Theories in Developmental Psychology
Cognitive Theories
- Enhancement of our rational thinking
1. Piaget's theory of cognitive
development proposes 4 stages of
development.
● Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2
years - Object permanence
- Enhancement of wiring
- Expected: sensorimotor
development
- Sensory + perception =
action
●
Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years
- egocentrism, centration,
symbolic play
- Formative years - can
acquire anything you teach
● Concrete operational stage: 7 to
11 years - Conservation,
transitivity, reversibility
- Can understand and identify
different expressions
● Formal operational stage: ages 12
and up - Abstract thinking
- Can express own opinion
and themselves
- Common sense and critical
thinking
Cognitive Equilibrium - how we acquire
knowledge (from sensorimotor to formal
operational)
● Schema--- Environment + Cognition
- influence of environment and ability
to adapt ex. “The bird is flying”
● Assimilation - association of the
environment with thinking. Can
identify differences ex. “The plane is
flying like a bird”
● Accomodation - adjustment off
explanation
● Equilibration - full capacity of
schema and cognitive equilibrium
2. Learning Theories
a. Classical conditioning (also known as
Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is
learning through association. ( Stimulus –
Response)
---- Pairing a neutral stimulus (NS) with an
unconditioned stimulus (US) that already
triggers an unconditioned response (UR)
that--- neutral stimulus will become a
conditioned stimulus (CS), --- triggering a
conditioned response (CR) similar to the
original unconditioned response.
b. Operant conditioning, also known as
instrumental conditioning, is a method of
learning normally attributed to B.F. Skinner,
where the consequences of a response
determine the probability of it being
repeated. Through operant conditioning
behavior which is reinforced (rewarded) will
likely be repeated, and behavior which is
punished will occur less frequently (
Reward- punishment)
● Positive reinforcement, a response
or behavior is strengthened by
rewards
● Negative reinforcement because it
is the removal of an adverse
stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the
animal or person. Negative
reinforcement strengthens behavior
because it stops or removes an
unpleasant experience
3. Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism
Three factors that influence behavior are
○ the individual (including how
they think and feel),
○ their environment, and
○ the behavior itself.
4. Kohlberg Moral Development Theory
● Pre conventional Morality--- rules
○
Stage 1 (Obedience and
Punishment)
○ Stage 2 (Individualism and
Exchange)
● Conventional Morality--- knowing
what is right and wrong
○ Stage 3 (Developing Good
Interpersonal Relationships):
○ Stage 4 (Maintaining Social
Order):
● Post conventional Morality--conscience
○ Stage 5 (Social Contract and
Individual Rights)
○ Stage 6 (Universal
Principles)
5. Carol gilligan’s theory of moral
development
● Care-based morality is based on
the following principles: 1.
Interconnectedness and universality.
Acting justly means avoiding
violence and helping those in need.
● Justice-based morality is based on
the following principles 1. Views the
world as being composed of
autonomous individuals who interact
with another. Acting justly means
avoiding inequality
7. Attachment Theory- John Bowlby
● Stranger Anxiety - response to
arrival of a stranger.
● Separation Anxiety - distress level
when separated from carer, degree
of comfort needed on return.
● Social Referencing - degree that
child looks at carer to check how
they should respond to something
new (secure base).
8. Erikson’s Stage in its Final Version
Emotion is based on significant
others
- Experience can give us virtues
6. Information Processing Theory
(Alternative Memory Model by Richter and
Atkinson)
9. Multiple Attachment (10 months and
onwards)
Based on interaction
Attachment Styles
10. Psychosexual Stage
11. Socio-cultural theories
A. Ven Vygotsky
- changes in a person can happen
only in what he called Zone of
Proximal Development where the
person is actively engaged in social
and cultural interaction. Without this
interaction, development does not
take place.
- Development Happens according to
interaction
● What I can’t do
● What I can do to help - Zone of
proximal development
● What I can do
B. Urie Bronfenbrenner
● Macrosystem - Attitudes and
Ideologies of the culture
● Exosystem - Friends of family,
Neighbors, Mass media, Social
welfare services, Legal services
● Mesosystem - where a person's
individual microsystems do not
function independently, but are
interconnected and assert influence
upon one another
● Microsystem - Family, Health
services, School, Peers, Church
group, Neighborhood play are
● Chronosystem - Patterning of
environmental events and transitions
over the life course; sociohistorical
conditions
○ Time (Sociohistorical
conditions and time since life
events)
Integ: Abnormal Psychology
Manifestations of Behavior and 4Ds of
Abnormality
“Although no definition can capture all
aspects of the range of disorders contained
in DSM-5″ (pg. 13)”
● Dysfunction - significant
disturbance in an individual's
cognition, emotion regulation, or
behavior, indicating an underlying
problem in their psychological,
biological, or developmental
processes. Assessed by comparing
an individual's current performance
to general expectations or their past
performance.
● Distress - a person experiences a
disabling condition that affects their
social, occupational, or other
important activities. However,
distress alone is not sufficient to
classify behavior as abnormal. Some
individuals who display abnormal
behavior may generally have a
positive disposition.
● Deviance - refers to behavior that
deviates from what is considered
normal or average (i.e., the mean)
and occurs infrequently (resembling
an outlier in our data). Behavior is
deemed deviant when it fails to
adhere to the explicit and implicit
rules of society known as social
norms. Social norms change over
time due to shifts in accepted values
and expectations.
● Dangerousness - when behavior
poses a threat to the safety of the
individual or others. However, it is
important to understand that having
a mental disorder does not
automatically imply the person is
dangerous. Typically, the risk of
harm from a depressed or anxious
individual is no higher than that of
someone without these conditions. It
is crucial to recognize that
individuals perceived as dangerous
are not necessarily mentally ill.
The Diagnostic Statistical Manual
Classifying Disorders
● Pre-World War II - in the
United States was the
recording of the frequency
of “idiocy/insanity” in the
1840 census: mania,
melancholia, monomania
(specific addiction),
paresis (paralysis),
dementia, dipsomania
(alcohol addiction), and
epilepsy
● Post-World War II - was
later developed by the U.S.
Army (and modified by the
Veterans Administration) to
better incorporate the
outpatient presentations of
World War II servicemen and
veterans. World Health
Organization (WHO)
published the sixth edition
of ICD, which, for the first
time, included a section for
mental. disorders Heavily
influenced by the Veterans
Administration classification
and included 10 categories
for psychoses and
psychoneuroses and seven
categories for disorders of
character, behavior, and
intelligence.
○ Erwin Stengel british psychiatrist.
●
●
a comprehensive
review of diagnostic
issues. the need for
explicit definitions of
disorders as a means
of promoting reliable
clinical diagnoses.
Development of DSM–III
(1980) - introduced a
number of important
innovations, including
explicit diagnostic criteria, a
multiaxial diagnostic
assessment system, and an
approach that attempted to
be neutral with respect to
the causes of mental
disorders. developed with
the additional goal of
providing precise definitions
of mental disorders for
clinicians and researchers.
○ ICD-9 - did not
include diagnostic
criteria or a
multiaxial system
largely because the
primary function of
this international
system was to outline
categories for the
collection of basic
health statistics.
Modified to
ICD-9-CM.
DSM–III–R (1987) and
DSM–IV(1994) - (DSM–III)
revealed inconsistencies in
the system and instances
in which the diagnostic
criteria were not clear. It
was the culmination of a
six–year effort that involved
more than 1,000 individuals
●
and numerous professional
organizations. Numerous
changes were made to the
classification (e.g., disorders
were added, deleted, and
reorganized), to the
diagnostic criteria sets, and
to the descriptive text.
DSM–5 (2013) and
DSM–5-TR (2022) - The
work on DSM-5 began in
2000, work groups were
formed to create a research
agenda for the fifth major
revision of DSM (DSM–5).
○ The DSM-5-TR
development effort
started in Spring 2019
and involved more
than 200 experts, the
majority of whom
were involved in the
development of
DSM-5. The text was
also reviewed by a
Work Group on
Ethnoracial Equity
and Inclusion to
ensure appropriate
attention to risk
factors such as
racism and
discrimination and
the use of
non-stigmatizing
language.
of worry about various events
or activities.
Psychological Disorders Based on
DSM-5-TR Part I
Anxiety Disorders
● Separation Anxiety
Disorder: substantial distress
when separation from a major
attachment figure occurs or is
expected to occur.
● Selective Mutism
● Specific Phobia: It involves
excessive, unreasonable fear
of a particular object or
situation.
● Social Anxiety Disorder
(Social Phobia): Social
anxiety disorder is an intense
and ongoing fear of potentially
embarrassing social or
performance situations.
● Panic Disorder: Regular,
unexpected panic attacks. At
least one of these attacks is
followed by a month or more
of concern about having
another attack, worry about
what the panic attack might
mean, or a change in
behavior.
● Agoraphobia: refers to
anxiety about being where
panic symptoms may occur,
especially when escape might
be difficult.
● Generalized Anxiety
Disorder: GAD is strong,
persistent, and extreme levels
Trauma and Stressor
Related Disorders
● Reactive Attachment
Disorder: an attachment
disorder in which a child with
disturbed behavior neither
seeks out a caregiver nor
responds to offers of help
from one; fearfulness and
sadness are often evident.
● Disinhibited Social
Engagement Disorder: a
condition in which a child
shows no inhibitions
whatsoever in approaching
adults.
● Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder: is marked by
frequent reexperiencing of a
traumatic event through
images, memories,
nightmares, flashbacks, or
other ways.
● Acute Stress Disorder:
refers to trauma symptoms
lasting between three days
and one month after a
trauma.
● Adjustment Disorders:
clinically significant emotional
and behavioral symptoms in
response to one or more
specific
stressors.
OC Related
Disorders
● Obsessive-Compulsive
Disorder: involves
compulsions (rituals or habits
repeated to reduce anxiety
from obsessions) and
obsessions (troublesome
thoughts, impulses, or
images).
● Body Dysmorphic Disorder:
preoccupation with an
imaginary or slight “defect” in
their appearance.
● Hoarding Disorder:
persistent difficulty parting
with possessions, who feel
they need to save items and
experience cluttered living
areas.
● Trichotillomania: hair pulling.
● Excoriation Disorder: skin
picking.
Somatic Symptom
and Related
Disorders
● Somatic Symptom
Disorder: excessive
thoughts, feelings, or
behaviors related to the
somatic symptoms or
associated health concerns.
● Illness Anxiety Disorder:
preoccupation with having or
acquiring a serious illness.
● Conversion Disorder
(Functional Neurological
Symptom Disorder): one or
more symptoms of altered
voluntary motor or sensory
function.
● Factitious Disorder: involves
deliberately falsifying or
producing physical or
psychological symptoms.
Dissociative
Disorders
● Dissociative Identity
Disorder: People with
dissociative identity disorder
have two or more distinct
personalities within
themselves,
● Dissociative Amnesia:
forgetting highly personal
information, usually after a
traumatic event.
○ Dissociative Fugue: a
type of dissociative
amnesia featuring
sudden, unexpected
travel away from home,
along with an inability to
recall the past,
sometimes with the
assumption of a new
identity.
● Depersonalization/Derealiza
tion Disorder: persistent
experiences of detachment
from one’s body as if in a
dream state.
● Dissociative Trance
Disorder: an altered state of
consciousness in which
people firmly believe they are
possessed by spirits;
considered a disorder only
where there is distress and
dysfunction.
Mood Disorders and
Suicide
● Depressive Disorders
○ Disruptive Mood
Dysregulation
Disorder: youth ages 6
to 18 years with
recurrent temper
outbursts that are
severe and well out of
proportion to a given
situation.
○ Major Depressive
Disorder, Single and
Recurrent Episodes:
involves a longer period
during which a person
may experience multiple
major depressive
episodes.
○ Persistent Depressive
Disorder (Dysthymia):
chronic feeling of
depression for at least
two years.
○ Premenstrual
Dysphoric Disorder: a
controversial condition
that refers to depressive
or other symptoms
during most menstrual
cycles in the past year.
● Bipolar Disorders
○ Bipolar I Disorder: one
or more manic
episodes.
○ Bipolar II Disorder:
episodes of hypomania
that alternate with
episodes of major
depression.
○ Cyclothymic Disorder:
symptoms of hypomania
and depression that
fluctuate over at least a
two-year period.
Eating and Sleep
Disorder
● Feeding and Eating
Disorders
○ Pica
○ Rumination Disorder
○ Avoidant/Restrictive
Food Intake Disorder: a
type of eating disorder
where people limit their
food intake not because
they are concerned about
weight or body shape but
because they are not
interested in eating or
food, or because they
avoid certain sensory
characteristics or
consequences of food or
eating.
○ Anorexia Nervosa:
refusal to maintain a
minimum normal body
weight, having an intense
fear of gaining weight,
showing disturbance in
the way body shape and
weight are viewed.
○ Bulimia Nervosa: binge
eating, inappropriate
methods to prevent
weight gain.
○ Binge-Eating Disorder:
lack of control over eating
during a certain period
that leads to discomfort.
○ Night eating disorder:
consuming a third or
more of daily food intake
after the evening meal
and getting out of bed at
least once during the
night to have a
high-calorie snack. In the
morning, however,
individuals with night
eating syndrome are not
hungry and do not usually
eat breakfast. These
individuals do not binge
during their night eating
and seldom purge.
● Sleep-Wake Disorder
○ Insomnia Disorder: a
condition in which
insufficient sleep
interferes with normal
functioning.
○ Hypersomnolence
Disorder: a sleep
dysfunction involving an
excessive amount of
sleep that disrupts
normal routines.
○ Narcolepsy: sleep
disorder involving
sudden and irresistible
sleep attacks.
● Breathing-Related Sleep
Disorders
○ Obstructive Sleep
Apnea Hypopnea
○ Central Sleep Apnea
○ Sleep-Related
Hypoventilation
● Circadian Rhythm
Sleep-Wake Disorder
○ Non–Rapid Eye
Movement Sleep Arousal
Disorders
○ Sleepwalking: a
parasomnia that involves
leaving the bed during
nonrapid eye movement
sleep. See also
somnambulism.
○ Sleep Terrors: episodes
of apparent awakening
from sleep, accompanied
by signs of panic, followed
by disorientation and
amnesia for the incident.
These occur during
nonrapid eye movement
sleep and so do not
involve frightening dreams.
○ Nightmare Disorder:
frightening and
anxiety-provoking dreams
occurring during rapid eye
movement sleep. The
individual recalls the bad
dreams and recovers
alertness and orientation
quickly.
○ Rapid Eye Movement
Sleep Behavior Disorder
○ Restless Legs Syndrome
Sexual Dysfunctions,
Paraphilic Disorders,
and Gender and
Dysphoria
● Sexual Dysfunctions
○ Male hypoactive sexual
desire disorder: lack of
fantasies or desire to
have sexual relations;
includes cognitive and
motivational components
○ Female sexual
interest/arousal
disorder: lack of interest
or arousal in most sexual
encounters, which may
include reduced physical
sensations
○ Erectile disorder:
difficulty obtaining and
maintaining an erection
during sexual relations
○ Female orgasmic
disorder: delay or
absence of orgasm during
sexual relations
○ Delayed ejaculation:
delay or absence of
orgasm in men during
sexual activity with a
partner
○ Premature (early)
ejaculation: orgasm that
occurs before the person
wishes, such as before or
very soon after
penetration
○ Genito-pelvic
pain/penetration disorder:
involves pain during
vaginal penetration and/or
fear of pain before
penetration
● Paraphilic Disorders
○ Exhibitionistic
disorder: Recurrent
and intense sexual
arousal from exposing
genitals to strangers
○ Fetishistic disorder:
Recurrent and intense
sexual arousal from
either the use of
nonliving objects or a
highly specific focus on
a nongenital body
part(s)
○ Frotteuristic disorder:
Recurrent and intense
sexual arousal from
touching or rubbing
against a nonconsenting
person
○ Pedophilic disorder:
Recurrent and intense
sexual arousal from
engaging in sexual
activities with children
○ Sexual masochism
and sexual sadism
disorder: Recurrent
and intense sexual
arousal from humiliation
from or to others
○ Transvestic disorder:
Recurrent and intense
sexual arousal from
cross-dressing
○ Voyeuristic disorder:
Recurrent and intense
sexual arousal from
observing an
unsuspecting person
who is naked, in the
process of disrobing, or
engaging in sexual
activity
● Gender Dysphoria involves a
strong desire to be of an
alternative gender that is
different than one’s assigned
gender.
Substance-Related
and Addictive
Disorders
● Alcohol-related disorders:
Cognitive, biological,
behavioral, and social
problems associated with
alcohol use and abuse.
● Amphetamine use
disorders: Severe
intoxication or overdose
through the use of
amphetamines, including
significant behavioral
impairments and physiological
symptoms.
● Caffeine use disorders:
Cognitive, biological,
behavioral, and social
problems associated with the
use and abuse of caffeine.
● Cannabis use disorders:
Problematic pattern of
cannabis use leading to
clinically significant
impairment or distress.
● Cocaine use disorders:
Severe intoxication or
overdose through the use of
cocaine, including significant
behavioral impairments and
physiological symptoms.
● Fetal alcohol syndrome
(FAS): Pattern of problems
including learning difficulties,
behavior deficits, and
characteristic physical flaws,
resulting from heavy drinking
by the victim’s mother when
she was pregnant with the
victim.
● Hallucinogen use
disorders: Cognitive,
biological, behavioral, and
social problems associated
with the use and abuse of
hallucinogenic substances.
● Opioid-related disorders:
Severe intoxication or
overdose through the use of
opiates, which have a narcotic
effect.
● Tobacco-related disorders:
Cognitive, biological,
behavioral, and social
problems associated with the
use and abuse of nicotine.
● Wernicke–Korsakoff
syndrome: Organic brain
syndrome resulting from
prolonged heavy alcohol use,
involving confusion,
unintelligible speech, and loss
of motor coordination. It may
be caused by a deficiency of
thiamine, a vitamin
metabolized poorly by heavy
drinkers.
Disruptive, Impulse
Control, and Conduct
Disorders
● Oppositional Defiant
Disorder: children with
oppositional defiant disorder
often refuse to comply with
commands and may be
hostile or angry.
● Intermittent Explosive
Disorder: episodes during
which a person acts on
aggressive impulses that
result in serious assaults or
destruction of property.
Conduct Disorder
● Pyromania: an
impulse-control disorder that
involves having an irresistible
urge to set fires.
● Kleptomania: recurrent
failure to resist urges to steal
things not needed for
personal use or their
monetary value.
● Gambling disorder:
Persistent and recurrent
problematic gambling
behavior leading to clinically
significant impairment or
distress.
Personality
Disorders
● Odd/Eccentric Personality
Disorders
○ Paranoid personality
disorder involves a
general distrust and
suspiciousness of others.
○ Schizoid personality
disorder involves
extreme social
detachment and
isolation.
○ Schizotypal personality
disorder involves
interpersonal deficits,
cognitive and perceptual
aberrations, and
behavioral eccentricities.
● Dramatic Personality
Disorders
○ Antisocial personality
disorder involves a
pattern of behavior that
disregards and violates
the rights of others;
deceitfulness, impulsivity,
irritability/aggressiveness,
criminal acts, and
irresponsibility.
○ Borderline personality
disorder involves a
pattern of impulsivity and
unstable affect,
interpersonal
relationships, and
self-image.
○ Histrionic personality
disorder involves
pervasive and excessive
emotionality and attention
seeking.
○ Narcissistic personality
disorder involves
grandiosity, a need for
admiration, and a lack of
empathy for others.
● Anxious/Fearful Personality
Disorders
○ Avoidant personality
disorder involves a
pervasive pattern of
anxiety, feelings of
inadequacy, and social
hypersensitivity.
○ Dependent personality
disorder involves a
pervasive, excessive
need to be cared for,
leading to
submissiveness, clinging
behavior, and fears of
separation.
○ Obsessive-compulsive
personality disorder
involves a preoccupation
with orderliness,
perfectionism, and
control.
Schizophrenia
Spectrum Disorders
and Other Psychotic
Disorders
● Schizophrenia generally
consists of two main groups
of symptoms: positive and
negative.
○ Phases of
Schizophrenia
■ Prodromal: peculiar
behaviors and
negative symptoms
■ Psychotic prephase:
marked by the first
“full-blown” positive
symptom of
schizophrenia
■ Active phase: many
positive and negative
symptoms; may
require hospitalization
■ Residual phase:
similar to the
prodromal phase
● Other Psychotic Disorders
○ Schizophreniform
disorder: marked by
features of schizophrenia
lasting for one to six
months without great
impairment of daily
functioning
○ Schizoaffective
disorder: includes
characteristic features of
schizophrenia and a
depressive or manic
episode
○ Delusional disorder: one
or more bizarre or
non-bizarre delusions;
may be erotomanic,
grandiose, jealous,
persecutory, or somatic
○ Brief psychotic
disorder: key features
of schizophrenia
occurring for one day to
one month, often
associated with severe
stress
○ Postpartum psychosis:
occurs after giving birth
Neurodevelopmental
Disorders
● Intellectual Developmental
Disorders have three main
features: (1) Limited
cognitive development,
sometimes defined as a score
of less than 70 on an
intelligence test, (2) Deficits in
adaptive functioning (ability to
complete everyday tasks that
allow one to be independent),
(3) Disorder must begin
during the developmental
period, usually before age 18
years.
● Autism Spectrum Disorder
has three main sets of
symptoms: (1) Severe
impairment in social
interaction, (2) Severe
impairment in communication
with other, and (3) Unusual
behavior patterns.
● Learning disorders involve
difficulties in reading, spelling,
math, or written expression
unexplained by intellectual
developmental disability
○ Dyslexia: problems in
reading and spelling
○ Dysgraphia: problems
of written expression
○ Dysnomia: problems
naming or recalling
objects
○ Dysphasia: problems
comprehending or
expressing words in
proper sequence
○ Dyspraxia: problems
with fine motor
movements
○ Dyslalia: problems of
articulation
● Attention-Deficit/Hyperactiv
ity Disorder the three key
behavior problems of
children with ADHD are
inattention, overactivity,
and impulsivity.
Neurocognitive
Disorders
● Delirium is a disturbance in
attention and awareness that
develops over a short period
of time.
● Major neurocognitive
disorder involves significant
cognitive decline and
interference with daily
activities.
● Mild neurocognitive
disorder involves modest
cognitive decline but without
interference with daily
activities.