Abnormal Psychology
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Source: Barlow, Durand & Hofmann (2018), Comer & Comer (2017), DSM-V, DSM-V-TR, Psych Pearls
Normalcy and Abnormalcy (5)
Theoretical Approaches in Explaining the Etiology of
Recognizing Normal and Abnormal manifestations of
Psychological Disorders (20)
behavior
o One-Dimensional – looking for a single cause
o Psychological
Disorder
–
psychological
o Multidimensional – looking for a systemic cause
dysfunction within an individual associated with
Genetic contributions
distress or impairment in functioning and a response
o Genes – long molecules of DNA at various locations
that is not typical or culturally expected
on chromosomes, within cell nucleus
o 4 D’s of Psychological Disorder
o 46 Chromosomes, 23 Pairs, 22 Pairs of Autosomes,
a. Psychological Dysfunction – refers to a breakdown
1 pair Sex Chromosomes
in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning
o XX – female, XY – male
▪ Interferes daily functioning
o Dominant and Recessive
b. Distress or Impairment – individual is extremely
o Phenotypes – observable characteristics
upset and cannot function properly
o Genotypes – unique genetic makeup
▪ Either to self or to others
o Endophenotypes – genetic mechanisms that
c. Atypical or Not Culturally Expected (Deviance) –
ultimately contribute to the underlying problems
deviates from the average or the norm of the culture
causing the symptoms and difficulties experienced
▪ Not just to the society but deviation from the
by people with psychological disorders
person’s usual behavior
o Basic Genetic Epidemiology – statistical analysis of
d. Dangerousness – creates potential harm to self
family, twin, and adoption studies; if the disorder can
(suicidal gestures) and others (excessive aggression)
be inherited and how much is attributable to genetics
o Psychopathology – scientific study of mental
o Advanced Genetic Epidemiology – studies the
disorders
factors that influence the disorder
o Clinical Psychology – applied branch of psychology
o Gene Finding – what gene influences the behavior
that seeks to understand, assess, and treat
o Molecular Genetics – biological analysis of
psychological conditions in a clinical setting
individual DNA samples; biological processes genes
o Abnormal Psychology – branch of psychology that
affect to produce symptoms of the disorder
studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotions, and
o
Family Studies – examine behavioral pattern or
thought which may or may not indicate an underlying
emotional trait in the context of the family
condition
o
Proband – family member with the trait singled out
o Normal Behavior – one behavior that is like other
for study
people in the society
▪
The first person in the family to be identified as
▪ Normality is social conformity – some
possibly having genetic disorder and who may
behaviors are non-conforming but normal
receive genetic counseling or testing
▪ Normality is personal comfort
o
Adoption
Studies – identify adoptees who have a
▪ Normality is a process
particular behavioral pattern or psychological
o Criteria for determining Abnormal Behavior
disorder and attempt to locate first-degree relatives
✓ Norm-violation
who were raised in different family settings
✓ Statistical rarity
o Twin Studies – usually conducted to identical twins
✓ Personal Discomfort
because they share genetic makeup’
✓ Deviation
o Those people who reported more severe stressful life
✓ Maladaptiveness
events and had at least one short allele of the 5-HTT
o Clinical Assessment – the systematic evaluation and
gene were at greater risk of developing depression
measurement of psychological, biological, and social
(Caspi et al., 2003) (serotonin-transporter gene)
factors in an individual presenting with a possible
o Epigenetics – factors other than inherited DNA
psychological disorder
sequence, such as new learning or stress, that alter
o Diagnosis – process of determining whether the
the phenotypic expression of genes
particular problem afflicting the individual meets all
criteria for a psychological disorder
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Abnormal Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Source: Barlow, Durand & Hofmann (2018), Comer & Comer (2017), DSM-V, DSM-V-TR, Psych Pearls
o Brain Stem – lower and more ancient part of the
Biological and Neurological Bases
brain; essential for autonomic functioning such as
o Neuroscience – study of the nervous system,
breathing, heartbeat, etc.
especially the brain to understand behavior,
▪
Hindbrain – contains the medulla, pons, and
emotions, and cognitive processes
cerebellum; regulates many autonomic activities
High
Low
such as breathing, heartbeat, and digestion
Dopamine
Schizophrenia
Parkinson’s
▪ Cerebellum – controls motor coordination
Acetylcholine
Alzheimer’s
abnormalities associated with autism
(Dementia)
▪ Midbrain – coordinates movements with sensory
Norepinephrine Mania
Depression
input and contains parts of reticular activating
GABA
Relaxation
Anxiety/OCD
system (contributes to sleep, arousal and tension)
Serotonin
Mania
Depression
▪ Thalamus and Hypothalamus – involves in
Anxiety
regulating behavior, emotions, and hormones
Eating
o Limbic System – located around the edge of the
Disorders
center of the brain
Epinephrine
Stress
Fatigue
▪ Hippocampus, Cingulate Gyrus, Septum, and
Sleep Disorders
Amygdala
Glutamate
Psychosis
Huntington’s
▪ Amygdala – emotions
Neuron Death
Disease
▪ Hippocampus – shrinks when a person have
Endorphin
Eating
depression
Disorders
▪ Regulate emotional experiences and expressions
o Agonist – effectively increase the activity of the
and, to some extent, our ability to learn and to
neurotransmitters (Excitatory)
control impulses
o Antagonist – decrease or block neurotransmitter
o Basal Ganglia – base of the forebrain, includes
(Inhibitory)
caudate nucleus
o Inverse Agonists – produces effects opposite to
▪ Damage involved changing our posture or
those produced by the neurotransmitters
twitching or shaking
o Reuptake – neurotransmitter is released, quickly
▪ Related to Parkinson’s Disease
broken down and brought back to the synaptic cleft
o Cerebral Cortex – provides us with our distinctly
o Neurotransmitter – chemical messengers of the
human qualities, allowing us to look to the future and
body
plan, to reason, and to create
a) Glutamate (E) [ memory ]– most abundant in
▪ Left Hemisphere – responsible for verbal and
the brain and plays a key role in thinking,
other cognitive processes
learning, and memory
▪ Right Hemisphere – perceiving the world
b) GABA (I) [ calming ]– most common inhibitory
around us and creating images
neurotransmitter in the brain and regulates mood,
▪ Lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal
irritability, sleep, seizures
▪ Prefrontal Cortex – area responsible for higher
c) Serotonin (I) [ mood ]– regulates mood, sleep
cognitive functions
patterns, sexuality, appetite, and pain
▪ HPA Axis – Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland,
d) Dopamine [ pleasure ]– body reward system,
Adrenal Cortex
pleasures, achieving heightened arousal and
o Somatic Nervous System – controls the muscles
learning
o Autonomic Nervous System – regulate
e) Epinephrine [ fight-or-flight ] – responsible for
cardiovascular system and endocrine system
fight-or-flight response
▪ Sympathetic – fight or flight responses
f) Norepinephrine [ concentration ] – alertness,
▪ Parasympathetic – calms the sympathetic
arousal, decision-making, attention, and focus
nervous system; rest and digest functions
g) Endorphins [ euphoria ]– natural pain reliever,
o Endocrine System – glands produce hormones that
reduces pain
is released to the blood streams
h) Acetylcholine (E) [ learning ] – regulates heart
▪ Pituitary – master gland
rate, blood pressure and gut motility, role in
▪ Thyroid – controls metabolism and growth
muscle contraction, memory, motivation, sexual
(thyroxine)
desire, sleep, and learning
▪ Parathyroid – controls the levels of calcium
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Abnormal Psychology
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Source: Barlow, Durand & Hofmann (2018), Comer & Comer (2017), DSM-V, DSM-V-TR, Psych Pearls
Adrenal – controls metabolism, blood pressure,
▪ Modeling/observational learning: process of
sex development, stress (epinephrine)
learning in which an individual acquires
▪ Pineal – releases melatonin
responses by observing and imitating others
▪ Pancreas – creates insulin
▪ Observational learning
▪ Testes – makes sperm and release testosterone
▪ Social Cognitive Theory: people observe
▪ Ovaries – releases estrogen, progesterone, and
models, learns chunks of behavior, and mentally
testosterone
put chunks together into complex new behavior
o Permissive Hypothesis – when serotonin
patterns
(norepinephrine)
levels
are
low,
other
▪ Albert Bandura
neurotransmitters are permitted to range more
▪ Hitting Doll experiment
widely, become dysregulated, and contribute to
▪ Self-Efficacy – person’s confidence in their own
mood irregularities
abilities to accomplish their goals
Learning
o Learned Helplessness – when rats or other animals
o Classical Conditioning – type of learning in which
encounter conditions over which they have no
neutral stimulus is paired with response until it elicits
control, they give up attempting to cope and seem to
that response
develop the animal equivalent of depression
▪ Unconditioned Stimulus – natural stimulus
▪ Martin Seligman and colleagues
▪ Unconditioned Response – natural or unlearned
▪ People make an attribution that they have no
response
control, and become depressed
▪ Conditioned Stimulus – newly conditioned
▪ Causes: coercive, ineffective, inconsistent
event introduced
parents, media violence, peer rejection
▪ Conditioned Response – response from the
▪ Internal: negative effects due to internal failings
conditioned stimulus
▪ Stable: even after a particular negative events
▪ Extinction – without CS showed long enough,
pass, additional bad things will “always be my
the behavior could be eliminated
fault” remains
o Stimulus Generalization – strength of the response
▪ Global: attributions extend across a variety of
to similar objects or people is usually a function of
issues
how similar these objects or people are
▪ Learned Optimism – if people faced with
▪ E.g., You are afraid of fury dogs because they
considerable stress and difficulty in their lives,
once attacked you. Now, whenever you see
nevertheless, display optimistic, upbeat attitude,
something fury, your body trembles, you cannot
they are likely to function better psychologically
breathe properly and wanted to go away.
and physically
o Introspection – Edward Titchener; subjects report
▪ Positive Psychology
their inner thoughts and feelings after experiencing
o Prepared Learning – we have become highly
certain stimuli
prepared for learning about certain types of objects
o John B. Watson – founder of behaviorism
or situations over the course of evolution because this
▪ Little Albert
knowledge contributes to the survival of the species
o Systematic Desensitization – patients were
▪ Learning from ancestors
gradually introduced to the objects or situations they
o Hopelessness Theory – desirable outcomes will not
feared so that their fear could extinguish
occur, and that the person has no responses available
o Operant Conditioning – behavior changes as a
to change this situation
function of what follows the behavior (rewards or
Cognitive theories with Psychoanalytic
punishment)
o Fear – fight or flight response
▪ B.F. Skinner
▪ Evolutionary adaptation
▪ Edward Thorndike – Law of effect (behavior can
▪ White with fear, trembling, faster breathing,
be strengthened or weakened)
increase in glucose, pupil dilate, hearing become
▪ Reinforcement – reward
more acute, digestive system stops, pressure to
▪ Shaping – process of reinforcing successive
urinate, defecate, vomit to reduce waste materials
approximations to a final behavior or set of
o Introjection – direct all their feelings for the loved
behaviors
one, including sadness and anger, toward themselves
o Social Learning – Albert Bandura
o Symbolic or Imagined Loss – person equates other
kinds of events with the loss of a loved one
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Abnormal Psychology
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Source: Barlow, Durand & Hofmann (2018), Comer & Comer (2017), DSM-V, DSM-V-TR, Psych Pearls
Attributional Style – ways in which people explain
- tendency for individuals to relate external events to
the cause of events within their lives
themselves, even when there is no basis for making this
Internal-External – who or what is responsible for the
connection
event
- egocentric thinking, everything is about him
- whether something unique about the person (internal)
- “kasalanan ko kung bakit umiyak yung bata”
or something about the situation caused the event
Selective Abstraction
(external)
- focuses on the negative
Stable-Unstable – perceived permanence of the cause
- detail is taken out of context and believed whilst
- an event can be viewed as constant and likely to
everything else in the context is ignored
happen again (stable) or it only happens once (unstable)
- /almost good feedback except for one /focused on that
single feedback
Global-Specific – universal throughout your like
(global) or specific to a part of your life (specific)
Arbitrary Inference
- evident when depressed individuals emphasize the
o Cognitive Theory of Depression - persons
negative rather than the positive aspects of a situation
susceptible
to
depression
develop
- only accepts negative thoughts
inaccurate/unhelpful core beliefs about themselves,
- no logical reasoning
others, and the world as a result of their learning
- interpreting a situation when there is no factual
histories
evidence
▪ Depressed people consistently think in illogical
- /passed, “chamba”, /negative “kasalanan ko kasi”
ways and keep arriving at self-defeating
conclusions
Labeling and Mislabeling
▪ Tends to Overgeneralize (draw broad negative
- portraying one’s identity on the basis of imperfections
conclusions on the basis of single insignificant
and mistakes made in the past and allowing them to
event) [ Cognitive Bias ]
define one’s true identity
▪ Depressive Cognitive Triad: depressed people
- /bullied for being dark-skinned, “I am ugly.”
make cognitive errors in thinking negatively
Minimization
about themselves, immediate world, and their
- downplaying the significance of an event or emotion
future
- common strategy in dealing with feelings of guilt
▪ Beck Hopelessness Scale
- “Parang nakakarami ka na ah,”
▪ Negative Schema: an enduring negative
“Luh parang tanga, sampung bote pa lang”
cognitive system about some aspects of life
Magnification
▪ Self-Blame Schema: people feel personally
- effects of one’s behaviors are magnified
responsible for every bad happenings
- /may konting mantsa sa damit, “Iniisip siguro nila
▪ Negative Self-Evaluation Schema: “can never
hindi ako naglalaba,”
do anything correctly”
o General Adaption to Stress Theory –
▪ False Consensus Effect/False Consensus Bias:
understanding the relationship between stressful
people tend to overestimate the extent to which
events and the body’s response to stress
their opinions, beliefs, preferences, values, and
▪ Alarm: fight-or-flight response
habits are normal and typical of the others
▪ Resistance: coping mechanisms
(“Everyone shares the same opinion as me,”)
▪ Exhaustion: body defenses resources are
Negative Cognitive Styles:
depleted
Dichotomous Thinking/Absolutist/Black and White
▪ Hans Selye
Thinking
o Stress-Appraisal/Cognitive Appraisal Theory –
- seeing only of the extremes of things, never the
stress is a two-way process, it involves a production
middle
of stressors and the response of an individual
- “either I ace this test or fail,”
subjected to these stressors
Overgeneralization
o Primary Appraisal: an individual tends to ask
- making generalizations about a negative aspect
questions like, “What does this stressor and/or
- “bagsak ako sa physics, hindi na ko makaka-graduate
situation mean?”, and “How can it influence me?”
ng college,”
▪ Understanding the stressor
Personalization
o
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Abnormal Psychology
#BLEPP2023
Source: Barlow, Durand & Hofmann (2018), Comer & Comer (2017), DSM-V, DSM-V-TR, Psych Pearls
Secondary Appraisal: involves those feelings
▪ Long-Term Memory – stores on a relatively
related to dealing with the stressor or the stress it
permanent basis, although, at times, it can be
produces
difficult to retrieve
▪ Deals with the stressor
o Chunks – meaningful grouping of stimuli that can
▪ Starts to assess internal and external resources
be stored as a unit in STM
available to solve the problem
o Rehearsal – repetition of information that has
▪ Positive: “I can do it if I do my best,”
entered the STM
▪ Negative: “I cannot do it.”
▪ Repetitive: as long as it is repeated, it states in
the STM
Memory Disorders
▪
Elaborative: transfers info to LTM
Anosognosia: no memories of his own illness
o Tip-Of-The-Tongue Phenomenon – inability to
Confabulation: filling in memory gaps with imaginary
recall information that one realizes one knows
experiences
o Retrieval Cue – allow us to recall more easily
Disorientation: cannot identify or recognize time,
▪ Recall: memory task in which specific
places, and persons
information is retrieved
De Javu: unfamiliar perceived as familiar
▪
Recognition: individual is presented with a
Jamais Vu: familiar perceived as unfamiliar
stimulus and asked whether they have been
Hypermnesia: increased memory
exposed to it in the past or to identify it from the
Paramnesia: false or perverted memory
list of alternatives
Amnesia: loss of memory
o
Levels-Of-Processing
Theory – degree to which
o Types of Amnesia:
new
materials
is
mentally
analyzed
1. Biogenic – caused by brain damage or disease
▪
Implicit
Memory:
can
be recalled automatically
▪ Retrograde – inability to retrieve information
without thinking
that was acquired before (remote memory loss)
▪
Explicit Memory: requires conscious retrieval of
▪ Anterograde – inability to transfer new
information
information from the short-term store to longo
Constructive
Processes – memories are influenced
term store (recent memory loss)
by
the
meaning
we give to them
2. Psychogenic or Dissociative or Functional –
▪
Autobiographical:
episodes from our own lives
caused by psychological trauma, repressed memories
▪ Flashbulb Memories: specific or surprising
▪ Generalized – origin is rare psychological
events that are so vivid in memory it as if they
disorder and spontaneous recovery from amnesia
represented a snapshot of the event
in a comparatively short period of time
o
Forgetting
– permits us to form general impressions
▪ Localized – no memory of specific events
and
recollections
▪ Selective – can only recall only small parts of the
▪ Helps us avoid being burdened and distracted by
events
trivial stores of meaningless data
▪ Situation-Specific – result of severely stressful
▪ Failure of Encoding: failure to pay attention
event, as part of PTSD
and place information in memory
▪ Global – cannot recall both past and present; total
▪
Decay: loss of information due to non-use
memory loss
▪
Cue-Dependent
Forgetting:
insufficient
o Memory – the process by which we encode, store,
retrieval
cues
and retrieve information
▪ Proactive Interference: learned earlier disrupts
▪ Declarative: factual information
the recall of newer material; you forget the new
▪ Procedural: skills and habits
info
▪ Semantic: general knowledge and facts, logic
▪
Retroactive Interference: difficulty in recalling
▪ Episodic: events that occur in a particular time,
info learned earlier because of later exposure to
place, or context
different material; you forget the old info
o Three-System Approach to Memory – information
o
Learned
Helplessness (Martin Seligman) – if they
must travel if it is to be remembered
learn that nothing they do helps them avoid the
▪ Sensory: initial storage of information, perceived
shocks, they eventually become helpless, give up,
by the senses
and manifest an animal equivalent of depression
▪ Short-Term Memory: holds info for 15 to 20
▪
Anxiety is the first response to a stressful
seconds
situation
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Abnormal Psychology
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Source: Barlow, Durand & Hofmann (2018), Comer & Comer (2017), DSM-V, DSM-V-TR, Psych Pearls
The depressive attributional style is (1) internal,
Role of culture, social interactions, and interpersonal
(2) stable, (3) global
factors in the development
o Aaron T. Beck suggested that depression may result
o Sociogenic Factors:
from a tendency to interpret everyday events in a
a. Unemployment
negative way
b. Poverty
▪ Depressive Cognitive Triad – they make
c. Crime
cognitive errors in thinking negatively about
d. Poor Educational Level
themselves, their immediate world, and their
o People who are isolated and lack social support or
future
intimacy in their lives are more likely to become
▪ Series of negative events in childhood,
depressed when under stress and to remain depressed
individuals may develop deep-seated negative
longer than people with supportive spouses or warm
schema, an enduring negative cognitive belief
friendships
system about some aspect of life
o People’s online relationships tend to parallel their
o Lewinsohn’s Behavioral Theory - depression is
offline relationships
caused by a combination of stressors in a person's
o Family Systems Theory – family is a system of
environment and a lack of personal skills
interacting parts who interact with one another in
diathesis-stress model
consistent ways and follow rules unique to each
o Diathesis-Stress Model – individuals inherit
family
tendencies to express certain traits or behaviors,
▪ Structure and communication patterns of some
which may then be activated under conditions of
families actually force individual members to
stress (Eric Kandel)
behave in a way that otherwise seems abnormal
▪ Diathesis – a condition that makes someone
o An individual’s behavior, whether normal or
susceptible to developing disorder (vulnerability)
abnormal, is best understood in the light of the
▪ The higher vulnerability, the lesser life stress
individual’s unique cultural context
needed to trigger traits
o Multicultural Perspective – each culture within
▪ Disturbances stem from a genetic predisposition
large society has a particular set of values and beliefs,
triggered by stress
as well as special external pressures, that help
▪ Predisposing Factor: cause of a disorder (i.e.,
account for the behavior and functioning of its
situations that trigger the development of the
members (Culturally Diverse Perspective)
disorder)
Suicide
▪ Precipitating Factor: factors that allow the
o Suicide – self-inflicted death in which the person
disorders to develop (i.e., factors that could
acts intentionally, directly, and consciously
contribute to the development of a disorder)
o Death Seekers – clearly intend to end their lives at
▪ Protective Factor: reduces the severity of the
the time they attempt suicide
problems
▪ May last only a short time
▪ Perpetuating Factor: factors that maintain the
o Death Initiators – clearly intent to end their lives,
problem once established
but they act out of a belief that the process is already
Gene-Environment Interaction
under the way and that they are simply hastening the
o Gene-Environment Correlation Model – people
process
might have genetically determined tendency to
o Death Ignorers – do not believe that their selfcreate the environment risk factors that trigger a
inflicted death will mean the end of their existence
genetic vulnerability
o Death Darers – experience mixed feelings, or
o Epigenetics – study how your behavior and
ambivalence, about their intent to die, even at the
environment can cause changes that affect your
moment of their attempt, and they show this
genes work
ambivalence in the act itself
o Reciprocal Gene-Environment Model – claims
▪ Their risk-taking behavior does not guarantee
that people with a genetic predisposition to a disorder
death
may also have a genetic tendency to create
o Subintentional Death – a death in which the victim
environmental factors that promote the disorder
plays an indirect, hidden, partial, or unconscious role
o Suicide is officially the 11th cause of death in US
o Suicidal Ideation – thinking seriously about suicide
▪
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Abnormal Psychology
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Source: Barlow, Durand & Hofmann (2018), Comer & Comer (2017), DSM-V, DSM-V-TR, Psych Pearls
Suicidal Plans – formulation of a specific method
Selective Mutism
for killing oneself
rare
childhood
disorder
o Suicidal Attempts – the person survives from
- characterized by a lack of speech in one or more
attempts
setting in which speaking is socially expected
o Emile Durkheim’s Suicide Types:
- restricted to a specific social situation
a. Altruistic – formalized suicides; dishonor to self,
- a child could speak in one setting but cannot/do not in
family, or society
another
setting
b. Egoistic – loss of social supports as an important
- not better explained by communication disorder
provocation for suicide
- only diagnosed when a child has established a
c. Anomic – result of marked disruptions, such as
capacity to speak in some social situations
sudden loss of job
- learn to perform avoidance and safety behaviors to
d. Fatalistic – loss of control over one’s own destiny
avoid
disasters
o Freud believed that suicide indicated unconscious
- at least 1 month
hostility directed inward to the self rather than
Specific Phobia
outward to the person or situation causing the anger
- irrational fear of a specific object or situation that
o If a family member committed a suicide, there is an
markedly interferes with an individual’s ability to
increased risk that someone else will also
function
o Low levels of serotonin is associated with suicide
- acquired through direct experience, experiencing in
and with violent suicide attempts (low levels of
false
alarm,
and
observation
serotonin is linked with impulsivity, instability, and
- it only fears one setting, unlike Agoraphobia (which
the tendency to overreact to situation)
requires 3 settings), then Specific Phobia-Situational
o The stress of a friend’s suicide or some other major
can
be
diagnosed
stress may affect several individuals who are
- 6 months or more
vulnerable because of existing psychological
Social Anxiety Disorder
disorders
- fear or anxiety about possible embarrassment or
o Hopelessness – pessimistic belief that one’s present
scrutiny
circumstances, problems, or mood will not change
- can have panic attacks but it is cued by social
o Dichotomous Thinking – viewing problems and
situations
solutions in rigid either/or terms
- typically have adequate age-appropriate social
o Common triggering factors:
relationships and social communication capacity
✓ Stressful events
- 6 months or more
✓ Mood and thought changes
Panic Disorder
✓ Alcohol and other drug use
- cannot be diagnosed unless full symptom panic
✓ Mental disorders
attacks
were
experienced
✓ Modeling
norepinephrine
activities
are
irregular
Psychological Disorders and Specific Symptoms based
- abrupt surge of intense fear or discomfort out of
on DSM-5 (50)
nowhere,
with
no
triggers
Differentiating Anxiety disorders
- followed by persistent concerns about more attacks or
Separation Anxiety Disorder
the consequences of it or maladaptive change in
- concerns with real or imagined separating from
behavior related to the attacks
attachment
figures
Agoraphobia
- separation may lead to extreme anxiety and panic
- developed after a person has unexpected panic attacks
attacks
- fear in two or more situations (public transpo, open
- not entirely responsible for school absences or school
spaces, enclosed spaces, standing in line, being outside
avoidance
of the home alone) due to thoughts that escape might
- do not attend school so they won’t be separated with
be difficult or no one will help them in case panic-like
their attachment figure
symptoms
would
manifest
- fear of possible separation is the central thought
- 6 months or more
- concerned about the proximity and safety of key
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
attachment
figures
difficulty
to
control
worry
- at least 4 weeks (children) or 6 months or more
- excessive anxiety and worry occurring more days than
(adults)
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Abnormal Psychology
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Source: Barlow, Durand & Hofmann (2018), Comer & Comer (2017), DSM-V, DSM-V-TR, Psych Pearls
not for at least 6 months, about a number of events or
than
reflecting
generalized
low
mood
activities
- distress from a deceased person
“the
world
is
a
dangerous
place”
Differentiating OCD-Related Disorders
- intense cognitive processing in the frontal lobes,
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
particularly
in
the
left
hemisphere
- Obsessions: intrusive and mostly nonsensical
- intense worrying may act as avoidance
thoughts, images, or urges that the individual tries to
- worry whether or not they are judged/evaluated
resist
or
eliminate
- fear circuit is excessively active
- Compulsions: thoughts or actions used to suppress the
Differentiating
Trauma-and-Stressor
Related
obsessions
and
provide
relief
Disorders
- Tic Disorders is common to co-occur in patients with
Reactive Attachment Disorder
OCD
withdrawn
toward
adult
caregivers
- obsessions usually do not involve real life concerns
evident
before
age
5
years
and can include one, irrational, or magical content
- history of severe social neglect
- In BDD and Tricho, the compulsive behavior is
limited to hair pulling or distortions in absence of
Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder
obsessions
- actively approaches and interacts with unfamiliar
- obsessions and compulsions are not limited to
adults
concerns
about
weight
and
food
- can be distinguished from ADHD by not showing
Compulsions
are
usually
preceded
by
obsessions,
tics
difficulties in attention or hyperactivity
are often preceded by premonitory sensory urges
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Body Dysmorphic Disorder
- exposure to actual death, injury or sexual violence
- preoccupation with some imagined defect
(direct experience, witness, learning that the event
imagined
ugliness
happened to a close family, repeated exposure)
excessive
appearance-related
preoccupations
and
more
than
1
month
repetitive behaviors that are time-consuming
- heightened activity in the HPA axis
- can be co-morbid with eating disorders
- requires trauma exposure precede the onset of the
Hoarding
symptoms
- too much use of dissociation
- difficulty discarding or parting with possessions
- Prader-Willi Syndrome: characterized by severe
Acute Stress Disorder
hypotonia, poor appetite, and feeding difficulties in
- exposure to trauma (direct experience, witness,
early infancy, followed in early childhood by excessive
learning that event occurred to close fam, repeated
eating and gradual development of morbid obesity
exposure)
- not direct consequence of neurodevelopmental
- 3 days to 1 month after trauma exposure
disorder, nor delusion, nor psychomotor retardation,
- if the symptoms persists for more than 1 month and
fatigue, or loss of energy
meet the criteria for PTSD, then PTSD will be
Trichotillomania
diagnosed
- should not be diagnosed when hair removal is
Adjustment Disorder
performed
solely
for
cosmetic
reasons
- development of emotional or behavior symptoms in
diagnosis
will
be
OCD,
if
there
is
obsession
of
response to identifiable stressors occurring within 3
symmetry
months
of
the
onset
of
the
stressors
- someone with ASD could have hair-pulling behaviors
- If symptoms persist beyond 6 months after the stressor
when frustrated or angry, so if it’s impairing then it can
or its consequences have ceased, the diagnosis will no
be diagnosed as stereotypic movement disorder
longer
apply
- note the delusion or hallucination, if then, psychotic
- May sometimes be diagnosed instead of bereavement
disorder
if bereavement is judged to be out of proportion to what
Excoriation
would be expected or significantly impairs self-care
and interpersonal relations
note
delusion
or
tactile
hallucination
- In absence of deception, excoriation disorder can be
Prolonged Grief Disorder
diagnosed if there are repeated attempts to decrease or
- death, at least 12 months, of a person close to the
stop skin picking
bereaved individual (6 months for children)
- focused on loss and separation from a loved one rather
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Explaining Somatic Symptom Disorders
Evaluating DID from other Disorders
Somatic Symptom Disorder
Depersonalization-Derealization Disorder
- one or more symptoms cause distress and disruption
- Depersonalization: your perception alters so that you
of
daily
life
temporarily lose the sense of your own reality, as if you
- chronic, influenced by the number of symptoms, age,
are
in
a
dream
watching
yourself
level of impairment, and any comorbidity
- Derealization: your sense of external world is lost;
- ineffectiveness of analgesics, history of mental
thing may seem to change shape or size, people may
disorders, unclear palliative factors, persistence
seem
dead
or
mechanical
without
cessation,
and
stress
- characterized by the presence of constellation of
- must be accompanied by excessive or
typical depersonalization/derealization symptoms and
disproportionate thoughts, feelings, or behavior
the absence of manifestations of illness anxiety
- focus is on the distress that particular symptoms cause
disorder
- individual’s belief that somatic symptoms might
- must precede the onset of major depressive epi or
reflect serious underlying physical illness are not held
clearly continues even after its resolution
with
delusional
intensity
- when symptoms occur ONLY during panic attacks, it
- with enhanced perceptual sensitivity to illness cues
must not be diagnosed with D/DD
Illness Anxiety Disorder
Dissociative Amnesia
- preoccupation with having or acquiring serious illness
- inability to recall important autobiographical
- usually minimal to no symptoms, mild intensity
information, usually of traumatic or stressful nature,
- interpret ambiguous stimuli as threatening
that is inconsistent with ordinary forgetting
- develop in the context of a stressful life
- usually localized or selective amnesia for specific
- People who develop these disorders tend to have a
events, then generalized, if entire life history
disproportionate incidence of disease in their family
- Dissociative Fugue: memory loss revolves around
when they were children
specific incident, an unexpected trip; individuals just
take off and later find themselves in a new place, unable
Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological
to remember why or how you got there
Symptom Disorder)
- If a person experiencing PTSD cannot recall part or
- altered voluntary motor or sensory function
all of specific trauma event and that extends to beyond
- incompatibility between the symptom and recognized
the immediate time of the trauma, comorbid diagnosis
neurological
or
medical
conditions
of
DA
may
be
warranted
- unexpected neurological disease cause for the
there
must
be
no
true
neurocognitive
deficits
symptoms is rarely found at follow-up
- too much use of repression
- too much use of denial
Dissociative Identity Disorder
Psychological Factors affecting other Medical
- disruption of identity characterized by two or more
Conditions
distinct
personality
states
medical
symptom
is
present
host
personality:
the
person
who
becomes
the
patient
- psychological or behavioral factors affect medical
and
asks
for
treatment;
developed
later
condition
- switch: transition from one personality to another
- psychological or behavioral factors are judged to
extreme
subtype
of
PTSD
affect
the
course
of
medical
condition
- Hypnotic Trance: tend to be focused on one aspect of
- Psychological factors affecting other medical
their world and they become vulnerable to suggestions
conditions is diagnosed when the psychological traits
by
the
hypnotist
or behaviors do not meet criteria for a mental diagnosis
- does not have a classic bipolar sleep disturbance
Factitious Disorder
- Individuals with schizophrenia have low hypnotic
- Imposed on Self: individual present himself or herself
capacity, whilst, individuals with DID have highest
as
ill
hypnotic capacity among all clinical groups
- Imposed on Another: presents another individual as ill
- appear to encapsulate a variety of severe personality
absence
of
obvious
rewards
disorder features
- Malingering: false medical symptoms or exaggerating
- too much use of dissociation
existing symptoms in hopes of being rewarded
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Illustrating Depressive Disorders
o Bipolar disorder may simply be a more severe variant
Unipolar Disorders
of mood disorders
Bipolar Disorders
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder
Bipolar I
- recurrent temper outburst (verbally or behaviorally)
that are grossly out of proportion
- at least 1 manic episode
- 3 or more times/week
- children should be judged according to his or her
- irritable or angry most of the day
own baseline in determining whether a particular
- 12 or more months, at least 2 settings
behavior is normal or evidence of manic episode
- onset should be after 6 yrs-18yrs
- first ep usually MDE
- do not occur exclusively during MDE
- factors that should be considered: family history,
- bipolar = episodic, DMD = persistent
onset, medical history, presence of psychotic
- diagnosis cannot be assigned to a child who has ever
symptoms, history of lack of response to
experienced full-duration hypomanic or manic episode
antidepressant treatment or the emergence of manic
(irritable or euphoric) or who has ever had a manic or
episode during antidepressant treatment
hypomanic episode lasting more than 1 day
- The diagnosis is “Bipolar I disorder, with psychotic
- presence of severe and frequently recurrent outburst
features” if the psychotic symptoms have occurred
and persistent disruption in mood between outburst
EXCLUSIVELY during manic and major depressive
- severe in at least one setting and mild to moderate to
episodes
second setting
- Symptoms of mania in BP1 occur in distinct
episodes and typically begin in late adolescence or
Major Depressive Disorder
early adulthood
- at least 2 weeks of either anhedonia or depressed
- When any child is being assessed for Mania, it is
mood
essential that the symptoms represent clear change
- “other specified depressive disorder” can be made in
from the child’s typical behavior
addition to the diagnosis of psychotic disorder
- Symptoms of mood lability and impulsivity must
- in schizoaffective, delusions or hallucinations occur
represent a distinct episode of illness, or there must be
exclusively for 2 weeks without MDE
a noticeable increase in these symptoms over the
- Seasonal, Catatonic, Melancholic
individual’s baseline in order to justify an additional
Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)
diagnosis of BP1
- depressed mood for at least 2 years
Bipolar II
- if full criteria for a MDE has been met at some point
- MDE + Hypomanic episodes
during the period of illness, a diagnosis of MDD
- often begins with depressive episodes
would apply. Otherwise, a diagnosis of “other
- highly recurrent
specified depressive disorder” or “unspecified
- once hypomanic episode has occurred, it never
depressive disorder” should be given
reverts back to MDD
- a separate diagnosis of PDD is not made if the
- BP2 is distinguished from cyclEothymic disorder by
symptom occur only during the course of the
the presence of one or more hypomanic episodes and
psychotic disorder
one or more MDE
- Double Depression: suffer from both MDE and PDD
Cyclothymic Disorder
with fewer symptoms
- milder but more chronic version of bipolar disorder
Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
- do not meet the complete criteria for depressive
- majority of menstrual cycles, at least 5 symptoms
symptoms and hypomanic symptoms
must be present
Explaining Eating and Sleeping Disorders
o Seasonal Affective Disorder – episodes must have
Eating Disorders
occurred for at least 2 yrs with no evidence of
Pica
nonseasonal MDE during that period of time
▪ Cabin fever
- eating of non-nutritive, nonfood substances for at
o Integrated Grief – acute grief, the finality of death
least 1 month
and its consequences are acknowledged and the
- inappropriate to the developmental age
individual adjusts to the loss
Rumination Disorder
o Complicated Grief – this reaction can develop
- repeated regurgitation of food for at least 1 month
without preexisting depressed state
- re-chewed, re-swallowed, or spit-out
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- not attributable to gastrointestinal or other medical
- difficulty initiating and maintaining sleep
condition
- early-morning awakening with inability to return to
- self-soothing or self-stimulating
sleep
- at least 3 nights/week, for at least 3 months
Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder
- Rebound Insomnia: sleep problems re-appearing, but
- eating or feeding disturbance
sometimes worst
- lack of interest in eating food
- situational, persistent, or recurrent, episodic
- dependence on enteral feeding or nutritional
Hypersomnolence Disorder
supplements
- requires that the disturbance of intake is beyond that
- excessive sleepiness despite having at least 7 hours
directly accounted for by physical symptoms
of main sleep
consistent with medical condition; the eating
- recurrent periods of sleep or lapses into sleep within
disturbance may also persist after being triggered by
the same day
medical condition and following resolution of the
- take longer naps, have trouble waking from naps,
medical condition
and do not feel alert afterward
- if eating problems is the focus, then A/RFID, if
- at least 3x/week, for at least 3 months
weight, then Anorexia Nervosa
Narcolepsy
- might precede the onset of Anorexia Nervosa
- recurrent episodes of irrepressible need to sleep,
Anorexia Nervosa
lapsing into sleep, or napping with cataplexy,
- fear of gaining weight
hypocretin deficiency, and evidence from
- subtypes: binge-eating/purging type and restricting
polysomnography showing REM sleep latency less
type
than or equal to 15 mins
- associated with stressful life event
- 3x/week, for at least 3 months
- BDD may be considered if the distortion is unrelated
Obstructive Sleep Apnea Hypopnea
to body shape and size
- at least 4 obstructive apneas or hypopneas per hour
- amenorrhea and cardiovascular problems
of sleep or evidence from polysomnography of 15 or
- very underweight
more obstructive apneas and/or hypopneas per hour of
Bulimia Nervosa
sleep
- recurrent episodes of binge-eating then purging to
- Apnea: absence of airflow
prevent weight gain
- Hypopnea: reduction in airflow
- binge-eating for at least once a week for 3 months
Central Sleep Apnea
- normal weight
- evidence by polysomnography of 5 or more central
- chronic purging can result to enlargement of salivary
apneas per hour of sleep
gland caused by repeated vomiting, causing chubby
- Cheyne-Stokes Breathing: an abnormal pattern of
face
breathing characterized by progressively deeper, and
- electrolyte imbalance that may lead to arrythmia,
sometimes faster, breathing followed by a gradual
seizures, and renal failure
decrease that results in a temporary stop in breathing
Binge-Eating Disorder
called an apnea
- recurrent episodes of just binge eating
Sleep-Related Hypoventilation
- do not show marked or sustained dietary restriction
- Polysomnography demonstrates episodes of
designed to influence body weight and shape between
decreased respiration associated with elevated CO2
binge-eating episodes
levels
- usually overweight
Circadian Rhythm Sleep-Wake Disorders
Elimination Disorders
- persistent or recurrent pattern of sleep disruption due
Enuresis
to alteration of the circadian system or misalignment
- repeated voiding of urine in bed, voluntary or
between the endogenous circadian rhythm
intentional
- leads to excessive sleepiness or insomnia, or both
Encopresis
Non-REM Sleep Arousal Disorders
- repeated passage of feces into inappropriate places
- incomplete awakening from sleep: sleepwalking or
Sleeping Disorders
sleep terrors
- cannot remember anything when they woke up
Insomnia
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- occur mostly in childhood and non-rem sleeps
- anxiety about anticipating vulvovaginal or pelvic
- produce rapid and complete awakening without
pain
confusion, amnesia, or motor activity
- at least 6 months
Nightmare Disorder
Male Hypoactive Sexual Disorder
- repeated occurrences of extended, extremely
- persistently deficient or absent sexual/erotic thoughts
dysphoric, and well-remembered dreams that usually
or fantasies and desire for sexual activity
involve efforts to avoid threats to survival, security, or
- at least 6 months
physical integrity
Premature (Early) Ejaculation
- upon awakening, they become oriented and alert
- ejaculation approx. 1 min following vaginal
- appear in children exposed to acute or chronic
penetration or even before the individual wishes it
psychosocial stressors
- at least 6 months and must be experienced on almost
- occur during REM Sleep
all or all occasions
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
Paraphilic disorders
- repeated episodes of arousal during sleep associated
Voyeuristic Disorder
with vocalization and/or complex motor behaviors
- intense arousal from observing an unsuspecting
- during REM sleep
naked person for at least 6 months
- upon awakening, the individual is completely awake,
- nonconsensual
alert, and not confused
- at least 18 yrs old
Restless Legs Disorder
Exhibitionistic Disorder
- urge to move the legs, usually accompanied or in
- intense arousal from exposing genitals to an
response to uncomfortable and unpleasant sensations
unsuspecting person for at least 6 months
of the legs
- nonconsensual
- during rests
Frotteuristic Disorder
- sense of relief during the movement
- intense arousal from touching or rubbing genitals
- worse in evening
against nonconsenting person for at least 6 months
- 3x/week, for at least 3 months
- nonconsensual
Evaluating Sexual dysfunctions, Paraphilic disorders,
Sexual Masochism
and Gender Dysphoria
- intense sexual arousal from the act of being
Sexual Dysfunctions
humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise made to suffer
Delayed Ejaculation
for at least 6 months
- delay or absence of ejaculation
Sexual Sadism
- at least 6 months
- intense sexual arousal from the physical suffering of
- either lifelong or acquired, generalized or situational
another person for at least 6 months
Erectile Disorder
Pedophilic Disorder
- difficulty having, maintaining erection and decrease
- intense sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or
in erectile rigidity
behaviors involving prepubescent child or children for
- at least 6 months
at least 6 months
Female Orgasmic Disorder
- has ACTED on these urges
- delay or absence of orgasm and reduced intensity of
- at least 16 yrs old and at least 5 yrs older than the
orgasmic sensations
child or children
- at least 6 months
Fetishistic Disorder
- either lifelong or acquired, generalized or situational
- intense sexual arousal from either the use of
Female Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder
nonliving objects or highly specific focus on
- absent/reduced interest in sexual activity
nongenital body parts for at least 6 months
- no sexual thoughts or fantasies, no initiation, no
- not limited to cross-dressing or sex toys
sexual excitement or pleasure during sex
Transvestic Disorder
- at least 6 months
- intense arousal from cross-dressing for at least 6
Genito-Pelvic Pain/Penetration Disorder
months
- difficulties in vaginal penetration during intercourse
- vaginal pain during intercourse or penetration
attempts
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Gender Dysphoria
Caffeine – most common psychoactive substance
Gender Dysphoria
- “gentle stimulant”
- found in tea, coffee, soda, and cocoa products
marked
incongruence
between
one’s
experienced/expressed gender and assigned gender, for
Cannabis (Marijuana) – reactions include mood
at least 6 months
swings or even dream-like experiences
- intersexuality or hermaphroditism
- chronic and heavy users report tolerance, especially
- slightly higher levels of testosterone or estrogen at
to euphoric high: they are unable to reach the levels of
certain critical periods of development
pleasure they experienced earlier
Explaining Substance-Related and Addictive Disorder
Hallucinogens – most common, “LSD” produced
o Substance – chemical compounds that are ingested
synthetically in the laboratory
to alter mood or behavior
- others: psilocybin (mushroom), lysergic acid amide
o Psychoactive substances – alter mood, behavior, or
(seeds of morning glory plant), dimethyltryptamine
both
(DMT), and mescaline
o Substance Use – ingestion of psychoactive
- Phencyclidine (PCP) is snorted, smoked, or injected
substances in moderate amounts that does not
intravenously, and it causes impulsivity and
significantly interfere with social, educational, or
aggressiveness
occupational functioning
Inhalant – solvents, aerosol sprays, gases, nitrites,
o Substance Intoxication – physiological reaction to
usually found at home or workplace
ingested substances
Opioid – natural chemicals in the opium poppy that
o Substance Use Disorders – how much of a
have narcotic effect (relieves pain and induce sleep)
substance is ingested is problematic
- includes natural opiates, synthetic variation, and the
o Physiological Dependence – meaning the use of
comparable substances that occur naturally in the brain
increasingly greater amounts of the drug to
- also includes Heroin
experience the same effect (tolerance) and a negative
Sedative-, Hypnotic-, or Anxiolytic- - calming, sleepphysical response when the substance is no longer
inducing, and anxiety-reducing
ingested (withdrawal)
- includes barbiturates and benzodiazepines
Alcohol – produced when certain yeast react with sugar
- barbiturates and benzodiazepines relax the muscles
and water, then fermentation takes place
and can produce mild feeling of well being
- depressant
- combining alcohol with these substances can be fatal
- inhibitions are reduced and we become more outgoing
(Manilyn Monroe case)
- with more drinking, alcohol depresses the brain which
Stimulant – most commonly consumed psychoactive
impedes the functioning
drugs in US
- Withdrawal Delirium (Delirium Tremens): condition
- includes caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and
that can produce frightening hallucinations and body
cocaine
tremors
- Amphetamine: can induce feelings of elation and
- Breathalyzer: measures levels of intoxication
vigor and can reduce fatigue; prescribed to people with
- GABA seems to be particularly sensitive to alcohol
narcolepsy
and
ADHD
- The Glutamate system is involve why alcohol affects
- another variants of Amphetamine are Methyleneour cognitive abilities
dioxymethamphetamine or ecstasy club drug (makes
- Two types of organic brain syndromes may result
you feel euphoric) and methamphetamine (crystal
from long-term alcohol use: Dementia and Wernickemeth)
Korsakoff Syndrome (Confusion, loss of muscle
- Cocaine: increases alertness, produces euphoria,
coordination, and unintelligible speech, believed to be
increases blood pressure and pulse, and causes
cause by a deficiency of thiamine)
insomnia and loss of appetite
- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
- Intranasal use and oral use of substances result in
- Alcohol Dehydrogenase: metabolize alcohol
more gradual progression occurring over months to
- Korsakoff syndrome: is a chronic memory disorder
years
caused by severe deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B-1).
Tobacco – contains nicotine
- Korsakoff syndrome is most caused by alcohol
- linked with signs of negative affect such as
misuse, but certain other conditions also can cause the
depression, anxiety, and anger
syndrome
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- being depressed increases your risk of becoming
- conveys risk for the development of anxiety disorders
dependent on nicotine and, at the same time, being
and MDD
dependent will increase your risk of becoming
- increased risk for a number of problems in adjustment
depressed
as adults
- less severe than CD and do not include aggression
o Acute alcohol withdrawal occurs as an episode
towards people, property (IED)
usually lasting 4-5 days and only after extended
- co-morbid with ADHD
periods of heavy drinking
- diagnosis should not be made if the symptoms occur
o Withdrawal is rare for individuals younger than 30
exclusively during the course of a mood disorder
years
- if criteria for DMDD are met, then DMM is given
o The symptoms of an alcohol-induced mental
even if all criteria for ODD are met
disorder are likely to remain clinically relevant as
long as the individual continues to experience severe
Intermittent Explosive Disorder
intoxication or withdrawal
- behavioral outburst, failure to control aggressive
o Genetic factors may affect how people experience
impulses
and metabolize certain drugs
- verbal aggression, physical aggression twice weekly
o Positive and Negative Reinforcement
for a period of 3 months
o Opponent-Process Theory – an increase in positive
- at least 6 yrs of age
feelings will be followed shortly by an increase in
- quite common regardless of the presence of ADHD or
negative feelings and vice versa
other disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct
o Expectancy Effect – expectancies develop before
disorders
people actually use drugs, perhaps as a result of loved
- Also should not be made in children and adolescents
one’s use, advertising, etc.
ages 6-18 years, when the impulsive aggressive
o Treatment:
Nicotine
replacement
therapy,
outbursts occur in the context of an adjustment disorder
Bupropion, Naltrexone, Acamprosate, Disulfiram,
- A diagnosis of DMDD can only be given when the
Methadone, Buprenorphine, Aversion Therapy, Inonset of recurrent, problematic, impulsive aggressive
patient treatments, Aversion Therapy, etc.
outburst is before age of 10 years
o Cross-Tolerance – tolerance for a substance has not
- A diagnosis of DMDD should be made for the first
taken before as a result of using another substance
time after 18 years
similar to it
- Aggression in ODD is typically characterized by
o Synergistic Effect – an increase of effects that
temper tantrums and verbal arguments with authority
occurs when more than one substance is acting on the
figures, whereas IED are in response to a broader array
body at the same time
of provocation and include physical assault
Gambling Disorder
Conduct Disorder
- persistent and recurring gambling behavior
- repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which
- at least 4-symptoms within 12 months
the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate
- Onset can occur during adolescence or young
societal norms or rules are violated
adulthood but in other individuals it manifests during
- often bullies, initiates fights, physically cruel,
middle or even older adulthood
destroying properties, theft, serious violation of rules
- Progression appears to be more rapid in women than
- Onset may occur as early as the preschool years, but
in men
the first significant symptoms usually emerge during
- An additional diagnosis of gambling disorder should
the period from middle childhood through middle
be given only if the gambling behavior is not better
adolescence
explained by manic episodes
- ODD is the most common precursor to the childhoodExplaining Disruptive, Impulse-Control disorders,
onset type
and Conduct Disorder
- Physically aggressive symptoms = childhood
- Nonaggressive symptoms = adolescence
Oppositional Defiant Disorder
- May be diagnosed in adults, though onset is rare after
- angry irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behavior
age 16 years
against authority figure for at least 6 months
- Childhood-onset type predicts a worse prognosis and
- annoys others
an increased risk of criminal behavior in adulthood
- blames others for his/her mistakes
- precedes the development of conduct disorder
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- When criteria for both ODD and CD are met, both
Schizotypal
diagnoses can be given
- typically socially isolated and behave in ways that
- When criteria for both ADHD and CD are met, both
would seem unusual to many of us, and they tend to be
diagnoses can be given
suspicious and to have odd beliefs
- Individuals with conduct disorder will display
- “ideas of reference” – false beliefs that random or
substantial levels of aggressive or nonaggressive
irrelevant occurrences in the world directly relate to
conduct problems during periods in which there is no
oneself
mood disturbance, either historically or concurrently
- have odd beliefs or engage in magical thinking
- If criteria for both IED and CD has been met, the
- associated with childhood mistreatment and could be
diagnosis of IED should be given only when the
resulted from PTSD symptoms
recurrent impulsive aggressive outbursts warrant
- “It is better to be isolated from others”
independent clinical attention
Cluster B
- CD is diagnosed only when the conduct problems
Histrionic
represent a repetitive and persistent pattern that is
- tend to be overly dramatic and almost to be acting
associated with impairment in social, academic, or
- express emotions in an exaggerated manner
occupational functioning
- histrionic and antisocial co-occur more often
Pyromania
- “ako ang bida”
- purposeful fire setting on more than one occasion
Borderline
- arousal before the act
- moods and relationships are unstable, and usually
- fascination to fire and its situational context
they have poor self-image
- not done for monetary gain or etc.
- often feel empty and are great risk of dying by their
- separate diagnosis is not given when fire setting
own hands
occurs as part of CD, manic episode, or antisocial
- often engage to suicidal behaviors
personality disorder
- tend to have turbulent relationships, fearing
Kleptomania
abandonment but lacking control over their emotions
- failure to resist impulses to steal objects that are not
- often intense, going from anger to deep depression in
need for personal use
a short time
- increase tension before committing the theft
- prevalent in families with history of mood disorders
- pleasure after committing the theft
- if co-occurs with mood disorders, both are diagnosed
Illustrating the different Personality Disorders
- recovery is more difficult and less stable
Cluster A
- “sad gorl iz me”
Paranoid
Narcissistic
- excessively mistrustful and suspicious of others,
- they consider themselves different from others and
without justification
deserve special treatment
- more common among relatives who have
- unreasonable sense of self-importance and are so
schizophrenia
preoccupied with themselves that they lack sensitivity
- maybe due to early mistreatment or traumatic
and compassion
childhood experiences
- grandiosity
- associated with prior history of childhood
- “I am the greatest in the world”
mistreatment, externalizing symptoms, bullying, and
Antisocial
adult appearance of interpersonal aggression
- characterized as having history of failing to comply
- “I cannot trust people”
with social norms
- too much use of projection
- at least 18 years of age
Schizoid
- evidence of CD before 15 years old
- detachment from social relationships and limited
- irresponsible, impulsive, and deceitful
range of emotions
- lacking in conscience and empathy, selfishly take
- tendency to turn inward and away from the outside
what they want and do as they please, violating social
world
norms and expectations
- childhood shyness is reported as a precursor to later
- CD will be given if the criteria for Antisocial PD is
personality disorder
not met
- “Relationships are messy and undesirable”
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▪ Combined several symptoms of insanity that had
- Underarousal Hypothesis: psychopaths have
usually been viewed as reflecting separate and
abnormally low levels of cortical arousal
distinct disorders:
- Fearlessness Hypothesis: psychopaths possess a
a.
Catatonia – alternating immobility and excited
higher threshold for experiencing fear than most other
agitation
individuals
b. Hebephrenia – silly and immature emotionality
- “I am entitled to break rules”
c. Paranoia – delusions of grandeur or persecution
Cluster C
▪ Distinguished dementia praecox
Avoidant
▪ Also noted the numerous symptoms in people
- extremely sensitive of the opinion of others and
with dementia praecox, including hallucinations,
although they desire social relationship, their anxiety
delusions, negativism, and stereotyped behavior
leads them to avoid
o Eugen Bleuler – introduced the term schizophrenia
- extremely low self-esteem cause them to be limited
(“splitting of mind”)
with friendships and dependent to those they feel
▪
Associative Splitting
comfy with
o
Positive
Symptoms:
- feel chronically rejected by others and pessimistic
1.
Delusions
– misrepresentation of reality (disorder
about their future
of thought content)
- negative self-concept
▪ Persecutory – belief that one is going to be
- Social Anxiety Disorder – negative evaluations
harmed, harassed and so forth
- “If they knew the real me, they would reject me”
▪
Referential – certain gestures, comments,
Dependent
environmental cues, and so forth are directed at
- rely on others to make ordinary decisions and even
one-self)
important ones which results in an unreasonable fear of
▪ Grandiose – when an individual believes that he
abandonment
or she has exceptional abilities, wealth, or fame
- agree with other people’s opinion just to be not
▪
Erotomanic – when an individual believes
rejected
falsely that another person is in love with him or
- feel uncomfortable or helpless when alone
her
- “I need people to survive and be happy”
▪
Nihilistic – conviction that a major catastrophe
Obsessive-Compulsive
will occur
- perfectionist
▪
Somatic – focus on preoccupations regarding
- fixation on things being done “the right way”
health and organ function
- this preoccupation with details prevents them from
▪
Thought Withdrawal – thoughts have been
completing much of anything
“removed” by outside force
- need to control
▪
Thought Insertion – thoughts have been put into
- when criteria for both OCD and OCPD are met, both
one’s mind
can be given
▪ Delusions of Control – one’s body or actions are
- “I am perfectionist, everything should be done under
being acted on or manipulated by some outside
my control and liking”
force
Illustrating Schizophrenia
▪
Capgras Syndrome – person believes someone
o John Haslam – superintendent of a British Hospital
he or she knows has been replaced by a double
who outlined a description of the symptoms of
▪
Cotard’s Syndrome – the person believes he or
Schizophrenia in his book Observations on Madness
she is dead
and Melancholy
▪
Clerambault Syndrome - characterized by the
o Philippe Pinel – French physician who described
delusional idea, usually in a young woman, that a
cases of schizophrenia
man whom she considers to be of higher social
o Benedict Morel – used the term demence precoce
and/or professional standing is in love with her
meaning early or premature loss of mind to describe
▪
Fregoli Syndrome – a person holds a delusional
schizophrenia
belief that different people are in fact a single
o Emil Kraepelin – unified the distinct categories of
person who changes his or her appearance or is in
schizophrenia under the name Dementia Praecox
disguise
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Motivational View of Delusions – look at these
o Prodromal Stage – 1-2 year period before the
beliefs as attempts to deal with and relieve
serious symptoms occur but when less severe yet
anxiety and stress
unusual behaviors start to show themselves
▪ Deficit View of Delusions – sees these beliefs as
o Schizophrenia is partially the result of excessive
a resulting from brain dysfunction that creates
stimulation of striatal dopamine d2 receptors
these disordered cognitions or perceptions
o It appears that several brain sites are implicated in the
2. Hallucinations – experience of sensory events
cognitive dysfunction observed among people with
without any input from the surrounding
schizophrenia, especially prefrontal cortex, various
environment
related cortical regions and subcortical circuits,
▪ Auditory Hallucination – most common form
including thalamus and the striatum
experienced by people with schizophrenia
o Schizophrenogenic Mother – used for a time to
▪ Most active part during Hallucination is Broca’s
describe a mother whose cold, dominant, and
Area (speech production)
rejecting nature was thought to cause schizophrenia
▪ Autoscopic
Hallucination
individual
in her children
experiences, all or part of the person's own body
o Double bind communication – used to portray
appeared within the external space, viewed from
communication style that produced conflicting
his/her physical body
messages, which cased schizophrenia to develop
▪ Hypnagogic Hallucination – happens during
o Families with high expressed emotion view the
sleep
symptoms of schizophrenia as controllable and that
▪ Ictal Hallucination – associated with temporal
the hostility arises when family members think that
lobe foci
patients just do not want help themselves
▪ Hypnopompic Hallucinations – happens when
Delusional Disorder
waking up
- one or more delusions for at least 1 month
Negative Symptoms – usually indicate absence or
- persistent belief that is contrary to the reality in the
insufficiency of normal behavior
absence of other characteristics of schizophrenia
a. Avolition – inability to initiate and persist
- tend not to have flat affect, anhedonia, or other
activities
negative symptoms
b. Anhedonia – lack of pleasure
- socially isolated due to being suspicious
c. Asociality – lack of interest in social interactions
- Shared Psychotic Disorder (Folie a Deux): condition
d. Flat Affect/Affective Flattening – do not show
in which an individual develops delusions simply as a
emotions when you would normally expect them
result of a close relationship with a delusional
to
individual
Disorganized Symptoms
- Erotomanic, Grandiose, Jealous, Persecutory,
1. Disorganized Speech – individual may switch
Somatic, Mixed, Unspecified
from one topic to another (derailment or loose
- functioning is better than what is observed in
associations) or answers to questions may be
Schizophrenia
related or completely unrelated (tangentiality)
- eventually develop schizophrenia
▪ Word Salad
- absence of active phase of schizophrenia
▪ Clang associations – are groups of words chosen
Brief Psychotic Disorder
because of the catchy way they sound, not
- presence of one of the ff: delusions, hallucinations,
because of what they mean
disorganized speech, catatonic behavior for at least 1
2. Inappropriate Affect – laughing or crying at
day but less than 1 month, with eventual full return to
improper times
premorbid level of functioning
3. Grossly Disorganized or abnormal motor
- can experience relapse
behavior – childlike silliness to unpredictable
- if psychotic symptoms persist for at least 1 day in PD,
agitation
an additional diagnosis of Brief Psychotic Disorder
Neologisms – construction of new words in order to
may be appropriate
communicate with schizophrenics thoughts
Schizophreniform Disorder
More severe symptoms of schizophrenia first occur
- two or more of the following, present during a 1in late adolescence or early adulthood
month period: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized
speech, catatonic behavior, negative symptoms
▪
o
o
o
o
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- at least 1 month BUT less than 6 months
Speech Sound Disorder
- development similar to schizophrenia
- difficulty in speech sound production
Schizophrenia
- children’s progression in mastering speech sound
production should result in most intelligible speech by
- two or more of the following, present during 1-month
3 years old
period: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech,
- continuous use of immature phonological
catatonic behavior, negative symptoms
simplification processes when the child has already
- disturbance in one or more major areas
passed the age wherein most of them can now produce
- at least 6 months
words clearly
- abrupt or insidious
- when LD is present, Speech Sound Disorder has
- prognosis is influenced both by duration and by
poorer prognosis
severity of illness and gender
- selective mutism may develop
- possible reduced psychotic experience during late life
- too much use of regression
Childhood-Onset Fluency Disorder (stuttering)
Schizoaffective Disorder
- disturbances in normal fluency and time patterning of
speech that are inappropriate for the individual’s age
- major mood ep + delusions or hallucinations for 2 or
and language skills
more weeks
- can be insidious or more sudden
- some individuals tend to change diagnosis into mood
disorder or to schizophrenia over time
Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder
Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- difficulties in the social use of verbal and nonverbal
communication
Intellectual Developmental Disorder
- deficits in using communication for social purposes in
- includes both intellectual and adaptive functioning
a manner that is appropriate for the social context
deficits in conceptual, social, and practical domains
- difficulties in following the rules of conversating and
- difficulties with day-to-day activities to an extent that
do not understand metaphors, etc.
reflects both severity of their cognitive deficits and the
- current symptoms or developmental history fails to
type and amount of assistance their receive
reveal
evidence
that
could
meet
the
- difficulties in conceptual, social, and judgement
restrictive/repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or
- causes: deprivation, abuse, neglect, exposure to
activities of ASD
disease or drugs during pre-natal, difficulties during
Autism Spectrum Disorder
labor and delivery, infections, and head injury
- Phenylketonuria, Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome, Down
- deficient Communication, Restrictive/Repetitive
Syndrome, Fragile X Syndrome
Actions/Behaviors, Impaired Social Interaction
- generally nonprogressive, there are period of
- evident in early childhood
worsening, then stabilization, and in others progressive
- failure to develop age-appropriate social
of intellectual function in varying degrees
relationships, social reciprocity, nonverbal comms, and
- lifelong
initiating and maintaining social relationships
- inability to engage in joint attention
Global Developmental Delay
- maintenance of sameness
- for children under 5 years old when they fail to meet
- The developmental course and absence of restrictive,
expected developmental milestone in several areas of
repetitive behaviors and unusual interests in ADHD
functioning
help in differentiating ASD and ADHD
Language Disorder
- A concurrent diagnosis of ADHD should be
- difficulties in acquisition and use of language
considered
when
attentional
difficulties
or
modalities due to DEFICITS in comprehension and
hyperactivity exceeds that typically seen in individuals
production
of comparable mental age
- reduced vocab, limited sentence structure,
- ADHD is one of the most common comorbidities in
impairments in discourse
ASD
- regional, social, or cultural/ethnic variations must be
- A diagnosis of ASD in individual with IDD is
considered when an individual is being assessed
appropriate when social communication and
- declines in critical social communication behavior
interaction are significantly impaired relative to the
during the first two years of life are evident in most
developmental level of the individual’s nonverbal skills
children with ASD, thus, it must be not confused with
LD
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- IDD is appropriate diagnosis when there is no
- Motor Stereotypies are defined as involuntary
apparent discrepancy between the level of social
rhythmic, repetitive, predictable movements that
communicative skills and other intellectual skills
appear purposeful but serve no obvious adaptive
- The diagnosis of ASD supersedes that of social
function; often self-soothing or pleasurable and stop
communication disorder whenever the criteria for ASD
with distraction
are met, and care should be taken to enquire carefully
Neurocognitive Disorders
regarding past or current restricted/repetitive behavior
Delirium
- Rett Disorder – genetic condition that affects mostly
- characterized by impaired consciousness and
females and is characterized by hand wringing and poor
cognition during the course of several hours or days
coordination
- appear confused, disoriented, and out of touch with
- Clear genetic component
their surroundings
- Evidence of brain damage combined with
- effects may more lasting
psychosocial influences
- can be experienced by children who have high fevers
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
or taking certain medication
- pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity
- reversible
that interferes functioning for at least 6 months
- occurs during the course of dementia
- dislikes organization, focused work
- full recovery with or without treatment
- often losses things, forgets daily activities, and easily
Major Neurocognitive Disorder
distracted
- gradual deterioration of brain functioning that affects
- fidgets a lot, stands up when seating is expected,
memory, judgement, language, and other advanced
always “on the go”
cognitive process
- present in two or more settings
Mild Neurocognitive Disorder
- difficulty sustaining their attention on task or activity
- early stages of cognitive declines
- in pre-school, main manifestation is hyperactivity
- most impairments in cognitive abilities but can, with
- Fidgetiness and restlessness in ADHD are typically
some accomodations
generalized and not characterized by repetitive
o Dementia – describe a group of symptoms affecting
stereotypic movements
memory, thinking, and social abilities severely
- A diagnosis of ADHD in IDD requires that inattention
enough to interfere daily life
or hyperactivity be excessive for mental age
Alzheimer’s
Specific Learning Disorder
– most common type of neurocognitive disorder,
- difficulties learning and using academic skills for at
usually occurring after the age 65, marked most
least 6 months, despite interventions
prominently by memory impairment
- academic skills are substantially and quantifiably
- Usually begins with mild memory problems, lapses of
below those expected for the individual’s chronological
attention, and difficulties in language and
age, IQ, and education
communication
Developmental Coordination Disorder
- Excessive senile plaques (sphere-shaped deposits of
- acquisition and execution of coordinated motor skills
beta-amyloid protein that form in the spaces between
are below expected given the chronological age
certain neurons and in certain blood vessels of the brain
- clumsiness, slowness, and inaccuracy of performance
as people age) and neurofibrillary tangles (twisted
of motor skills
protein fibers that form within certain neurons)
Stereotypic Movement Disorder
- includes multiple cognitive deficits that develop
- repetitive, seemingly driven, and apparently
gradually and steadily
purposeless motor behavior
- inability to integrate new information results to failure
- may result in self-injury
to learn new association
Tic Disorders
- Anomia, Apraxia, Agnosia, Amnesia, Aphasia
- Tourette’s: both motor and one or more vocal tics for
- cognitive deterioration is slow during the early and
more than 1 year
later stages but more rapid during middle stages
- Persistent: single or multiple motor or vocal tics, but
Vascular Injury
NOT BOTH for more than 1 year
- when the blood vessels in the brain are blocked or
- Provisional: single or multiple more and/or vocal tics
damaged and no longer carry oxygen and other
for less than 1 year since the first onset
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nutrients to certain areas of brain tissues, damage
- caused by prions (proteins that can reproduce and
results
cause damage to brain cells leading to neurocognitive
- declines in speed of information processing and
decline
executive functioning
- no treatment but not contagious
- Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease: symptoms include spasms
Frontotemporal Degeneration
of the body caused by slow acting virus that may live
- categorize a variety of brain disorders that damage the
in the body for years before the disease develops
frontal or temporal regions of the brain – areas that
Therapeutic Interventions of Psychological Disorders
affect personality, language, and behavior
- declines in appropriate behavior or language
(10)
- Pick’s Disease: rare neurological condition that
Different Psychological Interventions
produces symptoms similar to Alzheimer’s, usually
Treatment: Definition of Terms
occurring in relatively early in life (40s or 50s)
o Idiographic Data – specific details and background
Traumatic Brain Injury
information
- symptoms must persist for at least a week following
▪ Specific or unique information
the trauma, including executive dysfunction and
o Nomothetic – broad information, nature, and
problems with learning and memory
treatment
Lewy Body Disease
▪ Generalization or commonalities with other
- involves the buildup of clumps of protein deposits
context
called Lewy Bodies, within many neurons
o
Treatment
– also known as therapy, procedure
- Features significant movement difficulties, visual
designed
to
change abnormal behavior to a more
hallucinations, and sleep disturbances
normal behavior
- Second most common neurocognitive disorder
▪ Consists of client, therapies, and series of contact
- gradual and include impairment in alertness and
attention, vivid visual hallucinations, and motor
between them
impairment
Psychological Interventions
Parkinson’s Disease
Psychodynamic
- slowly progressive neurological disorder marked by
1. Free Association – therapist tells the patient to
tremors, rigidity, and unsteadiness
describe any thought, feeling, or image that comes to
- motor problems, tend to have stooped posture, slow
mind even if it seems unimportant
body movements (bradykinesia), tremors, and jerkiness
2. Transference – they act and feel toward the therapist
- damage in dopamine pathways
as they did toward important person in their lives
HIV Infection
3. Resistance – unconscious refusal to participate fully
- HIV infection seems to be responsible for the
in the therapy
neurological impairment
4. Dreams interpretation – can reveal unconscious
- early symptoms: cognitive slowness, impaired
instincts,
needs,
and
wishes
attention, and forgetfulness
- Manifest: consciously remembered dream
- clumsy, repetitive movements, and become apathetic
- Latent: meaning
and socially withdrawn
5. Catharsis – reliving past repressed feelings
- sometimes referred as Subcortical Dementia
6. Working Through – patient and therapist must
- more likely to experience depression and anxiety
examine the same issues over and over in the course of
Substance-Use
many sessions
- use of different psychoactive substances + poor diet
7. Short-Term Psychodynamic Therapies – patient
- include memory impairment, aphasia, apraxia,
choose a single problem, a dynamic focus to work on
agnosia, or disturbance in executive functioning
and work only on the psychodynamic issues that relate
Huntington’s
to it
- inherited progressive disease in which memory
8. Relational Psychoanalytic Therapy – therapist
problems, along with personality changes and mood
disclosing things about themselves, particularly their
difficulties, worsen over time
own reactions to patients, and try to establish more
- Have movement problems too, such as severe
equal relationships with patients
twitching and spasms
Prion Disease
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8. Hypnotherapy – patient undergoes hypnosis and is
- Mindfulness-Based CBT (Acceptance and
then guided to recall forgotten events or perform other
Commitment Therapy)
therapeutic activities
- Behavioral Activation: therapy for depression in
which the client is guided systematically increase the
9. Play Therapy – an approach to treating childhood
number of constructive and pleasurable activities and
disorders that helps children express their conflicts and
events in his or her life
feelings indirectly by drawing, playing, and making
- Cognitive Remediation: focuses on the cognitive
stories
impairments that often characterize people with
Humanistic
schizophrenia, particularly their difficulties in
1. Client-Centered Therapy – clinicians try to help
attention, planning, and memory
clients by accepting, empathizing accurately, and
- Hallucination Reinterpretation and Acceptance
conveying genuineness (Carl Rogers)
2. Neutralizing – attempting to eliminate thoughts that
2. Support Group
one finds unacceptable by thinking or behaving in ways
3. Home-Based Self-Help Programs
that make up for those thoughts and so put right
4. Social Skills Training
internally
5. Family Therapy – therapist meets with the all the
3. Exposure and Response (Ritual) Prevention –
members of a family and helps them to change in
treatment of OCD that exposes client to anxietytherapeutic ways
arousing thoughts or situations and then prevents the
6. Group Therapy – group of people with similar
client from performing his or her compulsive acts
problems meet together with a therapist to work on
4. Beck’s Cognitive Therapy – people identify and
those problems
change the maladaptive assumptions and ways of
7. Psychological Debriefing – form of crisis
thinking that help cause their psychological disorders
intervention in which victims are helped to talk their
5. Aversion Therapy – client are repeatedly presented
feelings and reactions to traumatic experiences
with unpleasant stimuli while performing undesirable
- critical incident stress debriefing
behavior such as taking drug
8. Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT) – treatment for
6. Relapse-Prevention Training – treatment for
depression that based on belief that clarifying and
alcohol use disorder in which clients are taught to keep
changing one’s interpersonal problems will help lead to
track of their drinking behavior, apply coping strategies
recovery
in situation that typically trigger excessive drinking,
9. Motivational Interviewing – use mixture of
and plan ahead for risky situations and reactions
empathy and inquiring review to motivate clients to
7. Cognitive Processing Therapy – intervention for
recognize they have serious psychological problem and
people with PTSD in which therapist guide individuals
to commit to making constructive choices and behavior
to examine and change the dysfunctional attitudes and
changes
styles of interpretation they have developed as a result
10. Milieu Therapy – institutions can help patients
of their traumatic experiences, thus, enabling them to
recover by creating a climate that promotes selfdeal with difficult memories and feelings
respect, individual responsible behavior, and
Biological
meaningful activity
1. Sedative-Hypnotic Drugs – also called as
11. Parent Management Training – combine family
anxiolytic, produce feelings of relaxation and
and cognitive-behavioral interventions to improve
drowsiness
family functioning and help parents deal with their
- Benzodiazepines: sedative that slow down body and
children more effectively
brain’s function (depressant)
12. Gestalt Therapy – clinicians actively move clients
- Barbiturates: medication that causes relaxation and
toward self-recognition and self-acceptance by using
drowsiness (depressant)
techniques such as role playing and self-discovery
2. Antidepressant – improve the mood of people with
exercises
depression
Cognitive
- increase the activity of serotonin and norepinephrine
1. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy – seek to help
3. Antipsychotic – correct grossly confused or
clients change both counterproductive behaviors and
distorted thinking
dysfunctional
ways
of
thinking
- relieve anxiety by altering the activity of dopamine
- Rational-Emotive Behavioral Therapy
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4. Vagus Nerve Stimulation – treatment for
5. Contingency Management – an operant
depression in which implanted pulse generator sends
conditioning training program wherein clients are
regular electrical signals to a person’s vagus nerve, then
offered incentives that are contingent on the
stimulates the brain
submission of drug-free urine specimens
5. Electroconvulsive Therapy – electrodes attached to
Illustrate the Application of Psychological
patient’s head and send an electrical current through the
Interventions for treatment
brain, causing seizure
Disorder
Treatment
6.
Transcranial
Magnetic
Stimulation
–
Generalized
Anxiety - Free Association
electromagnetic coil, which placed on or above a
Disorder
- Dreams
person’s head sends a current into the person’s brain
- Transference
7. Mood Stabilizers – stabilize the moods of people
- Resistance
suffering from bipolar disorder
- Client-Centered
- also known as antibipolar drugs
Therapy
- Lithium: metallic element that occurs in nature as
- CBT (Rational-Emotive
mineral salt and is an effective treatment for bipolar
Therapy, Mindfulnessdisorders
Based CBT)
8. Detoxification – systematic and medically
- Benzodiazepines
supervised withdrawal from a drug
- Antidepressant
9. Antagonist Drug – block or change the effects of an
- Antipsychotic
addictive drug
- Play Therapy
10. Antianxiety – also called as minor tranquilizers,
Specific Phobia
- Exposure Treatments
help in reducing tension and anxiety
- Systematic
11. SSRIs – treat depression by increasing the levels of
- Desensitization
serotonin in the brain
- Flooding
- block reabsorption of serotonin into neurons
Agoraphobia,
- Exposure Therapy
Behavioral
Separation
Anxiety - Support Group
1. Exposure Treatment – behavior-focused
Disorder
- Home-Based Self-Help
intervention in which fearful people are repeatedly
– Programs
exposed to the objects they dread
- Benzodiazepines, SSRIs
- Virtual Therapy/Virtual Reality Treatment: cognitiveSocial Anxiety
- Benzodiazepines
behavioral intervention that uses VR as an exposure
- Antidepressant
tool
- CBT
- Prolonged Exposure: clients confront now only
- Exposure Therapy
trauma-related objects and situations, but also their
- Social Skills Training
painful memories of traumatic experiences
- D-Cycloserine
- Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing
Panic Attacks
- Antidepressant
(EMDR): clients move their eyes in a rhythmic nabber
- CBT
from side to side while flooding their minds with
Obsessive-Compulsive
- Free Association
images of objects and situations they ordinarily avoid
Disorder
- Short-Term
2. Systematic Desensitization – exposure therapy that
- Psychodynamic
uses relaxation training and a fear hierarchy to help
Therapy
clients with phobias react calmly to the objects or
- Neutralizing
situations they dread
- Exposure and Response
3. Flooding – exposure therapy in which clients are
Prevention
exposed repeatedly and intensively to a feared object
- Antidepressant
and made to see that it is actually harmless
PTSD and Acute Stress - Antidepressant
4. Token Economy Programs – behavior-focused
Disorder
- CBT (Mindfulnessprogram in which a person’s desirable behaviors are
Based)
reinforced systematically throughout the day by the
- Exposure Therapy
awarding of tokens that can be exchanged for goods or
(Virtual Reality Therapy,
privileges
Prolonged Exposure)
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- Group and Family
Anorexia
- Nutritional
Therapy
Rehabilitation (tube and
- Psychological
intravenous feedings)
Debriefing
- Motivational
Interviewing
Dissociative Amnesia
- Psychodynamic
- CBT
Therapy
- Family Therapy
- Hypnotic Therapy
- Drug Therapy (Amytal,
Bulimia
- Nutritional
Pentothal)
Rehabilitation
- Antidepressant
Dissociative
Identity - Psychodynamic
- CBT (Exposure and
Disorder
- Supportive
Response Prevention)
- Cognitive
- Interpersonal
- Drug Therapy
Psychotherapy
Depression
- Free Association
- Psychodynamic
- CBT (Behavioral
Therapy
Activation, Acceptance
Binge-Eating
- CBT
and Commitment
- Antidepressant
Therapy)
- Beck’s Cognitive
Substance-Use
- Aversion Therapy
Therapy
Disorders
- Contingency
- Antidepressant
Management
- Vagus Nerve
- Relapse Prevention
Stimulation
Training
- Electroconvulsive
- CBT (Acceptance and
Therapy
Commitment Therapy)
- Transcranial Magnetic
- Detoxification
Stimulation
- Antagonist Drugs
- Interpersonal
- Drug Maintenance
Psychotherapy
Therapy
- Couple Therapy
- Self-Help Programs
- Community-Based
Bipolar Disorder
- Psychotropic Drugs
Prevention Programs
- Mood Stabilizers
- Antipsychotics
Sexual Dysfunctions
- Affectual Awareness
- Antidepressant
- Self-Instruction
- Lithium
Training
- Hormone Treatments
Suicide Attempts
- CBT (MindfulnessBased)
Gender Dysphoria
- hormone administration
- Dialectal Behavior
- gender-confirmation
Therapy (DBT)
surgery/genderreassignment surgery
Conversion and Somatic - Education
Symptom Disorders
- Reinforcement
Schizophrenia
- Milieu Therapy
- Cognitive Restructuring
- Token Economy
- CBT
program
- Antipsychotic Drugs
Physical Disorders
- Relaxation Training
- CBT (Cognitive
- Biofeedback
Remediation,
- Meditation
Hallucination
- Hypnosis
Reinterpretation and
- Self-Instruction
Acceptance)
Training
- Family Therapy
- Support Groups
- Social Therapy
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Evaluate the Efficacy of Psychological Interventions
- CBT
- Anxiety-Reduction
o Psychodynamic therapy seems to help most in cases
Techniques
of depression that are modest or moderate in severity
- Antipsychotic drugs
and that involve clear history of childhood loss or
Schizoid PD
- Social Skills Program
trauma
- Group Therapy
o Short-term
psychodynamic
therapies
have
- CBT
performed better than long-term approaches,
Schizotypal PD
- CBT
especially when they are combined with
- Speech Lessons
psychotropic medications
- Social Skills training
o Most patients have fewer new episodes of manic
- Antipsychotic Drugs
episodes by taking lithium and other mood stabilizers
Antisocial PD
- Antipsychotic Drugs
o Antipsychotic drugs reduced positive symptoms in
- CBT
around 70% of patients diagnosed with
Borderline PD
- Relational
schizophrenia
Psychoanalytic Therapy
o Exposure therapies are effective with phobias
- DBT
- antidepressant
o Benzodiazepines can be effective in many cases of
- antibipolar
panic disorder, although they are used less often than
- antianxiety
depressants
- antipsychotic
o CBT are equally effective as antidepressant drugs in
Histrionic PD
- CBT
the treatment of panic disorders
- Psychodynamic
o Antidepressant drugs bring improvement to between
Therapy
50 and 60 percent of those with obsessive- Group Therapy
compulsive disorder
Avoidant PD
- CBT
o Structures in the circuit do indeed seem to
- Psychodynamic
interconnect more appropriately after individuals
Therapy
with OCD respond successfully to antidepressant
- Exposure treatments
treatment
- Antianxiety
o
Long-term psychodynamic therapy is only
- Antidepressant
occasionally helpful in cases of unipolar depression
Obsessive-Compulsive
- SSRIs
(short-term >>>>)
PD
Conduct Disorder
- Parent Management
o Culture-Sensitive approaches increasingly are being
Training
combined with traditional forms of psychotherapy to
Encopresis, Enuresis
- dry-bed training
help minority clients overcome their disorders
(reinforcement)
o ECT has apparent effectiveness with severe
- biofeedback training
depression, especially when patients follow up the
- family therapy
initial cluster of sessions with continuation or
ADHD
- Methylphenidate
maintenance therapy, either ongoing antidepressant
(Stimulant)
medications or periodic ECT sessions
- CBT
o CBT, Interpersonal, and Biological Therapies are all
- Parent Management
effective treatment for unipolar depression
Training
o However, drug therapy reduced depressive
Autism
Spectrum - CBT
symptoms more quickly that CB and Interpersonal
Disorder
- Communication
therapies, but these psychotherapies had matched the
Training
drugs in effectiveness by the final 4 weeks of
- Parent training
- Community Integration
treatment
- Psychotropic Drugs
o CBT and Interpersonal Therapies lower the
Intellectual Disability
- special education
likelihood of relapse
Paranoid PD
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▪ Cause: induvial believes that he or she has
Token Economies help reduce psychotic and related
become the subject of black magic
behaviors, however, its uncontrolled
▪
Similar to Maladi Moun
o Drugs appear more effective treatment for
o
Taijin
Kyufusho - an intense fear that one's body
schizophrenia than any other approaches used alone,
parts or functions displease, embarrass or are
such as psychotherapy, milieu therapy, or
offensive to others
electroconvulsive therapy
o Amok - syndrome or pattern of behavior
o Psychotherapy is successful in many more cases of
acknowledged in Southeast Asia (Malaysia,
schizophrenia these days (CBT, Family Therapy,
Philippines, Indonesia) characterized by sudden
Social Therapy)
outbursts and frenzied violent behaviors after a
o For people with schizophrenia, cognitive
period of brooding and quiet
remediation brings about moderate improvements in
o The likelihood of having a particular phobia is
attention, planning, memory, and problem-solving
powerfully influenced by gender
o CBTs often help people with schizophrenia feel more
o Males are more likely than females to self-medicate
their fear and panic with alcohol and in so doing start
control over their hallucinations and reduce their
down the slippery slope to addiction
delusional ideas
o BN, AN, and BDD is common to females
Socio-Cultural Factors and Ethics (5)
o Well-established ability of women to recall
Identifying Socio-Cultural factors
emotional memories somewhat better than men may
o Stigma – a strong lack of respect for a person or a
facilitate emotional processing and long-term
group or a bad opinion of them because they have
treatment gains
doen something society does not approve off
o Dissociative Trance – counterpart of DID in eastern
o Ataque de Nervous – syndrome among individuals
countries; sapi
of Latino Descent, characterized by symptoms of
o Experiences during different periods of development
intense emotional upset, including acute anxiety,
may influence our vulnerability to other types of
anger, or grief; screaming; attacks of crying;
stress or to differing psychological disorders
trembling; heat in the chest rising into the head; and
Ethics
becoming verbally and physically aggressive
o If mistakes was made, they should do something to
o Dhat Syndrome – coined in South Asia (India)
correct or minimize the mistakes
characterized by young male patients who attributed
o If an ethical violation made by another psychologist
their symptoms to semen loss
was witnessed, they should resolve the issue with
o Koro - acute anxiety and a deep-seated fear of
informal resolution, as long as it does not violate any
shrinkage of the penis and its ultimate retraction into
confidentiality rights that may be involved
the abdomen, which will cause death
o When they are tasked to provide services to clients
o Khyal Cap – syndrome found among Cambodians
who are deprived with mental health services (e.g.,
characterized by panic attacks
communities far from the urban cities), however,
o Kufungisisa – overthinking; idiom of distress and
they were still not able to obtain the needed
cultural explanation among the Shona of Zimbabwe
competence for the job, they could still provide
o Maladi Moun – Haiti; sent sickness; interpersonal
services AS LONG AS they make reasonable effort
envy and malice cause people to harm their enemies
to obtain the competence required, just to ensure that
by “sending illness”
the services were not denied to those communities
o Nervios – among Latinos; general state of
o During emergencies, psychologists provide services
vulnerability to stressful life experiences and to
to individuals, even though they are yet to complete
difficult life circumstances
the competency/training needed just to ensure that
o Shenjing Shuairuo – syndrome composed of
services were not denied. However, the services are
weakness, emotions, excitement, nervous pain, and
discontinued once the appropriate services are
sleep
available
o Susto – distress and misfortune prevalent among
o Informed Consent:
some Latinos in US, attributed to a frightening event
✓ When
conducting
research,
providing
that causes the soul to leave the body and results to
assessment, therapy, counseling, or consultation
unhappiness and sickness, as well as functioning in
✓ For legally INCAPABLE, they must provide
key social roles
appropriate explanation, assent, consider the
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Abnormal Psychology
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client’s preferences and best interests, and obtain
o Psychological assessment techniques done by
permission from a legally authorized person
unqualified persons, except during training purposes,
✓ If COURT ORDERED, they must inform the
given it is supervised
nature of the services, whether it is court order or
o When conducting or providing services to several
mandated, as well as, its limits of confidentiality
persons who have a relationship, they should clarify
before proceeding
which of them is the clients and the relationship
✓ Must document written or oral consent,
he/she will have with each person
permission, and assent
▪ If conflicting roles would arise, he/she must
o In case of interruption of services (such as death,
clarify, modify, or withdraw from roles
relocation, illness, retirement), psychologists must
appropriately
make reasonable efforts to plan for continuing
o Psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies
services
with former clients/patients for AT LEAST TWO
▪ Unless stated in the contract
YEARS after termination of therapy
o Psychologists should discuss the limits of
o Terminate therapy when the client no longer needs
confidentiality, uses of the information that would be
the service, is not likely to benefit, or is being harmed
generated from the services to the persons and
by continued service
organizations with whom they establish a scientific
▪ Also, when threatened or endangered by the
or professional relationships
client
o Before recording voices or images, they must obtain
▪ Must provide pretermination counseling and
permission first from all persons involved or their
suggest alternative service providers as
legal rep
appropriate
o Only discuss confidential information with persons
o Telepsychology – provision of psychological
clearly concerned/involved with the matters
services using telecommunication technologies
o Disclosure is allowed with appropriate consent
▪ Must ensure competence with both the
▪ No consent is not allowed UNLESS mandated by
technologies used and the potential impact of
the law
technologies on clients/patients, supervisees or
o No disclosure of confidential information that could
other professionals
lead to the identification of a client unless they have
▪ Ensure ethical and professional standards of care
obtained prior consent or the disclosure cannot be
and practice
avoided
▪ Informed consent must still be obtained, which
▪ Only disclose necessary information
specifically addresses the unique concerns related
o Exemptions to disclosure:
to the telepsychology services they provide
✓ If the client is disguised/identity is protected
▪ Should
include
the
manner
of
✓ Has consent
telecommunication, the boundaries they will
✓ Legally mandated
establish, and the procedures for responding to
o Opinions written on recommendations, reports, and
electronic communications
diagnostic or evaluative statements must be based
▪ When necessary, psychologists obtain the
and sufficient to their findings
appropriate consultation with technology experts
o Only provide statements after conducting
to
augment
their
knowledge
of
examinations to support their statements
telecommunication technologies in order to apply
o Informed Consent, except:
security measures in their practices that will
✓ Mandated by law
protect and maintain the confidentiality of data
✓ Routine
and information related to their clients/patients.
✓ Evaluating decisional capacity
▪ Some of the potential risks to confidentiality
▪ If the person has a questionable capacity to
include considerations related to uses of search
consent, it must be obtained using the language
engines and participation in social networking
that is reasonably understandable to the person
sites.
being assessed
▪ Psychologists are encouraged to weigh the risks
o In the absence of client/patient release, psychologists
and benefits of dual relationships that may
must provide test data only as required by law
develop with their clients/patients, due to the use
of telecommunication technologies, before
engaging in such relationships
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Abnormal Psychology
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Source: Barlow, Durand & Hofmann (2018), Comer & Comer (2017), DSM-V, DSM-V-TR, Psych Pearls
Psychologists who use social networking sites for
learning, especially during the early days of the
both professional and personal purposes are
pandemic (Chen et.al., 2022)
encouraged to review and educate themselves
o Learning in the new normal has been a challenge to
about the potential risks to privacy and
institutions, more particularly to students and
confidentiality and consider utilizing all available
educators (Ignacio, 2021)
privacy settings to reduce these risks
▪ Not all institutions have the capability to deliver
▪ Psychologists are encouraged to create policies
online classes due lack of equipment, technical
and procedures for the secure destruction of data
know-how
and information and the technologies used to
o
In
the Philippines, children in vulnerable groups
create, store and transmit the data and
have no access to quality education. They also
information.
struggle to find distance learning opportunities.
▪ Psychologists are thus encouraged to be
According to UNESCO, about 28 million learners
knowledgeable about, and account for, the unique
are affected by school closures. Unfortunately, the
impacts, suitability for diverse populations, and
limitations on test administration and on test and
COVID-19 pandemic will severely affect their
other data interpretations when these
learning quality without the help of government and
psychological tests and other assessment
nongovernment organizations.
procedures are considered for and conducted via
o The findings revealed that the online learning
telepsychology
challenges of college students varied in terms of type
Global Health Crisis and Mental Health Law (10)
and extent. Their greatest challenge was linked to
Different Issues and Concerns on the Impact of
their learning environment at home, while their least
COVID-19 on the Mental Health of people
challenge was technological literacy and
o After acquiring COVID-19 (or even prior), a person
competency. The findings further revealed that the
may experience cognitive and attention deficits
COVID-19 pandemic had the greatest impact on the
(brain fog), anxiety and depression, psychosis,
quality of the learning experience and students’
seizures, and even suicidal behavior
mental health (Barrot, Llenares, & del Rosario,
o Data suggests that people are more likely to develop
2021)
mental illness or disorders in the months following
Frontliners
infection, including symptoms of PTSD
o Insomnia was found to be the most common mental
o People who are more likely to experience the
health problem, followed by anxiety, PTSD,
symptoms of mental illnesses or disorders during the
depression and stress in healthcare workers in the
pandemic:
face of the COVID-19 pandemic (Hayati et.al., 2023)
a) People from racial and ethnic minority
o Post-traumatic stress disorder was the most common
b) Mothers and pregnant people
mental health disorder reported by healthcare
c) People experiencing poverty
workers during the COVID-19 pandemic, followed
d) Children
by anxiety, depression, and distress (Advani et.al.,
e) PWDs
2021)
f) People with pre-existing mental illnesses
o Besides the lack of personal protective equipment,
g) Health Care Workers
our frontliners are underpaid and do not get the
Online Classes
respect they deserve. They answer “to the call of duty
o Online learning in nursing education is not
while battling fear and anxiety”.7 Aside from this,
significantly different from blended or face-to-face
they also experience pressure, stress, insomnia,
learning in terms of its impact on knowledge
denial, anger, and fear (Biana & Joaquin, 2020)
acquisition and attitudes toward learning (Kim &
o According to WHO, Exposure to excessive stress,
Kim, 2022)
for prolonged periods can have many harmful
o Online Learning caused by the COVID-19 Pandemic
consequences on the emotional and mental wellbrought negative learning attitudes and poorer
being of frontline workers. It can:
learning performance compared to classroom
✓ lead to burnout.
▪
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✓ trigger the onset of common mental disorders
worsening of their behavioral symptoms (Gupta et.
such as depression and anxiety or post-traumatic
Al., 2020)
stress disorder (PTSD).
o The review highlights the need for mental health
✓ result in unhealthy behaviours like using tobacco,
services to address the increased mental health
alcohol or other substances, which may lead to
symptoms in people with pre-existing mental
substance use disorders.
illnesses during a pandemic (Duddu et. Al., 2020)
✓ result in frequent absence from work or reduced
o Students and unemployed respondents are highly
productivity while at work.
vulnerable to COVID stress and its mental health
✓ increase the risk of suicide among frontline
implications. Men and women did not significantly
workers, particularly health care workers
differ in distress (Acebes & Montano, 2020)
o Cluster analysis revealed two age clusters—those
between 16 and 35 years and those 36 years and
Vaccination
above. The younger group reported greater
o COVID-19 vaccination is associated with larger
depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms and poorer
reductions in anxiety or depression symptoms among
psychological well-being compared to the older
individuals with lower education levels, who rent
group. The younger group also reported less
their housing, who are not able to telework, and who
resilience, nonreactivity, and use of spiritual coping
have children in their household (Agrawal et.al.,
compared to the older group. The results suggest that
2021)
the young are most vulnerable during the pandemic,
o The results of the present study showed that the
and findings suggest what might be done to provide
mental health of young people did not significantly
them mental health psychosocial support. (Alampay,
improve in the time period after vaccinations became
Hechanova & Valentin, 2022)
widely available and promoted in Austria and Turkey
Teleconsultation
(Chen et. Al., 2023)
o Telephone-delivered psychotherapy has increased
▪ The impact of age may be related to more
utility as a method of service delivery in the current
pronounced uncertainty and anxiety among
world, where several barriers, including economic
younger groups, as unpredictable pandemic
hardships and limited access to care, may prevent
circumstances make it even more difficult for
people from receiving the treatment they need
them to plan their future, as they cross the
(Arafat, Hawlader & Zaman, 2021)
threshold to adulthood and independence.
▪ telemedicine is perfectly suitable to treat the
▪ a number of recent studies have confirmed that
mental health problems of the people in this
younger adults and females in particular suffered
pandemic situation without increasing the risk of
from the adverse outcomes associated with the
infection, promoting health and prolonging life as
COVID-19 pandemic
well.
o An overwhelming majority of Filipinos surveyed
Work From Home
(over 15,600 participants) currently distrust available
o The top factors that contribute to people’s stress,
vaccines, their efficacy against the original and
anxiety, and depression are financial considerations,
emerging strains, the cost of being vaccinated, and
health concerns, and inconsistencies in the
the authenticity of vaccine samples available in the
workplace setup (Del Mundo, 2022)
country (CNN Philippines, 2021; Sabillo 2021).
▪ When experienced with frequency, these result in
Lockdown
burnout, loss of drive and focus, and struggles
o Anxiety,
depression,
irritability,
boredom,
with work-life balance
inattention and fear of COVID-19 are predominant
o The switch to a work from home status has
new-onset psychological problems in children during
contributed to the higher critical levels in our
the COVID-19 pandemic. Children with pre-existing
workforce’s mental health. Those who are working
behavioral problems like autism and attention deficit
from home are 3.7 times more likely to have critical
hyperactivity disorder have a high probability of
anxiety levels and 6 times more likely to have critical
depression levels.
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Abnormal Psychology
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Source: Barlow, Durand & Hofmann (2018), Comer & Comer (2017), DSM-V, DSM-V-TR, Psych Pearls
Another survey by Lenovo Philippines as early as
child marriage – will be felt by many children,
April reported that up to 87% employees were ready
especially the youngest learners in critical
to shift to WFH when required. "Our survey suggests
development
stages,”
UNICEF
Philippines
that the employee experience was already changing
Representative Oyunsaikhan Dendevnorov says.
before the pandemic hit," said Michael Ngan,
o While children are more vulnerable to these
president and general manager of Lenovo
detriments, there remains the absence of unified and
Philippines, reported Business Mirror.
comprehensive strategies in mitigating the
o On top of the mental health issues that WFH
deterioration of the mental health of Filipino children
employees are now facing are logistical concerns
(Biag, 2021)
surrounding the adjustment to the telecommuting
Evaluating the Impact of Global Health Crisis and
scheme. A BPO Industry Employees Network survey
other mental health conditions on the implementation
revealed common issues faced by WFH employees,
of RA 11036
including: "lack of logistical assistance (such as
o Dr. Razel Nikka Hao, DOH Disease Prevention and
delivery of equipment)," "longer working hours,"
Control Bureau director, reported to the committee
"unpaid wages due to poor or no Internet
that since RA 11036 was passed, 62 of their
connection," "unjust sanctions due to technical
personnel were trained on Basic Institutional Review
problems," and "shouldering of Internet and utility
Board (IRB); 51 as future trainers for IRB; 1,556
expenses by employees." Up to 77% of respondents
completed the World Health Organization Quality
say that they've been shouldering their own Internet
Rights e-training; 28 with Lived Experiences
costs while 54% did not receive Internet allowance
completed the course on mental health advocacy and
and 20% did not receive work laptops.
leadership (pilot implementation); and over about 40
o Dr. Agnes Casiño of the National Center for Mental
media practitioners were trained on responsible and
Health (NCMH) said maintaining work-life balance
ethical reporting and portrayal of suicide (pilot
in a work from home setup is hard especially when
implementation).
one has to take on different roles at different times in
o DepEd officials noted that after the pandemic
the same place.
lockdowns, the transition from blended learning to
o Employees pointed out that with the new work
in-person classes also created new pressures on
arrangement, they still find satisfaction, enjoyment,
students. But there are no programs specifically
and fulfilment given the necessary condition at
designed to promote mental health for any age group.
home. However, detrimental factors like balancing
Bullying has been a serious problem in schools even
work and family, difficulty focusing on work tasks
before the pandemic, with social media facilitating
and collaborating with colleagues, poor working
the abuse, and DepEd officials believe bullying cases
environment, and slow internet connectivity lead to
are also underreported.
isolation, stress, and anxiety.
o Despite passing the Philippine Mental Health Act
▪ women experienced higher stress and exhaustion
(RA 11036), access to mental health care remains
with working from home compared to men due to
limited. Most pediatricians, adolescent medicine
familial and domestic responsibilities.
specialists, and psychiatrists practice in urban areas
Children
in the country. Moreover, payment for mental health
o Learning deficits are particularly large among
consultation remains an out-of-pocket expense for
children from low socio-economic backgrounds
Filipinos (Malaluan et. Al., 2022)
(Betthäuser, Bach-Mortensen & Engzell, 2022)
o Rep. Florida Robes said that aside from minimum
o “In 2020, schools globally were fully closed for an
health standards and protocols aimed at halting the
average of 79 teaching days, while the Philippines
spread of COVID-19 in communities, local
has been closed for more than a year, forcing students
government units (LGUs) should also establish
to enroll in distance learning modalities. The
mental help desks in every barangay to address those
associated consequences of school closures –
suffering from anxiety or depression as a result of the
learning loss, mental distress, missed vaccinations,
pandemic (Quismorio, 2020)
and heightened risk of drop out, child labour, and
o
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o
o
o
o
o
Source: Barlow, Durand & Hofmann (2018), Comer & Comer (2017), DSM-V, DSM-V-TR, Psych Pearls
In a statement on Monday, Deputy Speaker Loren
Legarda said that the government must work to
address the mental health issues of Filipinos, who
have struggled to cope with the demands and the
problems brought by the COVID-19 pandemic.
Legarda, who was co-author of Republic Act No.
11036, was referring to a Philippine Statistics
Authority (PSA) data that showed suicide incidents
increasing by 57 percent for 2020, compared to 2019.
She said she is seeking a policy measure dedicated to
“enhancing the delivery of mental health services to
the people,” especially since recent studies showed
that only around five percent of the whole health
budget was allocated to mental health concerns.
The DOH has launched a multi-sectoral approach for
mental health with programs and interventions
across a variety of settings (e.g. workplaces, schools,
communities) aimed at high-risk groups. The
commemoration of World Suicide Prevention Day
also calls attention to the plight of those who are
undergoing severe forms of depression.
Another project is the development of a multisectoral National Suicide Prevention Strategy, which
includes psychosocial services such as the NCMH’s
Crisis Hotline “Kamusta Ka? Tara Usap Tayo,”
launched on 2 May 2019. The hotline is available
24/7 for prompt psychological first aid. The UP
Diliman Psychosocial Services (UPD PsychServ)
has also provided free counseling via telephone for
front liners. RA 11036 or the (“Mental Health Act”)
mandates the provision of comprehensive suicide
prevention
services
encompassing
crisis
intervention, and a response strategy on a nationwide
scale.
end
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