BIOLOGICAL
FOUNDATIONS OF
BEHAVIOR
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NERVOUS SYSTEM: BIOLOGICAL
CONTROL CENTER
• Without the nervous system, the body would be
a mass of uncoordinated parts that could not
act, reason or experience emotions.
• Brain – a powerful computer and a complex
communication network
• Spinal Cord – connected to the brain
– A thick bundle of long nerves running through the
spine
• Neurons – primary units of the nervous system;
nerve cell
– Nervous system is composed of 100 billion neurons
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NEURONS
• Discovered by Santiago Ramón y Cajal during
the 1900s
– “ the mysterious butterflies of the soul, the beating of
whose wings may someday – who knows – clarify the
secret of mental life”
• Ranges in size from 1 millimeter to more than a
meter
• Parts of the Neuron:
1.
Cell Body – contains the cell nucleus and other
components necessary for the cell’s preservation and
nourishment
2. Dendrites – branches that extend out from the cell
body and receive messages from other neurons
3. Axons – branches at the other end of the neuron
which carries the message and passes it on to other
dendrites
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NEURONS
• Two modes of transmitting messages:
– Neural transmission: transfer of message from
one end of the neuron to the other
– Synaptic transmission: transfer of message
from neuron to another
• Samples of Neurotransmitters:
– Acetylcholine – used by somatic neurons that
contract the body’s large muscles. Also plays a
role in memory and is thought to help
regulate dreaming.
– Dopamine – used by neurons in the brain
that control large muscle movements and by
neurons in pleasure and reward systems in the
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NEURONS
• Samples of Neurotransmitters:
– Serotonin- used by systems of neurons
believed to regulate sleep, dreaming,
appetite, anxiety, depression an the
inhibition of violence.
– Norepinephrine – believed to be involved in
vigilance and attention and released by
sympathetic autonomic neurons and the
adrenal glands.
– Glutamate – most widespread excitatory
neurotransmitter in the brain.
– Neuropeptides – large group;
neuromodulators, because they appear to
broadly Free
influence
the action of the other
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neurotransmitters.
THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
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DIVISIONS
• Central Nervous System
– Brain – controls the function of the nervous
system
– Spinal Cord – primary function is to relay
messages between the brain and the body.
• Peripheral Nervous System
– Composed of the nerves that branch from the
brain and the spinal cord to the body.
– Transmits messages from the CNS to the
muscles, glands and organs that puts the
messages into action.
• Afferent neurons – body to CNS
• Efferent
neurons – CNS to body
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PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Somatic Nervous System – carries
messages from the CNS to the skeletal
muscles that control movements of the
body.
– Voluntary and involuntary
– Also receives incoming messages from
sensory perceptors and transmits them
to the CNS.
• Autonomic Nervous System – composed
of nerves that carry messages to the
glands and the visceral organs (heart,
stomach and
intestines)
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Autonomic Nervous System
• Two Primary Functions:
1. Essential body functions – heartbeat,
breathing, digestion, sweating and sexual
arousal.
2. Emotion – activated during emotional
states.
• Divisions of ANS
– Sympathetic Nervous System – prepares the
body to respond to psychological or physical
stress
• Activates organs to improve our ability to
respond to stress, but in other cases, it
inhibits organs that are not needed during
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of stress.
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Sympathetic Nervous System
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Dilates the pupils of the eyes to let light in.
Decreases salivation.
Speeds the beating of the heart.
Dilates the passageways of the lungs to increase
air flow.
Inhibits the digestive tract.
Releases sugar from the liver.
Stimulates the secretion of epinephrine from the
adrenal glands.
Inhibits contraction of the urinary bladder.
Increases blood flow and muscle tension in the
large muscles.
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Autonomic Nervous System
• Divisions of ANS
– Parasympathetic Nervous System – acts in
tandem with SNS to maintain balanced
regulation of the internal organs and the
large body muscles.
• When levels of emotional stress are low, it
stimulates maintenance activities and
energy conservation.
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Constricts the pupils of the eyes.
Increases salivation to facilitate digestion.
Slows the beating of the heart.
Constricts the bronchi of the lungs.
Activates the digestive tract.
Releases bile from the liver to aid digestion of
fats.
7. Inhibits secretion of epinephrine from the
adrenal glands.
8. Contracts the urinary bladder.
9. Reduces blood flow and muscle tension in the
large muscles.
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Ganglia
• Cluster of cell bodies of neurons outside the CNS.
• Organized in different ways in the 2 divisions of
the ANS.
– Ganglia of SNS are all connected in a
chain near the spinal column causing
stimulation in all of the organs when
SNS is aroused.
– Ganglia of PNS are separated and
located near the individual organs,
allowing the parasympathetic division
to operate more selectively.
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Autonomic Nervous System
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THE BRAIN
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Structure and Function
• Mental functions require the
integrated functioning of multiple
parts of the brain.
• Three Major Parts:
1. Hindbrain
2. Midbrain
3. Forebrain
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Hindbrain
• Lowest part of the brain, rear base
of the skull
• Primary function is to perform
routine “housekeeping” functions
that keep the body working
properly.
• Three parts:
1. Medulla
2. Pons
3. Cerebellum
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Hindbrain
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Midbrain
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Forebrain
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Forebrain
•Divided into 2 parts:
–Thalamus, hypothalamus and
most of the limbic system
•Sits above the hindbrain and
midbrain
–Cerebral cortex
•Sits over the lower parts of the
brain
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Forebrain
• Thalamus
– A switching station for messages going
to and from the brain.
– Plays an important role in the filtering
and preliminary processing of sensory
information.
• Hypothalamus
– Small but vitally important
– Involved in motives and emotions.
– Directly linked to the functions of the
ANS
– Appears
to contain centers involved in
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pleasure and reward.
Forebrain
• Limbic system
1. Amygdala


Emotion and aggression
Formation of memories about emotionally
charged events.
2. Hippocampus
 Processing of emotion-related information.
 Formation of new memories.
 “Ties together” the sights, sounds and meanings
of memories stored in various parts of the
cerebral cortex .
 Spatial memory (how things are related in
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Forebrain
• Limbic system
3. Cingulate cortex
 Works with the hippocampus to process
cognitive information related to
emotion,
 Compares current emotion-related
information to information stored in
memory.
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Limbic System
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Forebrain
• Cerebral Cortex
– Conscious experience, voluntary actions,
language and intelligence.
– Primary brain structure related to the
Somatic NS.
– Because of the rich interconnections of the
cortex, it is said that most of the “business”
is conducted there.
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Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
1. Frontal Lobe
 Thinking, remembering, making
decisions, speaking, predicting the
future consequences of actions,
controlling voluntary movement, and
regulating emotions and socially
inappropriate behavior.
 Contains Broca’s Area, involved in the
ability to speak language.
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Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
2. Parietal Lobe
 Contains the somatosensory area
•
Important to the sense of touch and the
other body senses.
3. Temporal Lobe
 Contains the auditory areas and
Wernicke’s area.
•
WA – plays a role in understanding
spoken language.
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Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
4. Occipital Lobe
 Contains the visual area.
•
Plays an essential role in the processing of
sensory information from the eyes.
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Cerebral Cortex
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The Brain is a Developing System
• Its structure changes as we grow older.
– Weight does not change but white matter
increases from childhood through middle
age while gray matter decreases for brain
efficiency.
– White matter increase is due to growth of
myelin.
– Neural pruning
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The Brain is a Developing System
• New neurons develop in some key areas
of the brain well into adulthood.
– Neurogenesis
– New neurons play a role in learning and
the creation of new memories.
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Cerebral Cortex
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Images of the Brain
• EEG – electroencephalogram
• CT Scan– Computerized Tomography
Scan
• PET – positron emission tomography
• MRI – Magnetic Resonance Imaging
– FMRI – Functional MRI
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Endocrine System
• System of glands that secretes
hormones.
• Consists of glands that secrete 2
kinds of Chemical Messages:
1. Neuropeptides – allows the
endocrine glands to communicate
with each other.
 Plays important roles in stress
regulation, social bonding, emotion
and memory
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Endocrine System
2. Hormones – carried throughout the body via
bloodstream and influence many organ systems.
• Release of both substances is regulated
by the brain through the hypothalamus.
• Gives additional ways to control the
body’s organs particularly during
physical stress or emotional arousal.
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7 Endocrine Glands
1. Pituitary Gland – Body’s master
gland.
 Help regulate the activity of the
other endocrine glands.
 Most important function is
regulating the body’s reactions to
stress and resistance to disease.
 Controls blood pressure, thirst and
body growth.
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7 Endocrine Glands
2. Adrenal Glands
 Emotional arousal and secretes hormones
important to metabolism.
 Three hormones that are important in
reactions to stress:
1. Epinephrine
2. Norepinephrine
3. Cortisol
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7 Endocrine Glands
3. Islets of Langerhans – regulates the
level of sugars in the blood by secreting
two hormones that have opposing
actions.
 Glucagon
 Insulin
4. Gonads – sex glands




Ovaries – Ova
Testes – sperm
Estrogen
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Testosterone
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7 Endocrine Glands
5. Thyroid gland – regulation of
metabolism; thyroxin.
6. Parathyroid glands
 Parathormone – functioning of the
nervous system.
7. Pineal gland
 Melatonin – regulation of biological
rhythms, moods.
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Endocrine System
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BIOLOGICAL BASIS
OF PERSONALITY
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FOUR TEMPERAMENTS
• Proto-psychological theory
• Hippocrates incorporated it to his medical
theories which stated that these bodily fluids
affect human personality traits and behavior.
• Four fundamental personality types:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Sanguine (Blood)- pleasure-seeking, sociable
Choleric (Yellow Bile) – ambitious and leader-like
Melancholic (Black Bile)– analytical and quiet
Phlegmatic (Phlegm) – relaxed and peaceful
• It was debunked but some people still adhere to
it.
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Hans Eysenck
• Born in Germany on March 4, 1916
• Moved to England at age 18 because of his
antipathy to Hitler and the Nazis
• Earned his Ph.D. in Psychology in 1940
from the University College London
• During WWII, he worked as a research
psychologist at Mill Hill Emergency
Hospital
• Founded the Department of Psychology
at University of London Institute of
Psychiatry until 1983.
• He served as Professor Emeritus until his
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death in 1997.
Eysenck’s 3 Factor Personality
Model (PEN)
• A causal theory of personality based on
activation of reticular formation and
limbic system.
1. Extraversion (E) – degree to which people
are outgoing and are interactive with other
people , which is mediated by the activation
of the reticular formation.
2. Neuroticism (N) – degree of emotional
stability, which is associated with the limbic
system.
3. Psychoticism (P) – degree of aggression and
interpersonal
hostility.
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Jeffrey Alan Gray
• Born in the East end of London on May 26, 1934.
• After enlisting in the military for 2 years (1952-1954),
he took a scholarship at Magdalen College, Oxford
with the intent of taking up law. He later on
switched to modern languages, French and Spanish.
• He continued with another BA in Psychology and
Philosophy which he completed in 1959.
• From 1959-1960, he trained as a Clinical Psychologist
at the Institute of Psychiatry in London, where he
also finished his PhD in 1964.
• He then taught Experimental Psychology at Oxford
through an appointment.
• In 1983, he took over Eysenck’s role as Department
Head at the Institute until 1999.
• He died on April 30, 2004.
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Gray’s Reinforcement
Sensitivity Theory
• Based on the idea that there are three
brain systems that all differently respond
to rewarding and punishing stimuli.
1.
Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS) – mediates the
avoidance of fear and active avoidance to dangerous
situations.
2. Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) – mediates the
emotion of anxiety and cautious risk-assessment
behavior when entering dangerous situations dueto
conflicting goals.
3. Behavioral Approach System (BAS) – mediates the
emotion of ‘anticipatory pleasure,’ resulting from
reactions to desirable stimuli.
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Claude Robert Cloninger
• Born in Beaumont Texas on April 4, 1944.
• He did his Pre-Med at the University of Texas in Austin
where he also took up philosophy, cultural anthropology
and psychology, receiving honors.
• He finished his Doctor of Medicine degree at Washington
University in St. Louis in 1970, after which he joined the
faculty.
• He also did numerous important research especially in
the field of psychiatry.
• He currently holds the Wallace Renard Professorship of
Psychiatry, is a professor of psychology and genetics , and
serves as director of the Sansone Family Center for WellBeing in his alma mater.
• In 2004, he published the book Feeling Good: The Science
of Well-Being.
• He is also a recipient
of numerous
lifetime achievement
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awards from many academic and medical associations.
Cloninger Model of Personality
• Based on the idea that different responses
to punishing, rewarding and novel stimuli
is caused by an interaction of the three
dimensions below.
1. Novelty Seeking (NS) – degree to which
people are impulsive, correlated to low
dopamine activity.
2. Harm Avoidance (HA) – degree to which
people are anxious, correlated with high
serotonin level.
3. Reward Dependence(RD) – degree to which
people are approval seeking, correlated
with low norepinephrine activity.
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5 Factor Model of Personality
• Originally it is not biologically based, however
further studies showed relevance.
• The Five Factor Model is a widely used
personality assessment that describes five core
traits that a person possesses:
1.
Openness – degree to which people enjoy
experiencing new stimuli
2. Conscientiousness – degree to which people are
dutiful and goal-oriented
3. Extraversion – Degree to which people seek stimuli
outside themselves
4. Agreeableness – degree to which people aim to
cooperate to please others.
5. Neuroticism – degree to which people are
emotionally unstable.
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