitted. 288 Chapter 7 © Means of Egress When inspectors encounter situations where the occupant load is consistently exceeded, all possible alternatives for correction should be explored within the framework oftheir local codes. Ultimately, enforcement through citation may become the only remedy. Arrangement Multiple means of egress ensure that occupants can rapidly exit a structure and locate an exit that is near to them. An inspector should be able to determine the location of multiple exits for new construction buildings and determine if existing exits are properly sited. If exits are insufficient, an inspector should be able to recommend alternatives for meeting the means of egress requirements. Location of Exits When more than one exit is required it would be meaningless to have everyone try to exit through two doors closely placed on one side of the room. When more than one exit is required in a building or space, the one-half diagonal rule is applied to assist in determining the placement ofthe exits, which states as follows: © When two exits are required, they are to be located not less than one-half the length of the overall diagonal dimension ofthe room or building area. The diagonal is measured as a straight line from the nearest edges of the exit or exit access doors to each other (Figure 7.29). e In spaces or structures where there is a requirement for more than two exits or exit access doors, at least two will meet the minimum separation requirements while the other exits are to be located in a manner that will allow them to be available if the primary exits become blocked or unavailable. Common Path of Travel Figure 7.29 The one-half diagonal rule of exit placement, illustrated here, requires that exits be located not less than one-half the length of the overall diagonal dimension of the room or building area. Compartment Requires Two Exits Chapter 7 ¢ Means of Egress 289 uration, each room, An inspector must be aware that regardless of config appropriate exiting space, building, or structure must have adequate and sibility to ensure capabilities. During inspections, it is the inspector’s respon red factors for requi that designed exit plans for all areas follow all of the codeancy. fire and life safety even if changes have been made to the occup during [tis not uncommon to find modifications to assembly occupancies the an inspection that dramatically change the fire and life safety aspects of in one new a g buildin and n structure. Blocking an exit door in one locatio nts another location may not provide a full measure of safety for the occupa of the business in this new configuration. Maximum Travel Distance to an Exit Each of the model codes establishes the maximum allowable travel distance to the nearest exit and limits the length of dead-end corridors. The travel distance refers to the total length of travel necessary to reach the protection of an exit. The travel distance is measured on the floor or walking surface along the centerline of the natural path of travel (Figure 7.30). The measurement starts from the most remote portion of the occupancy, curving around any corners or obstructions with a 1-foot (0.3 m) clearance, and ends at the center of the exit doorway or other point at which the exit begins. In cases where the layout of the room is unknown or may change, the maximum travel distance is calculated by starting at the most remote point and proceeding by following the walls to the door of the room. The maximum travel distance requirements to an exit are different for each of the model codes. Within each code, the distances vary depending on the type of occupancy and whether the building has an automatic sprinkler system. Generally, longer travel distances are allowed in buildings that are protected by automatic sprinkler systems. Inspection personnel must consult the code used in their jurisdiction to determine the figures they need to use. Determining Maximum Travel Distance Figure 7.30 This illustration shows the proper measurement of the maximum travel distance to an exit. HT 290 Chapter 7 Means of Egress An inspector should also be aware of the following two means of egress concepts that may be present in existing structures or appear on new or remodel construction plans: 1. Dead-end corridor — Condition that exists when a corridor has no outlet to a means ofegress and is more than 20 feet (6 m) in length (Figure 7.31). 2. Common path of travel — Path that all occupants must travel in one direction before reaching a point where they may choose between two separate and distinct paths leading to two separate exits (Figure 7.32). This distance is used in the calculation oftotal travel distance to an exit for the purpose of locating exits for a building or area. Table 7.3, p. 292, provides distances for dead-end, common paths oftravel, and total travel distance limits. Dead-end Corridor Example Dead-end Corridor Greater than 20 ft (6 m) Common Figure 7.31 The dead-end corridor identified in the illustration has no outlet to a means of egress and is longer than 20 ft (6 m). Path of Travel Figure 7.32 Many different compartments in an occupancy may share a means of egress, known as a common path of travel. Chapter 7¢ Means of Egress 291 Common Common Table 7.3 Path, Dead-end, and Travel Distance Limits (By Occupancy) Path Limit Dead-end Limit Travel Distance Limit Unsprinklered (feet) Group A (feet) a = = Sprinklered (feet) 250 20/75 250 Group B Group E 250 Groups F-1, S-1° 250 Groups F-2, S-2¢ 400 Group H-1 i Group H-2 100 Group H-3 150 Group H-4 i745 Group H-5 200 Group I|-1 250 Group I-2 (Health Care) 200° Group |-3 (Detention and Correctional — Use Conditions II, Ill, IV, V) 150° Group |-4 (Day Care Centers) Group M (Covered Mall) 200° 250 400 Group M (Mercantile) 250 Group R-1 (Hotels) 250 Group R-2 (Apartments) 250 Group R-3 (Oneand Two- Family): Group R-4 (Residential Care/ Assisted Living) Group U NR 250 For SI: 1 foot = 304.8 mm. NR= No requirements. a. 20 feet for common path serving 50 or more persons; 75 feet for common path serving less than 50 persons. See Section 1025.9.5* for dead-end aisles in Group A occupancies. This dimension is for the total travel distance, assuming incremental portions have fully utilized their allowable maximums. For travel distance within the room, and from the room exit access door to the exit, see the appropriate d. occupancy chapter”. See the International Building Code® for special requirements on spacing of doors in aircraft hangars. * Section number and chapter reference refer to sections in the 2006 International Fire Code, ©2006. 2006 International Fire Code, © 2006, Table 1027172. Washington D.C.: Internation al Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved, www.iccsafe.org 292 Chapter 7 © Means of Egress Effectiveness As the inspector determines whether the means of egress in a particular structure meets the requirements of the locally adopted code, the following questions must be asked and answered: e What is the occupancy classification for the structure or portion of the structure? e Do the various parts of the means ofegress comply with those allowed for the specific occupancy classification? e What is the total exit capacity in inches (mm), people, or both? @ Does the travel distance to the nearest exit fall within the maximum distances for the occupancy classification? e Are there dead-end corridors or common considered? paths of travel that must be e Are all of the exits accessible to different occupancy groups and easily identifiable? e Are the means ofegress properly illuminated and marked? e Do exit doors open easily? Are they equipped with panic hardware where required? e Are the parts of the means ofegress free of obstructions? e What is the maximum number of occupants allowed for the particular occupancy or structure? e Are interior finishes, surface trim materials, coverings, and decorations within the adopted code specified as to flame spread and smoke development limits for the occupancy? e Is the existing means of egress adequate for the occupancy classification or are additional exits needed? @ Whena building’s occupancy classification changes or alterations are made, are alterations to the means of egress requirements necessary? An inspector should use a consistent and logical approach to determining the means of egress requirements for both new and existing structures. One approach would be to follow a series of steps when calculating the requirements. Those steps are as follows: Step 1: Determine occupant load. Step 2: Determine clear width of each component. Step 3: Determine egress capacity of each component. Step 4: Determine most restrictive component of each route. Step 5: Determine if egress capacity is sufficient. Summary Over a century ofanalyses of fires has shown that inadequate or blocked exits can be acontributing factor in the loss oflives. These tragic events have resulted in model code requirements for means of egress for all types of occupancy classifications. An inspector is responsible for ensuring that building occupants have an unimpeded ability to evacuate a structure or move to an area Chapter 7 ¢ Means of Egress 293 important for those of refuge within the structure. This ability is especially capable of seeking populations that have special needs or are not otherwise safety on their own. the requireThe means of egress routes from a structure must conform to nt, acments ofthe locally adopted fire and life safety code. Equally importa This ined. mainta cess to the structure by emergency responders must also be and the chapter presented an overview of the means of egress requirements other with As egress. of methods used to calculate the capacity of the means topics presented in this manual, students are directed to review the fire and life safety code that has been adopted by their municipality for full coverage ofthis vital aspect offire inspection. Review Questions What are the three basic elements of ameans of egress system? Where do exit discharges exist? What is the purpose offire-resistant-rated walls? What is the purpose of emergency lighting? 294 Chapter 7 © Means of Egress oe ia ed Aa I How is occupant load calculated? 1. What formula determines the occupant load ofa structure, room, or area for a multiuse occupancy? 2. Howis exit capacity determined? 3. Howmany exits are commonly required from any balcony with an occupant load of 500 persons or less? : 4. What is the one-half diagonal rule? 5. Whatis the common path oftravel? @ 2. ' a a ; = o ove 7 - a , Pe ov > a > ? Pa a“ * = WAVE FAVAVAVAVAPAVAVAVA PAPAL ~~ Chapter Contents > Public Water Supply Systems ............. 301 Wate lSOUNCE Syne cxccccnreatectanra ramet cence ebeau tay 301 Treatment or Processing Facilities ............cceeeeeee 302 INASEVIS Ci IMIORUTIMG AELIETT «conc: ocosopcnonsononomsandoccoseccecaacoae 303 DS ITOWITON) SYSIBHIMS so ccossncocene0sc0coaono00anc0dsn sooconaceone 303 Private Water Supply Systems ............ 309 Wallen SOUNG@S yankee cece nesters ene acs312 > © Water Supply Analyses ...................6- 315 Fire Hydranit InSpeGtons, <.:cce tees ee setae 317 Pitot mul eran (Gall GCre reece econ eeenee eee eee 319 Fife-FIOWMESH GO DUTAtOMSeremeeseennsesaeeeeneeneers 320 ReatinediRestcralieneSS UIC seeememenessseee tesserae Sy Fife-Flow test PPOC@CURGS: a :.cer ta. nteeeoeres 322 Available Fire-Flow Test Results Computations....... 328 Piping, Valves, and Fire Hydrants.............cccccceeee 314 Summary Mose MOUSES- and MMOMIMONS co r..ces ieee neers 314 Review Questions z z is 5 3 : n s i 5 N s 5 ; i » & yy a Mica parr Cite" enum Key Terms BUULLGIT VaV IVC frereretees cee tecceeccussectectetees csses307 Pumper Outlet Nozzle ...............::ccccceeeees 308 COV ILALI OU memeetietetececee re tenars -ceuuccccacsrcs feessie322 Residual Pressure ..............:ssssssssssseseeeeees 315 PEIOWLAY COM Static: PresSure ccsiicec.ccsscssssneeeenerertecetecee 315 reeveceaecertcedsesccseecerncsncvecczireces 322 GATCWV AVC rerrcccaren costes eececntcesescnceaeencretee 307 TESUH ydrantte-vcccdiscccsvettieessuvcese Normal Operating Pressure...............06 324 Water: Malis eres 322 ceiscctisnnctcecstss ese 304 Job Performance Requirements This chapter provides information that addresses the following job performance requirements (JPRs) of NFPA® 1031, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner (2009) Chapter 4 Fire Inspector | 4.3.16 Chapter 5 Fire Inspector Il 5.3.4 5.4.3 5.4.5 1ay g Water-Supply Distribution Systems > Learning Objectives Fire Inspector | _ Explain the difference between public and private water supply distribution systems. _ Describe the components of a public water supply system. _ Describe the differences between a wet-barrel fire hydrant and a dry-barrel fire hydrant. _ Describe the NFPA® hydrant marking system. . Describe private water supply distribution systems. . Explain the reasons for performing water supply analyses. Describe the items that an inspector will look for when performing a fire hydrant inspection. _ Describe the use of a pitot tube and gauge during a fire hydrant flow test. COornnannruwon @) = . Explain the formula for computing the flow from a hydrant. 10. Describe the steps for testing multiple hydrants. 11. Describe the precautions necessary when performing a fire-flow test. 12. Describe the types of obstructions that may exist in a water supply distribution system. 13. Describe the process of determining fire flow using the graphical analysis method. 14. Describe the process of determining fire flow using the mathematical method. 15. Determine fire flow and conduct a fire flow test (Learning Activity 8-/-1) © Fire Inspector Il 1. Describe private water supply distribution systems. 2. Explain the reasons for performing water supply analyses. 3. Describe the items that an inspector will look for when performing a fire hydrant inspection. 4. Describe the use of a pitot tube and gauge during a fire hydrant flow test. 9. Explain the formula for computing the flow from a hydrant. 6. Describe the steps for testing multiple hydrants. 7. Describe the precautions necessary when performing a fire-flow test. 8. Describe the types of obstructions that may exist in a water supply distribution system. 9. Describe the process of determining fire flow using the graphical analysis method. 10. Describe the process of determining fire flow using the mathematical method. 11. Determine fire flow. (Learning Activity 8-/I-1) lr FESHE Objectives Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Objectives: Principles of Code Enforcement None | 298 Chapter 8 « Water Supply Distribution Systems Chapter 8 Water Supply Distribution Systems Initial Water Supply Failure at Apartment Complex Fire An apartment complex fire in a large southwestern city resulted in the loss of 20 apartments. Upon arrival, the fire department connected hoselines to a private fire hydrant located in the apartment complex. When the hydrant valve was opened, no water flowed into the hoses. A second hydrant was located and another connection was made — it too was inoperable. Ultimately a fire hydrant on a. nearby public street was used, and a water supply was finally established. During the postincidnet investigation, it was determined that the water supply loop serving the private fire hydrants was turned off and had been off for more than a year. The fire department failed to find the problem during an inspection several weeks before the fire. Fortunately, no one was injured during the incident. An adequate water supply and distribution system is essential to modern society. It is necessary for agricultural, industrial, and domestic use and is one of the most important tools firefighters use to control and extinguish fire (Figure 8.1, p. 300). Water-based fire-suppression systems, including automatic sprinklers, standpipes, and other types of systems, are useless without a water supply distribution system. Inspectors must be familiar with the types of water supply distribution systems in their local communities in order to ensure that the systems are adequate to handle emergency situations. The two basic types of water supply distribution systems are public and private systems. A public system is owned and operated by a jurisdiction and/ or water district chartered by the state or local government to provide service to acommunity or area. A private water supply distribution system may serve a single property or specified area. The private system may be supplied froma public or private source, meeting the requirements of the adopted code and/ or related standard. Public water supply distribution systems are generally a function of local government; that is, a department of municipal government or a water district authorized by the state. The local water department is usually a separate city Chapter 8 ¢ Water Supply Distribution Systems 299 Figure 8.1 Fire-fighting operations such as this one rely heavily on an adequate water supply and distribution system. Without this system or without its functioning optimally, fires like this might not be extinguished. utility whose main function is to provide sanitary water that is safe for human use. Water districts are generally established by the state and governed by an elected board. In recent years, a trend toward privately owned water supply distribution systems has developed. These water companies provide water under contract to a municipality or region. Inspectors can usually obtain information on virtually any aspect of the local water supply distribution system or network from the water department. As with all other city organizations, it is important that the fire department maintain a good working relationship with the water department. Additional information on water supplies include the Groundwater Atlas of the United States (illustrates existing underground sources for water); state, regional, and county water atlases (prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey); and municipal water supply atlases. Municipal water supply atlases describe the distribution networks of pipes, valves, and hydrants (including pipe sizes and flow rates). All of these documents are available in either hardcopy or computer-generated formats. Private water supply distribution systems may take a variety of forms, including systems that are specific to an industrial facility or complex such as a refinery or that provide water to a residential subdivision. In the former case, the facility owner/occupant has responsibility for the inspection, testing, and maintenance of the system. The water source may be a public supply distribution system separated from the private system by a water meter and check valve or an on-site water supply such as a well or lake. A second form of private water supply distribution system would be one under the control of and maintained by an owners’ association for that particular area such as a residential subdivision. The water sources may be the same as those mentioned for the industrial facility example. 300 Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems Private Water Supply Companies According to the National Association of Water Companies (NAWC), private water utilities provide 1.7 trillion gallons (680 000 000 000 L) of water annually (4.6 billion gallons per day [18 400 000 000 LJ) to 33.5 million Americans. More than 1,300 municipalities and local governments have contracts with private water supply companies. Although the responsibility for the water supply distribution system may rest with a separate department of local government, a private company, a facility owner, or a private utility association, it is important for an inspector to understand the basic principles, components, and design of water supply distribution systems. An inspector must also be aware of the amount of authority the fire inspections division has in testing and inspecting public and private water supply distribution systems. This chapter provides information for an understanding of both private and public water supply distribution system components, including water sources, processing, movement, and delivery plus hydrants and valves. Information is also provided on flow testing, hydrant inspection and maintenance, and water supply capabilities analyses. The proper use ofthe pitot tube and gauge is also described. Public Water Supply Systems Four components of an effective public water supply distribution system are as follows (Figure 8.2, p. 302): e Water supply source(s) — Lakes, rivers, wells, or springs e Processing or treatment facilities — Desalination or purification plants e Means of moving the water — Water pumps e Distribution system (including storage) — Storage tanks, control valves, hydrants and piping systems Water originates at the source and is moved to the treatment or processing facility and then on through the distribution system to the point ofuse. The point of use may be an individual residence, commercial property, a private water supply system, or a public fire hydrant to name a few. Water Sources The primary source of water in North America is referred to as groundwater; that is, it originates from melting snow at higher elevations or from rainfall, which is captured in lakes and ponds. It moves from the higher elevations along rivers and streams until it reaches the ocean. Along its journey, it evaporates back into the atmosphere to become rainwater again or is absorbed into the soil. It is also removed from the lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams by humans for their use. Another source of water is called an aquifer (layers of porous rock that capture groundwater and retain it). Water can be removed either through wells equipped with pumps or from springs that carry the water out of the ground under pressure. The porous rock acts as a filtration system for the water. Chapter 8 ¢ Water Supply Distribution Systems 301 Pumping Station Distribution System Control Figure 8.2 The various components in a water supply distribution system work together to connect end users with a municipality’s water supply. A final source of water is the ocean. Water from the ocean is 220 times saltier than freshwater. Besides the salt, ocean water contains other impurities that must be removed to make the water potable for humans and useful for agricultural use. Regardless of the source, water must be moved from the initial source to the point it is processed for use. The piping system used for this transportation is the same as that used in the distribution system. Treatment or Processing Facilities Before it can be used, most water must be processed to remove impurities and minerals that can be harmful to humans, animals, and plants. Most communities operate water treatment plants, and those cities that depend on ocean water operate desalination plants. Once water has been used in most municipalities, it enters sanitary sewer systems that take it to another type of purification plant that removes human waste and impurities before pumping it back into rivers, lakes, and oceans. Water treatment plants use filtration systems to remove algae, fungi, viruses, bacteria, chemicals, and minerals from the water. Many municipalities in North America add fluorides to the water to help in the fight against tooth decay. Other treatments are used to soften water by removing hard minerals. 302 Chapter 8 « Water Supply Distribution Systems Means of Moving Water Three methods for moving water through the system are gravity, direct pumping, and a combination system using both direct pumping and gravity. A gravity system delivers water from the source or the treatment plant to the distribution system without pumping equipment (Figure 8.3). The difference in the height of the water source and the point ofuse creates elevation pressure (also known as elevation head pressure). The elevation pressure forces the water throughout the water distribution system. When elevation pressure cannot provide sufficient pressure to meet the needs of the community, a pump is placed near the water source or treatment plant to create the pressure within the distribution system. This system for moving water is called a direct pumping system (Figure 8.4). Most communities use combination systems that consist of both gravity tanks and the direct pumping process to provide adequate pressure. Water is pumped into the distribution system and elevated storage tanks (that provide gravitational pressure). Figure 8.3 A gravity water When the consumption demand is greater than the rate at which the water __ tank should be at a higher is pumped, water flows from the storage tanks into the distribution system. _ ¢!evation than its distribution . : . Conversely, when demand is less, water is pumped into the storage tanks. Distribution Systems area to ensure proper elevation BES pressure for moving water through the distribution system. The distribution system consists of a network of pipes, storage tanks, control valves, and hydrants throughout the community or service area that carry the water under pressure to the points of use. Each of these system components is described in the sections that follow. Piping The distribution system receives the water from the pumping station/treatment facility and delivers it throughout the area to be served. Fire hydrants, gate valves, elevated storage, and reservoirs are supplementary parts of the Figure 8.4 Water pumping stations provide the additional water pressure necessary when elevation pressure is insufficient to provide necessary pressure to a distribution system. Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems 303 the interlocking distribution system. The term grid or gridiron describes system. A water network of water mains that compose a water distribution y referred to distribution system consists of three types of water mains loosel as follows (Figure 8.5): with relatively e Primary feeders — Large pipes, also knownas arterial mains, water to variof ies widespread spacing. These mains convey large quantit ous points in the distribution system and supply smaller secondary feeder mains. Arterial mains can be very large, beginning at 16 inches (400 mm) and extending to 72 inches (1 825 mm) in diameter or greater. Fire hydrants Water Main — Principal pipe in a system of pipes for conveying water, especially one installed underground are rarely attached directly to these mains. e Secondary feeders — Intermediate pipes that interconnect with the primary feeder lines to create a grid. They are 12 to 14 inches (300 mm to 350 mm) in diameter. Each secondary feeder can be isolated by control valves. e Distributors — Small water mains, 6 to 8 inches (150 to 200 mm) in diameter, that serve individual fire hydrants and commercial and residential consumers. Distributors may form an intermediate grid between secondary feeders or may be dead-end lines with the hydrant or supplied property at the end ofthe line. Water distribution systems are generally designed using computer programs and hydraulic calculations that ensure constant pressure and quantity throughout the system. The grid or loop system is designed to provide constant pressure or flow when pipes or the grid must be repaired. Another advantage of the grid system is that high demand in one area does not reduce water flow Water Distribution System Figure 8.5 This illustration shows how the various feeders and distributors in a water distribution system work together. PBA eeder 16-inch pipe . . (400 mm) 304 Chapter 8 ¢ Water Supply Distribution Systems Secondary Distributors Feeder 12-inch pipe Hydrant 8-inch pi (200 mm) >< (300 mm) pe valve in other areas. Dead-end lines may exist but have disadvantages such as allowing water to stagnate in the pipes, requiring constant flushing, and causing services to be turned off when pipes are repaired. The ability to deliver adequate quantities of water under pressure depends on the capacity of the system’s network of pipes. Today, 8-inch (200 mm) pipe is often the minimum size used, although some communities are allowing 6-inch (150 mm) pipes in residential subdivisions. Access to the water supply system is made through connections to the piping system. These connections may be through water-flow control valves and flowmeters at the point that customers gain water from the system or through fire hydrants that are used for fire protection. Storage Tanks To ensure constant pressure, water distribution systems may have elevated storage tanks located throughout the system. These tanks create pressure on the system through gravity. Elevated storage reservoirs are usually constructed of steel or concrete. These tanks may be located on high towers or at ground level on hilltops. The higher the tank, the more elevation head pressure that is generated. These tanks can hold large quantities of water, sometimes in excess of over a million gallons (greater than 4 000 000 L) (Figure 8.6). Figure 8.6 Steel water storage tanks are usually located on hilltops because the higher elevation generates more head Control Valves Control valves are located throughout the water distribution system. The valves are used to interrupt the flow of water to individual hydrants or properties, to sections ofdistribution lines, secondary feeders, and primary feeders; and to the entire system. Control valves are generally located on the small line at the point where it attaches to the large line. Valves should be exercised at least once a year to ensure that they are in good working condition. This test is commonly performed on public water systems by municipal water department employees. Control-valve spacing is usually planned so that if it is necessary to close a valve, a minimum length of the water distribution system will be out of service. Valves are usually closed to initiate repairs to the system or isolate a be break in the water main. The maximum lengths for valve spacing should Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems 305 m) in other areas as 500 feet (150 m) in high-value districts and 800 feet (240 iary of the Insurance recommended by Commercial Risk Services, Inc., a subsid help insurance Services Office (ISO) that conducts property-rating surveys to companies develop accurate premiums. Control valves for water distribution systems are broadly divided into invalve dicating and nonindicating types (Figures 8.7 a and b). An indicating Valves closed. y shows whether the gate valve seat is open, closed, or partiall in private fire-protection systems are usually of the indicating type. Two common indicator valves are the post indicator valve (PIV) and the outside stem and yoke (OS&Y) valve. These valves are described in Chapter 9, Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems, in the Automatic Sprinkler Systems section. The nonindicating control valve has no means for visibly determining if the valve is open or closed. Valves in public water systems are usually the nonindicating type and located underground. In treatment plants and pump stations, control valves are located aboveground and may be ofthe indicating type. Public control valves are accessed through covers located in or near the street. If a buried valve is properly installed, the valve is operated through a valve box bya special valve key (Figure 8.8). This valve key may be carried on fire apparatus but is more commonly kept by water department representatives. Figure 8.8 Nonindicating valves in public water systems are usually located underground and are operated through a valve box activated with special valve key like the one shown. Figures 8.7 a and b Control valves are used to interrupt the flow in a water distribution system and can be typically found in (a) indicating and (b) nonindicating varieties. Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems Control valves may be gate valves or butterfly valves. A gate valve is usually the nonrising stem type. As the valve nut is turned, the gate either rises or lowers to control the water flow. A butterfly valve usually has a rubber or rubber-composition seat that is bonded to the valve body. The valve disk rotates 90 degrees to open or close the valve. Gate Valve — Control valve with a solid plate operated by a handle and screw mechanism; rotating the handle moves the plate into or out of the waterway Inspectors should be aware of the consequences of stuck or partially closed valves. If a valve is only partially closed, it would not be noticed during normal water usage. However, high friction loss would reduce the quantity of water available for water-based fire-suppression systems or fire-suppression operations. Accurate and routine inspections can locate partially closed valves before they pose a problem during fire-suppression Butterfly Valve — Control valve that uses a flat circular plate in a pipe that rotates 90 degrees across the cross section of the pipe to control the flow of water operations. Control valves are also located between public water supply distribution systems and private water supply distribution systems. In addition to the water-flow control valve, a water flowmeter and a backflow preventer will be installed on the water supply line. The water flowmeter determines the quantity of water that the facility is using for billing purposes. The backflow preventer prohibits water that may be contaminated from flowing into the public water system. Fire Hydrants The locally adopted building or fire code determines the type and location of fire hydrants on the system. The two main types of modern fire hydrants are described as follows: 1. Dry-barrel — Designed for use in climates that have freezing temperatures; therefore, the control valve is on the distribution line located below the frost line (Figure 8.9, p. 308). The stem nut used to open and close the control valve is located on top of the hydrant. Water is only allowed into the hydrant when the stem nut is operated. Any water remaining ina closed dry-barrel hydrant drains through a small drain valve that opens at the bottom of the hydrant when the main valve approaches a closed position. A hydrant wrench is used to open the valve by turning the stem in a counterclockwise direction or to close it by turning the stem in a clockwise direction. 2. Wet-barrel — Designed to have water in the hydrant at all times. Compression valves are usually at each outlet, but there may be another control valve in the top of the hydrant to control the water flow to all outlets (Figure 8.10, p. 308). This hydrant type features the valve at the hose outlet and is used in mild climates where temperatures remain above freezing. Advantage/ Disadvantage: — Advantage: All working parts are located above grade level making for easier maintenance. Disadvantage: Cannot be used in climates that are susceptible to freezing temperatures. The number of hydrants and the spacing between hydrants is determined protected. by the fire flow requirements for the types of occupancies being See Appendix D for a sample ofthe spacing requirements. — Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems 307 Dry-Barrel Hydrant Wet-Barrel Hydrant Pi ed | | o Stem Nut Operating Stem Hose Outlet and Valve Seat Operating Stem Figure 8.9 In order to prevent water from freezing inside the hydrant, dry-barrel hydrants do not have water inside them unless water is flowing. Pre onahenige ric Aa outlet that is 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter or larger Figure 8.10 Wet-barrel hydrants have water under pressure inside them at all times. Regardless of the location, design, or type, hydrant discharge outlets are considered standard if they contain the following two components: 1. Atleast one large (4 or 4% inches [100 mm or 115 mm]) outlet often referred to as the pumper outlet nozzle or steamer connection 2. Two hose outlet nozzles for 2%-inch (65 mm) couplings (Figure 8.11) Hydrant specifications require a 5-inch (125 mm) valve opening for standard three-way hydrants and a 6-inch (150 mm) connection to the water main. The male threads on all hydrant discharge outlets must conform to those used by the local fire department. The number of threads per inch and the outside diameter of the male thread are regulated by NEPA® 1963, Standarfor d Fire Hose Connections. Hydrant inspections should occur at least twice a year. In some jurisdictions, fire companies are used to perform these inspections. The water department should be notified when hydrant inspections will be conducted and the route that will be taken. 308 Chapter 8 « Water Supply Distribution Systems Records of hydrant inspections and maintenance performed should be maintained (Figure 8.12, p. 310). When accurate observation and testing has been performed and applicable records and reports have been compiled, inspectors can evaluate the operational readiness of a water supply distribution system. The color of fire hydrants is used to designate the ownership of the hydrant and its flow capacity. Generally, municipal hydrants are painted chrome yellow, and privately owned hydrants are painted red. The use ofviolet to designate hydrants with nonpotable water has also been established. Table 8.1 illustrates the colors of the bonnets (tops) and discharge caps on municipal hydrants as required by NFPA® 291, Recommended Practice for Fire Flow Testing and Marking of Hydrants. In most municipalities, maintenance and repair of fire hydrants on the public water distribution system are the responsibilities of the water department or authority. The water department is better equipped than any other agency to do this work. Although the water department may technically be responsible for maintenance, fire departments depend on hydrants being in top operating condition during a fire incident. This need requires the fire department to monitor or, in some instances, perform periodic inspections and flow testing of hydrants and water supply distribution systems. Figure 8.11 Standard fire hydrant discharge outlets must include at least one large outlet and two hose outlets. Private Water Supply Systems In some cases, municipal water supplies may be inadequate or nonexistent. To supplement or replace municipal supplies, private water supply distribution systems may be required. Private water supply systems may consist of the following components (Figure 8.13, p. 311): e Water storage tanks e Rivers e Water reservoirs e Other impounded water sources newating Classification Fire Flow ei Barrel Color Top and Nozzle Cap Colors . 1,500 gpm (5 680 L/min) or greater Class A Hydrants 1,000—1,499 gpm (3 785-— - Pressure 20 psi (140 kPa) 20 psi 5 675 L/min Class B 500-999 gpm (1 900-3 780 L/min) Class C 500 gpm (1 900 L/min) 20 psi (140 kPa) 20 psi or less Based on information given in NEPA® :291, ere and Marking of Hydrants, 2007 Practice for Fire Flow Testing Chapter 8 » Water Supply Distribution Systems 309 HYDRANT RECORD LOCATION HYDRANT NO. POSITION MAKE INSTALLED TURNS TO OPEN SIZE OF LEAD SIZE OF MAIN VALVE IN LEAD TURNS TO OPEN BENCH MARK ELEN; PRESSURE TESTS DATE STATICPRESSURE FLOWPRESSURE GPM DATE STATIC PRESSURE REMARKS RECORD OF MAINTENANCE WORK PERFORMED DATE Flowed Lubricated Cap Gasket Replaced Bonnet Gasket Replaced Valve Leather Replaced Drain Valve Replaced Cap Replaced Lead Valve Operated Painted Raised Moved Figure 8.12 A hydrant record is used to record maintenance and inspections of fire hydrants. 310 Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems FLOW PRESSURE GPM Elements of a Priv te Water Supply System fe Monitor fire Figure 8.13 Private water supply systems can be used to supplement or replace municipal water supply systems for protection. e Feeder mains e Valves e Monitors e Fittings e Hydrants Private water supply systems may be encountered by an inspector when performing site inspections or plans review for new construction. An inspecion tor may also be required to determine that private water supply distribut ed. systems have been properly tested, inspected, and maintain water Inspectors must be familiar with the basic principles of any private water Private tions. jurisdic supply distribution systems that are within their ial, commerc large supply distribution systems are most commonly found on large building industrial, or institutional properties. They may service one water supply or a series of buildings on the complex. In general, the private purposes: distribution system exists for one ofthe three following e Provide water strictly for fire-protection purposes es e Provide water for sanitary and fire-protection purpos ing processes e Provide water for fire-protection and manufactur Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems 311 to The design ofprivate water supply distribution systems is typically similar y, that of the municipal distribution systems described earlier. Most commonl private water supply distribution systems receive their water from a municipal water supply distribution system. In some cases, the private system may have its own water supply source independent of the municipal water distribution system such as a well, impounded water supply, or river. Some facilities may be served by two sources of water supply for fire protection: one from the municipal system and another from a private source. In many cases, the private source of water for fire protection provides nonpotable (not for drinking) water. When this situation is the case, adequate measures must be taken to prevent contamination caused by the backflow of nonpotable water into the municipal water supply distribution system. A variety of backflow prevention measures can be employed to avoid this problem. Some jurisdictions do not allow the interconnection ofpotable and nonpotable water supply systems, which means that the protected property is required to maintain two completely separate distribution systems. Almost all private water supply distribution systems maintain separate piping for fire protection and domestic or industrial services. This separation is in distinct contrast to most municipal water supply distribution systems in which fire hydrants are connected to the same mains that supply water for domestic or industrial use. Separate distribution systems are cost-prohibitive for most municipal applications but are economically practical in many private applications. There are anumber of advantages to having separate piping arrangements in a private water supply distribution system. The property owner has control over the water supply source, and neither system (fire-protection or domestic/industrial services) is affected by service interruptions to the other system. Inspectors must be familiar with the design and reliability of private water supply distribution systems in their jurisdictions. Large, well-maintained distribution systems may provide a reliable source ofwater for fire-protection purposes. Small capacity, poorly maintained, or otherwise questionable private water supply distribution systems should not be relied upon to provide all the water necessary for adequate fire protection. Historically, many significant fire losses can be traced, at least in part, to the failure of a private water supply distribution system that was being used by municipal fire departments working an incident. Problems such as the discontinuation of electrical service to a facility whose fire-protection system is supplied by electrically driven fire pumps have resulted in disastrous losses. Water Sources On-site water sources may include water reservoirs (impounded water), suction tanks, pressure tanks, or gravity tanks. These sources may be independent of a public water distribution system or supplementary to it. Reservoirs A reservoir may be an open lake or pond or an enclosed structu re similar to a tank. Water may originate from the lake, pond, or well and be pumped into the reservoir (Figure 8.14). To protect the fire-protection system, the water needs to be filtered to remove any imperfections. 312 Chapter 8 Water Supply Distribution Systems Suction Tanks Suction tanks are located at ground level and provide a water supply source for pressure-increasing fire pumps. Tank capacities are usually 100,000 to 300,000 gallons (400 000 L to 1 200 000 L), but capacities of 5,000 to 1,000,000 gallons (20 000 L to 4 000 000 L) may be found, depending on the water supply requirements ofthe facility. Pressure Tanks Pressure tanks are used for limited private fire-protection services. They contain water under air pressure that is released when the system requires it. Pressure tanks should be provided with low/high water-level and air-pressure supervision gauges or devices (Figure 8.15). Pressure tanks usually range in size from 3,000 to 9,000 gallons (12 000 L to 36 000 L). Figure 8.14 Pumping stations facilitate the movement of water from a natural source such as a lake into a reservoir. Pressure Tank System Facility FireProtection is ==— System Water Storage Tank Figure 8.15 Air pressure moves water from the storage tank through the facility fire-protection system. Air Compressor Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems 313 Gravity Tanks public and Gravity tanks are used to stabilize or balance the pressures on both elevated are They . demand peak private water distribution systems at times of above the point of demand, either on a tower, top ofa structure, or high terrain (Figure 8.16). As long as the pumps supplying a system can keep up with the demand, the water in the tanks will not be used. However, once the demand upona system becomes so great that the pumps cannot keep up, the system pressure will begin to drop. When the pressure drops to a point where it cannot keep the tank full, the tank will begin to add water to the system. The existence of elevated storage tanks becomes an important fire-protection feature during peak demand periods such as when there is a major fire in the community. It was very common for industrial plants to have private, elevated tanks on site as backup water supplies. However, several problems are associated with providing fire-protection water supplies from elevated tanks. The most important of those is the limitation of pressure available from an elevated tank. A tank has to be 100 feet (30 m) high to generate a pressure of only 43 psi (301 kPa). This pressure is not adequate to meet many modern fire-protection system requirements. For example, early suppression fast response (ESFR) sprinklers used for warehouse protection require at least 50 psi (350 kPa) at the most hydraulically demanding sprinkler. System demands for other high-challenge occupancies would also require tanks to be of impractical heights to provide adequate pressure. For this reason, it makes more sense to use ground-level storage and a fire pump for the water supply redundancy required at many highly protected facilities. water at elevated pressure and Figure 8.16 Water towers store Gravity tank capacities range from 5,000 to 500,000 gallons (20 000 Lto 2 000 000 L). Itis only necessary to keep the tanks full and the valves open are used when pumps supplying to ensure that water will flow when needed. Gravity tanks require consid- a water distribution system can erable maintenance and often require protection against freezing. no longer maintain the demand. Piping, Valves, and Fire Hydrants Private fire-protection system piping, valves, and fire hydrants are located on private property and maintained by the property owner (Figure 8.17). Generally, these components are the same as the ones found on public water supply distribution systems. The only difference may be the hydrant color markings or outlet capacities of the hydrants. Trained facility employees are responsible for exercising the system control valves annually to ensure proper operations. Hose Houses and Monitors Hose houses and monitors may be found in many industrial settings as well as flammable liquid storage facilities. Hose houses are small structures that contain standpipe connections and large hoselines preconnected to the discharge outlet. Ifthe buildings are subject to freezing, heat may be required or the hose may need to be connected to a dry-barrel hydrant. Monitors are permanently fixed nozzles that can be directed ata potential hazard. Some types are manually operated while others may be automati cally operated. Monitors are used in refineries and some aircraft mainten ance hangars (Figure 8.18). 314 Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems Figure 8.17 Some homes have private fire hydrants on-site that may feature different color-coding systems than municipal hydrants. They are maintained by the property owner. GO Water Supply Analyses Inspectors assigned to the fire inspections division, the building department, or the water department may be assigned the task of analyzing the water supply for the municipality or service area. This analysis may be performed periodically, when the water distribution system is altered or expanded or when applications are made for new construction. Inspectors may also be required to witness the testing of private water supply distribution systems or review fire-protection system documents based on these tests. Figure 8.18 Monitors are permanently fixed nozzles. The monitor shown is located in an aircraft hangar for operation underneath wings. Fire Flow vs. Water Flow The terms fire flow and water flow are often used interchangeably. Although they mean the same, the term fire flow is the most accurate when discussing the quantity of water available for fire-suppression operations. Its definition is the flow rate of a water supply, measured at 20 pounds per square inch (psi) (140 kPa) residual pressure, which is available for for fire-suppression operations. It is stated in gallons per minute (L/min) each occupancy or hazard. on of waterBecause an adequate water supply is essential to the operati the water analyze to ors based fire-suppression systems, the ability of inspect testing of hydrants supply is critical. That analysis may involve the actual flow d by the muon the water distribution system or the review of data provide tests include the nicipal water department or water supply provider. Fire-flow is flowing) and residual actual measurement ofstatic (pressure when no water ) pressures and (remaining pressure at the test hydrant when water is flowing available water from these the formulas and calculations used to determine Residual Pressure — Pressure remaining at a given point ina water supply system while water is flowing Static Pressure — Pressure at a given point in a water system when no water is flowing tests (Figure 8.19, p. 316). Chapter 8 Water Supply Distribution Systems 315 Figure 8.19 An inspector measures static and residual pressures to determine the amount of water available for fire protection. Fire-flow tests are made to determine the rate offire flow available for fire suppression at various locations within the distribution system. An inspector should remember, however, that hydrant pressure varies between periods of peak demand and minimal demand. Calculations or graphical analyses from fire-flow tests provide the following important information: Amount ofwater flow from individual hydrants Water-flow pressures Gallons (liters) available at any pressure Pressure available across a wide range offlows Knowing the capacity of a water distribution system is essential when fire companies prepare preincident plans. Fire officers familiar with fire-flow test results are better qualified to locate pumpers at advantageous positions at high-flow hydrants during fire emergencies while avoiding low-flow hydrants. At the same time, test results may indicate weak points in a water distribution system. This information can be used by water department personnel to plan improvements in an existing system and design extensions to newly developed areas. Tests that are repeated at the same locations semiannually may reveala loss in the carrying capacity of water mains and a need for improving certain arterial mains. Flow tests should be conducted after any extensive water main improvements, following the construction of water line extensions, or at least every 5 years on existing portions ofthe distribution system. Fire hydrants that are on a private water supply distribution system are the responsibility of the property owner or water purveyor. However, inspecto rs should still witness water supply testing on private systems to ensure that they are adequate for fire-suppression operations. 316 Chapter 8 ¢ Water Supply Distribution Systems Fire department officials need to be sensitive to the fact that water flowed from private hydrants may be metered by the municipal water department. If extensive testing is conducted, increased water usage will be charged to the owner. It is often the responsibility of the fire department to pay for the water that is used when testing private water supplies. To perform fire-flow tests and analyze the results, an inspector must be familiar with the following factors and skills. e Operate a pitot tube and gauge (instrument used to determine the fire flow from a hydrant). e Calculate how much water is flowing from a hydrant. e Determine the residual pressure required for the water distribution system when water is flowing from the system. e Perform the test, adhere to test precautions, determine possible obstructions in the system, and analyze the results based on computations. Fire hydrant inspections are generally performed on an annual basis to monitor the physical condition of all hydrants in the response area. Inspections may also be performed as part ofthe fire-flow tests. Fire Hydrant Inspections Before beginning fire-flow tests, hydrants should be inspected. In addition, periodic inspections of all fire hydrants in the service area may be required. These inspections may be performed by inspectors or by emergency response companies as part of their normal duties. The materials needed to complete the inspection of fire hydrants include the following: e Notebook e Gauging device for checking discharge outlet threads (a female coupling for the various discharge outlet sizes may be used) e Can oflubrication oil e Pot with a mixture oflight lubrication oil and graphite e Small, flat brush e@ Gate valve key e Pressure gauge and a tapped hydrant cap (Figure 8.20) e Pitot tube and gauge for pressures up to 200 psi (1 400 kPa) @ 12-quart (11 L) or larger pail e Hydrant wrench e Water stream defuser Figure 8.20 A pressure gauge for testing hydrant flow isone piece of equipment that is necessary to accurately test fire hydrants. Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems 317 observe the folWhen hydrant inspections are made, inspectors should lowing conditions: shrubbery, e Obstructions near the hydrant such as sign posts, utility poles, or fences (Figure 8.21a) direce Direction ofthe hydrant outlet(s) to ensure that they face the proper tion and that there is clearance between the outlet and surrounding ground rge (Figure 8.21b); the clearance between the bottom of the butt (discha outlet) and the grade should be at least 15 inches (380 mm) e Mechanical damage to the hydrant such as dented outlets or rounded (stripped) stem nuts (Figure 8.21c) © Condition of the paint for rust or corrosion; ensure that the discharge outlet caps are not painted shut e Water flow — have the hydrant fully open e Dry-barrel hydrant drains once the stem valve is closed Figure 8.21a Obstructed hydrants are difficult for responding firefighters to access and use. Inspectors must note and enforce correction of obstructed hydrants. Figure 8.21c Inspections of fire hydrants should include records about the condition of all hydrants. 318 Chapter 8 * Water Supply Distribution Systems Figure 8.21b Inspectors should ensure that hydrants are easily accessible and not hidden by overgrowth. Pitot Tube and Gauge An inspector must be familiar with the use of a pitot tube and gauge for determining hydrant flow rates (Figure 8.22). Using a pitot tube and gauge to take a flow reading is not difficult, but it must be done properly to obtain accurate readings. The procedure for using a pitot tube and gauge is as follows: Step 1: Open the petcock (small faucet or valve used to control the flow of liquids) on the pitot tube and ensure that the air chamber is drained. Then close the petcock. Step 2: Edge the blade into the stream with the small opening or point centered in the stream and held away from the hydrant butt or nozzle the diameter of the opening. For a 24-inch approximately one-half (65 mm) hydrant butt, this distance is 1% inches (32 mm). The pitot tube blade should now be parallel to the outlet opening with the air chamber kept above the horizontal plane passing through the center ofthe stream. This position increases the efficiency of the air chamber and helps avoid needle fluctuations. Step 3: Read the velocity pressure reading from the gauge. If the needle is fluctuating, read and record the value located in the center between the high and low extremes. Step 4: After the test is completed, open the petcock and be certain that all water drains from the assembly before storing it. A good method of holding a pitot tube and gauge in relation to a hydrant outlet or nozzle is shown in Figure 8.23. Note that the pitot tubeisgrasped just behind the blade with the first two fingers and thumb of the left hand, while the right hand holds the air chamber. The little finger of the left hand rests upon the hydrant outlet or nozzle tip to steady the instrument. Unless some effort is made to steady the pitot tube, the movement of the water will make it difficult to get an accurate reading. Another method of holding the pitot tube is illustrated in Figure 8.24a, p. 320. The left-hand fingers are split around the gauge outlet, and the left side of the fist is placed on the edge ofthe hydrant orifice or outlet. The blade can then be sliced into the stream in a counterclockwise direction (Figure 8.24b, p- 320). The right hand once again steadies the air chamber. Figure 8.22 Using a pitot tube and gauge for determining hydrant flow rates is a skill that all inspectors must learn and be able to perform. Figure 8.23 This inspector is demonstrating the proper method for using a pitot tube and gauge to measure flow at a hydrant. Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems 319 Figure 8.24a This photo shows an alternative method for holding a pitot tube and gauge when testing hydrants. Figure 8.24b With the pitot tube and gauge stabilized against the hydrant with his left hand, this inspector uses a counterclockwise motion to slice the blade into the water stream with his right hand. Fire-Flow Test Computations The easiest way to determine how much water is flowing from a hydrant outlet(s) is to refer to prepared tables for nozzle/outlet discharge. Jurisdictions may choose to develop their own tables based on the flow pressures that are common to their area. These tables are computed by using the following flow formulas (both Customary System and International System ofUnits): Gallons per minute (gpm) = (29.83) x Cx d? x yP (1) Liters per minute (L/min) = (0.0667766) x C, x d? x yP (2) In SI Where: C= Coefficient of discharge d= Actual diameter ofthe hydrant or nozzle orifice in inches (mm) P = Pressure in psi (kPa) as read at the orifice The constant 29.83 (0.0667766) is derived from the physical laws relating water velocity, pressure, and conversion factors that conveniently leave the answer in gallons per minute (L/min). This formula was derived by assigning 320 Chapter 8 ¢ Water Supply Distribution Systems a coefficient of 1.0 for an ideal frictionless discharge orifice. An actual hydrant orifice or nozzle will have a Three Common Types of Hydrant Outlets lower coefficient of discharge, reflecting friction factors that slow the velocity of flow. The coefficient will vary with the type of hydrant outlet or nozzle used. When using a hydrant orifice, the operator will have to feel the inside contour ofthe hydrant to determine which one ofthe three types of hydrant outlets is being used (Figure 8.25). When a nozzle is used, the coefficient of discharge depends on the type of nozzle. Refer to the manufacturer’s recommenda-_ tions for determining the coefficient of discharge for Figure 8.25 The contour of the hydrant outlet affects the coefficient of friction used in hydraulic calculations. a specific nozzle. The flow formulas also depend on the actual internal diameter of the outlet or nozzle opening being used. A ruler with a scale that measures to at least 1/16" of an inch (1.5 mm) should be used to measure the diameter of the outlet or nozzle opening. Assuming a 24-inch (65 mm) hydrant outlet that has an actual diameter of 2 7/16 inches (2.44 inches [62 mm]) with a C factor of 0.80 and a flow pressure of 10 psi (69 kPa) read from the pitot gauge is used, the water-flow equation would read as follows: Cite 29 Oo Oday EL gpm = 29.83 x 0.80 x (2.44) x y10 gpm = 449.28 or = 450 in SI L/min = 0.0667766 x Cx d° x VP L/min = 0.0667766 x 0.80 x (62)? x V69 L/min = 1 705.78 or = 1 700 Generally, 22-inch (65 mm) outlets should be used to conduct hydrant-flow tests because the stream from a large hydrant outlet (4 to 4!/2 inches [100 mm to 115 mm]) contains voids; that is, the entire stream of water is not solid. For this reason, the listed formula alone will not give accurate results for flows using large outlets. If it is necessary to use the large outlets, a correction factor can be used to give more accurate results. The flow (as determined by Formulas 1 or 2 given previously) should be multiplied by one of the factors shown in Table 8.2, p. 322, corresponding to the velocity pressure measured by the pitot tube and gauge. Example 1: Water-Flow Calculation A flow of 6 psi (41.4 kPa) through a 4-inch (100 mm) outlet is 1,050 gpm (3 974.68 L/min). However, tests have shown that only 84 percent of this ly, quantity is actually flowing due to voids in the water stream. According actual flow is 1,050 x 0.84 = 882 gpm In SI ; 3 974.68 x 0.84 = 3 338.7 L/min Chapter 8 ¢ Water Supply Distribution Systems 321 Sjabie8 2 Correction Factors for Large Diameter Outlets — Velocity Pressure Factor 2 psi (13.8 kPa) 0.97 3 psi (20.7 kPa) 0.92 4 psi (27.6 kPa) 0.89 5 psi (34.5 kPa) 0.86 6 psi (41.4 kPa) 0.84 7 psi (48.3 kPa) or over 0.83 These formulas allow the computation oftotal flow from the flowing hydrants when performing an area fire-flow test. They also indicate the flow from the hydrant only at the time of the test. High-risk areas or locations with large, daily fluctuations in demand may necessitate multiple tests to determine the minimum flow available there. Required Residual Pressure As aresult of experience and water system analyses, fire-protection engineers have established 20 psi (140 kPa) as the minimum required residual pressure when computing the available water for area flow-test results. This residual pressure can be defined as enough pressure to overcome friction inside any one ofthe following: e Short 6-inch (150 mm) branch pipe e Hydrant e Apparatus intake hose Cavitation — Condition in which vacuum pockets form due to localized regions of low pressure at the vanes in the impeller of a centrifugal pump and cause vibration, loss of efficiency, and possible damage to the impeller Test Hydrant — Fire hydrant used during a fire-flow test to read the static and residual pressures Flow Hydrant — Fire hydrant from which the water is discharged during a hydrant fire-flow test 322 Residual pressure must also allow a safety factor to compensate for gauge error. Many state health departments as well as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) require this 20 psi (140 kPa) minimum to prevent external ground (surface) water or other contaminants and pollutants from being drawn into the distribution system at pipe connection points. Pressure differentials can collapse a water main or create cavitation (implosion of air pockets drawn into fire pumps connected to the system). More frequently, a fire apparatus operating at a low system pressure may be drawing the entire capacity of the system at a location. Should a discharge valve be turned off too quickly, a water hammer (sudden surge in pressure) will be generated, which may be transferred to the water main, resulting in damaged or broken mains, connections, or other system components. Fire-Flow Test Procedures During a fire-flow test, the static pressure and the residual pressure should be taken from a fire hydrant (commonly called the test hydrant) as close as possible to the location requiring the test results. The flow hydrants are those hydrants where pitot gauge readings are taken to find their individual flows. These readings are then added to find the total flow during the test. Chapter 8 « Water Supply Distribution Systems In general, the test hydrant should be between the flow hydrant and the water supply source when flow-testing a single hydrant. In other words, the flow hydrant should be downstream from the test hydrant (Figures 8.26 a and b). The actual direction of flow in the system is extremely difficult to determine. Water department personnel should be consulted for assistance. When flow-testing multiple hydrants, the test hydrant should be centrally located relative to the flow hydrants. NOTE: Water is actually never discharged from a test hydrant; rather, a pressure gauge cap is placed on the discharge and the hydrant is opened fully. The procedure for conducting an available water test is as follows: Step 1: Locate personnel at the test hydrant and all flow hydrants to be used. Step 2: Removea hydrant cap from the test hydrant and attach the pressure gauge cap with the petcock in the open position. After checking the other caps for tightness, slowly open the hydrant by turning the operating nut several turns. Once the air has escaped and a steady stream ofwater is flowing, close the petcock, and fully open the hydrant (Figure 8.27, p. 324). Step 3: Read and record the static pressure as seen on the pressure gauge. Step 4: Removes the cap(s) from the outlet(s) on the flow hydrants. Check and record the hydrant coefficient and the actual inside diameter of the orifice when using a hydrant outlet. If a nozzle is placed on the outlet, check and record its coefficient and the diameter of the nozzle orifice. Step 5: Open flow hydrants as necessary and read and record the pitot gauge reading ofthe velocity pressures (Figure 8.28, p. 324). The individual at the test hydrant reads and the second individul records the residual Test Site: Hydrant on a Loop Test Site: Hydrant on a Dead-end Line | | 8-inch (200 mm) | Water Line Building Building | 6-inch (150 mm) | Water Line | || 12-inch (300 mm) he ete Hydrant Co Hydrant J |}| Hydrant Hydrant 8-inch (200 mm pee Oe 12-inch ane (300 mm mm)— ||| Main E Water Line of the hydrant in the water supply system. Figures 8.26 a and b The test method that is selected depends on the location am from the test hydrant. (b) Ona downstre located is hydrant (a) When the hydrant is on a dead-end system, the flow it is downstream from the larger example, this In flow. the of direction the in looped system, the flow hydrant is located water main and toward the smaller main. Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems 323 Figure 8.27 When a pressure gauge cap is attached and the petcock is in the open position, water will flow freely through the cap and its flow will be designated on the accompanying gauge. Figure 8.28 After flow has been established at a hydrant, an inspector should record the hydrant pressure as read to him from the gauge. pressure. NOTE: The residual pressure should not drop below 20 psi (140 kPa) during the test; if it does, the number of flow hydrants must be reduced. Normal Operating Pressure — Amount of pressure that is expected to be available from a hydrant, prior to pumping Step 6: Slowly close the flow hydrant to prevent water hammer in the water mains. After checking for proper drainage, replace and secure all hydrant caps. Report any hydrant defects. Step 7: Check the pressure gauge on the test hydrant for a return to normal operating pressure, then close the hydrant. Open the petcock valve to prevent a vacuum on the pressure gauge. Remove the pressure gauge cap. After checking for proper drainage, replace and secure the hydrant cap. Report any hydrant defects. When testing the available water supply, determining the number of hydrants to be opened depends on an estimate ofthe flow available in the area. For example, a very strong probable flow may require that several hydrants be opened to ensure accurate test results. Enough hydrants should be opened to drop the static pressure by at least 10 percent. If more accurate results are required, the pressure drop should be increased to 25 percent. For example, if the static pressure is 80 psi (560 kPa), the residual pressure should than be at least 72 psi (504 kPa). For more accurate results, the residual pressure may be dropped 25 percent, which would be to 60 psi (420 kPa). The flow available at 20 psi (140 kPa) can then be determined by graphical analysis or mathematical calculations. Water mains may contain such low pressures that no flow pressure can be read on the pitot gauge. If this situation occurs, the flow orifice must be reduced by using a straight stream nozzle with tips smaller than 2% inches (65 mm). The nozzle is placed on the hydrant outlet to increase the flow velocity to a point where the velocity pressure is measurable with the pitot gauge (Figure 8.29). Using these straight stream nozzles will require an adjustment in the water-flow calculation that must include the smaller nozzle diameter and corrected coefficient offriction for the nozzle tip. 324 Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems Figure 8.29 When hydrant pressure is lower than what can be properly measured using a pitot tube, nozzles like this one can be attached to the hydrant to increase the flow to measurable levels. Flow tests are sometimes conducted in areas very close to the base of an elevated water storage tank. This proximity to a storage tank can result in flows that are quite large in gallons per minute (L/min). Such large flows can only be sustained as long as there is sufficient water in the elevated tank. It is advisable to conduct an additional flow test with the storage tank closed to determine the quantity of water available when the storage has been depleted. Testing with the tank closed is extremely important when the elevated tank has been designed to boost the local water system pressure only during normal daily usage demands, not under fire-flow conditions. Inspectors must take precautions when performing fire-flow tests to ensure their own safety and that of the public. At the same time, inspectors must be familiar with the various types and causes of obstructions in the water distribution system. Precautions Certain precautions must be taken before, during, and after flow tests to avoid injuries to those participating in the test or to passersby. Efforts must also be made to minimize damage to public and private property from the water discharge. Both pedestrian and vehicular traffic must be controlled during all phases ofthe testing, which may require assistance from local law enforcement personnel. It may also be advisable to conduct flow tests in busy areas at nonpeak hours such as very early in the morning. Before conducting a flow test, an inspector should notify a water department official because the opening of hydrants may upset the normal operating conditions in the water supply system. Notification is also important because water service personnel may be performing maintenance work in the immefor diate vicinity. Therefore, the results of the flow test would not be typical normal conditions. before Additionally, residents and businesses in the area should be notified conducting these tests in order to reduce the number of false reports of poswill sible water main breaks. The implementation of a notification process nt, also promote a positive working relationship between the fire departme water department, and the public. Chapter 8 ¢ Water Supply Distribution Systems 325 hydrant testing, Safety measures and activities should be taken during including the following: e Wear the following protective equipment: — Helmet — Gloves — Eye protection — Reflective safety vests e Erect traffic safety signs on busy streets (Figure 8.30). e Tighten caps on hydrant outlets that are not being used. e Do not stand in front of closed caps. @ Do not lean over the top of a hydrant when operating it. e Do not flow water during freezing weather. Property damage control measures include the following: e Open and close hydrants slowly to avoid water hammer. e Do not flow hydrants where drainage is inadequate. e Check downstream to see where the water will flow. Because flowing water across a busy street could cause an accident, take proper measures beforehand to slow or stop traffic. A good rule to follow is When in doubt, do not flow! If there are difficulties in conducting a flow test, consider solutions so that the test can be completed without disruptions or property destruction. Protect Property! WARNING! Do not leave deep Always protect property from possible damage during a flow test. List any damage that does occur, and prepare a report for the department safety officer. Standing water resulting from a hydrant test unattended in retention basins in locations where children are playing. Wait until the water has been absorbed or drained before leaving the area. Do not allow children to play in runoff water. 2: x a Teper eran a i as oo RRC Figure 8.30 To ensure the safety of drivers and inspectors, traffic Safety cones or signs should be erected on streets and roadways to divert traffic away from flow testing areas. 326 Chapter 8 « Water Supply Distribution Systems Obstructions After several years, fire-flow tests may show a progressive reduction in the water-flow capacity of the distribution system. When this reduction occurs, an investigation usually reveals that the water mains are obstructed in some manner or that system components (including pumps) are worn or leaking. Reduced water flow may be the result of one or more ofthe following obstructions or conditions: e Encrustations — Growths, crusts, tubercular lump corrosion, or rust on the inside walls of water mains, which can form around the entire inside wall of awater main, eventually narrowing the actual diameter ofthe pipe to a point where its capacity is greatly impaired; caused by the following conditions (Figure 8.31): — Chemicals contained in the water — Biological or organism growth — Biodegradation of water agents and pipe materials — Progressive growth of rust deposits of iron pipes — Accumulation ofvarious salts due to oxidation — Biological reactions produced by organisms present in most water supplies e Sedimentation deposits — Sedimentary decay (mud, clay, or leaves), foreign matter other than sediment (stones, tools, wood, or lead), dead organisms, and decayed vegetation found chiefly in the bottom ofawater main, especially in large, low-velocity portions of asystem, and in dead-end idle flow parts of asystem; formed mechanically by a process called precipitation as solids are formed in water due to chemical reactions. @ Malfunctioning valves — Closed or partially closed e Malfunctioning pipes — Leaking or broken pipe section or mains e Malfunctioning pumps — Worn or damaged impellers or pressure adjustments set too low for the demand of the system e Foreign matter other than deposits — Chunks oflead (from ball and spigot joints), boards, crowbars, tool handles, stones, and other materials e Increased friction loss — Combination of encrustation, sedimentation, partially closed or closed valves, and foreign matter Figure 8.31 Encrustations like the tubular corrosion in this pipe fitting can greatly reduce the flow through a pipe. Chapter 8 ¢ Water Supply Distribution Systems 327 Available Fire-Flow Test Results Computations | s and mathematiTwo ways to compute fire-flow test results are graphical analysi s that follow. cal computation. Both methods are discussed in the section Graphical Analysis The fire-flow chart in Figure 8.32 is a logarithmic scale that has been develThe oped to simplify the process of determining available water in an area. chart is accurate to a reasonable degree if one uses a fine-point pencil or pen when plotting results. The figures on the vertical and/or horizontal scales may be multiplied or divided by a constant that may be necessary to fit any situation. The procedure for conducting a graphical analysis is as follows: Step 1: Determine which gpm (L/min) scale should be used. Step 2: Locate and plot the static pressure on the vertical scale at 0 gpm (0 L/min). Step 3: Locate the total water flow measured during the test on the chart. Step 4: Locate the residual pressure noted during the test on the chart. Step 5: Plot the residual pressure above the total water flow measured. Step6: Drawastraightline from the static pressure point through the residual pressure point on the water-flow scale. Step 7: Read the gpm (L/min) available at 20 psi (137 kPa) and record the figure. This reading represents the total available water. The following information boxes give examples of graphical analyses for water-flow tests using one and two outlets. Example calculations are in both Customary System units and International System of Units (SI). Example 2 (U.S.): Flow Test for One Outlet Given: Test Hydrant = 50 psi static and 25 psi residual Flow Hydrant No. 1 = Using one 2%-inch outlet with C = 0.9, pitot gauge reading = 7 psi, and actual discharge diameter = 2.56 inches (29.83) (0.9) (2.56)? (J7) = 466 gpm Flow Hydrant No. 2 = Using one 2%-inch outlet with C = 0.8, pitot gauge reading = 9 psi, and actual discharge diameter = 2.44 inches (29.83) (0.8) (2.44)? (9) = 426 gpm Total Water Flow = 466 + 426 = 892 gom 328 Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems auNSSaud Aysuaniuy B12IS EWOLE|O E86) @ 1Ybukdog BUIOLE/4O 81215 820rL HO “AIEMIINS UOIE}O1q SUONED|IGNd AYSs2AjUN Ppaynpuod yUEIpAY ~ uoneAs|gZ ___-3Ua191JJe0D Ag e414 AA 1a}e MO} }SOL JESABAIUH jenpissy———SO~=~—SstS—SCSQLT' uone907 (001 + @d} = 818q) 329 Chapter 8 ¢ Water Supply Distribution Systems jaays AIeUWILUNS ‘eole Ue Ul JayeEM alqeiieae Buluiwiajap jo ssedoid au) Ayl|dwis 0} pedojansp useq sey yey} ayeos DIWUWeHO] e SmoUs JeeUS AJEWUNS SEL MO|J JAVEMA [ESJOAIUN SIUL ZE"S B4NBI4 a Example 3 (SI): Flow Test for One Outlet Given: Test Hydrant = 345 kPa static and 172 kPa residual pitot gauge Flow Hydrant No. 1 = Using one 65 mm outlet with C = 0.9, mm 66.5 reading = 48 kPa, and actual discharge diameter = (0.0667766) (0.9) (66.5)? (J48) = 1 841 L/min Flow Hydrant No. 2 = Using one 65 mm outlet with C = 0.8, pitot gauge reading = 62 kPa, and actual discharge diameter = 63.5 mm (0.0667766) (0.8) (63.5)? (J62) = 1 691 L/min Total Flow = 1 841 + 1691 = 3 532 L/min Figure 8.33 shows the test results plotted for graphical analysis of the water supply. The static pressure of 50 psi (345 kPa) is plotted at 0 gpm (0 L/min). The residual pressure of 25 psi (172 kPa) is above the total measured flow of 892 gpm (3 376 L/min), Scale A. NOTE: It is important to understand that pitot gauge pressures are never plotted on the graph; only the flow that corresponds to the pitot gauge pressures is used. Aline drawn through the static and residual pressure points now represents the water supply at the test location. It is easy to note that approximately 978 gpm (3 702 L/min) would be available at 20 psi (137 kPa). This figure represents the minimum desired intake pressure. Example 4 (U.S.): Flow Test for Two Outlets Given: Test Hydrant = 90 psi static and 50 psi residual Flow Hydrant = Using two 2¥%-inch outlets with each C = 0.9, pitot gauge reading for each = 17 psi, and actual diameter = 2.56 inches (29.83) (0.9) (2.56)? (/17) = 725 gpm x two outlets = 1,450 gom Example 5 (SI): Flow Test for Two Outlets Given: Test Hydrant = 621 kPa static and 345 kPa residual Flow Hydrant = Using two 65 mm outlets both with C = 0.9, pitot gauge reading for each = 117 kPa, and the actual diameter = 66.5 mm (0.0667766) (0.9) (66.5)? (117) = 2 875 L/min x two outlets = 5 750 L/min 330 Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems = =f= | = (TESEJ =See = —=). =) = = EIA] 0)— |e | Map pa |e ieee Mis wwe a ee ee) mm Ne es +}, @ ee (ELT) fe: |_| Cee eee a ea ed es a | Se SZ oe Cd lenpiseyae po es a 7m a ZEB ; }SsolL MO|-4 ADIEM te +--+ Ine, es ee een Leen | See + Ze 1Ua!NWJa09 Ie ees esgz O0L ae cs ES ape: Enews: ope : ( eesae= Geest aha refee |ay Pe =a |“as 2ames ms ioe Se Fed (ce) Res 1 ieee ei ee za a ee a pea ar bean ae he | vt =+ sige17 = ear Bf ee og ee ogee = eS 1a ze saw =: um Fpte se | it] 6ISL Ayssanluyy ax8iS EWOYE|4O E861 @ 1YBuAdod 8202 HO JAIEMNAS Assemiun a81g EwoYyeNo SUOED||GNd UONIBIOJd O44 + +H SIL Wd Aq payonpuoa | + ah ++ juBIpPAH a | eee + re oe + ee a 4+ +++ Batis eee ++ eaeSat Ea ee alee Seeet Sib 6681 bo-j;# ee ee 005 ILI ke [eis 00s BLzz +} ~ g°0- en eee 6ISt } Pes aes ee ewe Se eres petseae al ate ae dun} "JED ssa uopeooy ——S~S~SOY JESASAIU Nn uonensig a eee | ee —V{N ee aies = 291g osz 62 6elt |e I Chapter 8 * Water Supply Distribution Systems ‘A\ddns 1a}eM au} Jo sisAjeue jeo1ydes6 10) payjojd s}jnseu js9} ay} SMOUS JeeUS AJEWIWNS }S9] MO}} Ja}eM |eSJOAIUA SIU, Ee7g e4nBi4 Asewwins Bb] lea ajeg }V9YS =e 331 changed so that a These examples show that the water-flow scale must be (Figure 8.34). The line can be drawn down to the 20 psi (137 kPa) level, Scale B approximately available water rate at 20 psi (137 kPa) in this case would be 1,970 gpm (7 450 L/min). Mathematical Method the The mathematical method of determining fire flow uses a variation of as written is Hazen-Williams formula for determining available water and follows: Ce Where: (Q,x Te) cs he (3) Q = Flow available at desired residual pressure Q,= Flow during test h_ = Pressure drop to residual pressure (normal operating pressure minus required residual pressure) h, = Pressure drop during test (normal operating pressure minus residual pressure during flow test) The values for h, or hto the 0.54 power are listed in Table 8.3, p. 334. Most scientific calculators allow the user to determine these values without a set of complicated steps and procedures. Using the values from Example 2, in addition to a normal operating pressure of 55 psi: Q,= 892 gpm h_= 55 psi - 20 pst = 35 psi i= 55 PSi 225 Pst = 30 pst Under h at 35: he 226.82. Under h at 30: [i= (6.26 Therefore: Q = (892 x 6.82) + 6.28 Q.= 969 gpm From values in Example 3: Q,= 3532 L/min h = 380 kPa - 138 kPa = 242 h,= 380 kPa - 173 kPa = 207 Under hat 242: he = 19-38 Under hat 207: Se TAG Therefore: Q = (3532 x 19.38) + 17.81 Q =3843 L/min 332 Chapter 8 « Water Supply Distribution Systems Aussaaiup Beis BWUOYRYO C861 @ IyGuAdog 652 ost S137 6LSL 6ELi Wa!oje0o jUeIPAH St Sve $ i, SATPUTy G Aq payonpucg went BL0PZ WO “AIEMIINS Ayssaajun ayers BWOYRO po ape eena aes dy . 333 Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems ‘JAQ] (Egy ZEL) ISd OZ OU} 0} UMOP UMEIP aq UBD aul) & yeU} OS PeHueYO a/e9S MO}J-JO}EM OU HE'S aunbi4 IC4)Q6 ORAS Tas uoneagyy Zeer 6ISL 00r Wd oly “yey du oos =600l oos 002 009 OO€ OOL ces 666+ 999 8222 ooe asoz BbL gene 006 oAnNs4y lenpisay 35 $9j/Fou WY 449 UO!}E907 ae BlPe = (S20 : Eie4 BAe |NSUT eR O69 Ol fr ayeq Ja}e AA [ESJOAIUN) ayuNnssakd 3 Ee rt © = ea ae Ss Pe w “ A (001 + &d4 = 838g) g ge 3 AES ae wasn So ECE ee aeey E i] yaaus Aiewuins }Se] MO] Befb Cc /Hn AT PHOPAUATELE Be uu (Q5LS)054] MlS® pasn Table 8.3 Values for Computing Fire Flow Tests 334 Chapter 8 * Water Supply Distribution Systems NOTE: When doing these calculations in SI, quite often the figures obtained will be higher than those provided in Table 8.3. It will be necessary to use a calculator to determine h®*, Although it is important for inspection personnel to understand these formulas and how the calculations are done, it is more common today for personnel to use computer programs to do them. Inspection personnel simply enter the information from the flow tests into the computer and the available water supply is automatically determined. Several commercial water-flow programs are available. Summary This chapter has presented a description of the components of the most commonly found types of public and private water supply distribution systems in use. The methods of delivering water under pressure within these systems were identified and include those that are gravity fed from tanks, those that are fed by pumps, and those that are a combination of these methods. A description of distribution pipe networks was presented along with the components found on these systems. Additionally, fire hydrant types were identified as well as the methods that an inspector uses to inspect and test them to ensure that they perform in an optimum manner. The methods for determining the fire flow of water distribution systems was also discussed along with the method for using the pitot tube and gauge and measuring fire flow at hydrants in the system. Information was also provided on the graphical and mathematical methods for computing fire flow. Review Questions What is the primary source of water in North America? Discuss methods for moving water through a system. How do dry-barrel hydrants work? For what purpose are gravity tanks used? What can cause encrustations on inside walls of water mains? ge oe ery 1. 2. What four pieces of important information can be obtained from fire-flow tests? Whatis the first step in using a pitot tube and gauge? 3. hydrant What are some safety measures that should be taken during testing? 4. What isa sedimentation deposit? 5. Whatis the mathematical formula for determining fire flow? Chapter 8 © Water Supply Distribution Systems 339 iss Water-Based Fire Suppression System 3 + ~~ Chapter Contents © Automatic Sprinkler Systems.............. 340 Stationary Fire Pumps............. eros . 369 o2s ee eae as wan Sskee seta raees342 BaSi CHIVES terete beter ceiercea nsctvacuttre IOS cei oesesct 344 cerbasceecodecbauteeeacoocaaraaz: EXO ATSVOIIVETALES 3s sseonoutenoceqsuc DIRINGRS texcneccceer eect ee eee FRSSICIEREN SWISWEING tocsisoccocsosnothnpsncnocasenononbenbaccesoeeusse 352 GONTKOUBES a. vex sc see ene ches Water Spray Fixed Systems................ 355 eet eee eee 369 eee eee 373 ees eee Oo © © Inspection and Testing.......... ll See 6 Water Mist Systems....................0 356 rh 377 eeceheppper elec ETUC ACMA etemene ste vereopieecRennce Foam-Water Systems .:-.......-......--..-- 359 Standpipe and Hose Systems.............. 360 Preacceptance INSpectiOns ..........esssensseienssee 377 eee 378 GP Acceptance lestinge. 1 eee eee ete eee 360 Componenisee sce © © Periodic Inspections and Testing ......cueseseennnen 378 ClassiticatiOns sme ne er ee ee ee 361 Tye Sere ene ee ern ed metre Oe ce horns 362 Water Supplies and Residual Pressure ...............0.0. 364 DainStem et EO]NT kckeptene escecace eesti crenee eecere rene ere oy 365 aNO] Pressure-Regulating DeVICES .....cccssccsesesseueesereces 366 Fine Department COMMECTIONS ..circcsesaeess eeesevcevceess368 cre SUMIMNGLY foscrcc econ eee eee . 392 Review OUCSUONS Secs ceene eee 393 Key Terms GentrifUGaleuln Perec crrtreteetseecenssnnesnvnaxs 369 Self-priming Centrifugal Pump............... 370 Dry Standpipe System ...............sc0eese 362 Single-Stage Centrifugal Pump ............. 370 FICACRICSSUNG eeccrtrececccsfecsen ntccenedesnctentess- 370 TNErMOCOUPICR oearrcccceccesenssssevcstecttcetsccecee J02 OCKGY PUI Dircrestecetensteesneret<tpeces<cecastinnnnas 369 Wet Standpipe System...............ccceeeee 362 Multistage Centrifugal Pump.................. S71 Job Performance Requirements nts (JPRs) of This chapter provides information that addresses the following job performance requireme (2009) NFPA® 1031, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner Chapter 4 Fire Inspector | 4.3.5 Chapter 5 Fire Inspector Il 5.3.4 Done 5.4.3 4a} § Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems ~~ Learning Objectives © Fire Inspector | if Describe basic automatic sprinkler systems. 2. Discuss types and variations of automatic sprinkler systems. 3. Describe the components of an automatic sprinkler system. 4. Compare standard and residential sprinkler systems. 5. Describe water spray fixed fire-suppression systems. 6. Explain water mist systems. 7. Describe foam-water systems. 8. Describe standpipe and hose systems. 9. Describe stationary fire pumps. 10. Describe inspections of sprinkler systems. 11. Inspect sprinkler systems. (Learning Activity 9-I/-1) © Fire Inspector Il 1. Describe inspections of sprinkler systems. 2. Explain the activities performed during acceptance testing of each type of system. 3. Inspect sprinkler systems. (Learning Activity 9-/I-1) FESHE Objectives Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Objectives: Principles of Code Enforcement None 338 Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Chapter 9 Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Water-Based Fire-Suppression System Design A fire occurred in a large retail store (85,000 square feet [7 896.75 m’]) in Georgia and grew so rapidly that it overwhelmed the full-ceiling-level automatic sprinkler system. The accelerated fire growth was due to the fire starting in a rack of swimming pool chemicals. The original design of the automatic sprinkler system was not sufficient to control the type of fire hazard that the contents created. Water-based fire-suppression systems are designed to control or extinguish a fire in its incipient stage before the arrival ofthe fire department and must be designed to meet the hazards present. If the contents of a structure change to a higher hazard, the fire-suppression system must be modified to meet the new risk. Fire-protection systems are generally divided into two broad categories: systems that detect hazardous conditions and systems that control or contain hazardous conditions. Inspections personnel are responsible for ensuring that all fire-protection systems are designed, installed, inspected, tested, and maintained according to local codes and standards. Inspections personnel must be familiar with all water-based fire-suppression of systems that they may encounter in their jurisdictions. There are a number on inspecti that nt types of water-based fire-suppression systems and equipme personnel may encounter, including the following: e Automatic sprinkler systems e Water spray fixed systems e Water mist systems e Foam-water systems e Standpipe and hose systems e Fire pumps ic sprinkler, water Of these water-based fire-suppression systems, automat ed to control, contain, spray, water mist, and foam-water systems are design of these systems is regulated or extinguish fires in the incipient stage. Each Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 339 by its own NFPA® design and installation standard. Testing and inspection requirements for these systems are found in for the Inspection, Testing, and MainNFPA® 25, Standard tenance of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems. Standpipe and hose systems are designed to permit trained fire brigade or fire department personnel to engage in firesuppression operations within a structure or facility. These systems provide a water source at a reasonable distance from any potential hazard or source ofa fire. Fire pumps are installed in structures and facilities as a means ofincreasing the static or existing water pressure within a water-based system. High-rise structures or areas with low static pressure on the public or private water supply may require the installation of fire pumps. The installation, inspection, testing, and maintenance of water-based fire-protection systems and equipment must be in compliance with local, state, and/or federal codes, ordinances, and standards as well as the manufacturer’s instructions. It is the owner’s responsibility to perform acceptance and periodic inspections, testing, and maintenance of the system. Either trained members of the organization or a third- Figure 9.1 Representatives of the system manufacturer are the best qualified to inspect some water-based fire-suppression systems; however, fire and building code inspectors should witness representatives’ inspections to ensure that they are conducted properly and documented. party organization under contract may perform inspections, testing, and maintenance. An inspector may be required to witness the testing, perform limited inspections, and verify that testing, inspections, and maintenance have been properly performed based on the owner’s records (Figure 9.1). Automatic Sprinkler Systems Considered by many to be the first line of defense against fires, automatic sprinkler systems, in their basic forms, have been in use for over 100 years. The origin of automatic sprinkler systems dates back to the days of the large industrial mills that dotted the northeastern United States during the Industrial Revolution. The design, installation, testing, and inspection requirements for sprinkler systems composed the first standard written by NFPA® in 1896. That standard, NFPA® 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, has been in continuous publication since that date. Today, the automatic sprinkler system is considered an unsurpassed fireprotection device. Fire loss data reveals that in buildings equipped with automati c sprinklers, about 94 percent ofall fires were controlled or extinguished by the system. For the remaining fires that were not controlled in sprinkler-equipp ed buildings, failure was due to human errors including the following: e Improper maintenance e Obstructions e Inadequate water supply e Partial sprinkler protection e Lack of water supply e Intentionally set fire e Incorrect design 340 Chapter 9 « Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems For a fire-suppression system to be effective, it must be simple, reliable, and automatic. It should also utilize an inexpensive extinguishing agent that is readily available. The system should be capable of discharging the agent directly on the fire or in a manner that completely floods the area of the fire before it can expand beyond the incipient phase. Automatic sprinkler systems meet this criterion for an effective fire-suppression system. An automatic sprinkler system consists ofa series of discharge devices (called sprinklers) that are systematically arranged so that the system will distribute sufficient quantities of water to either extinguish a fire or prevent its spread until firefighters arrive. Water is supplied to the sprinklers through a network of pipes. Most sprinklers (except deluge system sprinklers) are kept closed by fusible links or other thermally sensitive devices. When thermally sensitive devices are used, heat from a fire causes affected sprinklers above the fire to activate automatically. Deluge or preaction type sprinkler systems operate when an electronic detector or manual control device is activated. According to the National Fire Sprinkler Association (NFSA), there has never been a multiple loss of life (three or more deaths) due to fire or smoke in a sprinkler-equipped building, except in cases where the victims were in close proximity (asleep in the bedroom oforigin) to the fire or as the result of an explosion. Most fires in sprinkler-equipped structures are controlled by the operation offive or fewer sprinklers. So effective are sprinkler systems in commercial and industrial occupancies that efforts have been made to require their use in residential occupancies. The installation of sprinkler systems in hotels, hospitals, and places of assembly has been required in most model building codes for many years. According to NFPA® reports, the fire death rate per thousand in sprinkler-equipped hotels and motels is 1.6 as compared to 9.1 in hotels and motels without sprinkler systems. With this success rate, the emphasis has shifted to the installation of sprinkler systems in one- and two-family dwellings (Figures 9.2 a and b). the Figures 9.2 a and b The success of residential sprinkler systems like l residentia of ons installati more to leading are a hotel installation in photo b. photo in shown that like es residenc mily systems in single-fa Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 341 gs can be NFSA has estimated that fire deaths in one- and two-family dwellin ers. sprinkl fire reduced by up to 82 percent with the installation of residential Between the NFSA, NFPA®, American Fire Sprinkler Association (AFSA), and ctions Home Safety Council (HSC), efforts are underway to provide local jurisdi with assistance in adopting or developing model building codes that require the installation of sprinklers in all new residential construction. These instalfor the Installation of Sprinkler lations will be based on NFPA® 13D, Standard Systems in One- and Two-Family Dwellings and Manufactured Homes, and for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Residential NEPA® 13R, Standard Occupancies up to and Including Four Stories in Height. Basic Types Traditionally, the fire service has recognized four basic types of automatic sprinkler systems as defined in NFPA® 13. They are as follows: © Wet-pipe sprinkler system — Continually charged with water under pressure that discharges immediately when one or more sprinklers are activated by heat from a fire (Figure 9.3a). e Dry-pipe sprinkler system — Continually charged with air or nitrogen under pressure. When a sprinkler activates, the air is released allowing the drypipe water-flow control valve to operate and charge the system with water. These systems are used in areas where freezing temperatures are likely to occur (Figure 9.3b). e Deluge sprinkler system — Consists of open sprinklers attached to unpressurized dry pipes. The system is activated when a detection device in the protected area senses a fire and opens the water-flow control valve to the system. All sprinklers discharge water simultaneously (Figure 9.3c). e Preaction sprinkler system — Continually charged with air that may or may not be under pressure. The system only operates when both a sprinkler opens and a detection device in the same area activate the water-flow control valve (Figure 9.3d). Wet-Pipe Sprinkler System Components Test Connection Closed Sprinkler Manual Valve an Wet-Pipe Vaive System Drain Water Supply _.§ Figure 9.3a A wet-pipe system contains water under pressure throughou t the system System components are depicted in the illustration. . 342 Chapter 9 » Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Dry-Pipe Sprinkler System Components eae Closed Sprinkler P Isolation Valve Figure 9.3b The components dry-pipe system are designed use air pressure to keep water of the system until the system activated. in a to out is Dry-Pipe Valve Manual Valve Deluge Sprinkler System Components Open Sprinkler I vee Electric Detectors Automatic Sprinklers Figure 9.3c A deluge system’s components allow water to flow from all sprinklers at once when the system is activated rather than just the sprinklers nearest the fire. Pressure Releasing ; Panel ae Electric Manual Control Stations Ban tal v [—] Water Pressure 3 i Atmospheric Pressure ale Preaction Sprinkler System Components Poet Sprinkler Electric Detectors Check Fire Alarm Bell Automatic Sprinklers Valve Figure 9.3d Preaction systems may or may not be under pressure at all times. Activation of the system only occurs when both a sprinkler opens and a detection Low Air Pressure Alarm Switch ak device activate the water-flow control valve. System _4— Drain Electric Releasing Panel Electric = Manual Control Stations : am Wate r Pressure [8 Atmospheric Pressure 9 Air Pressure Manual Valve Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 343 as everAdvances in sprinkler-system design and technology, as well of types more six increasing types of hazards, have led to the addition of types, systems. These systems, which may be variations of the four basic include the following: Antifreeze sprinkler system — Wet-pipe system that is continually charged with an antifreeze solution. When the system is activated, the antifreeze solution is discharged, activating the water-flow valve and allowing water to flow to the open sprinkler(s). This system requires additional maintenance; the antifreeze solution must be changed once a year. Circulating closed-loop sprinkler system — Wet-pipe system that uses the sprinkler system to circulate water for non-fire-protection building services such as heating or cooling. It is a closed system in which water is not removed from the system unless the sprinklers are activated. Combined dry pipe and preaction sprinkler system — System that is continually charged with air under pressure combined with a detection system that controls the operation of the water-flow control valve. The detection system activates the water-flow control valve, the release of the pressurized air in the system, and the facility fire alarm. When the system is charged with water, activation of the individual sprinklers will discharge water. This system is rare and only installed on large wharves where large stockpiles of materials are found. Gridded sprinkler system — System of parallel cross mains connected together by multiple branch lines. Any activated sprinklers will receive water from both mains (Figure 9.4). This type of system has the advantage of water flow to the sprinklers from multiple directions. Looped sprinkler system — System of interconnected cross mains that provide multiple routes for water to reach any point in the system. The branch lines are not interconnected (Figure 9.5). This system is a common design because of the advantage of water flow from multiple directions. Multicycle sprinkler system — System that is designed to operate repeatedly in response to a detection device. The system turns on and off based on the demand indicated by the detection device. Components Automatic sprinkler system components are designed to deliver water to a fire or hazard as quickly as possible. Some of the components vary, depending on the type of automatic sprinkler system in use. The components usually included are as follows: Water supplies Water-flow control valves Operating valves Water distribution pipes Sprinklers Detection and activation devices 344 Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Gridded Sprinkler System Figure 9.4 The grid design allows water to access sprinklers from multiple directions. Looped Sprinkler System Figure 9.5 Looped systems also allow water flow from multiple directions; however, branch lines are not interconnected like they are in a grid system. Water Supplies Every automatic sprinkler system must have a water supply of adequate volume, pressure, and reliability. The hazard being protected, the occupancy classification, and fuel-loading conditions determine the minimum water flow required for the system. A water supply must be able to deliver the required volume of water to the highest or most remote sprinkler in a structure while maintaining a minimum residual (remaining) pressure in the system. Systems must have a primary water supply and may be required to have a secondary water supply. The primary water supply may come from a public or a private source. Where available, a connection to a public water supply system that has adequate volume, pressure, and reliability is a good source of water for automatic sprinkler systems. This type of connection is often the only water supply available. A private water supply will be necessary if no public supply is available. Private water supplies may originate from impounded water sources such as on-site ponds, reservoirs, wells, or storage tanks. In some instances, a second independent water supply is not only desirable but also required. Storage tanks may be used as secondary supply sources, although in some cases (particularly with residential sprinkler systems) they may also be primary sources. Fire pumps that take suction from large static sources water sources, lakes, reservoirs, or wells, are also used as secondary may of water supply. When properly powered and supervised, these pumps be used as a primary water supply source. of automatic Fire department connections (FDCs) are also included as part water supply is sprinkler systems to ensure that the pressure of the primary water supply maintained. A fire department pumper connected to the public through (riser) can pump water into the sprinkler system vertical pipe section the FDC. Chapter 9 » Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 349 Water-Flow Control Valves Every automatic sprinkler system is equipped with a main water-flow control valve or valves on either side of a check valve (backflow preventer) that prevents sprinkler water from flowing back into the water supply. Water-flow control valves are used to turn off or isolate the water supply to the system when it is necessary to perform maintenance, change sprinklers, or interrupt operations. These valves are located between the water supply and the sprinkler system. Water-flow control valves may also be located throughout the system to isolate specific zones. Water-flow control valves must be indicating-type valves that visually indicate whether they are open or closed. Several common types of indicator control valves are used in automatic sprinkler systems such as the following: e Outside stem and yoke (OS&Y) — Valve has a yoke on the outside with a threaded stem or screw; the threaded portion ofthe stem is out of the yoke when the valve is open and inside the yoke when the valve is closed (Figure 9.6a). e Post indicator valve (PIV) — Valve has a hollow metal post attached to the valve housing. The valve stem inside the post has a target on which the words OPEN or SHUT appear (Figure 9.6b). e@ Wall post indicator valve (WPIV) — Similar to a PIV except that it extends horizontally through the wall with the target and valve operating nut on the outside of the building (Figure 9.6c). e Post indicator valve assembly (PIVA) — Similar to the PIV except that it uses a butterfly valve, while the PIV uses a gate valve (Figure 9.6d). Figure 9.6a The stem on an OS&Y valve is out of the yoke when the valve is open and inside the yoke when it is closed. Figure 9.6b A post indicator valve features a window that tells the inspector whether the valve is OPEN or SHUT. 346 Chapter 9 « Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems & = ga =z : Figure 9.6c Wall post indicator valves extend horizontally out of a wall and also have indicator windows reading OPEN or SHUT. Figure 9.6d This post indicator valve assembly opens and shuts using a butterfly valve rather than a gate valve. Operating Valves In addition to the main water-flow control valves, automatic sprinkler systems employ various operating valves such as alarm-test valves, check valves, automatic drain valves, globe valves, and ball-drip valves. Descriptions are as follows: e Alarm-test valves — Located on the riser and used to flow water for the purpose of testing the water-flow alarm; performs a function similar to the inspector’s test valve that may be located at a remote part of the system piping; the code no longer requires the inspector's test valve to be located at aremote location from the riser e Check valves — Used to limit the flow of water to one direction; placed in the water supply line to prevent recirculation or backflow of water from the sprinkler system into the municipal water supply system © Drain valves — Used to drain water from piping when pressure is relieved in the pipe; may be main drain or auxiliary valves e Globe valves — Designed as small handwheel-type valves that typically turn counterclockwise to open and clockwise to close; used primarily as drains and test valves; the inspector's test valve is usually a globe valve and may sometimes be found at a remote location within a sprinkler system mes known e Ball-drip valves — Used for drains and alarm testing and someti close with or open ly as stop or cock valves; ball-type valves most common a quarter turn Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 347 Water Distribution Pipes Pere) in differAn automatic sprinkler system consists of an arraignment ofpipes uth ent sizes. The system starts with an underground water supply main that main supply ound undergr The originate from a public or private water supply. contains a check valve to prevent sprinkler water from flowing back (backflow- ing) and possibly contaminating the potable (drinkable) water supply. The underground supply main may also have a pipe to allow the fire department to augment the system through a FDC. System risers are vertical sections of pipe that connect the underground supply to the rest of the piping in the system. The riser has the system waterflow control valve and associated hardware that is used for testing, alarm activation, isolation, and maintenance. Risers supply the cross main that directly serves a number ofbranch lines. Sprinklers are installed on the branch lines with nipple risers (short vertical sections ofpipe). Hangers, rings, and clamps support the entire system, which may be pitched (sloped) to facilitate drainage. The arrangement of pipes is created based on one of two methods: pipe schedule tables or hydraulic calculations. Using pipe schedule tables is the traditional method for designing sprinkler systems and has been in use for over 100 years. The design is based on tables in NFPA® 13 that designate the maximum number ofsprinklers that a given size of pipe can supply, sprinkler spacing, and occupancy classification. The pipe-schedule-table method is limited to light and ordinary hazards. Some sprinkler contractors may still use this method, but it is not as accurate as the hydraulic calculation method. Inspectors who are reviewing sprinkler plans should be aware of the method used to design the system. Hydraulic calculations were initially performed manually to design the systems, but now computer design programs make the process much easier, more accurate, and less expensive for designers. Hydraulically designed systems are based on the type of occupancy to be protected, the type of hazard, the required density (quantity of water to be discharged), and the minimum pressure for each operating sprinkler. The layout and size of the distribution pipes are determined from these design requirements. As well as being more accurate, the hydraulic-calculation method has the advantage ofproviding a cost-effective design that is not limited by the restrictions placed on the pipe schedule design. The system is designed based on the greatest demand at the greatest distance from the base of the water-flow control valve or system riser. Calculations may be made to protect all types of hazards, including extra hazards, with any type of piping and any type of sprinkler discharge device. Sprinklers Figure 9.7 Deflectors create the water spray pattern in a sprinkler system. 348 Chapter 9 « Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems The sprinkler is the actual discharge device that applies water (or foam) to a fire or other hazard. Sprinklers are basically small fog-type nozzles that emit water in the form of small droplets over a given area. A deflector, a small circular piece of metal mounted on the end ofthe sprinkler, creates the discharge pattern (Figure 977): Sprinklers, sometimes referred to as sprinkler heads, can ther their orientation or by NFPA® definitions. Orientation the sprinkler is installed in the ceiling or wall. NFPA® has sprinklers by their design and performance characteristics orientation. be defined by eirefers to the way begun to define rather than their NFPA® 13 lists twelve types of sprinklers. An inspector will need to be familiar with all types and their uses when performing both sprinkler plans review and facility inspections (Figures 9.8 a-c). Sprinkler types listed in NFPA® 13 include the following: Early suppression fast-response (ESFR) — Designed to suppress fires in high-challenge hazards such as warehouses; developed as a result of the research into residential-type sprinklers that must react rapidly to protect life in the room oforigin Extended coverage (EC) — Designed to cover an area 20 feet by 20 feet (6.1 m by 6.1 m) Large drop — Designed and listed to produce large water droplets; intended for specific high-challenge hazards Old style or conventional — Designed to direct 40 to 60 percent ofits discharge in a downward direction; may be installedin an upright or pendant position, and the deflector may be altered according to installation; may still be encountered in old facilities, although it has been replaced by standard spray (SS) sprinklers Open — Designed with an open orifice and no thermal or heat-responsive element or plug Quick-response early suppression (QRES) — Designed to provide increased life safety in hotels, motels, and similar residential occupancies; similar to residential sprinklers but intended for use in accordance with NFPA® 13D Quick-response extended coverage (QREC) — Designed to provide increased life safety in hotels, motels, and similar residential occupancies; have a larger area of coverage than QRES sprinklers Residential (RES) — Designed for fast response in residential occupancies where life safety in the room oforigin is the primary concern; used in systems that are designed to NFPA® 13D and NFPA® 13R requirements Special — Designed and listed to protect special hazards Specific application control mode — Designed for use in storage areas under minimum operating pressure for a specific number of sprinklers Standard Spray (SS) — Designed for use in general types of occupancies; replaced the old-style or conventional sprinklers; may be designed for use as upright (SSU) or pendant (SSP); take longer to activate than the RES, QREC, QRES, or ESFR sprinklers Nozzle — Designed for use in situations that require a special water-discharge pattern, directional spray, or any other unusual discharge characteristics; similar to the type used in water spray fixed systems Within each sprinkler type, there may be multiple variations depending on the the manufacturer and the hazard requirements. All sprinklers must meet ion design criteria set forth by NFPA® and be tested for the specific applicat for which they are intended. Figures 9.8 a—c Inspectors may encounter a variety of sprinkler types while performing their duties. Some examples include (a and b) two types of upright sprinklers with different temperature ratings and fusible links and (c) a pendant sprinkler. Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 349 types of sprinklers An inspector may encounter other variations of the basic ons. Special conditi during plans review or field inspections due to special variations are as follows: coated Corrosion-resistant — Constructed of stainless steel or is factory enamel, with a corrosion-resistant material such as wax, asphalt, lead, polyester, or Teflon®; usually installed in areas containing acids or caustic materials or processes Dry — Attached to a dry riser nipple that is separated from a wet branch line by a pressure seal; may be used in either dry or wet systems where the protected area may freeze such as walk-in freezers in grocery stores Institutional — Designed for use in prisons, jails, or facilities that house the mentally ill; designed to be damage resistant with no removable parts Intermediate level or rack storage — Designed specifically for use in highrack storage spaces; shields are added to prevent the sprinkler from being affected by the operation ofsprinklers at a higher level Figure 9.9a The cover ona recessed sprinkler releases when the system activates. Ornamental or decorative — Specially painted or plated by the manufacturer to match the décor of the surrounding area A further means of categorizing sprinklers is according to the orientation within the compartment or space in which they are installed. With some design variations, each type of sprinkler may be installed as follows: Concealed — Recessed and covered with a removable decorative cover plate that releases when exposed to a specific level of heat (Figure 9.9a) Flush — Mounted in a ceiling with the body ofthe sprinkler, including the threaded shank, above the plane ofthe ceiling (Figure 9.9b) Figure 9.9b Flush-mount sprinklers are mounted above the plane of the ceiling with the deflector even with or lower than the ceiling. e Pendent — Installed downward from the branch line so that water flowing from the sprinkler strikes the deflector and is distributed over the protected area (Figure 9.9c) Figure 9.9¢ A pendent sprinkler hangs directly down from a branch line and covers only a specific area. 350 Chapter 9 » Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Figure 9.9d Sidewall sprinklers have a deflector that directs water in an arc away from the wall. Figure 9.9e In upright sprinklers, water is forced vertically into the deflector and rains down in a circular pattern. e Recessed — Installed in a recessed housing within the ceiling of acompartment or space; all or part of the sprinkler other than the threaded shank is mounted in the housing e Sidewall — Mounted horizontally from a wall face so that the deflector causes the water to be distributed in an arc over the protected area while a portion of the spray is directed at the supporting wall face (Figure 9.9d) e Upright— Installed on ariser nipple above the branch line so that water is discharged up against the deflector (Figure 9.9e) Detection and Activation Devices Sprinkler systems may be activated by thermal detectors in the sprinkler; smoke, heat, or rate-of-rise detectors in the protected area; or by manual controls. The electronic detection and manual controls may also act as notification or alarm systems to warn the occupants. See Chapter 11, Fire Detection and Alarm Systems, for further information on alarm systems. Detection and activation devices include the following alarms, detectors, and activators: e Sprinkler activation — Occurs when thermocouples (devices for measuring temperatures) reach a preset temperature releasing the sprinkler plug. Some of the most commonly used release mechanisms are fusible links, glass bulbs, and chemical pellets, all of which fuse, open, or activate in response to heat. Sprinklers are rated by their activation temperatures, which may be stamped on the sprinkler (Figures 9.10 a-c). © Specific application sprinkler — Activates based on the maximum temperature expected at the level of the sprinkler under normal conditions. An important consideration is the anticipated rate-of-heat release that would be produced by afire in the particular area. These temperature ratings are given in Table 6.2.5.1, Sprinkler Temperature Ratings, Classifications, and Color Codings in NFPA® 13. e Electronic heat detector — Activates preaction and dry-pipe systems by smoke, heat, or rate-of-rise detectors in the protected area; may also act as notification or alarm system to warn occupants. When the detector senses an abnormal situation, the detector sends an are all mechanisms designed to break or fail Figures 9.10 a—c (a) Fusible links, (b) glass bulbs, and (c) pellet heat sensors sprinklers. as a reaction to heat. When they fail, water is released from the Chapter 9 Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 391 ler water-flow electronic impulse to the fire-control panel and the sprink enter the control valve (Figure 9.11). The valve opens, permitting water to system. Differences: Thermocouple — Device for measuring temperature in which two electrical conductors of dissimilar metals such as copper and iron are joined at the point where heat is applied the — Preaction system: The sprinklers will only discharge water when sprinkler thermocouples activate, either simultaneously or after the detector has activated. — Dry-pipe system: The sprinklers will discharge water immediately. e Water-flow alarm — Activates an alarm on the sprinkler water-flow control valve and area valves (indicating the specific point in the system where water is discharging) that sounds a warning alarm when a sprinkler activates and water begins to flow in the facility, on the exterior ofthe facility, and sometimes at a monitored alarm-control panel (Figures 9.12 a and b). Water-flow alarms may also activate as part of the alarm system. @ Manually activated system — Depends on human intervention to operate the sprinkler system. In this case, a worker may activate the system before a fire actually occurs such as in the case of ahazardous gas or liquid release. Residential Systems There are several challenges to the application of conventional sprinkler technology to residential buildings (especially one- and two-family dwellings and manufactured homes). The hardware for standard automatic sprinkler systems, such as fire department connections and water-flow alarm valves, are large and obtrusive if applied to residential dwellings under the same rules that are used in commercial and industrial applications. In addition, standard sprinkler systems would be objectionably expensive if applied to ordinary dwellings and beyond the economic means of a large segment of the population. Thus, residential systems designed for one- and two-family dwellings are smaller and more economical. The water supply source is generally the same as the domestic water supply. This approach works because the water supply requirements are substantially less for residential systems. A minimum 10- Electronic Heat Detector Figure 9.11 When activated, a signal is sent from the electronic heat detector to the fire-control panel and the fire-protection system control valve. 352 Chapter 9 * Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems ~~ eee | Figures 9.12 a and b (a) Water motor gongs and (b) electric sensors on pipes are types of water-flow alarms. These alarms sound to indicate that a sprinkler system has activated within a facility. minute supply of stored water is required for systems designed in accordance with NFPA® 13D. If structures are less than 2,000 square feet (185.8 m’) in area and no more than one story in height, the minimum quantity is based on the flow rate for two sprinklers times 7 minutes of operation. In residential structures such as hotels and motels, NFPA® 13R requires a minimum 30-minute supply. To make sprinkler systems useful in residential applications, changes in design, operation, water supply, and flow requirements were made. These changes decreased the cost of the systems while enhancing their effectiveness in protecting life. Design and Operation Not only were changes made to the sprinkler system components but also to the areas of coverage and the types ofmaterials that were allowed for construction of sprinkler piping. The following changes were made: e Sprinkler design was modified, and fast-response residential sprinklers were developed. e Water supply requirements were modified to allow a minimum flow of 18 gpm (68 L/min) from an individual sprinkler for residential protection. e Areas of coverage for sprinklers were adjusted based on sprinkler design and typical residential fuel loads. A single sprinkler is permitted to protect its maximum Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) coverage area. e Alarms were made simpler and more realistic for residential applications. e Valve arrangements were configured so that they would not be obtrusive in acommon residence. rs A major difference between residential sprinklers and standard sprinkle more is their sensitivity or speed of operation. Residential sprinklers operate r sprinkle standard quickly than standard sprinklers (Figure 9.13). Although a ie o f th may have an operating temperature of 165°F (74o G)athie ibewma) lag ding surroun the fusible link may delay the operation of the sprinkler until link, the air temperature is considerably higher. By redesigning the fusible so become room the in ons sprinkler can be made to operate before conditi untenable that occupants cannot survive. | ££ ; §£ @ j Af > : t a cane tere PRT pete glass bulb prevent water from freely flowing through sprinklers _unless there is a fire. Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 353 d Sprinkler coverage in residential systems is not as extensive as in standar the commercial automatic sprinkler systems. Sprinklers can be omitted from following areas in one- and two-family dwellings: e Bathrooms not over 55 square feet (5.1 m’) e Small closets not more than 24 square feet (2.2 m’) and having a short wall that does not exceed 3 feet (0.9 m) ® Garages e Porches e Carports e Uninhabited attics e Entrance hallways Local codes may be amended to include many of these exempted areas, requiring an inspector to be familiar with local amendments to the fire and building codes. Spacing for sprinklers in residential systems is a maximum of 144 square feet (13.4 m’) per sprinkler. The maximum spacing between sprinklers is 12 feet (3.7 m) with the maximum allowable distance of a sprinkler from a wall being 6 feet (1.8 m). However, sprinkler manufacturers have produced a variety of sprinkler designs, and the spacing of sprinklers may be based upon the particular sprinklers that have been tested and listed. Some residential sprinklers, therefore, can be spaced to protect an area as large as 20 x 20 feet (6 m by 6 m). However, with this sprinkler spacing, the minimum discharge with one sprinkler operating is increased to 32.5 gpm (123 L/min) and 22.5 gpm (85 L/min) per sprinkler with two sprinklers operating. Residential sprinklers also have distribution patterns that are different from standard sprinklers. Residential sprinklers are designed to discharge water higher on the enclosing walls of aroom to prevent a fire from traveling above the spray, which might occur with burning drapes or in preflashover conditions. There are a number of distribution patterns that vary according to the particular manufacturer, so an inspector should consult the relevant standard for requirements. Any type of piping such as steel, copper, and plastic that is listed by an approved testing agency may be used for residential sprinkler systems. The minimum pipe size that may be used in a residential system is % inch (13 mm). Water Supply and Flow Rate Requirements The water supply requirements for residential sprinklers are less than those for standard sprinkler systems. NFPA® 13D requires only 18 gpm (68 L/min) for any single sprinkler. When there are two or more sprinklers, each requires 13 gpm (49 L/min) as a minimum required water supply. For large multiple dwellings, the designed flow rates are greater. NFPA® I13R requires 18 gpm (68 L/min) for a single sprinkler and not less than 13 gpm (49 L/min) to a maximum of four sprinklers in a compar tment (room or space). 354 Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Economics is not the only reason for the reduction in water supply. Small domestic water supplies service many residential buildings. For example, some single-family dwellings may be supplied by wells. Although a 10-minute water supply may not completely control all fires, it will delay a flashover and allow time for the occupants to reach safety. The water supply for residential sprinklers may be taken from several sources, which may include a connection to the public water system, an on-site pressure tank, or a storage tank with an automatic pump. A connection to a public water system is reliable and will usually provide adequate volume. Public water systems may not service rural homes. Such homes will require a pressure tank or tank with an automatic pump. To be of value, a residential sprinkler system, like any other system, must be continually in service. As with a standard system, inadvertent or deliberate closing of valves renders the system useless. When a residential sprinkler system is supplied from a public water system, using one valve to control both the sprinklers and the domestic service virtually eliminates the possibility of the supply valve being closed. With this arrangement, the sprinklers cannot be turned off without turning off the household domestic supply (sinks and toilets). Even if the sprinkler system is viewed as unneeded, it is unlikely that a homeowner would be willing to go very long without the household water supply. Where plumbing or water department requirements do not permit this type of uninterrupted connection, NEFPA® 13D permits the sprinkler valve to be supervised or simply locked in the open position (Figure 9.14). Figure 9.14 Control valves meeting NFPA® 13D are necessary parts of a water-based firesuppression system. Water Spray Fixed Systems Water spray fixed fire-suppression systems are similar to but not considered an automatic sprinkler system. The system discharges water over the area or surface to be protected through an arrangement ofpipes and nozzles. An automatic heat-detection system or a manual activation system may be used to activate the system. Components of a water spray fixed system are similar to those of an automatic sprinkler system and include the following: Reliable water supply e Piping e Automatic or manual detection and activation devices Water-flow control valve e Water spray nozzles c hazards or hazA water spray fixed system provides protection to specifi s of apredetermined ardous processes through the application of water droplet ly designed nozzles. pattern, particle size, velocity, and density from special y to other types of fire The system may be independent from or supplementar e the following: protection systems. General hazard categories includ Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 359 e Flammable gaseous and liquid materials e Electrical equipment — Transformers (Figure 9.15) — Oil switches — Motors — Cable trays — Cable runs e Ordinary Class A combustibles ® Certain hazardous solids — Propellants — Pyrotechnics e Exposure protection — Separation between hazards — Means of egress Water spray fixed systems are useful in attaining a variety offire-protection goals, including the following: e Extinguishing fires e Controlling burning e Protecting exposures e Preventing fires from starting These goals may be met by one or more ofthe following methods: e Surface cooling e Smothering by produced steam e Emulsification e Dilution With advancements in technology as well as increases in hazardous conditions and processes, water spray fixed systems have changed in the past quarter century. To meet the potential that some materials and processes have for deflagration and detonation, ultrahigh-speed water spray fixed SySstems have been developed. These systems, like the residential fast-response sprinklers, are designed to respond to the first indication that an ignition or explosion is about to occur. Ultrahigh-speed water spray fixed systems may be designed for area application over a specific floor or surface area or local application directed at a potential point of ignition suchasa cutting or grinding operation. Water spray fixed system design and installation are regulated by NFPA® 15, Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire Protection. Testing, inspection, and maintenance requirements are outlined in NEPA® 25. Water Mist Systems A water mist system is similar to a water spray fixed system except that it discharges a fine mist of water that absorbs larger quantities of heat than water spray or automatic sprinkler systems. This very fine spray of water also controls or extinguishes fire by displacing oxygen, and blocki ng radiant heat production (Figure 9.16). 356 Chapter 9 » Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Water Spray System H @S | 4 4 ee Ks Ks ke KF as = Ks 4 tiiad « =e acquaerne NSa pe Figure 9.15 A fixed spray water system is used to protect a group of transformers. Figure 9.16 Water mist system components include expellant cylinders, water source, piping, detectors, control panel, and sprinklers. Legend (1) Water Supply (2) Compressed Gas (Expellant) 3) Control Panel (4) Distribution Piping (5) Automatic Detection System © Sprinkler Nozzles Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 39/7 high enough to halt In theory, the water mist raises the humidity of the room uppression system has the combustion process. An operating water mist fire-s or patios and eating an appearance similar to the systems used to cool outdo areas in low humidity desert climates. traced back Limited use of water mist systems for fire protection can be me passenger as far as the 1940s. Their use was limited primarily to mariti damage, the water ferries. Because more fire can be controlled with less uppression water mist system is considered a replacement for the fixed fire-s as firebanned were that systems that used halogenated hydrocarbon agents t extinguishing agents by the Montreal Protocol. See Chapter 10, Special-Agen ation. inform more s, for Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguisher Research indicates that water mist systems may be very suitable in many situations where halogenated hydrocarbons were previously used. Continuing research also indicates that water mist systems may have successful applications in such places as residential occupancies and flammable and combustible storage facilities. These systems are designed to protect lives and property by extinguishing Class A and Class B fires, controlling fire temperatures in compartments, and preventing flashover with subsequent extension to other compartments ina structure. Water mist systems are currently used to protect the following types of hazards: e Gas jet fires e Computer equipment and rooms e Flammable and combustible liquids e Hazardous solids, including plastic foam furnishings e Aircraft passenger cabins e Ordinary Class A combustibles In general, a water mist system is composed of small-diameter, pressurerated copper or stainless steel tubing. Very small-diameter spray nozzles are spaced evenly on the tubing. Depending on the design of the system, the spray nozzles may be of the open or closed sprinkler variety. Water mist systems are designed to be operated at considerably higher pressures than standard sprinkler systems. Three basic pressure ranges in which these systems may be designed to operate are as follows: I. Low-pressure system — 175 psi (1 225 kPa) or less 2. Intermediate-pressure system — 175 to 500 psi (1 225 kPa to 3 500 kPa) 3. High-pressure system — 500 psi (3 500 kPa) or greater Compressed-air or high-pressure water pumps create these high pressures. Compressed air may be supplied to the system from storage cylinders or air pumps. Air pressure may be applied to the water through the water tube itself (single-fluid system) or through a second air tube to each spray nozzle (twinfluid system). The most common type ofwater mist system works similarly to a traditional deluge sprinkler system. All of the spray nozzles in a particular room or zone are open and a product-of-combustion detection system activates the water 398 Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems mist system. Generally, at least two detection devices in the affected zone or room must be activated for the deluge valve to open and water to discharge from the spray nozzles. Other variations of the water mist system are also in service. These variations include closed sprinkler systems of the wet-pipe, dry-pipe, and preaction designs. Water mist system components are similar to those of automatic sprinkler systems, although the water supply may be a container rather than a public water main. Because the water in the system will be atomized (turned into a fine mist), the water should be free of impurities. The water supply container should be able to provide up to 30 minutes ofwater to the water mist system. NFPA® 750, Standard on Water Mist Fire Protection Systems, regulates the design and installation of water mist systems. NFPA® 25 provides testing, inspection, and maintenance requirements. Foam-Water Systems The foam-water system is a hybrid of the automatic sprinkler system and the foam fire-extinguishing system. The system may be designed to activate manually either to prevent a fire or extinguish a fire or activate automatically to extinguish a fire. The system may be designed to control, contain, or extinguish Class A or Class B fires and may discharge water, foam, or water and foam intermittently. The foam-water system is basically a deluge sprinkler system with foam introduced into it. This system is used where there is a limited foam concentrate supply but an unlimited water supply. Thus, if the foam concentrate supply becomes depleted, the system will continue to operate as a water-based automatic sprinkler system. Typically, the foam-water system is an automatic system that operates in the same manner as aregular deluge system. The major differences between the systems are that the foam induction system and special aerating sprinklers are at the end of the piping. The foam-water system produces a thin (lean) foam solution that is expanded six to eight times when it is discharged from the sprinkler. This expansion creates a very fluid foam solution that flows around obstructions after it is delivered. The entire foam-water system may be divided into two parts: the water system and the foam system. The water-system components were described previously in the section on automatic sprinkler systems. The foam system contains the following components (Figure 9.17, p. 360): e Foam concentrate tank e Strainer e Pump e System piping e Metering valve e Actuation unit Protein, fluoroprotein, and aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) concentrates may be used in these systems. AFFF may be discharged through special foam sprinklers or standard water sprinklers. When discharged through standard sprinklers, AFFF has greater velocity than when discharged through special foam sprinklers. This greater velocity tends to improve the spray and its penetration. Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 399 Figure 9.17 Foam-water system components are similar to a water-based sprinkler system with the addition of the foam liquid concentrate tank. Orifice Fire Area Check Valves | Water Header The system first operates when the heat-detection devices sense the pres= ence of fire and send an appropriate signal to the system control unit. Following initial detection, the system triggers the deluge valve and activates. At the same time, the deluge valve on the foam side of the system opens, the foam pump starts, and the concentrate is introduced into the water flow. The foam-water solution flows to the sprinklers, where air is introduced to make foam. The foam is then delivered to the target area. After the fire is extinguished, the system must be turned off and thoroughly drained. The concentrate tanks must be refilled. The entire system must be thoroughly flushed to remove any foam residue. Once this flushing is complete, the valves can be reset and the system restored to service. The foam-water system’s design and installation requirements are regulated by NFPA® 16, Standard for the Installation ofFoam-Water sprinkler and FoamWater Spray Systems. See Chapter 10, Special-Agent Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers, for more information on foam systems. Standpipe and Hose Systems Standpipe and hose systems are designed to provide a means for rapidly deploying fire hoses and operating fire streams on all levels of multistory structures and at remote points in large area structures and facilities (Figure 9.18). Depending on the type of standpipe system installed, it may be used by firefighters, trained occupants, or both. The system may be supplied by a permanent water supply and augmented by water from fire department pumpers through a FDC. The system may also be part of or separate from an automatic sprinkler, water spray, water mist, or foam-water system. Components Standpipe system components are similar to sprinkler system components. They consist of the following: e Hose stations (defines classification of system) e Water supplies e Water-flow control valves (similar to those used in automatic sprinkler systems) 360 Chapter 9 » Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems e Risers (piping systems used to transfer water from the supply to the discharge) e Pressure-regulating devices e Fire department connections (FDCs) Classifications NFPA® 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipes and Hose Systems, is used for the design and installation of standpipes. The standard establishes three classes of standpipe systems that are based on the intended use of the hose station or discharge outlet. Class I: Firefighters Class I standpipe Figure 9.18 Standpipes allow firefighters to extend fire systems are primarily for use by fire-suppression personnel trained in handling large hoses and nozzles to any portion of the structure to tnguish a fire. handlines (22-inch [65 mm] hose). Class Isystems must be capable of supplying effective fire streams during the more advanced stages of fire within a building, structure, or facility. Class I systems have 22-inch (65 mm) hose connections or hose stations attached to the standpipe riser. The 22-inch (65 mm) hose connections may be equipped with a reducer on the cap that allows for the connection ofa 12-inch (38 mm) hose coupling as well (Figure 9.19a). Class II: Trained Building Occupants The Class II system is primarily designed for use by building occupants who are trained in their use or by fire department personnel. These systems are equipped with 14-inch (38 mm) hose, nozzle, and hose rack (Figure 9.19b). The hose is typical ofthe single-jacket linen variety and the nozzle is a lightweight, twist-type shutoff nozzle. Figure 9.19a Class | hose connections allow for connecting either 2¥-inch (65 mm) hose or 1%-inch (38 mm) hose. Figure 9.19b Class II hose stations are designed to be used by occupants in addition to firefighters. Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 361 and hose There is some disagreement over the value of Class II standpipe security to systems. The presence ofthe small hose may give a false sense of to building occupants and create the impression that they should attempt fight a fire even though their safer course would be to escape. In any Case, for fire department personnel cannot depend on Class II hose ona standpipe fire control operations. The installation of Class II standpipes is declining in favor of Class I installations. Class III: Combination Class III standpipes combine the features of Class I and Class II systems. Class III systems have both 2%-inch (65 mm) hose connections for fire department personnel and 1%-inch (38 mm) hose and connections for use by the building or facility fire brigade (Figure 9.19c). The design of the system must allow both Class I and Class II services to be used simultaneously. Due to the concerns for the safety of occupants, the local jurisdiction may remove the Class I hose, nozzle, and rack leaving the 24-inch (65 mm) and 1%-inch (38 mm) discharge connections. Figure 9.19c Class Ill hose stations may or may not have an attached hose. Many jurisdictions remove the hose from these stations, leaving only the connections for firefighters responding to the scene. Types In addition to the three classes of standpipe and hose systems, the following five types of standpipe systems are listed in NFPA® 14: Dry Standpipe System — Standpipe system that either has water supply valves closed or lacks a fixed water supply Wet Standpipe System — Standpipe system that has water supply valves open and maintains water in the system at all times 362 ¢ Automatic-wet — Contains water in the system, the water-supply control valve is open, and pressure is maintained in the system at all times. When the hose valve is opened, water is immediately available (Figure 9.20a). ¢ Automatic-dry — Contains air under pressure. Water is admitted to the system by the operation ofa valve controlled by an electrical switch or other device located at each hose station. Water is not available at the hose stations until the water-supply control valve is opened by the control device (Figure 9.20b). © Semiautomatic-dry — Contains unpressurized air in the system and admits water to the system automatically through the use ofa dry-pipe valve when a hose valve is opened. Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Automatic-Wet System Control Valve Assembly Flow Alarm Switch Main Water Control Valve Automatic-Dry System Control Valve Assembly Check Valve Water Supply Pipe —» To Water Flow Alarm a < Air Pressure Alarm Test Gauge Figures 9.20 a and b Two examples of control valve assemblies: (a) automatic-wet and (b) automatic-dry. Main Drain Valve / Clapper Air Pressure vvVvvVYVY Main Water Control Valve / Check Valve Water Supply Pipe —» Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 363 has no permanent e Manual-dry — Contains unpressurized air in pipes and Dry water supply; water must be supplied totally from the FDC. NOTE: an standpipes are not accepted as meeting code requirements under Canadi building and fire codes. e Manual-wet — Maintains water from a domestic fill connection in the piping for the purpose ofdetecting leaks on the system. However, no permanently connected water source is attached to the system, and water must be provided by the fire department through the FDC. An automatic-wet standpipe system with an automatic water supply is the most desirable type of standpipe. With this type of system, water is constantly available at the hose station. However, wet standpipe systems cannot be used in cold environments, and a dry system may have to be used. Automatic-dry standpipe systems have the disadvantages of greater cost and maintenance requirements than the others. Water Supplies and Residual Pressure The amount of water required for standpipe systems depends on the size and number offire streams that are needed and the probable length of time the standpipe will be used. Water-supply requirements for standpipes are influenced by the size and occupancy ofthe building as well as fuel loads and hazards present. The water supply for Class I and Class III standpipe systems must provide aminimum flowrate of 500 gpm (1 893 L/min) for at least 30 minutes, witha residual pressure of 100 psi (689 kPa) at the most hydraulically remote 2%inch (65 mm) outlet. Aminimum of65 psi (448 kPa) is required for the most remote 12-inch (38 mm) outlet. Ifmore than one standpipe riser is needed to protect a building, the water supply must provide 250 gpm (946 L/min) for each additional riser to a maximum of 2,500 gpm (9 463 L/min). In a horizontal standpipe system that supplies three or more Class I or III hose stations, a minimum flow rate of 750 gpm (2 840 L/min) is required. For a Class II standpipe, 100 gpm (378 L/min) must be provided for at least 30 minutes, with a residual pressure of at least 65 psi (448 kPa) at the highest outlet. The current NFPA® 14 minimum requirement for residual pressure is 65 psi (448 kPa). However, this isa minimum and may not be adequate to supply a fog nozzle on the end of a 100-foot (30 m) hose connected to the topmost hose outlet. Because ofthis situation, some other building and fire codes require higher minimum residual pressures. For example, the /nternational Fire Code® (IFC®) requires 100 psi (689 kPa). An inspector should consult the code used in the local jurisdiction for minimum requirements in standpipe-protected occupancies. 364 Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Standpipes and Sprinklers In addition to supplying water for hose streams, many standpipe risers are also used to supply water for the automatic sprinkler systems in high-rise buildings. In a sprinkler-equipped building, it is assumed that the sprinklers will act to extinguish or control an incipient fire and thereby reduce the water required for hoselines. Therefore, when determining the required water supply for a standpipe system in a sprinkler-equipped building, it is not necessary to add the sprinkler water demand to the water supply requirements for the standpipe. If, however, the sprinkler water demand is greater than the standpipe demand, the water supply must be adequate to meet the greater requirements of the automatic sprinkler system. The water supply for standpipes may be taken from several different sources such as public water supplies, automatic fire pumps, manual fire pumps, pressure tanks, and gravity tanks. Not all of these water sources are practical in every situation. In high-rise buildings, the water is usually supplied from automatic fire pumps that take suction from a municipal water main. Water supplies can be used in combination; for example, it is possible to incorporate both a tank supply and an automatic fire pump in the supply for a high-rise building. High-Rise Buildings The height of a building and the class of service determine the size of the standpipe riser. For Class I and Class III service, the minimum riser is 4-inch (100 mm) pipe for building heights less than 100 feet (30 m) and 6-inch (150 mm) pipe for heights over 100 feet (30 m). When a Class I or Class III standpipe exceeds 100 feet (30 m) in height, the top 100 feet (30 m) is allowed to be 4-inch (100 mm) pipe. Standpipes can also be sized hydraulically to provide the minimum required pressure at the topmost outlet. For Class II service, a riser could be 2 inches (50 mm) for a building height less than 50 feet (15 m). For a building over 50 feet (15 m) in height, the minimum size riser is 2% inches (65 mm). Class II systems in buildings over 275 feet (84 m) in height must be divided into sections. In buildings with combined standpipe and sprinkler systems, the minimum riser size is 6 inches (150 mm). However, this requirement may be disregarded if the building is protected by an automatic sprinkler system and the combined system is hydraulically calculated to ensure that all water supply requirements can be met. Current practice is to locate standpipes so that any part ofa floor is within 130 feet (40 m) of the standpipe hose connection. This distance allows any fire to be reached with 100 feet of hose (30 m), plus a 30-foot (10 m) fire stream (Figure 9.21, p. 366). Standpipes and their connections are most commonly located within noncombustible fire-rated stair enclosures so that firefighters have a protected point from which to begin an attack. If the building is so large that the standpipes located in the stairwells cannot provide coverage to the entire floor, additional stations or risers must be provided. Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 369 Location of Standpipes Figure 9.21 To gain complete coverage, standpipes must be properly located to be most effective for fighting fires. 100 ft (30 m) Hose The actual hose connections can be located no more than 6 feet (1.8 m) from floor level. These connections must be plainly visible and not obstructed. Any caps over the connections must be easy to remove. Buildings equipped with Class I or III systems may be required to have a 2%-inch (65 mm) outlet on the roof. This outlet is required when any of the following three situations are present: e Combustible roof e Combustible structure or equipment on the roof e Exposures that present a fire hazard Pressure-Regulating Devices Where the discharge pressure at a hose outlet exceeds 100 psi (689 kPa), NFPA® 14 requires a pressure-regulating (restricting) device to limit the pressure to 100 psi (689 kPa), unless otherwise approved by the fire department. The use ofa pressure-regulating device prevents pressures that make fire hose difficult or dangerous to handle. This device also enhances system reliability because it extends individual zones to greater heights. In some instances, it may improve system economy because its use may eliminate some pumps. Pressure-regulating devices make the system design more complex. The three basic categories of pressure-regulating devices are as follows: ° Pressure-restricting devices — Consist of a simple restricting orifice inserted into the waterway. The amount of pressure drop through the orifice plate depends on the orifice diameter and available flow and pressure within the system. Each standpipe discharge connection is fitted with a restricting orifice with different sizes being required for each floor and application. They are limited to systems with 14-inch (38 mm) hose discharges and 175 psi (1 225 kPa) maximum pressure. This device is not a preferred type because it does not control or reduce the water pressure in the system. Pressure-control devices — Preferred for managing excessive pressure and considered to be the most reliable method ofpressure control because they use a pitot tube and gauge to read the pressure and automatically reduce 366 Chapter 9 » Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems the flow through the discharge. Some of the devices are field adjustable, and others are preset at the factory. e Pressure-reducing devices — Preferred for managing excessive pressure; use a spring mechanism that compensates for variations in pressure (Figure 9.22). These mechanisms balance the available pressure within the system with the pressure required for hoseline use. Meridian Plaza Fire, 1991 On February 23, 1991, a fire occurred in the Meridian Plaza office building in Philadelphia. The fire heavily damaged this high-rise building and resulted in the deaths of three firefighters. This fire is an example of the potentially enormous consequences of fire-protection system inadequacy or failure. Meridian Plaza was a 38-story office building originally constructed in 1969 and located in the heart of downtown Philadelphia. It measured 92 x 240 feet (28 m by 73 m) and was located directly across the street from Philadelphia's city hall. Although the building was originally constructed without an automatic sprinkler system, one had been partially installed at the time of the fire. At the time of original construction, the primary fire-protection features for the upper portions of the building were a dry standpipe riser with fire department connections (FDCs) and a wet standpipe system with hose supplied by the domestic water system Figure 9.22 Pressure-reducing devices are used to manage excess pressure. These devices balance the available pressure within a system against the pressure needed for hoselines. (intended for occupant use). To facilitate the installation of the automatic sprinklers, the dry standpipe had been converted to wet standpipes supplied by two fire pumps. In addition, pressure-reducing valves were installed at the hose outlets of the standpipes. The purpose of the pressure-reducing valves was to prevent excessive pressures at the hose outlets. A fire occurred on the 22™ floor of the building at about 8:23 p.m. ona Saturday evening. Before the fire was controlled, it spread from the Zo floor to the 30" floor. Arriving firefighters initially used the building elevators to gain access to the upper floors. Shortly after their arrival, however, a complete electrical failure occurred in the building. This failure not only prevented firefighters from using the elevators and fire pumps, but also forced them to work in a totally darkened building. When firefighters reached the floor of the fire, they connected to the former dry standpipe and began fire-suppression operations. However, the firefighters were severely hampered by poor-quality hose streams of limited reach. The limited water supply forced the fire crews to use defensive tactics. The availability of water remained low for approximately of 4 hours until a sprinkler contractor arrived and adjusted the settings reducing pressureThe the pressure-reducing valves on the standpipes. valves had been improperly adjusted at the time of installation. nsuming. Efforts to control the fire became extremely difficult and time-co l in an Stairwel a up A 5-inch (125 mm) hoseline was manually advanced the through up fire effort to supply adequate water. The progress of the building was essentially unchecked. Continued on page 368 Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 367 Meridian Plaza Fire, 1991 (Concluded) When the danger of structural failure developed, the incident commander withdrew firefighters from the building. The fire was finally controlled when it reached the 30" floor where a portion of the automatic sprinkler system had been installed — ten sprinklers operated. Had the pressure-reducing valves on the standpipe system been properly adjusted at the time of installation and proper integrity of the building's electrical system been provided, it is likely that the fire could have been controlled through manual fire-suppression efforts. An inspector must understand that pressure-regulating devices or valves have a notorious failure rate. Standpipe systems that are equipped with these devices are designed so that they can be routinely tested. Systems are required to have dedicated drainage pipes with connections on each floor and a means for determining water flow. A pressure-regulating device must be specified and/or adjusted to meet the pressure and flow requirements of the individual installation. For factoryset devices, the pressure-regulating device must be installed on the proper hose outlet to ensure proper installation. When field-adjustable devices are installed, the manufacturer’s instructions on making adjustments must be followed carefully. Ifa pressure-regulating device is not properly installed or not properly adjusted for the required inlet pressure, outlet pressure, and flow, the available flow may be greatly reduced and fire-suppression capabilities seriously impaired. Tests of pressure-regulating devices in Los Angeles in the 1980s showed that 75 percent of the tested devices failed. Considering these results and the Meridian Plaza fire case history, some jurisdictions now require that test flows be performed on all standpipe outlets on the system. Fire Department Connections Each Class I or Class III standpipe system requires one or more FDC through which a fire department engine can supply water into the system. High-rise buildings having two or more zones require a FDC for each zone (Figure 9.23). In high-rise buildings with multiple zones, the upper zones may be beyond the height to which a fire engine can effectively supply water. This height would be around 450 feet (137 m), depending on available hydrant pressure and other factors. For standpipe system zones beyond that height, a FDC is of no value, unless the fire department is equipped with special high-pressure engines and the system has high-pressure piping. Standard requirements specify that there shall be no shutoff valve between the FDC and the standpipe riser. In multiple-riser systems, however, gate valves are provided at the base ofthe individual risers. The hose connections to the FDC must have a female National Standar d Thread (NST), National Standard (NS), or National Thread (NT) connection and be equipped with standard cap plugs or approved breakaway covers. See NFPA® 1963, Standard for Fire Hose Connections, and IESTA’s Fire Hose Practices manual for more information. Some jurisdictions require Storz- 368 Chapter 9 Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems type (sexless) couplings that allow large diameter hose to supply standpipes. It is important that the hose coupling threads conform to those used by the local fire department. The FDC may also be protected with a Knox® locking intake cap that requires the use of a special key to remove. The use of these locking caps may be permitted or regulated by the local authority. The FDC must be designated by a raised-letter sign on a plate or fitting reading STANDPIPE. If the FDC does not service the entire building, the sign must indicate which floors are serviced. Stationary Fire Pumps Inspectors must be familiar with the stationary (fixed) fire pumps that may be encountered in many commercial, institutional, and industrial facilities. The Figure 9.23 These fire department connections (FDCs) in a high-rise building are intended for use on Floors 1 to 13. main function ofa fire pump is to increase the pressure ofthe water that flows through it. Usually, a fire pump is needed to supply a sprinkler or standpipe system because the available water supply source such as an elevated tank or ground storage tank does not have adequate pressure to meet the firesuppression system demand. Water is available to a fire pump from sources such as municipal water mains, wells, storage tanks, and reservoirs. Allstationary fire pumps and their installations must meet the requirements set forth in NFPA® 20, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection. However, numerous other NFPA® standards contain references to fire pumps, including standards on sprinklers, standpipes, water spray, water mist, and foam-water systems. Types According to NFPA® 20, a variety of firepumps types can be installed as fixed or stationary pumps for fire-suppression systems. However, the five following major types ofcentrifugal pumps are in use as stationary fire pumps: Centrifugal Pump — Pump with one or more impellers that rotate and use centrifugal force to move the water e Horizontal split-case pump Vertical split-case pump Vertical inline pump Vertical turbine pump End suction pump An additional pump that is found on automatic sprinkler systems is the pressure-maintenance or jockey pump. Its purpose is to maintain pressure on the sprinkler system. The design of the pressure-maintenance pump may be the same as any ofthe types listed. Jockey Pump — Small-capacity, high-pressure pump used to maintain constant pressure on the fire-protection system; often used to prevent the main pump from starting unnecessarily Horizontal Split-Case found The horizontal split-case pump is the most common type of fire pump horizontal in stationary fire-suppression systems. Sometimes referred to as a on one pump the with plane shaft pump, the drive shaft is on a horizontal 370). p. 9.24, end of the shaft and the driver (motor) on the other (Figure Chapter 9 « Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 369 Figure 9.24 A horizontal splitcase pump boosts incoming pressure. The shaft moves horizontally with a pump at one end and a motor at the other. Self-priming Centrifugal Pump — Centrifugal pump that uses an air-water mixture to reach a fully primed pumping condition Single-Stage Centrifugal Pump — Centrifugal pump with only one impeller This pump is used to boost the pressure from an incoming, pressurized water source such as a municipal water main ora facility water supply. Because it is not a self-priming pump (cannot draft water from a static supply source into the pump on its own), a horizontal split-case pump cannot be used to supply water from a static supply source such as a pond. The most common gallon rating for the horizontal split-case pumps in use today are those in the 500 to 1,500 gpm (2 000 L/min to 6 000 L/min) range. However, pumps are available for flows as low as 150 gpm (600 L/min) and as high as 4,500 gpm (18 000 L/min). Unlike pumps on fire apparatus, stationary fire pumps are not rated ata particular pressure. Single-stage, horizontal split-case pumps are available with pressure ratings from as lowas 40 psi (280 kPa) to as high as 290 psi (2 030 kPa). Inspectors shoutd be aware that in many cases fire pump pressure ratings or capabilities are often expressed in terms offeet of head pressure rather than psi or kPa. A column ofwater 2.304 feet (0.7 m) high creates 1 psi (exactly 6.89 Head Pressure — Pressure exerted by a stationary column of water, directly proportional to the height of the column kPa) of pressure. Therefore, a pump rated at 231 feet (70.4 m) of head pressure will be equal to one rated at 100 psi (689 kPa). NOTE: For ease of instruction, IFSTA generally uses a 1 DSl= when talking about pressure. CkPavratio Vertical Split-Case The vertical split-case pump is very similar to the horizontal split-case pump except that the impeller shaft runs vertically (Figure 9.25). This pump is always driven by an electric motor that sits on top of the pump. The main advantage of this pump is its compactness. Shaft bearings and the assembl y frame are designed to support the weight of the unit in a vertical position. The capabilities of these pumps are the same as those described for the horizontal split-case pump. 370 Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Vertical Inline The vertical inline pump is a single-stage pump designed to fit into the intake/ discharge line with the driver located above the inline impeller (Figure 9.26). The advantages of a vertical inline pump are the ease of installation as a replacement pump, the compact space required for the pump, and the ease of maintenance of the pump and driver. The pump has a capacity up to 1,500 gpm (6 000 L/min) and operating pressures up to 165 psi (1 155 kPa). Vertical Turbine The vertical turbine pump is very useful for lifting water from a source below the pump. Vertical turbine pumps are commonly used as well pumps in nonfire-protection applications. The vertical turbine pump impellers are actually located within the water supply source (Fi 9.27, p.372). Water is dr seal hel Redleaf Duis came into the impellers se ora eee and then : discharged up through the impeller casing. Most of these pumps are multistage : MII EEvemene gan Any centrifugal fire pump having more than one impeller pumps. As the water exits one impeller, it enters the next, and so on until it is discharged into the fire-suppression system piping. The volume capabilities of vertical turbine pumps are consistent with horizontal and vertical split-case pumps. However, vertical turbine pumps are available with discharge pressure ratings of up to 500 psi (3 500 kPa). Vertical Inline Pump Figure 9.26 Ina vertical inline pump, the driver or motor is located above the inline impeller. Figure 9.25 A vertical split-case pump has a vertical impeller shaft but serves the same function as a horizontal split-case pump. Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 371 End Suction Vertical Turbine Pump Hollow Shaft Electric Motor The end suction pump is a variation of the horizontal split-case pump design (Figure 9.28). End suction pumps are single-stage pumps that have centerline suction and discharge. They have pressure ratings from 40 to 150 psi (280 kPa to 1 050 kPa), along with flow ranges of50 to 750 gpm (200 L/min to 3 000 L/ min). Surface Discharge Head The advantages of the end suction pump are the ease of installation, simplified piping arrangement, and reduced pipe strain. The pumps are self-venting, which eliminates the need for an automatic air-release valve that is normally installed to control overheating of the pump. Pressure-Maintenance Automatic sprinkler systems may require an auxiliary pump that is designed to maintain pressure on the system. These small pumps are known as pressuremaintenance pumps, jockey pumps, or make-up pumps and are located in parallel with the primary fire pump (Figure 9.29). The design of these smallcapacity, high-pressure pumps may be any one of the pump types mentioned previously or pump types listed in NFPA® 20. End Suction Pump —— Figure 9.27 In a vertical turbine pump, the impellers are located in the water source. Water Out Belt —— Electric Motor Water In Figure 9.28 End suction pumps are single-stage pumps that have center line suction and discharge. 372 Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression System s Figure 9.29 This inspector is ensuring that this pressuremaintenance pump Is in working order and installed correctly. Drivers The source of power that operates the fire pump is called the driver. Fire pumps are commonly powered by one ofthree types ofdrivers: electric motor, diesel engine, or steam turbine. Other types of engine drivers such as gasoline, natural gas, and liquefied petroleum have been used in the past but are not currently recognized in NFPA® codes. Electric Motor Driver An electric motor is the most common method for driving a fire pump. It is simple, reliable, and easily maintained. Electric motors used on fire pumps are not designed specifically for that purpose or for any other specific purpose for that matter. However, all electric motors must meet the requirements of the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). The motor must have adequate horsepower (hp) to drive the fire pump. The pump capacity (gpm [L/min]), the net pressure (discharge pressure minus the incoming pressure), and the pump efficiency determine the required hp. For example, for a 1,000-gpm (4 000 L/min) pump rated at 100 psi (689 kPa), a motor of about 80 hp would be needed. Electric motors powerful enough to power fire pumps use a large amount of electricity and may require a larger electrical service to the building than would be needed otherwise (Figure 9.30, p. 374). Diesel Engine Driver A diesel engine is generally more expensive and requires more maintenance than an electric motor. A diesel engine is used in situations where a driver independent of the local electrical power supply is needed. However, this engine is more complex and requires an on-site fuel supply. Batteries are also required for starting the engine. A diesel engine is required to be tested weekly by running it for at least 30 minutes. Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 373 Figure 9.30 A large electric motor like this one being inspected draws a large amount of electricity to generate the 80 hp needed to activate the fire pump. Figure 9.31 Testing agencies have specific requirements such as overspeed shutdown devices for diesel engines used for fire pumps. Unlike an electric motor, the diesel engine used for fire pumps is tested and listed by testing laboratories (Figure 9.31). Testing agencies require the diesel engine to be equipped with overspeed shutdown devices, tachometers, oil-pressure gauges, and temperature gauges. The engine fuel supply is 185-hp motor contained in is also required to have a closed-circuit-type cooling system. A required to provide at least 1 gallon (4 L) per hp. For example, a requires a 185-gallon (740 L) fuel tank. Diesel engines that are a room or other enclosure must also have an adequate flow of air through the room to ensure proper combustion and removal of exhaust fumes. 374 Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Steam Turbine The third type of fire pump driver is the steam turbine. Steam turbines are not as common as the electric or diesel drivers. Steam turbines provide steam pressure to drive both horizontal and vertical split-case pumps directly. When an uninterruptible supply of steam is available in sufficient quantities and at sufficient pressure, steam-driven pumps are feasible options. Otherwise, economic considerations would dictate use of the electric- or diesel-driven equipment. Controllers A stationary fire pump starts automatically whenever the fire-suppression system it supplies operates, and it is frequently designed to stop automatically. This action is accomplished through the fire pump controller (Figure 9.32). NFPA® 20 describes the requirements for electric and diesel controllers. ELECTRIC FIRE PUMP CONTROLLER Figure 9.32 The automatic pump starts and stops in a fire-suppression system are controlled by a fire pump controller like the one shown. Electric Motor Most fire pumps are designed to start when a drop in pressure occurs in the fire-suppression system. A pressure-sensing switch within the electric motor controller detects the drop in pressure resulting from the flow of water. The pressure switch then energizes a circuit that closes the contacts for the motor circuit and starts the fire pump motor. When the water stops flowing in the system, the pressure switch detects the resulting increase in pressure and interrupts the motor circuit, thus turning off the pump. A pressure switch is adjustable; it must be properly adjusted for the individual fire-suppression system. It is possible for a pressure switch to be set impropstop erly, which may result in the pump not starting when needed or it may not is switch pressure the when the system is turned off. The pressure at which system. The set to start the fire pump must be higher than the pressure in the less than be must pump fire pressure at which the pressure switch stops the the churn (no flow) pressure of the fire pump. g and stopThe fire pump controller also contains a provision for startin features ing operat ping the pump manually. The controller contains other lamp, and arunning including a circuit breaker, a power-available indicating Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 375 period timer. The function of the running timer is to keep the fire pump HOES period of time once the motor has started. This action running for aminimum eliminates rapid opening and closing of the main motor contacts, which could result from system pressure fluctuations. Diesel Motor A diesel fire pump controller is more complicated than an electric motor controller. An electric motor controller basically opens and closes an electric circuit for the motor. A diesel engine controller closes the circuit for the starting motor on the diesel engine. In addition, it monitors and contains alarms for the following conditions: e Low engine-oil pressure e High engine-coolant temperature e Failure to start e Engine overspeed shutdown e Battery failure Madden Textile Plant Fire One of the largest fire losses in many years occurred in 1995 at the Madden Textile Plant in Georgia. Although no lives were lost in the fire, the resulting property loss was valued at $200,000,000, enough to put the company into bankruptcy. A contributing factor to the high loss was the failure of two diesel-driven fire pumps to operate properly. The cause of the failure was lack of adequate inspection, testing, and maintenance. Inspection and Testing NFPA® 25 contains detailed lists of inspection, test, and maintenance requirements for all types of water-based fire-suppression systems. Charts indicating the frequency of these inspections, tests, and maintenance are also included in the standard (Table 9.1). These tasks shall be performed by personnel who are trained and have experience in performing them. The owner or occupant shall have ultimate responsibility for ensuring that the tasks are properly performed. Third-party testing and maintenan ce organizations may be contracted by the owner/occupant to perform these tasks. The authority having jurisdiction (AHJ), regardless of govern mental level or agency, is responsible for collecting records about inspect ions, testing, and maintenance and witnessing some or all of the inspect ions and tests. This duty is usually assigned to building or fire department inspectors. Water department inspectors may also be authorized to collect this information and witness these tasks. 376 Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems e e omperalure Classification, e cr = Temperature Rating and Color Coding Temperature Classification Temperature Rating oF °C Uncolored or Black Ordinary 135-170 57-77 White Intermediate 175-225 79-107 Blue High 250-300 121-149 Red Extra High B20-G/0 163-191 Green Very Extra High 400-475 204-246 Orange Ultra High 500-575 260-302 An inspector will have the following four opportunities to review, inspect, and witness tests to water-based fire-suppression systems: 1. During the plans review and approval process that is required for all firesuppression systems 2. During the construction phase when the equipment is being installed; an inspector will make periodic preacceptance inspections during installation 3. During the acceptance test that is required ofall systems. 4. During the life of the system, an inspector makes periodic visual inspections, witnesses annual tests, or reviews the records of such inspections and tests Plans Review The first contact a Level II Inspector will have with a new fire-suppression system will be during the plans review phase (Figure 9.33). The plans review process is discussed in detailin Chapter 16, Plans Review and Field Verifications. In general, the inspector must determine if the proposed firesuppression system contains the following information: e Is appropriate for the type of occupancy, hazard, and construction type e Is correctly designed e Meets NFPA® and building code requirements e Contains all necessary documentation to permit an accurate assessment ofthe design Preacceptance Inspections Once the plans for the system have been reviewed, corrections made as rer quired, and a permit issued for the installation of the system, the inspecto ion. will be ready to perform preacceptance inspections during the installat to the Inspectors should bring copies of the plans and other documentation be should plans inspection site, although a stamped (certified) copy of the Figure 9.33 Fire-suppression systems should be examined during plans review in any building in which a system will be installed. maintained on site by the contractor. Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 3/7 or should During installation of all fire-protection systems, the inspect plans or listed compare the components ofthe system to those shown on the any in the construction documents (Figure 9.34). The contractor must justify original changes, alterations, or substitutions as meeting or exceeding the design. An inspector should particularly notice pipe hangers. The hangers must match the requirements shown on the plans and in the documents. In particular, correct hanger spacing is essential to prevent damage to the system during operation. During construction, some building codes require operational standpipes for structures that are four stories in height or greater. As construction progresses, the standpipe is extended to subsequent floors. The system may or may not have an attached water supply, but it must have appropriate FDCs, hose discharge connections, and fire pumps to provide the required volume and pressure at the highest discharge. Acceptance Testing Figure 9.34 Inspectors should take approved sets of plans with them when they make initial inspections of new construction. Plans are also maintained on site in the construction office. Acceptance tests are performed on all water-based fire-extinguishing systems when the installation is complete. Acceptance tests are performed by the installation contractor or the owner/occupant’s trained maintenance personnel. Depending on the local building or fire code requirements, representatives of the building department or fire department may be required to witness the tests. Acceptance test information for each type of system is given in Table 9.2. Periodic Inspections and Testing Water-based fire-suppression systems must be inspected and tested regularly to ensure that they will operate properly when needed. The frequency ofinspections and tests are listed in NFPA® 25. Although it is the responsibility of the owner/operator to have the inspections and tests performed and maintain accurate records, it is the inspector’s responsibility to review the records and sometimes witness the inspections and tests. Before performing any inspection, witnessing a test, or reviewing records, the inspector should take the following steps: e Review the records of previous inspections and identify the make, model, and type of equipment, including the area protected by the system (Figure 9.35, p. 383). e Determine whether the occupancy classification has changed. e Review building permits for the site to determine whether any approved alterations have been made to the structure or facility. ¢ Wear appropriate clothing for dirty locations such as attics and basements. Protective clothing may be necessary for certain manufacturin g areas. ¢ Obtain permission from the owner/occupant before perfor ming any inspection. 378 Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Table 9.2 Acceptance Testing Procedures ste epee Se Fire-Suppression System Automatic Sprinkler System NFPA Standard References ¢ NFPA® 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems. Inspectors: Witness acceptance tests. Installation Firm Representative: Conducts acceptance tests. ¢ NFPA® 20, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection. ¢ NFPA® 24, Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains and Their Appurtenances. Test Procedures 1. Flush underground connections. ¢ Flush underground mains and lead-in connections before mains are connected to the sprinkler piping. ¢ Continue flushing until all debris and sediment is removed from the line and water is clear. 2. Hydrostatic test system piping (wet-pipe system) Ensure that the system will be able to handle the pressure if a pumper connects to the fire department connection (FDC). Hydrostatically test all piping (including underground piping) at not less than 200 psi (1 400 kPa) for 2 hours. Test the system at 50 psi (850 kPa) above the normal static pressure if the normal static pressure exceeds 150 psi (1 050 kPa). Check for visible leakage while the system is pressurized; there should be none. Check for drops in pressure. Conduct underground supply pipe testing before completion of the interior sprinkler assembly. 3. Hydrostatic test system piping (dry-pipe system) Perform in the same manner as described for hydrostatic testing of wet-pipe sprinkler systems. Test for 24 hours with not less than. 40 psi (280 kPa) air pressure in freezing weather. Locate and correct air leaks if there is a loss of more than 11% psi (10 kPa). Conduct hydrostatic test using water when the weather warms. Water Spray Fixed System ¢ NFPA® 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems. ¢ NFPA® 15, Standard for Inspectors: Witness acceptance tests. Installation Firm Representative: Conducts acceptance tests. Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire Protection. 1. Test similar to automatic sprinkler system requirements. ¢ Flush all underground mains and lead-in piping before connecting the main to the system. ¢ Hydrostatically test system piping in accordance with NFPA® 13 requirements. 2. Make observations. Water spray system actuation valve must operate within 40 seconds of a heat-detection device sensing a fire. Ultrahigh-speed water spray systems must operate in less than 100 milliseconds of heat-detector activation. Operation of the discharge nozzles must be visually observed. Nozzles should not be obstructed or plugged to prevent the creation of the proper discharge pattern. They should be properly positioned. Discharge patterns should not be obstructed or prevented from covering the protected area. 3. Take pressure readings. * Take a pressure reading at the most remote nozzle on the system to determine that the piping is not obstructed. * Take a second pressure reading at the water-flow control valve. * Compare both readings to the manufacturer's design criteria. Continued Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 379 Table 9.2 (Continued) Fire-Suppression System Water Mist System NFPA Standard References NFPA® 750, Standard on Water Mist Fire Protection Systems. Test Procedures 1. Thoroughly flush all underground water supply piping and lead-in connections to the riser before they are connected to the water mist system. Inspection Personnel (who are familiar with what is required): Witness acceptance tests. 2. Visually and operationally inspect for correct installation and operation of all mechanical and electrical components of the system (includes any product-of-combustion detection system that may be used to activate the water mist system). Installing Contractor or Building Owner Representative: Performs acceptance tests. 3. Hydrostatically test all piping and tubing systems as described in the following requirements: Low-pressure systems should be able to maintain a pressure of 200 psi (1 400 kPa) for 2 hours. Intermediate- and high-pressure systems should be able to maintain 150 percent of their normal working pressure for 10 minutes and then for 110 minutes at normal working pressure. NOTE: When feasible, full-scale operational tests of the system should be conducted. Dry-pipe and preaction water mist systems should be subjected to an air-leakage test. Water mist systems should be able to maintain 40 psi (280 kPa) of air pressure with no more than 11% psi (10 kPa) of leakage for a 24-hour period. Foam-Water System Inspectors: Witness acceptance tests. Installation Firm Representative: Conducts acceptance tests. ¢ NFPA® 16, Standard for the Installation of Foam- Water Sprinkler and FoamWater Spray Systems. * NFPA® 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems. 1. Test similar to automatic sprinkler systems requirements for the sprinkler portion of the system, including the following items: Water-flow control valves Activation Piping Sprinklers 2. Test to determine the following: System flow pressures Actual discharge capacity * Consumption rate of foam-producing materials 3. Determine operation of foam proportioning equipment by flow tests. NOTE: If it is not possible to test the foam discharge, a water discharge test may be permitted. * Discharge foam from a single system. Discharge foam simultaneously from the maximum number of systems expected to operate. Continue the discharge until a stabilized discharge of foam is obtained. Conduct test at a minimum flow equal to the flow of the most remote four sprinklers. NOTE: The percentage of foam concentrate must be greater than the manufacturer's listed percentage rate. Continued 380 Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Table 9.2 (Continued) Fire-Suppression NFPA Standard System References Standpipe and Hose System NFPA® 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipes and Hose Systems. Test Procedures Perform the following tests and inspections when installation is complete: Flush and flow-test the system to remove any construction debris and ensure that there are no obstructions. NOTE: This testing also ensures that the system is capable of flowing the required amount of water at the required minimum pressure. Inspectors: Witness acceptance tests. Hydrostatically test at a pressure of at least 200 psi (1 400 kPa) for 2 hours to ensure the tightness and integrity of fittings. NOTE: If the normal operating pressure is greater than 150 psi (1 050 kPa), the system should be tested at 50 psi (350 kPa) greater than its normal pressure. Installation Firm Representative: Conducts acceptance tests. Perform a flow test on systems equipped with an automatic fire pump at the highest outlet to ensure that the fire pump will start when the hose valve is opened. Test the fire pump to ensure that it will deliver its rated flow and pressure. Inspect all devices used to ensure that they are listed by a nationally recognized testing laboratory. Check hose stations and discharge connections to ensure that they are in cabinets within 6 feet (1.8 m) from the floor and positioned so that the hose can be attached to the valve without kinking. Inspect each hose cabinet or closet for a conspicuous sign that reads FIRE HOSE and/or FIRE HOSE FOR USE BY OCCUPANTS OF BUILDING. Check fire department connections (FDCs) for the proper fire department thread and a sign that reads STANDPIPE with a list of the floors served by that connection. Check a dry standpipe for a sign that reads DRY STANDPIPE FOR FIRE DEPARTMENT USE ONLY. Stationary Fire Pump Inspectors from the Fire, Building, Water, Electrical, or Mechanical Departments: Witness acceptance tests. Manufacturer Representatives of the fire pump and its components (pump, engine, controller, and transfer switch): Witness acceptance tests. NFPA® 20, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection. = Pump must meet the following three standard performance criteria during the acceptance test: * Must develop not more than 140 percent of the rated net pressure at shutoff or churn. ¢ Must develop at least the rated net pressure while delivering the rated flow. ¢ Must develop at least 65 percent of the rated net pressure while delivering 150 percent of the rated flow. List of basic equipment needed to conduct an acceptance test: e Pitot tube and gauge ¢ Method for measuring pump speed e Voltmeter e Ammeter Continued Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 381 Table 9.2 (Continued) Fire-Suppression System Stationary Fire Pump NFPA Standard References Test Procedures NFPA® 20, Standard for the |3. Procedures: Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection. Owner/Occupant or Representative: Witness acceptance tests. Installation Contractor: Performs acceptance tests. Service Factor — Described as power to spare; that is, a number that is multiplied by the horsepower (hp) rating of a pump to equal the actual hp rating of the motor; the higher number generally means that the pump has more power (less likely to overload and overheat) as compared to the same pump with a lower number. Manually controlled pumps Manually start and stop at least 10 times with the pump running at least 5 minutes each time. Automatically controlled pump * Conduct at least 10 automatic operations operations with the pump running at least cycle. ¢ Test an automatic controller if it starts the to a fire-protection system operation such system. plus 10 manual 5 minutes in each pump in response as a fire-detection Electric-driven pump ¢ Conduct one test with all hoselines open to see whether the pump will reach rated speed under full load without pulling excess current and releasing or breaking the circuit. NOTE: All of these multiple-operation tests determine whether the starting mechanism is operating properly. e Keep the pump in operation during all testing procedures for no less than 1 hour. ¢ Notice the temperature of the pump bearings and the pump itself. None of the components should become hot to the touch. e Use the voltage and current measured to evaluate other acceptance criteria. NOTE: An electric motor should have a nameplate displaying the service factor (power to spare), full-load current rating, and rated voltage. ¢ Conduct essentially the same test procedure for the vertical-shaft electric-driven pump. Diesel-driven pumps Test the same as for electric-driven pumps. Voltage and current readings are not necessary. During testing * Do the * Do the not exceed the full-load current rating except as allowed by service factor. not exceed the ratio of the measured current in amperes to full-load current rating at any time during the test. ¢ Ensure that the measured voltage is never more than 5 percent below or more than 10 percent above the rated voltage. Data Collection Use the data collected when the test has been completed to construct performance curves that are compared with the manufacturer's certified curves. Use the net pressure in constructing the pressure versus flow curve. NOTE: If the performance curve falls very close to the characteristic curve, the velocity pressures should be considered. An increase or decrease in pipe size will cause pressure changes because of the change in water velocity. But for most practical applications, these pressure changes can be ignored. Continued 382 Chapter 9 « Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems ag: z es Fire-Suppression System Table 9.2 (Concluded) NFPA Standard References Stationary Fire Pump Test Procedures Results ¢ Compare the actual performance of the pump to the certified shop test curves provided by the manufacturer. ¢ Do not accept the installation if the pump does not meet or exceed the characteristic curves or malfunctions in any way. ¢ Require the installing contractor, in conjunction with the equipment manufacturer, to make the installation comply with the standard. Private Water Supply _|* NFPA® 24, Standard for the | 1. Procedures: System Installation of Private Fire Service Mains and Their Appurtenances. 1. Private Fire Service Maine * NFPA® 22, Standard for Water Tanks for Private Fire Inspectors: Witness acceptance tests. Installation Firm Representative: Conducts acceptance tests. 2. Water Supply Tanks Owner and the Installation Contractor: Performs inspections. Protection. e Hydrostatically pressurize both underground and overhead piping for 2 hours to 200 psi (1 400 kPa) or 50 psi (350 kPa) above the maximum static pressure, whichever is larger. NOTE: Any leakage constitutes failure for the overhead piping. The underground pipe is permitted to leak a little (just a few quarts [liters] per hour) depending on the length of pipe and the number and type of valves and gaskets. e Flush the underground pipe before connection to the fireprotection system piping to remove any accumulated debris in the piping. NOTE: If foreign materials are not flushed from the piping before connection to the fire-protection system, these materials will damage or obstruct the system control valves, piping, and discharge devices, which can have a negative affect on the effectiveness of the system NOTE: The required flow rate for flushing pipes depends on the diameter of the underground pipe. However, the minimum flow rate is a velocity of 10 feet per second (3 m/sec). 2. Water Supply Tanks Provide results of the inspection to the authority having jurisdiction. Figure 9.35 Before going on an inspection visit, inspectors should review any previous inspections on file to understand the history of the structure under review. Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 383 25. InspecSpecific inspection and testing requirements are located in NFPA® to inspect ing tors should consult the specific NFPA® standard before attempt or witnessing the testing of any water-based fire-suppression system. The sections that follow contain general items that an inspector should look for during scheduled building inspections. For convenience, these sections follow a pattern that an inspector would take when inspecting an occupancy. Because most water-based fire-suppression systems are based on the design of automatic sprinkler systems, its section contains the majority of the applicable information. The remaining sections focus on information specific to that particular type of system Automatic Sprinkler Systems Automatic sprinkler systems should be inspected during any scheduled building inspection. Inspectors should not wait for periodic systems test to inspect the systems. Generally, an inspector begins an inspection of a water-based firesuppression system in the system riser room. Automatic sprinkler systems are no exception. An inspector should first ensure that all valves controlling water supplies to the sprinkler system and within the system (sectional valves) are open at all times. Anytime a valve is found closed, the inspector should report the condition to the responsible agency and the fire department. Examine control valves in the following manner: e Ensure that the valve is opened fully and secured or otherwise supervised in an approved manner (tamper switches, chained and padlocked in the open positions, etc.). e Check the valve operating wheel or crank to confirm that it is in operating condition. e Ensure that the valve is accessible at all times. NOTE: Ifa permanent ladder is provided to elevated valves, check to see that it is in good condition. e Check the valve-operating stem to determine that it is not subjected to mechanical damage. The addition of guards may be necessary. e Check the PIVs to ensure that the operating wrench is in place. Try the wrench to feel the spring of the rod when the valve is fully opened. The stem should be backed about one-quarter turn from the fully open position to facilitate ease of operation and prevent leaks caused by damage to the valve packing. e Ensure that the PIV’s target (open/shut sign) is properly adjusted and that the cover glass is in place and clean (Figure 9.36). e Ensure that the PIV bolts are tight and the barrel Casing is intact. On the water-flow control valve, an inspector should look for the following conditions: e Alarm line shutoff valve is completely open. e Valves to the pressure gauges are open. 384 Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems e Static pressure above the clapper valve is equal to or greater than the static pressure below the clapper. NOTE: Systems without alarm check valves will have only one pressure gauge on the riser. e Main drain valve, auxiliary drains, and inspector’s test valves are closed. e Automatic ball drip valve in the FDC moves freely and allows trapped water to drain. e Retard chamber automatic drip valve moves freely and allows water to drain from the retard chamber. e FDC threads are unobstructed, swivels operate freely, swivels are in good condition, and caps are in place. Use a fire department male coupling to ensure that the FDC female threads are compatible (Figure 9.37). Freezing Temperatures In locales where freezing temperatures are likely, an inspector should determine that pipes in wet systems are protected against freezing. Branch lines near windows can freeze. Piping in or near loading docks can freeze when loading-dock doors are left open for extended periods. Piping over ceilings in the top floor of a building or in an attic may not receive enough heat during prolonged cold spells. Building codes and sprinkler standards require that all sprinkler riser rooms be maintained at greater than 40°F (4.4°C). In wet-pipe systems, all areas containing sprinkler piping must have temperatures greater than 40°F (4.4°C). Piping that does not meet these requirements must be altered appropriately. | at ‘ Figure 9.36 An inspector verifies that the post indicator valve is readable and properly adjusted. Figure 9.37 Connecting a male coupling to an FDC is a quick way to ensure that the threads are not damaged. Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 385 Each sprinkler system riser has a main drain. The primary purpose ofthe main drain is to simply drain water from the system for maintenance purposes. According to NFPA® 25, the main drain test should be conducted quarterly. The inspector should verify the inspection of the system and witness the alarm test in conjunction with the main drain test. The system pressure gauge frequently indicates a higher pressure than the supply pressure gauge due to pressure surges being trapped by a check valve. Risers that are 4 inches (100 mm) or larger in diameter are equipped with a 2-inch (50 mm) main drain. The main drain test is also useful for detecting impairments such as closed valves, obstructions, or gradual deterioration in the water supply. To perform a main drain test, the inspector should use the following steps: Step 1: Observe and record the pressure on the system side gauge at the system riser. NOTE: On a system using an alarm check valve, the pressure readings should be taken from the lower gauge because erroneously high static pressures can exist above the valve. Step 2: = Have a building representative fully open the main drain. NOTE: The main drain will usually discharge outside the building, and the area should be checked to make sure it is clear. Step 3: Observe and record the pressure drop. Step 4: Have the building representative close the 2-inch (50 mm) main drain slowly. Step 5: Observe and record the final static pressure. If it is not the same as the initial static pressure, itis likely that pressure was trapped in the system. These readings should be compared to previously recorded readings. If significant differences are noted, a supply valve may be partially closed or an obstruction may be in the supply line. Another cause can be faulty backflow preventers. During an inspection of a dry-pipe sprinkler system, inspectors should ensure that the following conditions are met: e Allindicating control valves are open and properly supervised in the open position. e Air-pressure readings correspond to previously recorded readings. e The ball drip valve moves freely and allows trapped water to seep out of the FDC. e The velocity drip valve located beneath the intermediate chamberis free to move and allow trapped water to seep out. Inspectors can check this valve by instructing the building representative to lift a push rod that extends through the drip valve opening. Where an automatic drip valve is installed , the velocity drip valve can be checked by moving the push rod located in the valve opening. e Any drum drips are drained to eliminate the moisture trapped in the low areas of the system. The priming water is at the correct level. If necessary, person nel can drain water by opening the priming water test level valve until air begins to escape. 386 Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems NOTE: Ifthe system is equipped with a quick-opening device, opening the priming water test line could trip the system. e The system’s air pressure is maintained at 15 to 20 psi (105 kPa to 140 kPa) above the trip point and no air leaks are indicated by a rapid or steady air loss. If inspectors note excessive air pressure, they should have the system drained (Figure 9.38). e The system air compressor is approved for sprinkler system use, well-maintained, operable, and of sufficient size. The main drain test for deluge and preaction sprinkler systems serves the same purpose as it does on wet- and dry-pipe systems. The test is conducted in the same | [Maes Siemens Lior manner as done for the wet- and dry-pipe systems. During the inspection ofan automatic sprinkler system, the inspector observes the alarm trip test performed by a representative of the sprinkler company of the owner/ occupant. The inspector never performs this test due to liability issues. When planning an alarm trip test ona dry-pipe system, the inspector should be aware that this procedure can ; Figure 9.38 Inspectors should check the fire-suppression system's pressure to ensure that the system is at the take from 2 to 4 hours to complete. The amount of time correct pressure. If it is not, the inspector should direct that needed depends on the amount and size of the piping action be taken, including draining the system when the in the system and the capacity of the air compressor to Pressure is too high. pressurize the system. Also, old valves may prove more difficult to reset because of leaking seats or worn parts, and more than one attempt may be required. When equipment is electronically supervised, the inspector may want to have personnel notify the alarm-monitoring organization before any testing is conducted. Another method is to notify the monitoring company after the first portion ofthe test to ensure that the monitoring organization is properly handling its responsibility. Facility personnel should inform the alarm-monitoring organization when testing is completed. At that time, the alarm-monitoring organization should confirm that the alarm equipment functions properly. The inspector should inspect the sprinkler cabinet located near the water-flow control valve to ensure that the required number of replacement sprinklers is available. The NFPA® sprinkler standards list the appropriate supply of extra Aminimum of sprinklers that must be maintained at the protected premises. a one sprinkler for each type and temperature rating is required. In addition, (Figure provided be sprinkler wrench with which to change them must also 9.39, p. 388). r Once the sprinkler system riser room has been inspected, the inspecto and n conditio continues through the remainder of the building, noting the n to any attentio ar particul Pay location of sprinklers, hangers, and piping. could obstruct temporary or permanent changes that have been made that or alter sprinkler discharge patterns. Chapter 9 » Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 387 Also ensure that all sprinklers are clean, undamaged, unobstructed, and free of corrosion or paint; if not, they must be replaced. Guards that protect against mechanical damage may also need to be added or repaired. Sprinklers in buildings subject to high temperatures should be carefully examined, particularly in areas where changes of occupancy have occurred or fire hazards or mechanical equipment (such as heating and lighting) have changed. Any changes may require the installation ofdifferent types of rated sprinklers. Any sprinkler showing evidence of weakness or damage should be replaced with a sprinkler of the same type and temperature. Weak sprinklers are indicated by a creeping or sliding apart ofthe fusible link (cold flow) or by leakage around the sprinkler orifice. Cold flow is the distortion of a material caused by the repeated heating of a fusible link to near its operating temperature (Figure 9.40). Cold-flow problems can be eliminated by either using a higher temperature rated sprinkler or using frangible bulb sprinklers. Figure 9.39 Sprinkler cabinets house replacement sprinklers for the system and the tools needed to replace the sprinklers when necessary. An inspector should ensure that these cabinets are stocked with at least one replacement sprinkler for each type used in the system. Cold Flow Concept Figure 9.40 Cold flow concept: Distortion caused by repeated heating. 388 Chapter 9 ¢ Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Repeated exposures to temperature changes can cause fusible links to weaken due to expansion and contraction. Partitions, stock, lights, or other objects should not obstruct the distribution of water discharge from sprinklers, and the discharge area should be free of hanging displays. A minimum clearance of 18 inches (450 mm) to 36 inches (915 mm), depending on type, measured from the deflector should be maintained under sprinklers. Inspect all sprinkler piping and hangers to determine that they are in good condition. Check for corrosion and physical damage to ensure that there are no leaks in the pipes or fittings. Report loose sprinkler hangers. Ensure that hangers are at proper intervals and match the original installation plans (Figure 9.41). Sprinkler piping must not to be used as a support for ladders, stock, ceiling grids, or other materials. A A Water Spray Fixed Systems The periodic inspections and tests of water spray fixed systems are similar to those performed on automatic sprinkler systems. The periodic inspections of water spray systems include all systems components including the eerrcntildaners ies valves, detection devices, piping, nozzles, strainers, and water supply. During periodic building inspections, inspectors should review owner/occupant inspection reports to ensure that the frequency of inspections, tests, and maintenance meets the minimum requirements found in NFPA® 25. When making an inspection, check the piping and fittings for the following conditions: Figure 9.41 Hangers for branch lines should be checked against plans as part of an inspection. Hangers should only be used to support the fire-suppression system. e Mechanical damage e Leaks e Corrosion e Misalignment of parts e Missing components e Damaged or missing pipe hangers. General inspection procedures for water spray fixed systems include the following: e Inspect nozzles to ensure that they are operable; free from corrosion, paint, or accumulations of dirt; and properly aligned for the protected area. e Ensure that replacement sprinklers and wrenches are located in the sprinkler cabinet. e Inspect the strainers on the mainline and nozzles to determine whether they are obstructed. Clean strainers and remove any debris to permit the proper flow of water. e Ensure that the water supply is dependable and that all water-flow control valves are in the locked and open position. supply e Inspect the fire pumps, tanks, and connections to the public water in accordance with the requirements for those types of systems. Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 389 the system's An inspector should witness operational tests to determine that pattern Is rge discha the response time is less than 40 seconds. Observe that spray syscorrect for the surface being covered. For ultrahigh-speed water following econds millis 100 tems, ensure that the response time is less than activation. Water Mist Systems NFPA® 25 lists requirements for inspecting, maintaining, and service testing water mist systems. This information was previously contained in NFP® 750. Systems that utilize air cylinders require that the cylinders be hydrostatically tested on a regular basis. Empty cylinders must be tested before recharging if it has been more than 5 years since their last tests. Cylinders that have not been discharged should be emptied and tested every 12 years. Inspectors should also try to verify that the owner/occupant or fire protection equipment company is servicing the system on a regular basis. Typical servicing functions include the following: e Lubricating control valve stems e Adjusting packing glands on valves and pumps e Bleeding moisture and condensation from air compressors and air lines @ Cleaning strainers e Replacing corroded or painted nozzles e Replacing damaged or missing pipe hangers e Replacing damaged valve seats or gaskets Inspectors should also ensure that the required replacement components such as extra spray nozzles are present in sufficient quantities. Foam-Water Systems Parts of the foam-water system that are similar to those of other water-based fire-protection systems should be tested and inspected in accordance with those system requirements. The system component that is peculiar to the foam-water system is the foam proportioner. During an inspection of a foam-water system, an inspector should verify that the control valves are in the appropriate position for the type of proportioner in use. The valves may be in the open or closed position. The inspection requirements for the various proportioners are as follows: e Standard pressure proportioner — Ensure that the ball drip valves are open and operable and that no corrosion is present on the foam concentrate storage tanks. ¢ Bladder tank proportioner — Check the operation ofthe water-flow control valves, look for corrosion on the exterior of the storage tank, and look for the presence of foam in the water around the bladder. e Line proportioner — Inspect the strainers to ensure that they are not obstructed, look for corrosion on the exterior of the storage tank, and verify that the pressure vacuum vent is operational. 390 Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems Standard and inline balanced-pressure proportioners — On these two types of proportioners, the inspector should verify the following conditions: — Strainers are not obstructed. — Pressure vacuum vent is operational. — Gauges are operational. — Sensing line valves are open. — Power is available to the foam pump. Orifice plate proportioner — Same inspection requirements as the previous balanced-pressure proportioners except that there are no sensing line valves in the system. Standpipe and Hose Systems As with all fire-protection systems, standpipe and hose systems need to be inspected and tested at regular intervals (Figure 9.42). Building management personnel should make a visual inspection at least once a month. Because interior fire-suppression operations depend on standpipe and hose systems, the fire department must also inspect them at regular intervals. A fire-protection system contractor or the owner/occupant’s employees should perform testing of standpipes and hose systems. Employees must be trained and certified to perform standpipe tests. Inspectors should inspect standpipe and hose systems for the following conditions: Figure 9.42 Inspectors should All water supply valves are sealed (locked) in the open position. make certain that all hose stations are in working order and Power is available to the fire pump, and it is in operating condition. will perform as anticipated in Individual hose valves are free of paint, corrosion, and other impediments. case of an emergency. Individual hose valves are operable. Hose valve threads are not damaged. Hose valve wheels are present and not damaged. Hose cabinets are accessible. Hose (when present) is in good condition, is dry, and is properly positioned on the rack or reel. Discharge outlets in dry systems are closed. Dry standpipe is drained of moisture. Access to the FDC is not blocked. The FDC is free of obstruction, the swivels rotate freely, and caps are in place. Ifa security (Knox® cap lock) is in place, determine ifakey has been supplied to the fire department. Water supply tanks are filled to the proper level. If the system is equipped with pressure-regulating devices, those devices are tested as the manufacturer requires. Dry-pipe systems are hydrostatically tested every 5 years. Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 391 Stationary Fire Pumps operation is weekly. The recommended inspection frequency for fire-pump ed, and brought Pumps should be operated from automatic starts, ifsoequipp enance permaint to full speed while pumping a substantial stream. Building m pump sonnel or contracted fire protection specialists most commonly perfor ed to requir be may tests. Depending on local code requirements, inspectors witness the tests on a periodic basis. Particular attention should be paid to the electrical power for electrically driven fire pumps. The fire pump control panel must be visually checked to ensure that the circuit breaker or disconnect is closed and that the power indicating light is on. If the pump takes water under pressure (such as from a city water main), the incoming pressure gauge should be checked to verify that water is available. It is important to remember, however, that simply checking the incoming pressure will not disclose an obstruction such as a partially closed valve in the water supply. A flow test is necessary to check for obstructions. Private Water Supply Systems Private water mains are flow-tested at aminimum ofevery 5 years. Ifthe mains cannot provide the flow that could be expected during a fire, a jurisdiction can require further inspections and tests to determine the cause and require the owner/occupant to affect repairs to the system. Private hydrants must be inspected annually by opening the hydrant completely and flowing water for not less than 1 minute. Dry-barrel hydrants must drain completely in no more than 1 hour. The inspector should look for damage to the operating nut, discharge threads, and the body of the hydrant. The operating stem must function properly without undo strain. Hydrants must be free of ice and snow and protected against mechanical damage that could be caused by vehicles or other equipment. Gravity tanks, pressure tanks, and ground-level reservoirs must be visually inspected to ensure that they are full. Gravity tanks are equipped with various water-level devices. However, these devices have been known to fail, so the only sure way to verify that a tank is full is to climb to the top and look into it. Pressure tanks are equipped with sight gauges and pressure gauges to facilitate their inspection. Hose houses must contain the required equipment, including the required lengths of hose, nozzles, and fittings. Hose must meet the requirements of NFPA® 1962, Standard for the Inspection, Care, and Use of Fire Hose, Couplings, and Nozzles and the Service Testing of Fire Hose. Monitors must be unobstructed, accessible, and operational. They must oscillate, rotate, and elevate freely and the nozzle valve must operate smoothly. The monitor must be hydrostatically tested according to NFPA® 24. Summary Water-based fire-suppression systems have proven their value in controlling, containing, and preventing fires in many types of occupancies. Statistics show both the life safety and property-protection value of these systems. When such systems fail, the cause is generally human error. To prevent failures, it is up 392 Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems to fire inspectors to determine that water-based fire-suppression systems are designed, installed, tested, and inspected properly. While it is the responsibility of the property owner/occupant to perform the various tests and inspections that are listed in the NEPA® standards, itis the fire inspector who must verify the performance of the tests and inspections. This verification occurs through report reviews, witnessing tests and inspections, and performing periodic inspections in the presence of owner/ occupants. An inspector must be familiar with the types of water-based fire-suppression equipment, types of tests required for the equipment, and intervals at which the tests and inspections must occur. This chapter provided an overview of those requirements. It is important that the inspector stay up to date on any changes in the NFPA® standards or locally adopted building and fire codes as well as technological changes in the various types of equipment. Review Questions How does a looped sprinkler system work? What is the traditional method for designing sprinkler systems? What is a jockey pump? Discuss the steps in performing a main drain test. What general items on a water spray fixed system should be inspected? ve ae ab eS ee 1. Who performs tests and inspections for water-based fire-suppression systems? What should be included in a proposed fire-suppression system? What should be worn by inspectors during acceptance testing? When should automatic sprinkler systems be tested? serpin SUD GS What conditions should be met during an inspection ofa dry-pipe sprinkler system? Chapter 9 © Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems 393 Aecial-Agent Fire-Extinguishing s Extinguishers Systemand ~ Chapter Contents Oo meer 427 eereeeenitepaee AQ GINS Sscsccssdgcsansenraetnexcebsemrewcsi Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing SVSIGINS seeeetreite secre ects te 398 ee TW0GS cco sccd haces ieee 430 eae 399 Selection and Location/Distribution................0c008 432 Dry-Chemical Fire-Extinguishing Systems.............. 399 eeterreeeress: 436 eeress Installationandilace ie il teeeeesss Wet-Chemical Fire-Extinguishing Systems.............. 406 Inspection and Maintenance ..........-.sssesseeeseres 438 Clean-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems................. 408 TIARAIQ see cin sece nore servennevvan tanec cnt een dente es cae cemnacse 439 Classification) SVSTEMS aves scree cee eer eee eee 440 Carbon Dioxide Fire-Extinguishing Systems............. 411 SUMMA Vscsae ccsssh tas saence. acute Foam Fire-Extinguishing Systems ..........:::cseeeee 414 4 441 ee eee Review Questions %.sa.22..- © Portable Fire Extinguishers................ 424 CIES STIICE NTO SYSUIGTING ccosoonoccososcocotoassoanccocessoconceonene 425 PaliMGRSV SCI Svacoecetecesecseseceesceensrer ators nenscesescess 425 Key Terms ASDDY Xlaliteerreseseenc sr sere ene, 430 EXDeliantiGaSnisetastrichi tii: 403 Fluoronated Surfactant.............::cccccceeeees 420 PIVOLOStalUCel@Sutrr ce cote tre: ereetertahike 406 Predischarge Alarm. ..............::::sssssssssseee 412 Job Performance Requirements This chapter provides information that addresses the following job performance requirements (JPRs) of NFPA® 1031, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner (2009) Chapter 4 Fire Inspector | 4.3.7 4.3.9 Chapter 5 Fire Inspector Il 5.3.4 5.4.3 sa} OL “Ghecial-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers ~ Learning Objectives Cr) Fire Inspector | ily Describe the locations that special-agent fireextinguishing systems might protect. m Compare application methods of dry-chemical fire-extinguishing systems. Describe dry-chemical fire-extinguishing agents. Explain the operation of dry-chemical fireextinguishing system components. (Re, Describe installation, placement, and mounting requirements for portable fire extinguishers. 23. Describe the inspection procedures for portable fire extinguishers. 24. Inspect extinguishing systems and fire extinguishers. (Learning Activity 10-I-1) © Fire Inspector II 1, Describe the locations that special-agent fire- Describe locations that wet-chemical fireextinguishing systems are intended to protect. extinguishing systems might protect. Compare application methods of dry-chemical fireextinguishing systems. Describe dry-chemical fire-extinguishing agents. Describe inspection procedures for a wetchemical fire-extinguishing system. Explain the operation of dry-chemical fireextinguishing system components. Explain how clean-agent fire-extinguishing systems control fire. Describe inspection procedures for dry-chemical fire-extinguishing systems. Compare the benefits and limitations of carbon dioxide fire-extinguishing systems. Describe locations that wet-chemical fireextinguishing systems are intended to protect. Describe the three means of actuation of carbon dioxide fire-extinguishing systems. Describe inspection procedures for a wet-chemical fire-extinguishing system. Explain the methods foam uses to extinguish fire. Explain how clean-agent fire-extinguishing systems control fire. Describe each of the types of foam systems. Compare the benefits and limitations of carbon dioxide fire-extinguishing systems. Describe inspection procedures for drychemical fire-extinguishing systems. Discuss foam generation and foam proportioning and expansion rates. Compare the specific types of foam concentrates. Discuss foam proportioners and their inspection and testing requirements. . Describe the requirements that portable fire extinguishers should meet to be effective. Explain the fire extinguisher rating system. . Compare the benefits and limitations of fireextinguishing agents. . Describe the types of portable fire extinguishers based on agent expellant methods. . Discuss the selection and location of extinguishers. . Describe the occupancy classifications used to determine the distribution of portable fire extinguishers. 396 Seu. . Describe the three means of actuation of carbon dioxide fire-extinguishing systems. Inspect fire-extinguishing systems. (Learning Activity 10-/!-1) Explain the methods foam uses to extinguish fire. Describe each of the types of foam systems. . Discuss foam generation and foam proportioning and expansion rates. . Compare the specific types of foam concentrates. Discuss foam proportioners and their inspection and testing requirements. FESHE Objectives Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Objectives: Principles of Code Enforcement None Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Chapter 10 7 Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing § Systems and Extinguishers — €, ‘ sealer | ets Lack of Fire Extinguishers Factor During the analysis of a tragic fire in which 100 individuals lost their lives in a Rhode Island nightclub, investigators determined that lack of portable fire extinguishers near the fire’s point of ignition was one of the many contributing factors to the catastrophe. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) also recommended in its analysis of this event that a study regarding the number and placement of portable fire extinguishers be conducted to establish their locations in certain high-occupancy or high-risk locations such as nightclubs (Figure 10.1, p. 398). © Building and fire codes are intended to create and maintain work, leisure, and living environments that are as safe as possible for occupants. When fires do occur, the most effective means of protecting occupants is to extinguish the fire in the incipient stage when it is small and controllable. To provide this level of protection, codes require fire-extinguishing systems in some types of occupancies and portable fire extinguishers in all types of public occupancies. Depending on the type of occupancy, building codes require that firesuppression systems be installed in the structure or facility. Most fire-suppression systems will be automatic sprinkler systems that apply water to the seat of the fire as soon as it is detected. These systems were described in Chapter 9, Water-Based Fire-Suppression Systems. In occupancies where water will contribute to a fire, will cause additional damage to the building or contents, or will not effectively stop a fire, alternative fire-extinguishing systems may be required. These systems consist of a variety of types of special-agent fireextinguishing systems. In all types of public occupancies, building and fire codes require portable fire extinguishers for occupants to use when they discover a fire at the time of ignition or in the incipient stage. To be effective, the extinguishers must be readily accessible and properly inspected, tested, and maintained. Additionally, occupants must be trained in the proper use of the extinguishers. Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 397 Figure 10.1 Photo of Station Club fire in Rhode Island. Courtesy of Mike Porowski. In addition to the water-based fire-suppression systems discussed in the previous chapter, inspection personnel must be familiar with special-agent fireextinguishing systems and portable fire extinguishers. This chapter describes special-agent fire-extinguishing systems and their classifications, operations, components, agents, and inspection and testing requirements. Portable fire extinguishers, their classifications, types, components, agents, installations, inspections, and maintenance requirements are also presented. Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems Special-agent fire-extinguishing systems are used in locations where standard automatic sprinkler systems may not be the best solution to a particular fire risk or problem. These locations include areas that contain the following contents, hazardous materials, or equipment: e Flammable and combustible liquids and gases e Water-reactive metals or chemicals e Food-preparation equipment e File storage or archives e Sensitive electronic equipment e Electrical transformers and switches A critical feature and limitation of these special-agent fire-extinguishing systems is the quantity of agent available to the system. While water-supplied fire-extinguishing systems can have an almost unlimited supply of water available, special-agent fire-extinguishing systems must operate with a specific, and limited, quantity of agent. Also, a water-supplied fire-extinguishing system only needs to control or contain a fire until the fire department arrives. Fora special-agent fire-extinguishing system to be considered successful, it must completely extinguish the fire. 398 Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Because the special-agent fire-extinguishing system must be designed to protect a specific type of hazard or location, a variety of systems exist. The following sections describe each ofthe special-agent fire-extinguishing systems and the method of classifying them: e Dry chemical e Carbon dioxide (CO,) @ Wet chemical e Foam e Clean agent Classification Systems Fire-extinguishing systems as well as portable fire extinguishers are classified by the type of fire they will extinguish based on the five classifications of fires as presented in Chapter 3, Fire Behavior. Labels may be affixed to the extinguishing agent storage tanks to indicate the class of fire for which the system is approved. As a review, the classifications of fires are summarized as follows: @ Class A — Involves ordinary, solid, combustible materials such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber, and many plastics e@ Class B — Involves flammable and combustible liquids and gases such as gasoline, oil, lacquer, paint, mineral spirits, and alcohol e Class C — Involves energized electrical equipment where the electrical nonconductivity of the extinguishing agent is of major importance; materials involved are either Class A (wiring insulation) or Class B (lubricants), and they can be extinguished once the equipment is de-energized e Class D — Involves combustible metals such as aluminum, magnesium, potassium, sodium, titanium, and zirconium (particularlyin their powdered forms); may require special extinguishing agents or techniques; consult NFPA’s® Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials for fire hazard properties of flammable liquids, gases, and volatile solids @ Class K — Involves oils and greases normally found in commercial cooking kitchens and food preparation facilities using deep fyers; through a process known as saponification, extinguishing agents turn fats and oils into a soapy form that extinguishes a fire NOTE: Class K is the most recently added classification of fire designated by NFPA®. It reflects the development and use of cooking oils that have extremely high combustion temperatures that require special extinguishing agents. In Europe this classification is designated as Class E. Dry-Chemical Fire-Extinguishing Systems A dry-chemical extinguishing system is used wherever rapid fire extinguishment is required and where reignition of the burning material is unlikely. This system is most commonly used to protect the following areas: e Flammable liquid storage rooms e Dip tanks e Paint spray booths (Figure 10.2, p. 400) e Commercial cooking areas or kitchens (see Caution) e Exhaust duct systems Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 399 Figure 10.2 Dry-chemical systems like this one are found in paint spray booths to protect against the ignition of flammable vapors. An individual nozzle is shown in the inset photo. Inspectors will be required to review dry-chemical fire-extinguishing systems installation plans, inspect new installations and witness acceptance tests of those newinstallations, and perform periodic inspections of existing systems. Inspectors should know the application methods, agents, components, and inspection and testing requirements of dry-chemical systems. Application Methods All dry-chemical systems must meet the requirements set forth in NFPA® 17, Standard for Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems. Two methods for the application of dry-chemical extinguishing systems are as follows: 1. Fixed system — Consists of the agent storage tanks, expellant storage tanks, a heat-detection and activation system, piping, and nozzles. Two main types: — Local application: Discharges agent onto a specific surface such as the cooking area in a restaurant kitchen; the most common type — Total flooding: Introduces a thick concentration of agent into a closed area such as a spray paint booth. 2. Handheld hoseline — Relies on trained personnel to apply the dry chemical from hose stations that are connected directly to the agent and expellant storage containers, Hose stations contain hoseline and nozzle assemblies that can reach all portions of the protected area. Some types of hazards such as fuel-loading docks, aircraft hangars, and flammable liquids storage rooms may require the installation of such systems. Agents Fire-extinguishing agents used in fixed dry-chemical systems are generally the same types that are used in portable fire extinguishers. The agents smother the fire by creating a layer between the burning fuel and the oxygen. These agents are used in situations where water would be ineffective or reactive with the burning materials. 400 Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Inspectors should recognize that there is a disadvantage to the use ofdrychemical agents. These agents discharge a cloud of chemicals that leaves a residue that creates a cleanup problem after the system discharges. A dry-chemical system is not recommended for an area that contains sensitive electronic equipment. The chemical residue has insulating characteristics that hinder the operation of the equipment unless extensive cleanup is performed. The agent also becomes corrosive when exposed to moisture. Some of the dry-chemical extinguishing agents that are currently in use are described as follows: ¢ Sodium bicarbonate — Also known as ordinary dry chemical and is effective on Class B and Class C fires; widely used for the protection of commercial food-preparation equipment such as fryers and range hoods (Figure 10.3). When evaluated against an equal weight of carbon dioxide (CO,), sodium bicarbonate is twice as effective for Class B fires. Sodium bicarbonate has a very rapid control capability against flaming combustion and has some effect on surface fires in Class A materials. In this connection, it has been used successfully on textile machinery where the concentration of fine textile fibers can produce a surface fire. Sodium bicarbonate used in fireextinguishing systems is chemically treated to be water-repellent and freeflowing. e Potassium bicarbonate — Also known as Purple-K (color-coded violet to differentiate it from other dry chemicals) and is most effective on Class B and Class C fires; has properties and applications similar to sodium bicarbonate. On a pound-for-pound basis, potassium bicarbonate can extinguish a fire twice the size of one that can be extinguished with the same amount of sodium bicarbonate. Like sodium bicarbonate, it is also treated to be water-repellent and free-flowing. e Monoammonium phosphate — Also known as multipurpose dry-chemical (pale yellow in color), and is effective on Class A, Class B, and Class C fires; has an action similar to other dry chemicals on flammable liquid fires. Using a combination of extinguishing methods, it quickly extinguishes flaming Figure 10.3 Commercial kitchen extinguishing systems typically feature sodium bicarbonate as the system’s dry chemical extinguishing agent. Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 401 ate melts, combustion. On Class A materials, the monoammonium phosph Because forming a solid coating that extinguishes the fire by smothering. cted unprote on monoammonium phosphate can have a corrosive affect metals, corrosion can form around extinguisher system nozzles, piping, and agent containers. Combustible metal extinguishing agents, also known as dry powders, are designed to extinguish Class D fires involving aluminum, magnesium, sodium, and potassium (Figure 10.4). No single agent is effective on all combustible metals. In a given situation, the extinguishing agent must be carefully chosen for the hazard metal being protected. Metal fires produce extreme heat and require a long period for complete extinguishment. The more common Class D agents that inspectors may find in their jurisdiction are as follows: e NA-X® — Sodium carbonate based agent with additives to enhance its flow; designed specifically for use on sodium, potassium, and sodium-potassium alloy fires (NOT suitable for use on magnesium fires). The extinguishingagent forms an encasing crust or cake on the burning material, which causes an oxygen deficiency, interrupts the combustion process, and thereby extinguishes the fire. Application can be from fixed systems, by hand from pails, or from portable extinguishers (Figure 10.5). NA-X® is listed by Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) for use on burning materials at fuel temperatures up to 1,400°F (760°C). ¢ NY) PANSUL | ’ Figure 10.4 Combustible metals create a unique fire hazard because conventional means of extinguishment such as water or foam cannot be used to extinguish them. Figure 10.5 NA-X® extinguishers like this one release sodium carbonate based agents that interrupt the combustion process by creating a crust on top of the burning fuel. 402 Chapter 10 e Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers MET-L-X® — Sodium chloride (salt) based agent intended for use on magnesium, sodium, and potassium fires; contains additives to enhance flowing and prevent caking in the extinguisher. It extinguishes metal fires by forming a crust on the burning metal. The agent is applied from the fire extinguisher to first control the fire and then it is applied more slowly to bury the fuel in a layer of the powder. The agent is stable when stored in sealed containers. It is nonabrasive and has no known toxic effects. LITH-X® — Graphite based agent that extinguishes fires by conducting heat away from the fuel after a layer of the powder has been applied to the fuel; can be used on several combustible metals. It was developed to control fires involving lithium but can also be used to extinguish magnesium, zirconium, and sodium fires. Unlike other dry powders, it does not forma crust on the burning metal. Components Dry-chemical extinguishing systems consist of the following components: e Storage container for agent and/or expellant gas — May contain both the agent and the pressurized expellant gas (either nitrogen or CO,), or they may be stored in separate containers (Figure 10.6a). A pressure gauge attached to the storage container indicates the stored pressure of the container (Figure 10.6b). Storage containers range from 30 to 100 pounds (13.6 kg to 45.4 kg). Expellant Gas — Any of a number of inert gases that are compressed and used to force extinguishing agents from a portable fire extinguisher; nitrogen is the most commonly used expellant gas Figure 10.6b Pressure gauges should be inspected on storage containers of dry-chemical systems. Figure 10.6a Where multiple agents may be needed to extinguish different classes of fire at the same site, extinguishers may be housed in the same area but stored separately. Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 403 Although rare, some storage containers may hold as much as 2,000 pounds (907 kg) of agent. Containers must be located as close to the discharge point as possible. They must also be in an area that maintains a temperature range from -40°F to 120°F (-40°C to 49°C). e Piping to carry the agent and gas — Specially pre-engineered and designed to account for the unique flow characteristics of the agent. The proper Size, number of bends and fittings, and pressure drop (friction loss) must be calculated into piping requirements. © Nozzles to disperse the agent — Attached to a system of fixed piping to deliver the agent to the hazard. No standard nozzle designs exist; each system manufacturer has its own designs. e Actuating mechanism — Releases agent into the piping system in response to heat-detection devices; most often after the melting of fusible links (Figure 10.7). The fusible links trigger a mechanical or electrical release that in turn triggers the flow of agent and expellant gas. Systems that have automatic actuation should also be equipped with audible warning signals to ensure prompt evacuation ofthe area to lessen the chance of occupants suffering from reduced visibility or breathing difficulties as a result of exposure to the agent discharged (Figure 10.8). The majority of fixed systems must also be capable of manual release and equipped with automatic fuel or power shutoffs. Figure 10.7 Like many automatic sprinkler systems, dry-chemical systems also use fusible links like this one. Figure 10.8 An audible warning system is u : eect g sy sed to alert occupants so that prompt evacuation from the affected area is 404 Chapter 10 ¢ Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Detailed maintenance ofthese systems is the responsibility offire-protection system Companies. However, the owner/occupant representatives or fire inspectors should be aware of changes in hazards and able to inspect these systems for the following conditions: @ Mechanical damage or corrosion e Proper aim of nozzles e Proper pressures on stored-pressure containers Inspection and Testing An inspector should ensure that building representatives inspect the dry-chemical system as required by NFPA® 17. This standard recommends that the following procedures be performed monthly to ensure system readiness: e Check all parts of the system to ensure that they are in their proper locations and connected. e Inspect manual actuators for obstructions. e Inspect the tamper indicators and seals to ensure that they are intact (Figure 10.9). e Check the maintenance placement. tag or certificate for proper e Examine the entire system for any obvious damage. e Check the pressure gauges to ensure that they read within their operable ranges. A record should be kept indicating that each inspection was made. Any problems that are noted should be corrected immediately. In most cases, this situation requires notification of the fire-protection system company that is responsible for the maintenance ofthe system. NFPA® 17 recommends a more detailed inspection on a semiannual basis. First, ensure that the size or nature of the hazard being protected has not changed. The following procedures are recommended for this examination: e Examine all components thoroughly. Figure 10.9 Dry-chemical activation stations like this one should have an intact tamper seal when e Ensure that the piping contains no obstructions. inspected. e Examine the agent to make sure that there is no caking or reduction of flow capabilities. e Test all working components in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. NOTE: Normally, discharging the agent would not be required. e Correct any problems that are noted, and file a report with the owner/ occupant. If the system actuator is controlled by a fusible-link device, the fusible link should be replaced at least annually or as required by the manufacturer. If it appears to be distorted from frequent exposure to heat, it may need to be replaced more often. Chapter 10 » Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 405 are less than 150 Dry-chemical agent storage containers (cylinders) that LG aad alle to check the integrity of pressure vessels Larger SUES: pounds (68 kg) must be hydrostatically tested every 12 years. there are any auxiliary cylinders have no hydrostatic test requirements. If for process functions such as audible/visible alarms or power shutdowns should also be equipment and for ventilation fans, the auxiliary functions checked. Fire-Extinguishing Systems in Commercial Kitchens Besides NFPA® 17, the design of fire-extinguishing systems used to protect commercial cooking equipment is also regulated by UL 300, Fire Testing of Fire Extinguishing Systems for Protection of Restaurant Cooking Areas as well as the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 29 (Labor) 1910.161, Fixed Extinguishing Systems, Dry Chemical. The UL document provides the testing criteria for the systems while the CFR establishes operational criteria for the system. The inspector should be aware that dry-chemical systems installed before 1994 may not meet all current Local codes and ordinances may permit these systems to requirements. continue to exist or may require that they be replaced. Wet-Chemical Fire-Extinguishing Systems A wet-chemical extinguishing system is best suited for applications in commercial cooking hoods, plenums, ducts, and associated cooking appliances. The wet-chemical system is similar to a dry-chemical system in both operation and design. The system contains an excellent extinguishing agent for fires involving a flammable liquid, gas, grease, or ordinary combustibles such as paper and wood. It is not recommended for electrical fires because the spray may act as a conductor ofelectrical energy. A wet-chemical system is most effective on fires in deep-fat fryers. The nature of the chemical is such that it reacts with animal or vegetable oils and forms a soapy foam. When using a wet-chemical agent, grease or oil fires are extinguished by fuel removal, cooling, smothering, and flame inhibition. The primary difference between dry-chemical and wet-chemical systems is the type of agent used. Agents, components, inspection, and testing for wetchemical systems are discussed in the sections that follow. Agents Wet-chemical fire-extinguishing agents are typically composed ofwater and either potassium carbonate, potassium citrate, or potassium acetate. The agent is delivered to the hazard area in the form of a spray. Recently developed alkaline mixtures are particularly useful for attacking a Class K fire because of their ability to generate soapy foam (Figure 10.10). The generation of this soapy foam is called saponification and occurs as a result of reactions with fats. Saponification generates steam (a cooling effect), smothers the fire, and prevents reignition. 406 Chapter 10 « Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Figure 10.10 Type K extinguishers release an agent that reacts with fats in kitchen fires, creating a soapy foam barrier that excludes oxygen from the fire. A:B:C or multipurpose dry-chemical extinguishing agents do not produce the saponification effect because the base chemical — ammonium phosphate is acidic in nature. Recent tests have shown that fire damage is reduced, extinguishment is faster and safer, and cleanup is minimal with an alkaline-type extinguishing agent. Components For the most part, the components and actuation of wet-chemical fireextinguishing systems are the same as those for dry-chemical fire-extinguishing systems. The inspection and testing procedures are also the same. Detailed requirements for wet-chemical systems can be found in NFPA® 17A, Standard for Wet Chemical Extinguishing Systems, or UL 300. Inspection and Testing During an inspection, the inspector must ensure that proper system maintenance has been performed by facility or fire-protection systems company personnel and that all required system checks that are required by the manufacturer have been conducted satisfactorily. The inspection should include the review of the following observations: e Allsystem parts are in their correct location. e All manual actuators are unobstructed. e Tamper indicators and seals are intact. e Maintenance tags are in place and up to date. Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 407 e Any obvious damage is noted. @ Gauges are within operational limits. e Any equipment modifications or repairs are noted. Clean-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems The development of clean-agent fire-extinguishing systems began in the late 1940s. By the 1970s, clean-agent fire-extinguishing systems could be found in use in commercial and military aircraft engines, cargo bays, auxiliary power units, and some aircraft cabins as well as computer rooms and spacecrafts. Clean-agent fire-extinguishing systems are effective on Class A, Class B, and Class C fires and will not conduct electricity. Clean-agent fire-extinguishing systems store agent in containers as a liquid. When the agent is exposed to air, it turns to gas. The gas smothers the fire by replacing the oxygen and disrupting the fire tetrahedron. This action can pose a life safety threat to occupants. Occupants may be exposed to agents that are potentially unhealthy or will cause asphyxiation. Room integrity is critical for total flooding applications to be effective. To ensure room integrity, system components include automatic door closers, door sweeps, and predischarge warning devices. Predischarge warning devices permit occupants to evacuate the space or room before system discharge, eliminating or reducing the potential for asphyxiation. Some typical applications for clean-agent fire-extinguishing systems include the following: e Computer rooms e Telecommunications facilities (Figure 10.11) e Clean (manufacturing) rooms e Data storage areas Figure 10.11 Rooms like this telecommunications center include large amounts of electrical equipment and are perfect candidates for clean-agent fire-extinguishing systems. 408 Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers e Irreplaceable document and art storage rooms e Laboratories e Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) testing rooms @e Control rooms e Offices (for protection ofsensitive electronic equipment) e File and archival storage rooms e Art galleries e Boats and vehicles e Aircraft engines To properly inspect clean-agent systems, inspectors must have an understanding of the types of agents used in the systems, system components, and inspection and testing requirements. Besides the information provided in the sections that follow, inspectors should consult the system manufacturer’s instructions. Agents Clean agents are in a general category of fire-extinguishing agents that leave no residue. Stored as a liquid, clean agents convert to a gas when exposed to air. They extinguish fire by cooling and smothering the burning material. Clean agents are approved by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as nonharmful to the atmosphere (ozone safe). They are also nonconductive and safe for use with energized equipment. One of the first groups of clean agents developed included halogenated fire-extinguishing agents. This group contains atoms from one of the halogen series of chemical elements: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. The halogenated agents are principally effective on Class B and Class C fires. The word halon has been commonly used to describe this group of agents. Halon agents, however, have proven to be harmful to humans and the earth’s ozone layer, so international restrictions have been placed on their production. Although the Montreal Protocol of 1987 provided for a phase-out of halon agents and forbade the manufacture of new halon agents after January 1, 1994, limited production continues because of some exceptions to the phase-out plan. Use of Halon Agents Locations where halon-agent use is deemed to be essential may be granted an exemption from the phase-out plan. Halon fire-extinguishing systems installed before the Montreal Protocol may remain in use until such time as they are discharged on a fire or the gas leaks and must be replaced. The criteria for this exemption are as follows: * Halon-agent use is necessary for human health and safety or critical for the functioning of society. ¢ e No technically or economically feasible alternatives are available. All feasible actions must be taken to minimize emissions during use. Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 409 romethane) Two types of halons are still in use: Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifluo is most commonly and Halon 1301 (bromotrifluoromethane). Halon 1211 portable fire found in portable fire extinguishers. Halon 1301 is used in some hing systems extinguishers but is more commonly found in fixed fire-extinguis for total flooding applications. NOTE: The recycling of halon materials is permitted. Recycling reduces . the material’s volume by approximately 10 percent each time it is recycled The sale and storage of halon materials from the existing stockpiles is still permitted, so an inspector may find a facility with large amounts stored. This situation occurs when halon is determined to be the best method ofprotecting the equipment placed in the area, and the benefits outweigh the expense. Considerable research and development has been done on new clean agents that extinguish fires in the same manner as halogenated extinguishing agents but cause no significant damage to the atmosphere. Several categories of clean agents are now commercially available: halocarbon agents (include hydrochlorofluorocarbon [HCFC] and hydrofluorocarbon (HFC]) and other inert (nonreactive) gas agents such as CO,. Common halon replacement agents include the following: e Halotron® — Halocarbon agent that becomes a rapidly evaporating liquid when discharged; leaves no residue and meets Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) minimum standards for discharge into the atmosphere. The agent does not conduct electricity back to the extinguisher operator, making it suitable for Class C fires. It has a limited Class A rating for portable fire extinguishers over 9 pounds (4 kg). A 28-pound (13 kg) Halotron® extinguisher is given a UL rating of 2A:10BC. Extinguishers may be found in telecommunication facilities, clean rooms, computer rooms, and even vehicles. e FM-200™ — Halocarbon agent that is considered an acceptable alternative to Halon 1301 because it leaves no residue and is not harmful to humans or the environment; does require significantly more agent to achieve extinguishment than Halon 1301. e Inergen® — Blend ofthree naturally occurring gases: nitrogen, argon, and CO,; is environmentally safe and does not contain a chemical composition like many other proposed halon alternatives. It is stored in cylinders near the facility under protection. e ECARO-25™ — Hydrofluorocarbon-based agent that is nonconductive, is noncorrosive, is residue free, has zero ozone-depletion potential (ODP), and is environmentally preferred to halon. According to the manufacturer, it can be used in an existing halon system with only the replacement of the storage container and discharge nozzles. Third-party testing indicates that itis safe for human exposure up to 5 minutes. e FE-36™ — Developed by DuPont™ to replace both Halon 1301 in local application systems and Halon 1211 in portable fire extinguishers. It consists of hydrofluorocarbon HFC-236fa. Suggested applications include computer and telecommunications rooms, museums racetracks, and on aircraft. 410 Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers and archives, hospitals, auto Components Clean-agent fire-extinguishing systems may be fixed systems that are designed for local application or total flooding agent distribution. These system components include actuation devices, agent storage containers, piping, and discharge nozzles. Inspection and Testing Inspection and testing procedures for clean-agent fire-extinguishing systems can be found in NFPA® 2001. An annual inspection by qualified personnel is required for all system components. Semiannually, the quantity and pressure of the clean agent must be checked. Records on all tests and inspections must be maintained and available for review by the local jurisdiction’s inspector. Clean-agent storage containers must meet U.S. Department of Transporta- tion (DOT) and Transport Canada (TC) requirements and be hydrostatically tested every 5 years. Hoses used for local application must be pressure tested annually. In addition to the system inspections and tests, the protected enclosure must be inspected annually. The inspector must determine that the integrity of the space has not been compromised by penetrations that would permit the agent to escape during a discharge. An inspector may also be required to witness an installation acceptance test. Requirements for this type of test are included in NFPA® 2001. Carbon Dioxide Fire-Extinguishing Systems Carbon dioxide (CO,)is a clean agent that has proven effective for extinguishing most combustible material fires with the exception of some ofthe active metals and metal hydrides and other materials such as nitrates that contain available oxygen. The limitations of CO, are related to health effects associated with its use as well as restrictions imposed by the combustible material itself. As delivered, CO, is extremely cold, approaching -110°F (-79°C) and can freeze exposed skin. The agent, however, has a limited cooling effect on a fire. CO,’s primary mechanism of extinguishment is accomplished through oxygen removal or smothering. The cooling effects of its application (although small) are realized when the agent is applied directly to the burning material (Figure 10.12, p. 412). CO, fire-extinguishing systems resemble clean-agent fire-extinguishing systems. Allsystems must adhere to the requirements as described in NFPA® 12, Standard on Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems. CO, fire-extinguishing systems have been used to extinguish fires involving the following materials or equipment: e Flammable and combustible liquids e Electrical equipment and energized equipment e Flammable gases e Other combustibles including cellulose materials Although these fire-extinguishing systems were almost phased out of existence by the growth ofhalon and subsequent clean-agent systems in the 1970s and 1980s, there has been a resurgence of new CO, systems as the need Chapter 10 Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 411 Figure 10.12 When activated, the copper-colored, coneshaped extinguishers hanging from the ceiling in this photo are designed to directly apply carbon dioxide to a fire occurring in the equipment area. to replace halon-based systems has increased. A CO, fire-extinguishing system can be used to protect a wide variety of hazards through total flooding or local fire-protection applications. Handheld hoseline and standpipe systems are also in use, although they are not common and not addressed in this manual. Some types of hazards that CO, can protect include the following: e Automobile manufacturing facilities e Industrial plants e Refineries/chemical plants e Paint and coating operations e Food/agricultural processing plants e Pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities Inspectors can expect to encounter both new and existing CO, fireextinguishing systems during their performance of plans review and field inspections. They should have an understanding of the importance of personnel safety as it relates to these systems as well as their components and inspection and testing requirements. Personnel Safety Predischarge Alarm — Alarm that sounds before a total flooding fire-extinguishing system is about to discharge, thus giving occupants the Opportunity to leave the area The most serious problem involving CO, systems, especially total flooding systems, is personnel safety. The elimination of oxygen from a fire also eliminates breathable oxygen from the atmosphere, causing an asphyxiation hazard for personnel in the area. Total flooding systems are designed to deliver at least a 34-percent concentration of CO, into an enclosed area, which means that once the system has activated, CO, will compose at least 34 percent of the atmosphere. Concentrations this high are lethal to humans and have resulted in people being killed during the operation of these systems. For safety reasons, total flooding systems must be provided with predischarge alarms as well as discharge alarms. A predischarge alarm notifies those present that the system is about to activate. There isa delay before the system 412 Chapter 10 « Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers actually discharges the agent. However, alarms alone are not enough to ensure the safety of personnel. All affected personnel must be educated about the dangers of CO,. They must also be trained in proper emergency procedures related to system discharge. Failure of alarms to operate or inadequate training could also result in fatalities. Local application systems are not as dangerous to personnel as total flooding systems. In local application systems, CO,is delivered directly onto the fire as opposed to filling an enclosure with the gas. Danger to personnel is reduced if the local application system is located outdoors orina large building. Components The components of CO, systems are similar to those of clean-agent fireextinguishing systems. These components include actuation devices, agent storage containers, piping, and discharge nozzles. The three means ofactuation for CO, systems are as follows: e Automatic operation — Triggered by a product-of-combustion detector (historically, fixed-temperature or rate-of-rise detectors, but modern systems may use smoke detectors or even flame-detection equipment). All of these actuation methods trigger control valves on the CO, supply that allow the agent to enter the system and discharge. See Chapter 11, Fire Detection and Alarm Systems, for additional information on smoke and fire detectors. e Normal manual operation — Triggered by a person manually operating a control device and putting the system through its complete cycle of operation, including predischarge alarms (Figure 10.13). e Emergency manual operation — Used only when the other two actuation modes fail; causes the system to discharge immediately and without any advance warning to individuals in the area. CO, systems exist as either high-pressure systems or low-pressure systems. In a high-pressure system, the CO, is stored in standard DOT-approved cylinders at a pressure of about 850 psi (5 950 kPa) (Figure 10.14, p. 414). A lowpressure system is designed to protect much larger hazards. The liquefied CO, in these systems is stored in large, refrigerated tanks at 300 psi (2 100 kPa) at a temperature of0°F (-18°C). Figure 10.13 Much like fire In either a high-pressure or a low-pressure system, the containers are con- alarm systems, carbon dioxide systems may have manual nected to the discharge nozzles through a system of fixed piping. Nozzlesfor i P I R highor low-velocity types (Figures 10.15 pull stations thatte workers can (Fig types y be the hig total flooding systems may ceo! cmiincn e eitaoniee of the better oe oe p. 414). However, high-velocity nozzles Ge agent throughout the entire area. Local application nozzles are typically the — emergency. low-velocity type, which reduces the possibility of splashing the burning product when the agent contacts it. Inspection and Testing Because ofthe relative complexity of CO, systems, fire-suppression company members, plant fire brigade members, fire inspectors, or facility maintenance personnel do not perform routine inspection and testing. Only fire-suppression system contractors who are licensed representatives of the system manufacturer should perform maintenance and testing. Fire inspectors can inspect for the following conditions: Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 413 Figure 10.14 Carbon dioxide systems are stored at either high or low pressure. System pressure can be determined by reading the pressure gauges on the system. Figure 10.15 Carbon dioxide extinguishing nozzles come in high-velocity and low-velocity (shown) varieties. e Physical damage to components e Excessive corrosion e Change in hazard e Enclosure integrity e Up-do-date records to ensure that required tests, inspections, and maintenance has occurred Agent cylinders should be checked semiannually and changed if necessary. Hydrostatic testing requirements for storage containers are the same as those for clean-agent fire-extinguishing system containers. Foam Fire-Extinguishing Systems A foam fire-extinguishing system is used when water alone may not be an effective fire-extinguishing agent. These locations include but are not limited to flammable liquids processing or storage facilities, aircraft hangars, and rolled-paper- or fabric-storage facilities. The type of system and foam used depends on the hazard being protected. Foam extinguishes a fire by one or more of the four following methods: e Smothering — Prevents air and flammable vapors from combining e Separating — Intervenes between the fuel and the fire e Cooling — Lowers the temperature of the fuel and adjacent surfaces e Suppressing — Prevents the release of flammable vapors In general, foam works by forming a blanket on the burning fuel. The foam blanket excludes oxygen, stops the burning process, and cools adjoining hot surfaces. The sections that follow include a description of the types of foam systems, the process used to generate foam, and the methods used to proportion foam during application. Also discussed are the foam expansion rates, concentrate types, proportioners, and inspection and testing requirements. 414 Chapter 10 « Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Types A foam fire-extinguishing system must have an adequate water supply, foam concentrate supply, piping system, proportioning equipment, and foam discharge devices. Basically, the following five types of foam fire-extinguishing systems exist: e Fixed — Complete installation that is piped from a central foam station; automatically discharges foam through fixed delivery outlets to the protected hazard (Figure 10.16). Ifa pump is required to increase pressure on the system, it is usually permanently installed. Fixed-system types: — May be total flooding or local application — Mostare the deluge types that have unlimited water supplies and may also have large foam supplies; require actuation by some sort of productof-combustion detection system Foam types that are used in fixed systems are as follows: — Low-expansion — Medium-expansion — High-expansion e Semifixed Type A — Foam discharge piping is in place but not attached to a permanent source of foam; requires a separate mobile foam-solution source, usually a fire brigade or fire department pumper/truck; primarily used on flammable liquid storage tanks. This type of system is found in settings that involve several similar hazards such as petroleum refineries (can be compared to dry standpipe systems discussed in Chapter 9). Many subsurface injection systems (foam injected at the base of aburning storage tank is allowed to surface and extinguish the fire) are used where topside application may not be effective because of wind or heavy fire conditions. Because the foam solution is lighter than the product in the tank, it floats to the top when introduced at the bottom of the tank. This method is highly effective for extinguishing bulk tank fires. Fixed Foam System Sprinkler Nozzles Figure 10.16 In a fixed foam system, foam is discharged directly from fixed outlets. Coverage Pattern Water Supply Control Valves Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 415 hydrants for cone Semifixed Type B — Foam solution is delivered to foam s; provides a device nection to hoselines and portable foam application like a water foam solution source that is piped throughout a facility, much distribution system. Differences: system — Between a semifixed Type B system and afixed system: A fixed system B actually applies foam to the hazard, while the semifixed Type foam merely provides foam capability to an area. From this point, the stream master must then be applied manually through hoselines or appliances. Between asemifixed Type B and TypeA system: A semifixed Type B system has permanently connected foam distribution piping that carries the foam to the point of application. The semifixed Type A system relies on portable foam sources such as pumping apparatus (Figure 10.17). e High expansion — Designed for local application or total flooding in commercial and industrial applications; consists of the following primary — components: — Automatic detection or manual actuation system (any of the common fire detection devices, manual pull station, or both) — — Foam generator powered by electric or gasoline motors or by water (Figure 10.18) Piping from the water supply and foam concentrate storage tank to the generator With a total flooding application, entire buildings can be filled to several feet (meters) above the highest storage area or equipment within a few minutes. Systems ofthis type are used to protect aircraft hangars and shipboard engine rooms among other locations. e Foam-water — Basically a deluge sprinkler system with foam introduced into it; used where there is a limited foam concentrate supply but an unlimited water supply (Figure 10.19). Thus, ifthe foam concentrate supply becomes depleted, the system continues to operate as a water-based automatic sprinkler system. See Chapter 9 for further explanations of a foam-water system. Foam Generation Most fire-extinguishing foam concentrates in use today are the mechanical type, which means they must be proportioned with water and mixed with air (aerated) before they can be used. Before discussing types of foam concentrates and the foam-making process, it is important to understand the following terms: @ Foam concentrate — Raw foam liquid before the introduction of water and air; usually shipped in 5-gallon (20 L) buckets or 55-gallon (220 L) drums. Foam concentrate for fixed systems is stored in large fixed tanks that can hold 500 gallons (2 000 L) or more. @ Foam proportioner — Device that introduces the correct amount of foam concentrate into the water stream to make the foam solution. e¢ Foam solution — Homogeneous mixture of foam concentrate and water before the introduction of air. e Foam (also known as finished foam) — Completed product once air is introduced into the foam solution 416 Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Comparison of Types A and B Semifixed Foam Distribution Systems Figure 10.17 This illustration shows the differences between Types A and B foam distribution systems. A semifixed Type B includes a hydrant for foam which is generally connected to a foam distribution system throughout a facility. Figure 10.18 Airport hangars with high ceilings and typically high flammable liquid fuel loads use highexpansion foam systems like the red vents in the photo for quick knockdown of fires. Figure 10.19 Foam concentrate is stored in a tank and discharged into the deluge system when the system is activated. Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 417 fighting foam: Four elements are necessary to produce high-quality fire (Figure 10.20). All of foam concentrate, water, air, and mechanical agitation and air must be these elements must be present and the concentrate, water, result in either blended in the correct proportions. Removing any element will no foam or poor-quality foam. with There are two stages in the formation of foam. First, water is mixed of stage ioning foam liquid concentrate to form a foam solution — the proport foam production. The foam solution then passes through the system piping, traveling to the foam distribution nozzle or sprinkler. When the foam solution reaches the distribution nozzle or sprinkler, it is aerated, changing the foam foam — the second stage of foam production. solution into finished Proportioning equipment and foam nozzles or sprinklers are engineered to work together. Using a foam proportioner that is not hydraulically engineered and matched with the foam distributor nozzle or sprinkler (even if the two are made by the same manufacturer) can result in unsatisfactory quality foam or no finished foam at all. An inspector may have to become familiar with a variety of types of foam-production equipment to make an accurate analysis or inspection ofa foam fire-extinguishing system. Foam Proportioning Rates Finished foam is 94 to 99% percent water. Class B low-expansion foams in use today are designed to be used at 1-percent, 3-percent, or 6-percent concentrations. In general, foams designed for hydrocarbon (petroleum-based organic compound) fires are used at l-percent to 6-percent concentrations. Polar solvent fuels (lacquers, ketones, or alcohols) require 3-percent or 6-percent concentrates, depending on the particular brand being used. Medium- and high-expansion foams are typically used at 1-percent, 1/2-percent, 2-percent, or 3-percent concentrations. Because foam concentrates must match the fuel to which they are applied, it is extremely important to identify the type of fuel the fire-extinguishing system is protecting. Foams designed for hydrocarbon fires will not extinguish polar solvent fires, regardless of the concentration at which they are used. However, foams that are designed for polar solvent fires may be used on hydrocarbon fires. Foam Expansion Rates Depending on its purpose, foam concentrate is designed for the following types of expansion and has the following expansion rates: e Low — Hasasmallair/solution ratio, generally in the area of 7:1 to 20:1; used primarily to extinguish fires involving liquid fuels; also used for vapor suppression on unignited liquid fuel spills. Low-expansion foam is most effective when the temperature ofthe fuel liquid does not exceed 212°F (100°C). If the fuel temperature exceeds this figure, much higher expansion rates of foam will be required in order to cool the fuel below this temperature. e Medium — Typically has expansion ratios between 20:1 and 200:1; used when rapid vapor suppression is needed. It can be used indoors or outdoors on either solid or liquid fuels. It will produce more foam with less water than the low-expansion type foams. 418 Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers e High — Generally has expansion ratios of 200:1 to about 1,000:1; useful as a space-filling agent in such hard-to-reach spaces as basements, mine shafts, aircraft hangars, and other subterranean areas (Figure 10.21). Steam dilution caused by the vaporization of the foam in heated areas displaces gas and smoke, thus cooling the environment and extinguishing confined-space fires. When used as a water additive in automatic sprinkler systems, high-expansion foam concentrate is an effective wetting agent that is capable of penetrating bulk-baled commodities such as paper, rags, and cardboard. The foam moves quickly across the fuel surface and releases its water rapidly. Before inspecting a foam fire-extinguishing system, it is important to check listings from UL, the U.S. Coast Guard, and NFPA® 11, Standard for Low-, Medium-, and High-Expansion Foam, to determine recommended uses. It is also important to check the manufacturer’s information sheets to determine proper storage of foam, its shelf life, and how to dispose of it without damaging the environment. Foam Concentrate Types Fire-extinguishing foam concentrate is manufactured with either a synthetic or protein base. Synthetic-based foam is made from a mixture of detergents. Proteinbased foams are derived from either plant or animal matter. Some foam concentrates are a combination of the two. The following list describes the types of foam concentrates that an inspector may encounter in fixed fire-suppression systems. Four Elements of High-Quality Foam Figure 10.20 All four elements in the illustration are required in the correct proportions to create high-quality foam. Figure 10.21 High-expansion foam dumps like the one pictured are useful wetting agents where fire load is high and potential fires are expected to grow rapidly. Courtesy of the United States Air Force. Chapter 10 ¢ Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 41 ] Subsurface Foam Injection System Ready State Activated Cone Roof Tank Cone Roof Tank 1 Foam-Sealing 1 Membrane i Foam Inlet Foam Inlet Hose Container || Foam-Sealing Membrane Hose Container allowed to bubble Figure 10.22 As an additional safety feature, foam can be injected into the bottom of storage tanks and in fuel tank (BLEVE) explosion vapor up through the burning fuel, which can lessen the danger of a boiling liquid expanding fires. Fluoronated Surfactant— Surface-active substance where the hydrophobic (incapable of dissolving in water) part of the substance molecule contains fluorine; has the ability to lower aqueous surface tension, improve wetting, and remain chemically stable when exposed to heat, acids, and bases as well as reducing and oxidizing agents foam — Based on hydrolyzed protein solids and fortified e Fluoroprotein with fluoronated surfactants that enable the foam to shed or separate from hydrocarbon fuels. Fluoroprotein foams can be injected at the base of aburning storage tank and allowed to surface and extinguish the fire (subsurface injection) (Figure 10.22). These foams also provide a strong blanket over the fuel to provide a long-term vapor barrier; vapor suppression is especially critical with unignited spills. Film forming fluoroprotein (FFFP) foam — Based on fluoroprotein foam technology with aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) capabilities (see next bullet); incorporates the benefits of AFFF for fast fire extinguishment and the benefits of fluoroprotein foam for long-lasting heat resistance. FFFP foam is available in an alcohol-resistant formulation. When applied to a hydrocarbon fire: — Foam solution drains from the foam blanket, which creates an air- excluding film, leading to a rapid fire extinguishment. — Rather fast-moving foam blanket then moves across the spill, which adds further insulation. — As the aerated (between 7:1 and 20:1) foam blanket continues to drain its solution, more film is released, giving FFFP the ability to heal areas where the foam blanket is disturbed. Aqueo film forming us foam (AFFF) — Fluorinated surfactant added to detergent foam causes water to drain from the foam blanket and float on top of hydrocarbon fuel spills. This layer of water is called an aqueous film. Characteristics: — 420 Chapter 10 Synthetic and premixable in portable fire extinguishers and apparatus water tanks Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Can be used through low-expansion nonaerating nozzles such as common fog nozzles for Class B fuels — — Can be stored at temperatures from 35°F to 120°F (2°C to 49°C) Can be freeze-protected with a nonflammable antifreeze solution — Good low-temperature viscosity — Penetrating capabilities in baled storage fuels or high surface tension fuels such as treated wood — Some brands are adversely affected by freezing and thawing (consult the manufacturer’s literature) — Available in concentrations from 1 to 6 percent for use with fresh or saltwater (Figure 10.23). When applied to a hydrocarbon fire: — Foam solution drains from the foam blanket, which creates an air- excluding film, leading to a rapid fire extinguishment. — Rather fast-moving foam blanket moves further insulation. — As the aerated (between 7:1 and 20:1) foam blanket continues to drain across the spill, which adds its solution, more film is released, giving AFFF the ability to heal over areas where the foam blanket is disturbed. Alcohol-resistant aqueous film forming foam (AR-AFFF) — Synthetic based; when applied to polar solvent fuels, it creates a membrane rather than a film over the fuel; this membrane separates the foam blanket from the attack of the solvent, and then the blanket acts in much the same way as regular AFFF. AR-AFFF should be applied gently to the fuel so that the membrane can form first. Two types: ee i | Foam 3 the. nt LOT-LOHS LEO Ne Aer.c.cite! Ss Figure 10.23 AFFF is available in a variety of concentrations and quantities. Courtesy of Doddy Photography. Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 421 1-percent concentration and One type is used on hydrocarbon fires ata polar solvent fires at a 3-percent concentration. at a 3-percent concentration — Asecond type is used on hydrocarbon fires ion. and polar solvent fires at a 6-percent concentrat al-purpose foams that minie Medium- And high-expansion foams — Speci — water contents, which is also mize water damage because they have low are used in enclosed useful when runoffisundesirable. These types of foams areas by totally filling the space with foam. Major uses: — Pesticide fires — Vapor suppression of fuming acids — Coal mines and other subterranean spaces — Concealed spaces such as basements — Fixed-extinguishing systems for specific industrial uses such as aircraft hangars Proportioners Aninspector should be familiar with the basic concepts of foam proportioners so that all system components can be checked during an inspection. Several types of foam proportioners are in common use for fixed systems, including the following: e Balanced pressure proportioner — Has a foam concentrate line connected to each fire pump discharge outlet or to the system riser. A foam concentrate pump (separate from the main pump) supplies the concentrate line from a fixed storage tank. This pump provides pressure equal to the pressure at which the fire pump is supplying water to the riser (Figure 10.24). Because the foam concentrate and water are being supplied at the same pressure and the sizes of the discharges are proportional, the foam is proportioned correctly. This proportioner is one of the most reliable methods of foam proportioning. Advantages: — Ability to monitor the demand for foam concentrate and adjust the amount of concentrate being supplied — Ability to discharge foam concentrate from some outlets and plain water from others at the same time; a single fire pump can supply both foam concentrate and water discharges The discharge orifice of the foam concentrate line is adjustable at the point where it connects to the system riser. For example: — If3-percent foam is used, the foam concentrate discharge orifice is set to 3 percent of the total size of the water discharge outlet. — If6-percent foam is used, the foam concentrate discharge orifice is set to 6 percent ofthe total size of the riser. e Around-the-pump proportioner — Has a small return line (bypass) from the discharge side of a fire pump back to the intake side of the pump; .an inline educator is positioned on the bypass line (Figure 10.25). This proportioner is rated for a specific flow and should be used at this rate, although it does have some flexibility; for example, a proportioner designed to flow 500 gpm (2 000 L/min) at a 6-percent concentration will flow 422 Chapter 10 ¢ Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Around-the-Pump Proportioner Foam Concentrate Foam Concentrate Tank X~t—— Check Valve ontrol Valve Foam Pump Check Valves %j<—— Proportioner Water Supply Ball Valve : Solution i Discharge Line Diecut de Figure 10.24 A balanced foam proportioner supplies water and foam at the same pressure to ensure the creation of high-quality foam. Figure 10.25 Around-the-pump proportioners have a bypass line “around-the-pump” that is responsible for adding foam concentrate to the discharge stream. 1,000 gpm (4 000 L/min) at a 3-percent rate. This automatic proportioner is especially useful when there is low water pressure or when a motor is not available for a separate foam concentrate pump. It is the most common type of built-in proportioner installed in mobile fire apparatus and some fixed system applications. Disadvantages: — Pump cannot take advantage of incoming pressure. If the inlet water supply is any greater than 10 psi (70 kPa), the foam concentrate will not be able to enter the pump intake — Pump must be dedicated solely to foam operation; this proportioner does not allow plain water and foam concentrate to be discharged from the pump at the same time @ Pressure proportioning tank system — Consists of one or two foam concentrate tanks that connect to both the water supply and foam solution lines of the overall system; designed so that a small amount of water from the supply source is pumped into the concentrate tank(s). This water volumetrically displaces the concentrate forcing it into the foam solution line where it is mixed with discharge water. The system allows for automatic proportioning over a wide range offlows and pressures and does not depend on an external power source. However, the system is limited by the size of the concentrate tank. Once the concentrate is expended, the water must be drained from the tank before it can be refilled with concentrate. e Coupled water motor-pump proportioner — Consists of two positivedisplacement rotary-gear pumps that are mounted on acommon shaft; one pump is for water and the other is for the foam concentrate. The water pump is proportionally larger than the foam pump. As water flows through the larger pump, it causes the smaller pump to turn and draft foam concentrate Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 423 in proportion to each from the foam tank. Because the pumps are sized type of proportioner 1s other, the correct foam/water solution is made. This only two sizes, and both used in fixed-system applications. It is limited to are designed for 6-percent proportioning rates: L/min) — One flows between 60 and 180 gpm (240 L/min to 720 — to 4 000 L/min) Another flows between 200 and 1,000 gpm (800 L/min Inspection and Testing s that require Foam fire-extinguishing systems are highly complex system When inspectspecially trained personnel to inspect, service, and test them. for the ard ing these systems, the requirements outlined in NFPA® 25, Stand , Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems must system the of as well as those procedures described by the manufacturer be followed. Allvalves and alarms attached to the system must be checked semiannually. Foam concentrates, foam equipment, and foam proportioning systems must be checked annually. Qualitative tests must be performed on the concentrate to ensure that no contamination is present. The concentrate tank must be checked for signs of sludge, damage, or deterioration. For more information on foam and foam systems, consult IFSTA’s Fire Detection and Suppression Systems and Principles of Foam Fire Fighting manuals. Portable Fire Extinguishers In many situations, a portable fire extinguisher provides the first line of defense against an incipient fire. However, the presence ofa portable fire extinguisher should never be considered a substitute or replacement for an automatic fireextinguishing system. It is often mistakenly assumed that including additional portable fire extinguishers in an occupancy allows the elimination of other fixed fire-extinguishing systems that may be required by the local building or fire code. An inspector must rely on the requirements of the building and fire codes when performing plans review, conducting annual inspections, and approving new certificates of occupancy. Requirements for extinguisher design, installation, and placement are contained in NFPA® 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers. Model building and fire codes provide similar information and generally refer to NFPA® 10. The value of a fire extinguisher lies in the speed with which it can be used by people who are not trained as professional firefighters (Figure 10.26). The person using the extinguisher must understand how it operates and be physically capable of operating it. For a portable fire extinguisher to be effective, the following requirements must be met: @ Readily visible and accessible (Figure 10.27) @ Suitable for the hazard being protected e In working order e Sufficient size to control an incipient fire e Appropriate wind and weather conditions to ensure effectiveness 424 Chapter 10 « Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Figure 10.26 To be useful during a fire, a fire extinguisher must be readily accessible to the occupants. Figure 10.27 This photo shows the correct placement of a fire extinguisher. This extinguisher is highly visible and readily available. The sections that follow contain information on how portable fire extinguishers are classified, rated, inspected, and maintained. Also addressed are the types of extinguishing agents used in the extinguishers and the proper selection, installation, and location for extinguishers. A brief discussion on training occupants to use portable fire extinguishers is also included. Classification Systems No single portable fire extinguisher is suitable for use on every type of burning fuel. Fire extinguishers are classified by the type of fire they will extinguish based on the five classifications offires (A, B, C, D, and K) as presented earlier in this chapter and in Chapter 3, Fire Behavior. Labels are affixed to the extinguishers to indicate the class offire for which the extinguisher is approved. Rating Systems Portable fire extinguishers are rated according to their intended use and fire-extinguishing capability for the five classes offire. The type and amount of extinguishing agent contained in the extinguisher and the extinguisher’s design determine the amount offire that can be extinguished for a particular class of fire. This information is conveyed by an alphanumeric classification system designed by UL. NFPA® 10 recommends that this rating information be displayed on the front faceplate of the extinguisher. Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 425 used on portable fire extinMultiple letters or numerical-letter ratings are class of fire. Class A and Class guishers that are effective on more than one g that precedes the letter. This B extinguishers also receive a numerical ratin be expected to extinguish rating designates the size of fire the extinguisher can when used by an untrained operator. be used ona tices It is very important that the correct extinguishing agent in a fire not being Using the wrong agent can be dangerous and can result for different types of extinguished, a violent reaction, or both. The ratings extinguishers are as follows: h 40-A. These e ClassA extinguishers — Numerical ratings are from 1-A throug isher’s extingu the numbers are derived from a series of three tests to check (3) ability to extinguish fires involving (1) wood cribs, (2) wood panels, and all to ted subjec are 6-A h excelsior. Extinguishers that are rated 1-A throug test three tests. Larger extinguishers are only subjected to the wood crib (Figure 10.28). e ClassB extinguishers — Numerical ratings are from 1-B through 640-B. The number indicates the approximate area in square feet (m7?) of fire involving a 2-inch (50 mm) layer of n-heptane (flammable test liquid) in an 8-inch (200 mm) deep pan that can be extinguished. For example, a 10-B portable fire extinguisher can be expected to extinguish a fire of 10 square feet (0.9 m2), which is the rating for an untrained operator. Figure 10.28 A wood crib laboratory test is used to determine the fire-fighting efficiency of Class A fire extinguishers. e Class C extinguishers — No numerical ratings are given; extinguishers are tested only for electrical nonconductivity. The size of the portable fire extinguisher should be appropriate for the size and extent of Class A and/ or Class B materials in the electrical equipment or around the electrical hazard. e Class D extinguishers — No numerical ratings are given; the type of tests conducted vary depending upon the metals for which the extinguisher is intended. The faceplate of the extinguisher details the specific metals on which the extinguisher should be used and explains how to use the extinguisher. e Class K extinguishers — Ratings are identified by the letter K. Some wetagent extinguishers may be UL-listed for both Class A and Class K fires. These extinguishers will have the letters 2A:K on the label as well as the word Restaurant. Occupants who are in a position to need a fire extinguisher are usually under stress and ina hurry, so a labeling system that includes both an icon and the alphanumeric rating is desirable. Fire-extinguisher rating labels are designed to enable a user to identify the type offire extinguisher that is available without having to understand the A-B-C-D-K rating system. Fora complete discussion regarding the rating of portable fire extinguishers, refer to the IFSTA Fire Detection and Suppression Systems manual. To simplify the process of matching different types of extinguishers with types offires, several methods for identifying extinguishers by using symbols. or icons have been developed. NFPA® 10 recognizes two methods of extinguisher recognition: the pictorial system and the letter-symbol system. 426 Chapter 10 ¢ Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Pictorial System The international picture-symbol labeling system designed by the National Association of Fire Equipment Distributors (NAFED) is the most widely used identification system (Figure 10.29). The picture-symbols indicate the type of fire the extinguisher is intended to extinguish. They may also indicate the types of fires on which the extinguisher should not be used (Figure 10.30, p- 428). If an extinguisher is suitable for use on a particular class of fire, the picturesymbol background is light blue. If the extinguisher is not suitable for a particular class of fire, the picture symbol has a black or gray background with a diagonal red line through the extinguisher symbol. Also, an extinguisher may be suitable for more than one class of fire. Letter-Symbol System The letter-symbol method of extinguisher identification is older than the picturesymbol method. In the letter-symbol method, each class offire is represented by its appropriate letter: A, B, C, D, or K, which is enclosed by a particular geometric shape (Figure 10.31, p. 428). In addition, the background of the geometric shape can be color-coded to further identify the extinguisher. Agents Portable fire extinguishers use many different types of fire-extinguishing agents. Each extinguishing agent may be able to control one or more classes of fire, but one agent cannot extinguish all classes of fire. The agents are the same as those used in the dry-chemical fixed fire-extinguishing and handheld hoseline systems mentioned previously. The following list highlights the more common fire-extinguishing agents and extinguishers. Pictorial Labeling System Figure 10.29 Pictorial symbols can be used to illustrate the type of fire on which the extinguisher can be used. Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 427 Particular Class Types Symbols Indicating Extinguishers NOT to use on Suitable for Class B and Class C fires but not Class A or Class K Suitable for Class A fires but not Class B, Class C, or Class K Suitable for Ciass A and Class B fires but not Class C or Class K Suitable for Class K fires but not Class A, Class B, or Class C Figure 10.30 Pictorial symbols can also be used to illustrate on which types of fire the extinguisher should not be used. Letter/Symbol Labeling System Ordinary Combustibles Flammable Liquids Figure 10.31 Letter symbols are used to identify the different types of fire. Electrical Equipment Combustible Metals Cooking Media (greases, fats, oils) 428 Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers e Water — Liquid used to extinguish fires in Class A materials primarily by cooling the burning fuel (Figure 10.32). The most common size of water extinguisher is the 2/-gallon (10 L) model; maximum size that is considered portable is the 5-gallon (20 L) unit. Characteristics: — Water-type fire extinguishers are relatively easy to maintain but subject to freezing and must be kept ina heated area unless an approved antifreeze agent is added to the water. — Fire-extinguishing capability of an extinguisher is limited by the amount ofwater carried in a portable unit. — Water is convenient, effective, inexpensive, and readily available as an extinguishing agent. Water limitations: — Ineffective by itselfon most Class B flammable liquids fires — Conducts electricity, making it dangerous to use on Class C electrical fires — Reactive with some chemicals and Class D metals — Can cause heated cooking oils to splatter, spreading a fire to unaffected areas Figure 10.32 The most abundant agent for extinguishing fires is water. Here, a firefighter uses a water-based extinguisher to extinguish a burning fuel by cooling it. Carbon dioxide (CO,) — Colorless, noncombustible gas that is heavier than air; extinguishes primarily through a smothering action by establishing a gaseous blanket between the fuel and the surrounding air (Figure 10.33). These extinguishers are suitable for Class B and Class C fires. Characteristics: — Stores CO, in a liquid state, which allows more agent to be stored ina given volume, ata pressure of about 840 psi (5 880 kPa) — CO,has a white cloudy appearance when discharged from the extinguisher because of small dry-ice crystals formed by the condensation of surrounding water vapor that is carried along in the gas stream Limitations: — Limited value when used on Class A fires that are located deep within the burning material because these fires can rekindle after the CO, gas dissipates into the atmosphere and normal oxygen returns — Although CO, is very cold when discharged, its temperature has a minimal effect in cooling or extinguishing a fire because it lacks the cooling effects realized from the application of water-based fire-extinguishing agents — Difficult to project CO, very far from the extinguisher discharge horn because ofits gaseous nature — Characteristically discharges with a loud noise that may startle an untrained operator — May be a discharge of static electricity that can shock the operator when operated in areas of low humidity Figure 10.33 This firefighter is demonstrating proper use of a carbon dioxide extinguisher on a Class B fire. See warning box, p. 430. Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 429 WARNING! Carbon dioxide (CO,) is an asphyxiant. ACO, extinguisher should not be used ina ~- confined space without supplied-air respiratory protection. Asphyxiant — Any substance that prevents oxygen from combining in sufficient quantities with the blood or from being used by body tissues increase its effectiveness; may e Foam — Concentrate added to water to film forming fluoroprotein contain aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) or are suitable for both Class A (FFEP) foam solutions (Figure 10.34). They ntrate is premixed with and Class B fires. Most commonly, the foam conce a special aerating nozzle. water in the extinguisher and discharged through Effectiveness: is mixed with water __ Effective on Class A fuels because the foam agent and can cool the fuel or bales of materi— Penetrates deeply into tightly packed fuels like fabrics water of als because the foam breaks the surface tension double effect of — Very effective on flammable liquid fires because ofthe a foam blanket and a surface film to exclude air from the fuel have e Dry chemical — Very small solid particles (not gases or liquids) that ishproven successful as extinguishing agents for use in portable fire extingu from ely ers (Figure 10.35). Solid particles can be projected more effectiv an extinguisher nozzle than can gaseous agents; therefore, dry chemicals do not dissipate into the atmosphere as rapidly as gases; they are especially suitable for controlling fires outdoors. Frequently used agents: — Sodium bicarbonate — Potassium bicarbonate — Monoammonium phosphate (multipurpose) — Urea potassium bicarbonate — Potassium chloride © Wet chemical — Solution that is composed ofwater and either potassium carbonate, potassium citrate, or potassium acetate. The agent is delivered to the hazard area in the form ofa spray. Extinguishers are intended for use with Class K fixed systems or commercial kitchens that have deep fat fryers using vegetable or animal fats. An inspector should determine the type of agent in use in the fixed system and ensure that the portable extinguishers mounted in the kitchen are compatible. e Clean agent — Agent that leaves no residue when discharged; two halons (Halon 1211 and Halon 1301) are still in use in portable fire extinguishers. Halon 1211 is most commonly found in portable fire extinguishers. Halon 1301 is used in some portable fire extinguishers, but it is more commonly found in fixed-system applications. Portable extinguishers using halon replacements contain inert gases such as argon or DuPont FE-36™. Extinguishers are available ina variety of capacities and may cover 5 to 25 square feet (0.46 m? to 2.32 m’). Types Portable fire extinguishers are also classified by the methods used to expel the extinguishing agent. These classification types include the following: e Stored-pressure extinguisher — Contains an expellant gas and extinguishing agent in a single chamber (Figure 10.36). The pressure of the gas forces the agent out through a siphon tube into the chamber, valve, and nozzle assembly. Though simple to use, this extinguisher usually requires special 430 Chapter 10 « Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Figure 10.34 AFFF is extremely affective at extinguishing liquid fuel fires because the foam blanket both cools the fuel and creates an oxygen barrier to inhibit fire production. charging equipment for pressurization. Licensed distributors who sell or maintain this equipment usually perform needed services. These extinguishers are normally found in office buildings, department stores, or even private residences where a high-use factor is not expected. Types: — Pressurizing gas can be a different gas from the agent itself (dry-chemical extinguishers typically use nitrogen as an expellant gas). — Expellant gas can be the vapor phase of the agent itself such as that in CO, extinguishers. Fire extinguishers that use a separate expelling gas have a pressure gauge that permits the user to see whether the extinguisher is ready for use. — : | | : | Air Under Pressure Siphon Tube Air-pressurized water (APW) extinguisher (one of the most common types of stored-pressure extinguishers). e Cartridge-operated extinguisher — Stores the expellant gas in a separate cartridge attached to the side of the agent cylinder or tank (Figure 10.37, p- 432). To actuate the extinguisher, the expellant gas (carbon dioxide or nitrogen) is released into the agent cylinder. The pressure ofthe gas forces the agent into the application hose. Discharge is controlled by a handheld nozzle/lever. No pressure gauge is provided. These extinguishers are found in industrial operations such as paint spraying or solvent manufacturing facilities where they may be used frequently. Inspecting and Recharging: Figure 10.36 Gas pressure is used to discharge the water from the extinguisher. Chapter 10 ¢ Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 431 idge has not been activated; Inspecting: Ensure that the expellant gas cartr weigh to ensure that it has adequate gas. agent cylinder (does Recharging: Replace the gas cartridge and fill the in-house). not require special equipment; may be performed — — agent by the manual ope Pump-operated extinguisher — Discharges its d to the use eration of a pump (Figure 10.38). This extinguisher is limite is that it can be of water as the extinguishing agent. Its primary advantage guishing a fire. extin of refilled from any available water source in the course fire brigades. This type is not generally found outside fire departments or ing: follow the of y Maintenance is extremely simple, consisting mainl — Extinguisher is full. — Pumpis operational. — Hose and nozzle have not suffered any mechanical damage. _ Obsolete Extinguishers Fire inspection personnel may occasionally encounter fire extinguishers that are out of production and no longer suitable for use. Operating these Figure 10.37 Cartridgeoperated extinguishers house the expellant gas in a separate cartridge attached to the side of the agent tank. extinguishers, even when used as directed, could result in injury or death to the user. The more common types of obsolete fire extinguishers that are encountered are as follows: e Inverting-type e Soldered or riveted shell soda-acid ¢ Chemical foam ¢ Cartridge-operated water e Loaded stream In 1982, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) ordered that all of these extinguishers be removed from service. An inspector should require that all obsolete extinguishers be removed from service immediately and replaced with extinguishers that meet the requirements specified in NFPA® 10. Selection and Location/Distribution Fire extinguishers must be properly located or distributed throughout a building, structure, or facility to ensure that they are readily available during an emergency. To be effective, there must be enough extinguishers available to control the hazard. In addition, extinguishers must be located near the point where they may be needed (Figure 10.39). Therefore, the size of the extinguisher based on the type of hazard and the travel distance to the nearest extinguisher are critically important to the safety of the occupants. Requirements for extinguisher selection and distribution are contained in Figure 10.38 This pump-type water extinguisher depends on the manual operation of the pump to expel water from the tank. 432 NFPA® 10; these requirements are separated into specifics for Classes A, B, C, D, and K hazards. Because local codes and ordinances can be more restrictive, an inspector should review them along with the requirements contained in NFPA® 10. The following elements are important in the selection and distribution of fire extinguishers: Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers e Chemical and physical characteristics of the combustibles that might be ignited ¢ Potential severity (size, intensity, and rate offire spread) of any resulting fire e Accessibility of the extinguisher (proximity to the hazard or travel distance between the hazard and the extinguisher) e Effectiveness of the extinguisher for the hazard in question e Personnel available to operate the extinguisher, including their physical abilities, emotional characteristics, and any training they may have in the use of extinguishers e Environmental conditions that may affect the use of the extinguisher (temperature, winds, presence of toxic gases or fumes, etc.) e Any anticipated adverse chemical reactions between the extinguishing agent and the burning material e Any health and occupational safety concerns such as exposure of the extinguisher operator to heat, products of combustion during fire-extinguishing efforts, and extinguishing agent e Inspection and service required to maintain the extinguishers e Adequate rating and size for the occupancy and commodity being protected The proper selection and distribution of fire extinguishers is determined by several factors. These factors include the nature of the hazard to be protected, size ofthe fire extinguisher, and travel distances. Figure 10.39 Extinguishers mounted in kitchens with deep fat fryers should be C!ass K and clearly marked as such so that they are used appropriately. Nature of the Hazard In a given situation, the specific nature of the hazard dictates the type, size, number and location offire extinguishers. The general method for locating or distributing extinguishers described in NFPA® 10 and used nationally consists of classifying occupancies as light (low) hazard, ordinary (moderate) hazard, or extra (high) hazard. Fire extinguisher distribution is specified on the basis of those classifications, which are described as follows (Table 10.1, p. 434): e Light-hazard occupancy — One in which the amount of ordinary combustible material or flammable liquids present is such that a fire of small size may be expected. Such occupancies include classrooms (but not necessarily all parts of aschool), churches, and assembly halls (Figure 10.40, p. 434). Some parts of an occupancy thatare classified as light hazard may actually be ordinary hazard. Examples ofthis situation are the shop or storage areas in aschool. e Ordinary-hazard occupancy — One in which the amount of ordinary combustibles and flammable liquids present would likely result in an incipient fire of moderate size. In such occupancies, fire growth would not be so rapid as to be beyond the control offire extinguishers if the fire were discovered quickly. Such occupancies include mercantile storage and display, light manufacturing facilities, parking garages, and warehouses with storage below 12 square feet (1.11 m*) not classified as extra hazard (Figure 10.41, p. 434). Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 433 amount of ordinary come Extra-hazard occupancy — One in which the high and a rapidly bustible materials and flammable liquids present are repair shops, spreading fire may develop. Examples include automotive able liquids, painting facilities, manufacturing operations that use flamm iled storage of restaurants with deep fat fryers, and locations with high-p combustibles (Figure 10.42). — Table 10.1 = Portable Fire Extinguisher Requirements for Class A Fire Hazards Maximum Maximum Maximum Minimum Occupancy | Extinguisher | Floor Area, Per Floor Area Per | Travel Distance Extinguisher | Extinguisher | To Extinguisher Rating Hazard 3,000 ft? 11,250 ft? (278.70 m2?) _—_| (1 045.15 m2) Ordinary 2-A Two 1-A rated watertype extinguishers may be substituted for one 2-A rated extinguisher 1,500 ft? (139.35 m?) 75 ft 11,250 ft? (1 045.15 m?) | (22.86 m) None 1,000 ft? (92.90 m2) 75 tt 11,250 ft2 (1 045.15 m2) (22.86 m) Two 2.5 gallon (9.46 L) water-type extinguishers may be substituted for one 4-A extinguisher Based on information in Chapter 9, International Fire Code®, 2006 edition Figure 10.40 Because this church has an overall low fuel load, it is considered a lighthazard occupancy. Figure 10.41 Strip malls with restaurants and retail stores may contains combustibles that could create an incipient fire of moderate size and are designated as ordinary-hazard occupancies. 434 Notes Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Figure 10.42 Extra-hazard occupancies contain flammable liquids such as the materials used in this steel quenching machinery. Extinguisher Size/Travel Distance The quantity of burning fuel that a fire extinguisher can extinguish determines its size. After factoring in which class of fire an extinguisher can extinguish, the ability to control that class of fire is then converted into the maximum area of floor space each extinguisher can protect; see the following descriptions and examples: e@ Class A fuels — For each occupancy classification, NFPA® 10 recommends the minimum size extinguisher needed and the maximum floor area to be protected by the extinguisher for Class A fuels. Table 10.1 defines the maximum area per unit of agent that can be adequately protected by Class A extinguishers of a given rating. In all occupancies, the maximum travel distance to an extinguisher for Class A hazards is 75 feet (25 m). e Class B fuels — Determining the distribution ofClass B extinguishers depends upon the travel distance to the hazard. Flammable liquid fires develop very rapidly and occur ina variety ofsituations that are fundamentally different from a fire control standpoint. In providing extinguishers for Class B hazards, two situations may be encountered: — Spill fire where the flammable liquid does not have depth (anything less than % inch [6 mm] is considered to be without depth according to NEFPA®10). Flammable liquids with depth such as dip tanks (NFPA® 10 establishes 4 inch [6 mm] deep as the criterion for a flammable liquid fire to be considered with depth). Individual hazards involving flammable liquids with depth are often protected by fixed extinguishing systems. These systems lessen the requirements for portable fire extinguishers in the area but do not eliminate the need for them. A spill fire could occur beyond the effective reach ofa fixed — system, and portable extinguishers would be needed. Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 435 for Class C hazards e Class C fuels — No special spacing rules are required usually involve ment because fires involving energized electrical equip Class A or Class B fuels. for Class e Class D fuels — Placement and distribution of fire extinguishers isher D combustible metals cannot be generalized. Determining extingu of placement involves making an analysis of the specific metal, the amount the and metal present, the configuration of the metal (solid or particulate), characteristics of the extinguishing agent. NFPA® 10 recommends only that the travel distance for Class D extinguishers not exceed 75 feet (25 m). e Class K fuels — In the working environment of commercial kitchens, fire is always present. Employees in such areas are charged with the responsibility to maintain appropriate cooking temperatures to ensure safety. Because employees are in various levels of training for their jobs and because there is the potential of fire hazards occurring in the restaurant seating area (light hazard), NFPA® 10 has assigned a more restrictive distance requirement. In areas where Class K fires are likely, the maximum travel distance from the hazard to the extinguisher is reduced to 30 feet (10 m). Installation and Placement In addition to proper selection and distribution, effective use of fire extinguishers requires that they be readily visible and accessible. Proper extinguisher placement is an essential but often overlooked aspect of fire protection. Extinguishers should be mounted securely to the structure to avoid injury to building occupants and to avoid damage to the extinguisher. Some examples of improper mounting would be an extinguisher mounted where it protrudes into a path oftravel or one that is sitting on top of a workbench with no mount at all. To minimize potential problems, extinguishers are frequently placed in cabinets or wall recesses for protection of both the extinguisher and people who might walk into them (Figure 10.43). If an extinguisher cabinet is placed in a fire-rated wall, then the cabinet must have the same fire-resistance rating as the wall assembly. Proper placement of fire extinguishers should result in the following conditions: e Visible and marked with legible signage Not be blocked by storage or equipment e Near points of egress or ingress e Near normal paths oftravel Figure 10.43 To protect passersby and prevent damage Although an extinguisher must be properly mounted, it must be placed so that all personnel can access it (Figure 10.44). The extinguisher should not be : Sra to extinguishers, they are often placed in easy-to-open wall- placed too high above the floor for safe lifting. The standard mounting heights specified for extinguishers are as follows: mounted cabinets. e Extinguishers with a gross weight not exceeding 40 pounds (18 kg) should be installed so that the top of the extinguisher is not more than 5 feet (1s m) above the floor (Figure 10.45). e Extinguishers with a gross weight greater than 40 pounds (18 kg), except wheeled types, should be installed so that the top of the extinguisher is not more than 3% feet (1 m) above the floor. 436 Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers e Clearance between the bottom of the extinguisher and the floor should never be less than 4 inches (100 mm). Physical environment is very important to extinguisher reliabili ty. The greatest concern is the temperature of the environment. Because testing laboratories evaluate water-based extinguishers at temperatures between 40°F and 120°F (4°C and 49°C), these extinguishers must be located where freezing is not possible. Other types of extinguishers can be installe d where the temperature is as low as -40° EF (-40°C). Specialized extinguishers are available for temperatures as low as -65°F (-54°C). Extinguishers using plain water can be provided with antifreeze recommended by the manufacturer. Care must be exercised in the use of antifreeze however. Ethylene glycol cannot be used, and calcium chloride cannot be used in stainless steel units. Antifreeze cannot be added to AFFE extinguishers. Other environmental factors that may adversely affect an extinguisher’s effectiveness include snow, rain, and corrosive fumes. A corrosive atmosphere can be encountered not only in an industrial environment but also in marine applications where extinguishers are exposed to saltwater spray. In the case of outdoor installations, an extinguisher can be protected witha plastic bag or placed in a cabinet. For marine applications, extinguishers are available that have been listed for use in a saltwater environment. Extinguisher Placement Not more than 5 feet (1.5 m) above floor Figure 10.45 Extinguishers that weigh less than 40 pounds (18 kg) should be installed with the top of the extinguisher not more than 5 feet (1.5 m) above the floor. Figure 10.44 Extinguishers must be mounted at a height that allows safe lifting of the extinguisher during an emergency. Chapter 10 ¢ Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 437 Inspection and Maintenance are used so infrequently that there In most occupancies, fire extinguishers a fire occurs. Therefore, regular is a natural tendency to ignore them until rtant to ensure their readiness. Uninspections of extinguishers are very impo following situations can impair less they are inspected regularly, some of the extinguisher readiness: e Stolen, misplaced, or obstructed le such as a forklift truck e Damaged as a result of being struck by a vehic (Figure 10.46) s e Lack of pressure for a variety of mechanical reason being recharged e Used onafire and replaced on its mount without e Solid agent that clogs the discharge hose or nozzle to fire and life Periodic fire extinguisher inspections are very important uishers; ina facility. An industrial complex may have hundreds of exting safety is an ized or vandal simply checking to ensure that they have not been stolen inspections are important part ofplant protection. Portable fire extinguisher be performed usually performed by building or facility personnel but may by fire-suppression or inspection personnel (Figure 10.47). Figure 10.46 There are many ways that extinguishers can be damaged from being dropped to being struck by vehicles or machinery. NFPA® 10 recommends that extinguisher inspections be performed monthly. of Keeping accurate records of extinguisher inspections is the responsibility initials or name r’s inspecto the owner/occupant. The inspection date and the is recorded on the extinguisher inspection tag; bar code readers may also be used to record the inspection. The inspection tag also provides the owner/ occupant with chronological data to verify compliance with codes and insurance requirements (Figure 10.48). Figure 10.47 As with any other part of a fire-suppression Figure 10.48 The fire extinguisher inspection tag is used to indicate the chronological compliance with required visual system, fire extinguishers must be periodically inspected. inspections of the unit 438 Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers In addition to the inspection tag, an extinguisher may have a verifica tion of service collar tag attached to it. The service collar tag is made of polyethylene or aluminum and is tightened down against the opening ofthe extingu isher body. The purpose of this tag is to verify that the extinguisher was actuall y opened and discharged during maintenance. The service collar tag will have maintenance data impressed into the plastic for the inspector’s records. The service collar tag must not be damaged. While the monthly inspection is the responsibility of the owner/occupant, verifying that the inspection has occurred is the responsibility ofthe jurisdiction's fire inspector. The fire inspector should also look for the same items that the owner/occupant’s personnel did. During an inspection, these personnel should perform the following actions: e Check that the extinguisher is in its proper location. e Ensure that access to the extinguisher is not obstructed by boxes, clothing, or storage items or is otherwise inaccessible. e Check the inspection tag to determine if maintenance is due. e Examine the nozzle or horn for obstructions. e Check lock pins or tamper seals to make sure that they are intact (Figure 10.49a, p. 440). e Check for signs of physical damage. e Check that the extinguisher is fully charge with expellant and agent. e Check that the pressure gauge indicates proper operating pressure (Figure 10.49b, p. 440). e Check collar tag for current information and/or damage. e Check that required signage is in place (Figure 10.49c, p. 440). e Check to see if the operating instructions on the extinguisher nameplate are legible. e Check that the extinguisher is suitable for the hazard protected. Fire extinguisher maintenance should be performed whenever an inspection reveals the need for maintenance or the unit is due for periodic maintenance required by the manufacturer. The actual maintenance should be performed by personnel who are trained and certified by the extinguisher manufacturer. For more information on maintenance intervals and fire-extinguisher inspection, see NFPA® 10. Training The effectiveness of portable fire extinguishers is limited by the ability of the building occupants to use them. While the inspector is not responsible for this type of training, the inspector can inquire about how well and how often the occupants are trained in extinguisher use. Training is a service that the fire department can provide if no other source is available. The inspector can recommend that training be given to the occupants and can provide information on who to contact in the fire department. Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 439 Figure 10.49a Lock pins or tamper seals should be checked during inspections to ensure that they are in place and intact. - Figure 10.49b During extinguisher inspections, the extinguisher pressure gauge should indicate the proper pressure for the type of extinguisher being inspected. Figure 10.49c Equally important as inspecting the extinguishers themselves is ensuring that signage indicating the location of the extinguisher is in place and clearly visible. Summary Special extinguishing agent systems and portable fire extinguishers are major components of fire and life safety systems. This chapter provided the fire inspector an overview ofthe types of special-agent systems and portable fire extinguishers that might be found during a building or facility fire inspection. Itis recommended that the inspector become familiar with the specific types of special-agent fire-extinguishing systems that are found locally as well as the local codes and standards that govern the distribution and installation of portable fire extinguishers. 440 Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers Review Questions What is the purpose of an actuating mechanism? List several types of hazards that carbon dioxide (CO,) can protect. How does a fixed foam fire-extinguishing system work? What is an around-the-pump proportioner? NM Oo fF =a List several situations that can impair fire extinguisher readiness. 1. Whatare the methods for the application of dry-chemical fire-extinguishing systems? 2. What are some common Class D extinguishing agents? 3. List several typical applications for clean-agent fire-extinguishing systems. 4. Whatare some disadvantages of carbon dioxide (CO,) fire-extinguishing systems? 5. What types of foam concentrates may be encountered by an inspector in fixed fire-suppression systems? Chapter 10 © Special-Agent Fire-Extinguishing Systems and Extinguishers 441 Chapter Contents © Detection and Alarm System Components ................. bead Alarm-Signaling Systems .................. 467 40 ProtectedsPneimiSeSi (20 Call) meememewnremeeteen eereseenre en 467 Fire Alarm Gontrol Panel Sey.cncq-e-2e- eecceteeesscerscc cmv: 447 Ausiliary Fire Alanint cx 2ccntesienccrcon nynerrcccocese eres470 POWERSUD DIGS seems neectrtcceemener serra rea teers 448 Bls(0)8)(oite SVSTEMIDEVICES a tmrrere caer Gemtrabwstatl Olieesccsct.0 esecen eee caer eee seer er ners eaeterenten ste 449 pera ea eee reer cates oar treyboctncccadccaencdede 471 472 Automatic Alarm-Initiating Devices ...... 451 REMOLGHRECEININ GOcetencecsuceernucet enceeseeeretererne tie472 Fixed-Temperature Heat Detectors................c:cceee 452 Emergency Voice/Alarm Communication............... 473 Rate-of-Rise Heat Detectors 5.2222 .2.0-.2 cme eee. 456 PatallelalelepinOn @seceacecaea ccs cure seen tees474 SMOKES, DETECT ONS ceeetere armenia arene Flaine DGLGCtONS as raeere eran. core reese Pife=GaS:DGlCClOL Stare yr terre Combination Detectors neyo a eee Inspection and Testing..... cence teeter LE ta eres 457 eee 462 eae 463 ee 464 /NCLOSYOUE TINO. IIESSUNIG fscecornosncccocsnteconssaconaneoosscosssuocteonsde! 475 Q Service Testing and Periodic Inspections. ................. 476 TUG Lae S Ses cea ck egies ee tee Wate leilOWGO CVICGS meran arate: cencetacey merare ee 464 SUMINGIVeueeeeeee ee eee a aed ere TILIA CNRS AIC INES; as cnonaenssetioenseanSacentrsceperossanocnamnernt eeree 464 Review Questions Manual Alarm-Initiating Devices.......... 464 480 eaa Gul ...... BAe ce ears tid CN Key Terms INITIALOSD CVICC errr secre ceecccconencasenaserteesess 449 SiQMaling DEVICC vercscenereeecreertereeeneeeesececeace 450 lonization........ os aac MERE Thermistor aE a teers eee 458 Radioactive Material ..............::ccssessseeeeeees 460 SGEMICOMGUCTON cereeecevcsccts cvccesncnesacseseyerssncs 454 Job Performance Requirements nts (JPRs) of This chapter provides information that addresses the following job performance requireme (2009) Examiner Plan and NFPA® 1031, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector Chapter 4 Fire Inspector | 4.3.6 4.3.9 Chapter 5 Fire Inspector Il 5.3.4 5.3.12 5.4.3 say Lp, - Fie Detection and Alarm Systems ~~ Learning Objectives @ Fire Inspector | 1 _ Explain the function of each of the fire detection and alarm system components. 2. Explain the purpose of automatic alarm-initiating devices. 3. Describe the operation of the various types of fixed-temperature heat detectors. 4. Describe the operation of the various types of rate-of-rise heat detectors. 5. Describe the operation of the various types of smoke detectors. 6. Describe the operation of the flame detector. 7. Describe the operation of fire-gas detectors. 8. Discuss combination detectors, water-flow devices, and tamper switches. 9. Describe the general requirements for manual alarm-initiating devices. 10. Compare the operation of the single-action and double-action manual pull station devices. 11. Discuss the purpose and characteristics of fire-alarm signaling systems. 12. Compare each of the basic types of protected premises systems. 13. Discuss the use and types of auxiliary fire alarms. 14. Compare the operation of proprietary, central station, and remote receiving systems. 15. Explain the operation of emergency voice/alarm communication and parallel telephone systems. 16. Describe a fire detection and alarm systems service test. 17. Describe the inspection and service test for alarm-initiating devices and fire alarm control panels. 18. Discuss inspection requirements and timetables. 19. Inspect alarm systems. (Learning Activity 11-I-1) © Fire Inspector Il 1. Describe a fire detection and alarm systems acceptance test. 2. Describe a fire detection and alarm systems service test. 3. Describe the inspection and service test for alarm-initiating devices and fire alarm control panels. 4. Discuss inspection requirements and timetables. 9. Inspect alarm systems. (Learning Activity 11-II-1) Spo a ee ee FESHE Objectives Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Objectives: Principles of Code Enforcement None 444 Chapter 11 © Fire Detection and Alarm Systems Chapter 11 Fire Detection and Alarm Systems | Incomplete Fire Detector Coverage A 1991 fire in a 38-story Pennsylvania high-rise resulted in the deaths of 3 firefighters, injured 24, and required 12 alarms to bring it under control. The fire completely consumed eight floors and was stopped only when it reached the thirtieth floor, which was protected by fire sprinklers. One ofthe contributing factors that led to the severity of the fire was incomplete fire-detector coverage, which allowed the fire to become well-developed before a detector activated. In addition to the deaths and injuries that resulted, over $100 million in direct property loss occurred. Litigation from the fire amounted to over $4 billion. The early detection ofa fire and the signaling of an appropriate alarm remain two of the most significant factors in preventing large losses due to fire. History has proven that delay in detection and alarm transmission can lead to injuries, fatalities, and property losses (Figure 11.1, p. 446). Properly installed and maintained fire detection and alarm systems are reliable methods of reducing the risk of a large-loss incident and increasing the survivability of occupants and emergency responders. and Together with automatic fire-suppression systems, fire detection ial commerc in alarm systems are part of the fire-protection systems found ated and and industrial properties. These systems are usually very complic nt that equipme ctronic highly technical and include state-of-the-art microele alarm and n highly trained individuals must install and maintain. Fire detectio es are less systems that are installed in single- and multiple-family residenc many of have and complicated, although they operate on the same principles the same components. ion offire detection An inspector must be familiar with the design and operat for the installation, and alarm systems and the building code requirements activities, an review testing, and monitoring of such systems. During plans approve the fire detection inspector may be required to review, evaluate, and facilities. and alarm systems for new buildings, structures, or Chapter 11 ¢ Fire Detection and Alarm Systems 440 Figure 11.1 Large-loss fires can often be prevented when there is little or no delay between detection and alarm transmission. During inspections, an inspector should note the functional aspects of the fire detection and alarm systems. An inspector should be able to recognize physical and environmental conditions that may render the system inoperative or unresponsive to a fire event or emergency. An inspector should also recognize conditions that may trigger an unwanted alarm and recommend corrective action to reduce or eliminate the number of fire department responses to possible false alarms. This chapter provides information on the fundamental components of fire detection and alarm systems. Addressed in more detail are the various types of signaling systems available and the devices that activate the alarm signal (both automatic and manual devices). Most importantly, this chapter highlights the procedures that fire inspectors or other personnel should follow while inspecting and testing these systems. Also discussed is the importance of preparing and maintaining accurate records regarding the installation, testing, modification, and maintenance of fire detection and alarm systems. Detection and Alarm System Components Fire protection engineers or technical personnel employed by a fire-alarm system Company usually design modern detection and alarm systems. The design, installation, and approval of a fire detection and alarm system may also require code authorities to approve it before it is accepted as an in-service unit. A nationally recognized testing laboratory such as Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL), Underwriters’ Laboratories of Canada (ULC), or FM Global (formerl y known as Factory Mutual) should test the components of a system to ensure operational reliability (Figure 11.2). These testing organizations certify the use of the system for specific conditions and list them as approved . Listings may address either an entire system or individual components that may be used in interchangeable applications. 446 Chapter 11 « Fire Detection and Alarm Systems The installation of the system should conform to local building codes as well as applicable provisions of NEPA® 70®, National Electrical Code®, and NFPA® 72®, National Fire Alarm Code®. Other standards also apply to the installation of these systems and are addressed later in this 4 chapter within the discussions of the various types of systems. Each ofthe following sections highlights a basic p= ane am capita eee oS a MODELNO 24000797" oss component ofa fire detection and alarm system. ee co ee AT Oss SMOKE-AUTOMATIC FIRE DETECTOR FOR OPEN AREA PROTECTION 2 Ts sO MNT A) RANOE Fire Alarm Control Panels yax ina I UT La Y The fire alarm control panel (FACP) is essentially the brain of the system (Figure 11.3). Itis responsible for processing signals from detection (actuating) devices and transmitting them to the local or other alarm system alerting devices such as audible and visual alarm devices or an alarm company monitoring location. All the controls for the system Figure 11.2 All components in a fire detection system are located in the FACP. should show evidence of approval by a recognized testing laboratory such as this sticker indicating approval from Underwriters Laboratory Inc. (UL). Fire Alarm Control Panel Auxiliary Devices Smoke Detectors Heat Detectors w({(, é Manual Pull Station Buzzers Bells Horns Strobes —— Water Flow Switch Supervisory Switch Valve Temper Switch Figure 11.3 This schematic shows the different components of a fire alarm control panel (FACP), the central hub of an Alarm Control Initiating Devices — ee <2} a alarm system. Indicating Signaling + power Source Secondary Power Batteries Generator Chapter 11 ¢ Fire Detection and Alarm Systems 447 NOTE: Some fire alarm control units are designed for both security and fire protection. In these types of systems, fire protection is engineered into the system to assume the highest priority. Power Supplies Electric power sources provided for fire detection and alarm systems must be adequate for the capacity of the system design. The requirements for the primary and secondary power supplies required for the system are described in NFPA® 72® and are discussed in the sections that follow along with the trouble-signal power supply. Primary The primary electrical power supply is usually the building’s main public electricity connection, which must be connected at a fire detection and alarm system dedicated branch circuit. This circuit as well as all connections to it must be mechanically protected, marked in red, and accessible only to authorized personnel. The circuit must be permanently identified (Figure 11.4). When a utility-supplied source of electricity is not available — usually in remote locations — an alternative electrical source may be established. An engine-driven generator that provides electrical power is permitted as an alternative primary power supply. When a generator is used, a trained operator must be on duty 24 hours a day; otherwise the system must contain multiple engine-driven generators. These secondary generators must be designed to automatically start if the primary operating engine fails. Either power supply must be supervised and must signal an alarm once the power supply is interrupted. Secondary A secondary power supply must be provided for a fire detection and alarm system, so that the system will be operational even if the main power supply fails. The secondary system must be able to make the fire detection and alarm system fully operational within 30 seconds of the main power supply’s failure. The secondary power source must consist of one of the following items: e Storage battery and charger (Figure 11.5) (NOTE: The storage battery cannot be a dry-cell battery.) e Engine-driven generator and a 4-hour-capacity storage battery (Figure 11.6) ¢ Multiple engine-driven generators, of which one must always be set for au

Fire Inspection and Code Enforcement Textbook

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