Check your understanding
Answers
Option A Freshwater – Drainage basins
Drainage basin hydrology and geomorphology
1. Drainage basin: the area that is drained by a river
and its tributaries.
Endorheic: a closed drainage basin, i.e. one that
does not reach the sea.
2. It allows the movement of energy and matter
across its boundary; therefore, it is an open system.
3. A systems approach classifies parts of the
hydrological cycle as stores, processes (inputs) and
outputs, whereas a graphical representation uses
images to show the components of the cycle, and
the direction of processes.
4. Erosion in upland areas may produce waterfalls,
gorges and potholes, whereas erosion in a lowland
area is likely to produce meanders and ox-bow
lakes.
5. Upstream, the load is likely to be angular and
larger, whereas downstream the load is likely to be
rounder and smaller, due to attrition.
6. Interception: water that is retained by plant
surfaces and later evaporated away or absorbed by
the plant.
Evaporation: the process by which a liquid or a
solid is changed into a gas. Evaporation increases
under warm, dry conditions and decreases under
cold, calm conditions.
Infiltration: the process by which water soaks
into or is absorbed by the soil.
Groundwater: subsurface water contained in
permeable rocks.
Base flow: the part of a river’s discharge that is
provided by groundwater seeping into the bed of a
river.
7. Waterfalls frequently occur on horizontally bedded
rocks. The soft rock is undercut by hydraulic action
and abrasion. The weight of the water and the
lack of support cause the waterfall to collapse and
retreat. Over thousands of years the waterfall may
retreat enough to form a gorge of recession.
8. See Figure A.17 on page 14.
9. When a stream flows into a standing body of
water it may form a delta. For deltas to be formed
a river needs to carry a large volume of sediment.
Deposition is increased if the water is salty, as this
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causes salt particles to group together (a process
termed flocculation) and become heavier, so
they are deposited. Vegetation also increases the
rate of deposition by slowing down the water,
a process known as bioconstruction. There is a
regular succession of deposits. The finest deposits
are removed furthest, medium-grade deposits are
deposited as steep-angled wedges, and the coarsest
material is deposited at the top.
10. Aquifers are rocks that contain significant
quantities of water. They are permeable rocks such
as sandstone and limestone.
Flooding and flood mitigation
1. A storm hydrograph or flood hydrograph shows
how a river channel responds to the key processes
of the hydrological cycle. It is a graph on which
river discharge during a storm or run-off event is
plotted against time.
2. The river regime is the seasonal variation in the
flow of a river – and mainly depends on the
amount and nature of precipitation, seasonal
variations in temperature and evapotranspiration,
and changes in vegetation cover.
3. Floods with a very high magnitude have a low
frequency, whereas floods with a high frequency
have a low magnitude.
4. Land-use zoning permits compatible land-uses in
areas of high flood risk. For example, this may be
pastoral farming, recreational land-use or a nature
reserve. In contrast, land-uses that are vulnerable
to floods, such as industry, residential and services,
are only permitted in areas where the flood risk is
much lower.
5. Physical factors that increase flood risk include
precipitation type and intensity, temperature and
evapotranspiration, antecedent moisture, drainage
basin size and shape, drainage density, porosity and
permeability of rocks and soils, gradient, vegetation
cover, and land-use.
6. Urbanization leads to an increase in the peak of
flood and a shorter time-lag due to:
• the creation of highly impermeable surfaces,
such as roads, roofs, pavements
•
the presence of smooth surfaces served
with a dense network of drains, gutters and
underground sewers, which increase drainage
density
•
the reduction of the carrying capacity of
natural river channels caused by bridge
supports or riverside facilities.
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7. Deforestation may lead to increased flood risk due
to less interception, increased overland flow, and
reduced evapotranspiration.
8. Channelization may reduce flooding by having
larger river channels. In contrast, it may speed up
the flow of water, and therefore reduce time lag.
Scouring of the channel to remove sediment may
allow the river to carry more water, and reduce the
risk of flooding.
9. Forecasting allows people to prepare for floods, e.g.
put sand bags in place, move furniture to a higher
level, evacuate if necessary.
10. Individuals may decide to evacuate or put flood
protection measures into their homes, or take out
insurance, replace vegetation in their gardens with
impermeable car parking spaces.
respond to the increased nutrient availability. This
is an example of positive feedback. However, the
increase in algae and plankton shade the water
below, cutting off the light supply for submerged
plants. The prolific growth of algae, especially
in the autumn as a result of increased levels of
nutrients in the water and higher temperatures,
results in anoxia (oxygen starvation in the water).
9. Salinization generally occurs in areas that are hot
and dry.
10. Ethiopia (and other up-stream countries) may
extract more water from the Blue Nile (and/or
White Nile), thereby reducing the amount that
reaches Egypt. In addition, climate change may
lead to higher temperatures and higher rates of
evaporation, thereby reducing water supplies.
Water scarcity and water quality
Water management futures
1. Physical water scarcity: a lack of available water in
which water resource development is approaching
or has exceeded unsustainable levels; it relates
availability to demand and implies that arid areas
are not necessarily water scarce.
2. Economic water scarcity: a lack of water in which
water is available locally, but not accessible for
human, institutional or financial capital reasons.
3. Water stress: occurs when per capita water supply
is less than 1,700 cubic metres per year, and an
area is subject to frequent water shortages.
4. Many poor people do not have access to piped
water, and they may have to buy it from a vendor
(seller), who may charge a high price for it. In
contrast, most rich people have access to piped
water, which is generally provided quite cheaply.
5. Virtual water: refers to the volume of water
consumed or polluted for producing the product,
measured over its full production chain.
6. The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam is located
on the Blue Nile in Ethiopia.
7. Salinization: occurs when groundwater levels are
close to the surface. In clay soils this may be within
three metres of the surface, whereas on sandy and
silty soils it is less. Capillary forces bring water to
the surface where it may be evaporated, leaving
behind any soluble salts that it is carrying, leading
to the development of saline crusts.
8. Eutrophication is the increased amount of nitrogen
and/or phosphorus that is carried in streams, lakes
and groundwater, causing nutrient enrichment.
This leads to an increase in algal blooms as plants
1. Water saving: smaller-capacity baths hold less
water; taking a shower rather than a bath saves
water; taps with a low flow rate can be fitted to
bathroom and kitchen sinks; taps with push-down
mechanisms that automatically turn off after a
short time use less water than traditional screw
taps; turning off taps when not in use and fixing
dripping taps are important ways of saving water;
dishwashers and washing machines should only be
used when they are full.
2. Water pricing charges people for the amount of
water they use. When pricing is absent, and people
do not pay for the amount of water they use,
wasteful practices may be encouraged.
3. Rainwater harvesting: making use of available
water before it drains away or evaporates. Efficient
use or storage of water can be achieved in many
ways, for example: irrigating individual plants
rather than whole fields, covering expanses
of water with plastic or chemicals to reduce
evaporation, storing water underground in gravelfilled reservoirs (again to reduce evaporation
losses).
4. New technologies: include nanotechnology
infiltration, membrane chemistry, seawater
desalination, smart monitoring, intelligent
irrigation, wastewater processing, and mobilerecycling facilities. Nanotechnology infiltration
removes microbes, bacteria and other matter
by using silver ions that destroy contaminants.
Membrane chemistry enables water to be
filtered and purified. Seawater desalination is
the transformation of seawater into freshwater.
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Biomimicry refers to the mimicking of biological
processes by which mangrove plants and fish
extract seawater using minimal energy. Smart
monitoring technologies help companies to ensure
the quality of their water supply networks, while
precision (intelligent) irrigation reduces the loss of
water by irrigating individual plants rather than
whole areas. Improved recycling and treatment
of waste water also enable a greater quantity of
freshwater to be made available.
5. During much of the twentieth century, wetlands
were destroyed, altered, drained and removed to
make way for agriculture, settlements, transport
and industrial developments.
6. The advantages of wetlands include water storage,
groundwater recharge, storm protection, flood
mitigation, shoreline stabilization, erosion control,
and retention of carbon, nutrients, sediments
and pollutants. Wetlands also produce goods that
have a significant economic value, such as clean
water, opportunities for tourism, fisheries, timber,
peat and wildlife resources. Wetland functions
can generally be grouped into three main types:
regulation, provision of habitats, and production.
Wetlands are important regulators of water
quantity and water quality. Flood-plain wetlands,
for example, store water when rivers over-top
their banks, reducing flood risk downstream.
Wetlands also regulate water quality. Reed beds
and other wetland plants, for example, are known
as important regulators since they remove toxins
and excessive nutrients from the water.
7. America’s Great Watershed Initiative (Mississippi
Basin) or the Tennessee Valley Authority
are examples of integrated drainage basin
management schemes.
8. The Aswan Dam on the River Nile is an example
of a large dam scheme.
9. The advantages of large dams include flood
and drought control; irrigation; creation of
hydroelectric power; improved navigation, and the
potential for recreation and tourism.
10. The disadvantages of large dams include water
losses, salinization, groundwater changes,
displacement of population, drowning of
archaeological sites, seismic stress, channel erosion
(clear water erosion) beneath the channel, loss of
nutrients, and decreased fish catches.
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Option B Oceans and coastal margins
Ocean-atmosphere interactions
1. Ocean currents are caused by the influence of
prevailing winds blowing steadily across the sea.
2. The cause of ocean acidification is mainly
anthropogenic (human-made) sources – such as
carbon emissions from industrial plants, power
stations, cars and planes. Some of the carbon
that mankind emits remains in the atmosphere
and causes it to heat up, driving global warming.
However, about 30 per cent of carbon dioxide is
absorbed by the oceans where it turns to carbonic
acid.
3. Many marine species are now threatened with
extinction, fisheries face eradication, and coral
reefs that protect coastal areas are starting to
erode. More acidic oceans are beginning to kill
off coral reefs and shellfish beds and threaten
stocks of fish. Increasing ocean acidification will
reduce calcification in corals and other calcifying
organisms, resulting in slower growth and weaker
skeletons.
4. Warm ocean currents move water away from the
equator. In contrast, cold ocean currents move
water away from cold regions towards the equator.
The major currents move huge masses of water
over long distances.
5. Many eastern oceans experience upwelling
currents, in which the ocean currents move cold
water, rich in nutrients, from the ocean floor to
the surface. Such upwelling currents are found off
the coast of Peru, California and south-west Africa.
These nutrient-rich waters support important
fisheries.
6. The El Niño (Southern Oscillation) is a reversal
of the normal atmospheric circulation in the
southern Pacific Ocean, bringing warm water and
low pressure to the eastern Pacific, and cool water
and high pressure to the western Pacific. It occurs
once every 3–10 years. In contrast, La Niña is an
intensification of normal atmospheric processes,
for example, increased flooding in normally humid
areas and increased drought in areas that are
relatively dry.
7. The 1997–98 El Niño event is believed to have
caused an estimated US$36 billion worth
of damage. Farms in the Midwestern US
generally experience higher yields due to milder
temperatures. The US economy is believed to have
benefited by as much as $15 billion in the event.
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Indonesia could experience a prolonged drought,
affecting coffee production, oil palm production
and its hydroelectric production during an El Niño
event. There were reductions in the Indian soya
bean harvest, wheat in Australia and rice in China.
Between 1984 and 2004, almost one-quarter of
the world’s crops were affected by El Niño events.
In 2016, the price of maize in Zimbabwe increased
by over 50 per cent compared with 2015, due to
an El Niño event.
8. The conditions for the development of hurricanes
include:
• sea temperatures must be over 27°C to a
depth of 60 metres
•
the low-pressure area must be far enough
away from the equator so that the Coriolis
force creates rotation in the rising air mass
•
conditions must be unstable: some tropical
low-pressure systems develop into hurricanes,
but not all of them.
9. Hurricanes bring heavy rainfall, strong winds
and high waves, and cause other hazards such as
flooding and mudslides. Hurricanes also deliver
enormous quantities of water to the areas they
affect.
10. Oceans are the largest CO2 sink on Earth; The
major reservoirs of carbon dioxide are fossil fuels
(10,000 × 1012 kg of carbon), the atmosphere
(750 × 1012 kg of carbon) and the oceans
(38,000 × 1012 kg of carbon). Oceans are also
a source of carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis by
plankton generates organic compounds of carbon
dioxide. Some of this material passes through the
food chain and sinks to the ocean floor where
it decomposes into sediments. Eventually it is
destroyed at subduction zones where ocean crusts
are subducted beneath the continental plates.
Carbon dioxide is later released during volcanic
activity.
Interactions between oceans and coastal places
1. Constructive waves have a low wave height, long
wavelength, and the swash is stronger than the
backwash. They tend to deposit material on a
beach. In contrast, destructive waves have a higher
height, shorter wave length, and its backwash is
stronger than the swash. They are erosional in
nature.
2. Longshore drift occurs when the swash carries
material up the beach in a direction parallel to the
prevailing wind, whereas the backwash operates
at right angles to the shore due to the steepness
of the beach slope. The result is a net transfer of
sediment along a beach.
3. The coastal sediment system, or littoral cell
system, is a simplified model that examines coastal
processes and patterns in an area. It operates at
a variety of scales from a single bay to a regional
scale. Each littoral cell is a self-contained cell, in
which inputs and outputs are balanced.
4. Marine processes are those that are wave-based,
such as hydraulic action, abrasion and attrition,
whereas sub-aerial processes are land-based, such
as types of weathering and mass movement, e.g.
freeze-thaw weathering and landslides.
5. Wave-cut platforms (also called shore platforms)
are most frequently found in high-energy
environments and are typically less than 500 m
wide with an angle of approximately 1°. A model
of cliff- and shore-platform evolution shows how
steep cliffs are replaced by a lengthening platform
and lower-angle cliffs, subjected to subaerial
processes rather than marine forces. Alternatively,
platforms might have been formed by frost action,
salt weathering or biological action during periods
of lower sea levels and different climates.
6. The conditions for beach formation include a large
supply of material; longshore drift; an irregular,
indented coastline; low-energy coastlines; and
bioconstruction.
7. Sand dune development is favoured by a large
supply of sand, high onshore wind speeds, low
precipitation, and low humidity.
8. Isostatic changes are localized changes in the
relative level of the land and sea, caused by the
depression of the Earth’s crust, such as due to the
weight of an ice sheet. In contrast, eustatic changes
are worldwide changes in sea level caused by the
growth and decay of ice caps, thereby locking up
and later releasing water from ice.
9. Raised beaches can be caused by an isostatic rise
of the land relative to the sea, or a Eustatic fall in
sea level, leaving the coastline as a raised, relict
feature.
10. Near the shore, where conditions are windy, arid
and salty, the soil contains few nutrients and is
mostly sand – hence the dunes nearest the shore
are referred to as “yellow dunes”. In contrast,
5
towards the rear of the dune system “grey” dunes
are formed – grey due to the presence of humus
in the soil. Conditions towards the rear of the
dune system are less windy, wetter and lass salty,
hence more vegetation can survive, and eventually
decompose adding nutrients to the dune system.
Managing coastal margins
1. Managed retreat occurs when some areas are not
considered worthy of protection and so are left to
be eroded (retreat) whereas others are protected.
2. Land-use zoning occurs when different land-uses
are permitted in different areas; for example, in a
coastal area of some areas may be used for fishing,
others for yachting, others for recreation and
tourism, and others for nature conservation.
3. Storm surges may be caused by hurricanes, high
tides and tsunamis.
4. Beach nourishment is a form of soft engineering
which uses sand or shingle pumped from the
seabed to replace eroded sand.
5. Coral reefs provide many benefits, including
protection of biodiversity, a source of seafood, the
raw materials for new medicines, and ecosystem
services such as recreational value and ecosystem
protection.
6. Coastal management aims to prevent coastal
erosion and reduce the impact of coastal flooding.
7. The benefits of sea walls are that they are easily
made and offer some protection in areas of high
population density.
8. The main disadvantages of sea walls are that they
are expensive, may only last 30–40 years and their
foundations may be undermined by the scouring
actions of waves.
9. Exclusive economic zones are areas in which
a coastal nation has sovereign rights over the
economic resources of the sea, seabed and subsoil,
extending up to 200 nautical miles from the coast.
10. Geopolitics refers to the influence of Geography
(for example, access to resources and location) in
international relations.
Ocean management futures
1. Oceanic abiotic resources include oil, natural gas,
sand, shingle, gold, and manganese.
2. A quota is a limit on the amount of fish that can
be caught. A conservation area is an area reserved
for the recovery or preservation of species, and in
which no fishing can legally take place.
6
3. The main sources of oceanic pollution include the
fishing industry, shipping (for example, transport,
tourism, fishing), offshore mining and extraction,
illegal dumping at sea and discarded fishing gear.
The main sources of marine litter include landbased activities such as discharge from storm water
drains, industrial outfalls, untreated municipal
sewerage, littering of beaches and rivers.
4. Strategies to manage ocean pollution include
coastal and beach clearing, booms to contain oil
spills, the use of bombs and detergents to break up
oil spills, recycling, and producing less waste.
5. An ocean where there is international conflict/
insecurity is the South China Sea.
6. The countries involved in the conflict in the South
China Sea include China, Taiwan, the Philippines,
Malaysia, Brunei and Vietnam.
7. Capture fisheries harvest wild fish whereas
aquaculture refers to fish that are reared in fish
farms.
8. The Virtual Watch Room is a high-tech system
that can track vessels anywhere in the world. It
uses automatic identification systems (AIS) data,
satellite data, radar, photographic images and radio
transmissions, and it gives alerts when a vessel
enters prohibited waters and slows down to fishing
speed. It can also see when a vessel’s catch is
transferred to another vessel.
9. The use of satellite technology and radars allows
trawlers to identify where fish shoals are located,
and to catch them. Satellites can also be used to
track trawlers that are entering prohibited waters.
10. The environmental problems associated with
aquaculture include the depletion of other fish
species on a global scale (in order to feed the
reared fish), sea lice and diseases spreading from
farmed salmon into wild stocks, pollution caused
by uneaten food, faeces and chemicals used to
treat the salmon contaminating surrounding
waters, organic debris with steroids and other
chemical waste contaminating coastal waters,
accidental escape of fish affecting local wild fish
gene pools.
Option C Extreme environments
The characteristics of extreme environments
1. Cold and high-altitude environments include
polar, glacial areas; periglacial areas; high
mountains in non-tropical latitudes.
2. The climate of hot, arid environments is
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characterised by high temperatures throughout
the year. In semi-arid areas, annual rainfall varies
between 250 mm and 500 mm, whereas in
extremely arid areas the rainfall is less than 250
mm per annum.
3. Hot, arid areas are found in four main locations:
• the location of stable, high-pressure conditions
at the tropics, for example the Sahara and the
great Australian deserts
•
a large distance from the sea (known as
continentality), such as the central parts of
the Sahara and Australia and also parts of the
south-west USA
•
rain-shadow effects, as in Patagonia (South
America) and the Gobi Desert in central Asia
•
proximity to cold upwelling currents, which
limit the amount of moisture held in the air,
for example off the west coast of southern
Africa, helping to form the Namib desert.
4. Permafrost is permanently frozen sub-surface. To
be classified as permafrost the land must have been
frozen for at least two years.
5. The Sami are an indigenous tribe living in a
periglacial area.
6. The Sami practice nomadic pastoralism.
7. The Bedouin are an indigenous tribe in a hot, arid
region.
8. They wear long, loose-fitting clothing to help them
cope with the heat.
9. Hot, arid environments are associated with high
pressure conditions.
10. Hot desert areas and periglacial areas both have a
low annual rainfall (less than 5000 mm).
5. Pingos form due to the movement and freezing
of water under pressure. Two types are generally
identified: open-system and closed-system pingos.
Where the source of the water is a distant elevated
source, open-system pingos form, whereas if the
supply of water is local, and the pingo arises due to
the expansion of permafrost, closed-system pingos
form.
6. Exotic or exogenous rivers are those that have
their source in another, wetter environment and
then flow through a desert. Endorheic rivers are
those that drain into an inland lake or sea.
7. Salt crystallization causes the decomposition of
rock by solutions of salt. There are two main
types of salt crystal growth. First, in areas where
temperatures fluctuate around 26–28°C, sodium
sulphate and sodium carbonate expand by about
300 per cent. This creates pressure on joints,
forcing them to crack. Second, when water
evaporates, salt crystals may be left behind.
As the temperature rises, the salts expand and
exert pressure on rock. Disintegration is found
in hot desert areas where there is a large diurnal
temperature range. In many desert areas, daytime
temperatures exceed 40°C, whereas at night they
are little above freezing. Rocks heat up by day and
contract by night. As rock is a poor conductor of
heat, stresses occur only in the outer layers. This
causes peeling or exfoliation to occur.
8. There are two types of wind erosion:
• Deflation is the progressive removal of small
material, leaving behind larger materials. This
forms a stony desert, or reg. In some cases,
deflation may remove sand to form a deflation
hollow.
•
Physical processes and landscapes
1. Two forms of glacial erosion are plucking and
abrasion.
2. Two factors that affect glacial erosion are the
relative hardness of the particles and bedrock, and
the size and shape of the particles transported. The
most effective abrasion occurs when hard particles
at the glacier base pass over soft bedrock. Large,
angular debris abrades much more efficiently than
smaller, rounder debris.
3. The Matterhorn is an example of a pyramidal
peak.
4. Drumlins are small oval mounds up to 1.5 km long
and 100 m high.
Abrasion is the erosion carried out by windborne particles. They act like sandpaper,
smoothing surfaces and exploiting weaker
rocks.
9. Alluvial fans are cones of sediment, deposited by
rivers owing to an abrupt loss of energy as they
leave their mountain channels and enter a plain.
10. Barchan dunes require a constant wind supply, a
high wind speed and a supply of sand.
Managing extreme environments
1. Aridity refers to a lack of moisture/rainfall,
whereas infertility refers to poor soil conditions,
such as a lack of minerals/nutrients and/or organic
content.
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2. Essential oils is a better option for some farmers in
arid areas because:
• it is a new or additional source of income for
many people
•
it is labour-intensive and local in nature
•
many plants are already known and used by
the people as medicines, and are therefore
culturally acceptable
•
in their natural state the plants are not very
palatable, and they are not very valuable, so
are unlikely to be stolen
•
many species are looked upon as weeds removing these regularly improves grazing
potential as well as supplying raw materials
for the essential oils industry.
3. Copper at Rosemont, Arizona, USA is a mineral
resource development in a hot, arid environment.
4. The main problems associated with mineral
development in hot, arid area include:
• exploitation may be difficult because many
of these areas are remote, and investment in
transport is expensive
7. Resource nationalism is when a country maintains
control over its own resources.
8. Some of the problems associated with tourism
in cold environments are that mountain
environments have a low carrying capacity and
are sometimes referred to as fragile. This means
that the environment is easily damaged by human
impact because of steep slopes, thin erodible soil
and vegetation that does not regenerate easily.
9. The advantages of tourism in hot, arid
environments include the relatively low capital
investment and the potentially high economic
returns.
10. Disadvantages of the tourism industry in hot, arid
areas include many long-lasting negative impacts
of unregulated, hasty tourism development. There
may be negative consequences that could affect
the social and cultural life there. Some of the
proposed developments are out-of-character and
unsustainable. Many of the jobs created may be
seasonal and/or unskilled.
•
housing and basic utilities such as water,
energy and waste disposal need to be provided
at the mines and in the settlements where
miners live
•
the shortage of water may require desalination
plants to be built or groundwater reserves to
be tapped. This could cause the groundwater
to decline
Extreme environments’ futures
•
environmental impacts include the
introduction of exotic species
2. Two main mineral resources in the Arctic Ocean
are oil and natural gas.
•
the mines and their wastes can be an eyesore
•
mines can be a major source of dust that is
linked to an increase in respiratory problems.
3. Resources that have been identified as the most
likely sources of conflict in hot, arid areas are oil,
natural gas and water.
5. Oil in Alaska, USA.
6. The main problems associated with mineral
developments in periglacial areas include:
• the ecosystem is highly susceptible to
interference because of the limited number of
species involved
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pipelines, and changes in the vegetation cover,
rapidly destroy it. Thawing of the permafrost
increases the active layer, and subsequent
settlement of the soil causes subsidence.
Consequently, engineers have had to build
special structures to cope.
•
the extremely low temperatures limit
decomposition, and hence pollution, especially
from oil, has a very long-lasting effect on
periglacial ecosystems
•
permafrost is easily disrupted, posing
significant problems. Heat from buildings and
1. The eight members of the Arctic Council include
Canada, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Finland,
Sweden, Russia and the USA.
4. The Nenets are the indigenous tribe that inhabit
the Yamal Peninsula.
5. They use the land for grazing their reindeer.
6. The Yamal Megaproject is a major oil and natural
gas project that Russia has begun to develop.
7. Oil and gas operations in the Yamal Peninsula
destroyed over 64,000 km2 of tundra in just 10
years of exploration. Fish yields on the River Ob
have decreased as fish spawning grounds have
been polluted. The River Ob used to provide 60
per cent of the Former Soviet Union’s fish catch;
nearly 30 fisheries on tributaries of the Ob have
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been destroyed. Reindeer’s migratory routes have
been bisected by railroads, and some reindeer have
been shot.
8. Desertification is land degradation in humid and
semi-arid areas – that is, not including non-desert
(arid) areas. It involves the loss of biological and
economic productivity and it occurs where climatic
variability (especially rainfall) coincides with
unsustainable human activities.
9. The causes of desertification include overgrazing,
overcultivation, deforestation, sedentarization of
nomads, use of marginal land, salinization of soil,
development of cash crops, war and conflict, and
inappropriate farming techniques.
10. Climate change will have the effect of pushing
increasing numbers of winter sports higher up
mountains, concentrating impacts in an everdecreasing number of high-altitude areas. Since
2000, some patches of permafrost that have
existed for tens of thousands of years have
disappeared. Low altitude resorts in Italy, Germany
and Austria may also have to move uphill in the
future. Others may have to rely on snow-making
machines. The snowline could rise to 1,800m,
which could lead to a tourism loss of nearly $1.4
billion compared with the present.
Option D Geophysical hazards
Geophysical systems
1. The three main layers within the Earth include the
inner core, outer core and the mantle (which is
divided into the lower and the upper mantle).
2. The main internal heat flow within the Earth is
large-scale convection currents.
3. Subduction refers to the plunging of one plate
beneath another. Subduction zones form where
an oceanic lithospheric plate collides with another
plate – whether continental or oceanic. Subducted
(lithospheric) oceanic crust remains cooler, and
therefore denser than the surrounding mantle,
for millions of years; so once initiated, subduction
carries on, driven, in part, by the weight of the
subducting crust. The subducting plate drags or
pulls the rest of the plate behind it.
4. Shield volcanoes are formed from very hot, runny
basaltic lava. Because it is so hot, the lava can
flow great distances. It builds up shield volcanoes,
which have gently sloping sides, a shallow crater
and a large circumference. In contrast, composite
volcanoes are formed by alternating eruptions of
fragmental material followed by lava outflows.
These volcanoes are characterized by slopes of 3°
near the summit and 5° near the base.
5. Primary hazards are the direct impacts of the
eruption, for example lava flows, ash fallout,
pyroclastic flows and gas emissions. In contrast,
secondary hazards are due to the way that the
ejected material reacts or changes form. For
example, ash may join with rainwater to form
mudflows (lahars), or heat from the volcano
may melt snow and ice to trigger a glacial flood
(jökulhlaup). Lahars, or volcanic mudflows,
are another hazard associated with volcanoes.
A combination of heavy rain and unstable ash
increase the hazard of lahars.
6. The focus is the point within the Earth where an
earthquake takes place – that is, shallow-focus
near the surface, and deep-focus at great depth
underground. In contrast, the epicentre marks
the point on the surface of the Earth immediately
above the focus of the earthquake.
7. Primary (P) waves or pressure waves are the
fastest and can move through solids and liquids
– they shake the earth backwards and forwards.
In contrast, secondary (S) waves or shear waves
move with a sideways motion and are unable to
move through liquids – they make the ground
move horizontally, causing much damage.
8. Mass movements include any large-scale
movements of the Earth’s surface that are not
accompanied by a moving agent such as a river,
glacier or ocean wave. They include very slow
movements, such as soil creep; fast movement,
such as avalanches; dry movement, such as
rockfalls; and very fluid movements, such as mud
flows.
9. Shear strength refers to the in the internal
resistance of a slope.
10. Shear stress refers to the forces attempting to pull a
mass downslope.
Geophysical hazard risks
1. Most of the world’s earthquakes occur in clearly
defined linear patterns. These linear chains
generally follow plate boundaries. Broad belts of
earthquakes are associated with subduction zones
(where a dense ocean plate plunges beneath a less-
9
dense continental plate), whereas narrower belts
of earthquakes are associated with constructive
plate margins, where new material is formed and
plates are moving apart. Collision boundaries, such
as in the Himalayas, are also associated with broad
belts of earthquakes, whereas conservative plate
boundaries, such as California’s San Andreas fault
line, give a relatively narrow belt of earthquakes
(although this can still be over 100 km wide). In
addition, there appear to be isolated occurrences of
earthquakes.
2. The Pacific Ring of Fire refers to the distribution
and location of three-quarters of the Earth’s 550
historically active volcanoes around the rim of the
Pacific Ocean. This includes many of the world’s
most recent volcanoes, such as Mt Pinatubo (the
Philippines), Mt Unzen (Japan), Mt Agung (Java),
Mt Chichon (Mexico), Mt St Helens (USA) and
Nevado del Ruiz (Colombia).
3. The Hawaiian Islands are a chain of volcanic
islands that stretch northwest across the Pacific
Ocean. These volcanoes have been caused by the
movement of plates above a hot part of the fluid
mantle. A hotspot remains stationary but as the
plates move over it, new volcanoes form over
millions of years, each one slightly apart from the
previous one.
4. The distribution of landslide fatalities tends to
be more common in areas that have: active
tectonic processes that lead to high rates of uplift
and seismic events, high levels of precipitation
including high annual totals and high short-term
intensities, and a high population density.
5. The recurrence interval or return period is the
expected frequency of occurrence in years for an
event of a particular magnitude. In general, small
events have a high frequency/short return period
whereas large events have a very low frequency/
high return period. These are generalized into
high-frequency/low-magnitude events versus lowfrequency high-magnitude events.
6. A VEI 8, or supervolcano, is a very high magnitude
low frequency event. A VEI 8 ejects more than
1,000 km3 of material, 10 times more than a VEI
7. The last eruption of a VEI 8 was about 74,000
years ago.
7. The average number of earthquakes with a
magnitude of 8 or over is 1.
8. The range of average annual deaths due to
volcanoes is 2–320
10
9. The range of average annual deaths due to mass
movements is 270–3,400.
10. Earthquakes and tsunamis have had the greatest
impact in terms of loss of life between 2004 and
2014.
Hazard risk and vulnerability
1. The main plates that affect Haiti are the North
American plate and the Caribbean plate.
2. Around one million people were made homeless
and 250,000 were injured and in need of
emergency aid.
3. (a) The 2010 Christchurch earthquake had a
magnitude of 7.1 and was responsible for one
death.
(b) The 2011Christchurch earthquake had a
magnitude of 6.3, but was responsible for 185
deaths.
4. Soufriere Hills began erupting in 1995.
5. The hazards associated with the Soufriere Hills
volcano include pyroclastic flows, mud flows, ash
falls and building collapse.
6. The reasons for landslides at Kalimpong are poor
water management and slope disruption. The
channel is dry towards the end of the dry season,
and is choked with garbage. This makes the
channel unable to cope with the large flows that
occur during the monsoon season. The problem
is increased by house building on steep slopes.
Some houses are built by first creating a terrace
by excavating into the slope. By creating a miniterrace to build on, a steeper slope is made behind
the terrace, and that increases instability.
7. Sri Lanka experiences landslide due to the
combination of a rugged terrain (for example, in
the Central Hills) and high rainfall, associated with
the southern monsoon (May toSeptember) and
the northern monsoon (December to February).
8. (a) At least 24.
(b) Tourism in the area has increased.
9. The landslide problem is greatest Kalimpong as
the south-west monsoon approaches, i.e. June to
September.
10. It is located at a destructive plate boundary, where
the Indo-Australian plate subducts beneath the
Eurasian plate.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING: ANSWERS
Future resilience and adaptation
1. Earthquakes accounted for 8% of the occurrence
of natural hazards between 1994 and 2013.
2. Lower middle income populations accounted for
35% of the deaths associated with disasters, 1994–
2013, and low income populations accounted for a
further 33% of deaths.
3. Population growth is likely the impact of
geophysical hazards as there will be more people
at risk, more people living in cities, greater
alteration of the physical landscape, and reduced
resilience of systems to cope with the increased
pressures.
4. Safe houses are houses which have had basic
improvements made to them. For example,
existing adobe walls can be reinforced with a
strong plastic mesh installed under plaster – in an
earthquake these walls crack but do not collapse
immediately, allowing occupants to escape. Plastic
mesh could also work as a reinforcement for
concrete walls in Haiti and elsewhere. Researchers
in India have successfully tested a concrete house
reinforced with bamboo. A model house for
Indonesia rests on ground-motion dampers – old
tyres filled with bags of sand. Such a house might
be only a third as strong as one built on more
sophisticated shock absorbers, but it would also
cost much less and be more likely to be adopted in
Indonesia. In northern Pakistan, traditional houses
are built of stone and mud, but straw, which is
readily available, is far more resilient and also
warmer in winter.
5. Oarfish, toads, copperhead snakes and flamingos
have all acted differently/strangely before the
occurrence of an earthquake.
6. Mt Pinatubo was successfully predicted by the
USGS but an eruption at Mammoth Mountain Ski
Area was incorrectly predicted.
7. Mt Sinabung and Mt Kelud erupted in 2014.
8. Excavation and filling, drainage and the use of
restraining materials can all be used to stabilise
slopes.
9. Short-term responses deal mainly with emergency
relief and search and rescue, whereas long-term
aid focuses on rehabilitation, and, increasingly,
reconstruction.
10. GPS can be used to manage natural hazards by
helping to contact trapped people, or track them,
and it can be used to monitor and map changes
in the natural environment, and can be done by
residents.
Option E Leisure, tourism and sport
Changing leisure patterns
1. Leisure is a broad term that includes sport,
recreation and tourism. It is a freely chosen activity
or experience that takes place in non-work time.
Sport involves physical activity, but it is
competitive and has professionals.
Tourism involves staying away from home for at
least one night for the purpose of leisure and it
includes day trips which might be international.
Recently tourism has become more specialized
with niche tourism available for those with special
interests – silver tourism, adventure tourism,
ecotourism and others.
2. Any of the following three are acceptable answers:
•
Falling work demands – a reduction in the
length of the working day.
•
An increase in disposable income – leisure
pursuits can be costly.
•
Growth in the provision of leisure activities.
•
New technology (dishwasher) which allows
more free time.
3. In Europe and the USA, Men usually have
between 1 and 9 hours of leisure per week.
Women’s leisure time is reduced by domestic
duties and parenting.
4. HICs have the relative advantages of: more leisure
time, more disposable income and a greater range
of sporting facilities. These allow them to afford
the training and equipment often required for
certain sporting activities.
5. The level of attraction to a specific destination
can be explained by positive attractions, such
as a favourable exchange rate. The number
of international arrivals is affected by factors
attracting them to a specific destination or
negative factors which deter them from travelling.
Deterrents might include a natural hazard, such
as the Asian tsunami in 2005 or an epidemic.
An intermediate factor that deters tourists from
travelling at all might be international terrorism.
6. Primary tourist resources are pre-existing natural
11
attractions and tourism for recreation. Examples
might include: attractive beaches, warm, reliable
climate and scenic landscape.
Secondly tourist resources include
accommodation, catering, entertainment and
shopping – in other words, the man-made aspects
of tourism
7. Young children adopt sporting activities near
to home, such as bike-riding. Safety is a major
concern. With tourism parents are often reliant on
secondary resources and manmade make-believe
facilities, for example Disneyland Paris.
Youths need space and their activities are often
noisy and they repel other recreationalists. As
tourists they must still take vacations with parents
and are deterred by the cost.
Middle age brings financial security when parents
can afford a free choice of leisure activities and
they have more time.
In old age, sporting activity is usually limited
by physical problems (arthritis and back ache).
As tourists, elderly people find security when
accompanied by others of the same age group and
cruises are particularly popular in this age group.
8. Black and minority, ethnic, the elderly, lone
pensioners, local authority tenants and those with
disabilities – all these groups have relatively low
incomes or physical limitations.
9. The development of LICs and improvement in
infrastructure at destinations.
The increasing affluence both in the source and
destination.
The desire for new types of niche tourism in more
exotic locations.
The interest in cultural differences.
The improvement in long-haul journey times.
Economy package deals.
The improvement in marketing through the
Internet and social media.
The expansion of the tourist realm.
10. Niche tourism is a response to mass tourism and
a globalizing world of increasing sameness. It
caters for people seeking a different experience.
Unlike mass tourism, it deals with small groups
with special interests. For example, dark tourism
focuses on the macabre and tribal tourism attracts
12
those interested in cultural contrasts. Some types
of niche tourism have become so popular that
they have begun to resemble mass tourism and
there is little clear distinction.
Tourism and sport at the local and national scale
1. Primary resources are the natural features that
originally attracted visitors to the area. Normally,
these would include beaches, mountains, rivers,
and so on. In order for the area to become
successful in terms of tourism it must provide
secondary resources or manmade facilities too.
Initial basic provision of parking and toilets might
be expanded to include hotels, entertainment,
restaurants and other attractions. At the same
time, the natural primary resources must
be protected and conserved to ensure the
sustainability of the tourist industry.
2. Sporting facilities have a sphere of influence
upon which they depend in order to survive
economically. The sphere of influence is the
catchment area around the facility, which provides
custom. A large facility such as a stadium is
expensive to run and therefore must attract a large
number of supporters to get an adequate income.
Its sphere of influence is likely to be regional and
possibly national. A small sporting facility, such as
a local swimming pool, does not have the same
overheads and in order to survive it needs to draw
from a much smaller area. Its sphere of influence
is therefore much smaller.
3. The range is the distance that people are prepared
to travel to use a particular sporting facility. A small
playground with a very limited number of facilities
will have a short range about 1 km, which means
beyond this people are not prepared to travel to
use the playground. However, a sports facility
offering a variety of indoor and outdoor activities
might have a range up to 10 km. A top-level sports
complex and athletic stadium will serve a large
population drawn from an even greater distance. It
is been suggested that the threshold population for
an 18 hole golf course in the UK is around 30,000
people. People will be drawn from a wide area
and the relationship is reciprocal – they will be
prepared to travel to use the superior facilities and
at the same time the sporting complex depends
upon their support for economic survival.
4. Hot spots may be urban or rural, and both are
areas of intense tourist activity.
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Their attractions include:
•
Landscape – mountains (Nepal), biodiversity
(Amazon), hot deserts (Grand Canyon).
•
Climate – hot and dry climates are preferred
and tourism is often seasonal where climate
changes over the year.
•
Culture – language, customs (Oxford),
ancient artifacts and indigenous populations
(Namibia).
•
Sporting events – World Cup (Rio 2014)
Olympic Games (London 2012).
Government investment and planning, such as the
creation of new resorts, improved infrastructure
and new attractions, may also be influential.
5. Hotels are secondary tourist resources and their
theoretical location depends upon the type of
customer they attract. In many tourist resorts,
large international hotels occupy prime sites close
to the CBD with sea views and tourist attractions
nearby (restaurants and entertainment). Their
overheads would be very high because of high
land values. Consequently, they offer high-order
facilities and services at a high cost. Away from the
tourist business district smaller guest-houses with
limited facilities are likely to attract regional or
national custom and their overheads will be much
lower. Some hotels take advantage of semi-rural
locations, which are more accessible and cheaper
land values allow them to occupy a large site and
to provide a range of superior facilities, such as a
golf course or a spa.
6. Oxford is a world-famous university city attracting
five million tourists per year and providing 5,000
full-time jobs.
The historic sites, which attract so many
international and national tourists include: the
Botanic Gardens, the Ashmolean Museum and the
various colleges of Oxford University.
Oxford has become a tourist hot spot and will
remain so because:
•
its historical features are perpetual
•
the growing popularity of heritage tourism
•
it provides a unique tourist experience
•
Oxford is accessible by public transport
•
Oxford is in a central location in the UK and
therefore part of the international tourist
circuit.
7. The purpose of the buffer zone around a national
park is to reduce or eliminate human activities in
that area which might impact upon the central
district of the park where most of the environment
needs protection. There will be restrictions
on resource use in the buffer zone in order to
enhance the conservation value of the protected
area in the national park. Such a zone exists in
Killarney National Park, Northern Ireland.
8. Threats include proximity to Killarney town and
the large number of tourists. Their objective is to
conserve the natural environment of the park and
to protect it from tourist impact. There are several
priorities:
•
The control and eradication of the
rhododendron is the biggest conservation
challenge facing the national park authorities.
It infests large areas of natural woodland. It is
not natural to the area, which means that it
easily dominates and excludes other endemic
species.
•
The removal of forestry plantations situated
in the restoration zone. The aim is to replace
them with natural species.
•
Markross House has been restored and
developed to attract those interested in craft
activities. Ross Castle has been restored and
provision of tourist services improved.
These improvements have all be developed and
undertaken after consultation with Kerry County
Council, Killarney District Council.
9. Cities have a large sphere of influence and offer a
range of recreational facilities to suit local people
and also those drawn in from a much larger area.
Leisure facilities will range from the smallest
playground to large leisure centres, which may
have national as well as international attraction.
Thus, they have both lower-order and higherorder tourist attractions.
Tourists tend to concentrate in city centres where
it is possible to find a tourist business district
(TBD) and the associated attractions such as
international hotels, concert halls, restaurants and
other attractions, which would be too expensive
for most locals to use regularly. The provision of
leisure facilities conforms to the socio-economic
status of residents. Moving out from the centre
you would expect to find lower-order services,
such as red light districts and playgrounds for
local children. Towards the edge of the city, land
13
is much cheaper and leisure facilities such as large
stadia are found here. In the UK this rural/urban
zone attracts other leisure activities such as “pickyour-own”, garden centres and golf courses.
10. The Oxford tourism strategy is designed to ensure
visitor satisfaction, encourage and increase tourist
spending within the city and minimize the
environmental problems that result from tourism.
It intends to:
A rich cultural tradition with indigenous
tribes, such as the Zulus.
•
It is relatively a cheap tourist destination.
•
English is widely spoken
•
Terrorism is not linked to this country.
5. Advantages:
•
Tourism brings in much foreign exchange and
accounts for 28% of GDP.
•
provide a larger coach park and enforce onstreet parking regulations
•
•
increase use of public transport and park-andride
It is labour intensive and provides direct and
indirect employment.
•
•
encourage walking tours, registered
sightseeing buses and cycles
It has stimulated economic development by
the generation of wealth and the multiplier
effect.
•
encourage visits to lesser-known attractions by
providing on street information
•
liaise with language schools to prevent the
conflict between themselves and the general
public due to the street congestion they cause
•
increase the number of off-season visitors
•
reinvest the money generated through
tourism and therefore make it sustainable.
Tourism and sport at the international scale
1. This is a form of niche tourism that involves
exploration or travel to a remote area and some
level of perceived (sometimes real) risk.
2. Heritage tourism is travelling to experience places,
artifacts, sites and the indigenous people of an
area. It may be referred to as cultural tourism.
3. TNCs may be regarded as an asset to LICs when
they first attempt to fund development and tourist
projects. However, TNCs very quickly assume a
dominant role and become involved in almost
every aspect of tourist management. This includes
travel agents, flights, taxis, insurance, hotels, other
accommodation and bookings. Their involvement
may be a lever to economic growth, but a lack of
national ownership of hotels and airlines causes
the loss of tourist revenue (leakage).
4. South Africa has a number of natural assets:
14
•
•
Rich and varied wildlife and game reserves,
for example. Kruger National Park.
•
A warm climate attracting Europeans during
their colder months.
Disadvantages:
•
Tourist demand is volatile and has fluctuated
in response to external shocks, such as
terrorism and short and long-term coastal
hazards.
•
Depletion of natural resources and shortage of
water.
•
Waste and pollution from tourists.
6. Costs:
•
Debts may take a long time to pay off.
•
The large number of tourists makes an impact
on the environment and consumes resources,
especially water.
•
Large events have security risks and are prime
terrorist targets.
•
If the event is unsuccessful in this respect the
host experiences loss of international respect.
Benefits:
•
Increased prestige for the country and the city
concerned.
•
Economic spin-offs – trade and tourism in
particular.
•
It gives stimulus to the local sporting facilities.
•
The event may make profit through sales of
radio and TV rights and merchandise.
7. The small land area and narrow resource base
make manufacturing an unlikely development
strategy.
Tropical islands such as those in the Indian Ocean
and French Polynesia can offer perfect tourist
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING: ANSWERS
features, such as beaches, climate and wildlife.
Tourism is a good choice because it is not restricted
by quotas or tariffs like other exports.
Tourism provides local jobs for local people, many
of whom are untrained. They gain new language
and IT skills.
8. Mass tourism took off in the 1960s in Europe. It
attracted the 18 to 30 age group and allowed for
cheap, package holidays, which took advantage
of economies of scale. Popular destinations were
places like Benidorm in Spain, where holidays
consisted of crowded beaches and were organized
by foreign tour companies.
The disadvantages of mass tourism are:
•
Environment – this is high-intensity tourism
impacting on small area.
•
Excessive waste, noise, litter and, more
seriously, consumption of local resources such
as water.
•
Conflict between locals and tourists is
common.
•
Destinations receiving large numbers of
visitors of this kind do not always benefit
from tourism and there is some degree of
leakage. This means that package holidays use
their own agents, guides and airlines and the
impact they make on the local economy is
minimal because the revenue is repatriated.
9. Heritage tourism is a form of niche tourism, which
is becoming increasingly popular. It focuses upon
historic buildings, local customs and artifacts and
indigenous populations. It can take place both in
a rural or an urban setting. Machu Picchu is an
example of heritage tourism.
Disadvantages:
streams and rivers.
10. Example: The 2012 London Olympic Games
This post-Olympic urban regeneration scheme
aimed to improve living conditions and economy
of one of London’s poorest districts – the Lea
Valley.
The UK government invested £30 million to
transform the Olympic site into the Queen
Elizabeth Olympic Park.
Transport for London invested 6.5 million in
transport infrastructure in preparation for the
2012 games.
Other works included:
•
sustainable practices involving recycling of
90% of demolition waste and the planting of
300,000 wetland plants and 1000 new trees
•
2800 housing units were created from the
athletes’ village and 50% of these were
affordable housing for local people
•
a community leisure centre and aquatic were
opened in 2012.
Managing tourism and sport for the future
1. This is the perceived number of visitors that can be
tolerated at one site. Older people tend to be less
crowd-tolerant and perceive the carrying capacity
to be lower than more tolerant younger people.
The general perception, irrespective of age is that
a tourist area has reached carrying capacity when
noise and tourist numbers are high enough to be
perceived as a nuisance.
A difference in perception might lead to conflicts
between two groups.
2. The carrying capacity of a tourist hotspot has been
exceeded when the following conditions exist:
•
Cultural costs.
•
Cultural conflict and the abandonment of
traditional customs by the indigenous tribes.
•
Overcrowding
•
Adoption of westernized habits such as
alcohol.
•
Noise
•
Long queues
•
Increasing local crime.
•
Difficulty finding parking spaces
Environmental costs:
•
Litter and overflowing disposal bins
•
•
Inadequate and unattended toilets
•
Where land is steep and deforested heavy rain
causes serious erosion landslides.
Recent urbanization and the building of hotels
have resulted excessive waste and pollution of
Urban hotspots are generally more resilient to
intense tourist activity than rural ones because the
urban fabric is more resistant.
15
3. Ecotourism was designed to offer a different
experience for tourists who were interested
in conserving wildlife and the environment.
The principles of ecotourism were to conserve
resources, to develop complexes that fitted with
the local environment, to involve local people
to cause minimum pollution, and to respect the
customers and practices of indigenous populations.
For many tourists ecotourism involves some
degree of sacrifice and of course some are not
prepared to do this and they like the convenience
of a flushing WC and hot water. Increasingly,
ecotourism has adjusted to the desires of tourists
who are not prepared to make sacrifices for
the conservation of the environment, hence
egotourism.
4. The historical trends show almost geometric
increase in the number of tourist arrivals in the
world as a whole. For example, 1950 in total was
virtually zero, in 1975 it was 200 million, 2000
and 700 million, and the prediction for 2025 is 1.6
billion. The fastest-growing region in the world
is Asia Pacific. Its share of the world total tourist
arrivals was 22% in 2010 and is predicted to be
30% in 2030. Whereas Europe’s share fell from
51% in 2010 to 41% in 2030.
5. The general trend is that the emerging economies
will experience a greater rate of increase in
international tourist arrivals by 2030. The regions
with the fastest growth rates are in Latin America,
Asia Pacific and in some parts of Europe such as
the Eastern Mediterranean. The tourism growth in
the HICs will be relatively slow.
6. Diaspora tourism is a form of niche tourism
whereby tourists take a holiday in their country
of origin. Their behaviour differs from that of
other international tourists in some respects.
For example, they tend to stay with friends and
relatives and therefore do not spend much on
hotels. They tend to use local facilities and also
local businesses, which can benefit the economy.
Genealogy tourism (cemetery tourism) would
typically be taken in Great Britain by New
Zealanders and Australians attempting to trace
their origins and family tree.
7. Social media such as TripAdvisor and Facebook are
widely used by people wishing to choose a type of
holiday. They are a source of opinion and review
from those who have already participated in a
particular type of activity or holiday. TripAdvisor
was established in 2000 and by 2015 it listed
16
890,000 hotels in 45 countries. It was claimed
that hotels that did not make the top five in their
location will lose business, and poor reviews could
damage a hotel’s reputation indefinitely. Although
the reliability of the reviews is in question, people
change their holiday plans to avoid possible
disappointment.
Facebook and booking.com are further sources
of unvetted opinion that might make or break an
operator or hotel, or deter people from visiting a
particular holiday destination.
8. This is one of the cultural drawbacks of tourism.
When visitors confront indigenous populations,
envy may develop among the poorer local people
who see others from more developed countries
with the trappings of wealth, for example, cameras
and tablets. It can lead to theft and tourists are
advised to conceal such items and to avoid
demonstration of their wealth. For most residents
of this destination such tourist commodities
remain tantalisingly beyond their reach. As a
result, discontent grows amongst the hosts.
9. In the world of sport males are dominant and
women face considerable challenges, especially if
they are Asian.
The chance of their anticipating in sported as
Muslims is severely limited by the following
factors:
•
Dress code – the need for modesty is not
always appreciated
•
Inadequate facilities – a prayer room and
provision of water for self-cleansing are
seldom available.
•
Lack of parental approval because they do not
appreciate the need for physical fitness.
•
Socio-cultural barriers – socializing
and consuming alcohol are considered
inappropriate for Muslim women.
•
Communication – language barriers are often
an issue.
•
Lack of women-only sessions – this is a major
deterrent.
•
Childcare – crèche facilities must be provided
if women are free to participate. Women are
responsible for all aspects of' childcare.
10. Physical disability is much more acceptable than
it was when the Paralympics first started in 1948.
Irrespective of sport disabled people are now
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING: ANSWERS
included in many activities. The Olympics is no
exception and it would be extraordinary if they
were excluded from this event.
Technology has also enabled those with mobility
problems to participate in a wide variety of sports,
and disability is no longer a major hindrance.
Risk factors associated with loss-adjusted life
expectancy are:
•
Low socio-economic status.
•
Chronic diseases and conditions – these are
associated with a significant loss in healthadjusted life expectancy.
•
Gender – the estimates of health-adjusted life
expectancy for the diabetes cohort at age 55
had a life expectancy of 5.8 years for women
and 5.3 years for men. HALE for countries.
The calculation method also includes a weight
assigned to each type of disability adjusted by
severity.
Option F The geography of food and health
Measuring food and health
1. Hunger is a strong desire for food when it is in
short supply. It depends upon the availability of
food and the ability of people to access it.
Malnutrition results from inappropriate diet. This
may involve nutritional deficiency resulting in
disease such as marasmus and kwashiorkor. It may
also be caused by excessive eating, resulting in
obesity
2. This is the shift in dietary consumption that
coincides with economic development, for
example, countries that are changing from high
carbohydrate consumption to high protein and
fat consumption. India and China are making this
transition currently.
3. Calories provide energy, but consumption varies
globally from an average of 3800 per day in the US
to 1680 in Burundi. The average consumption for
LICs is 2680 and for HICs is 3400. This wide range
makes this indicator unreliable and its unreliability
is increased by other factors:
•
5. This is a crude measure because the interpretation
of “doctor” varies.
To view him/her in isolation is also unsatisfactory
because the size and quality of the medical team
and the technological support are both important.
6. An epidemic is an outbreak of disease that spreads
across a large region affecting many. A pandemic
is an epidemic that has got out of control and the
extent can be global. A good example is the Black
Death, which killed 75 million people, and more
recently and less deadly, the swine flu pandemic in
2009.
7. IMR is the number of infant (<1 year) deaths per
1000 live births per year x 100.
A high IMR reflects upon the mother’s state of
health, living conditions and health provision. Risk
factors are:
Societies with a more sedentary life style need
fewer calories. Whereas those employed in
farming or other active pursuits need more.
•
A very young mother, <15 yrs.
•
Low levels of education.
•
Body size controls calorie consumption.
•
Bottle feeding
•
Gender controls body size and occupation (to
some degree).
•
Tropical climate
•
Poor water quality
4. Health-adjusted life expectancy (HALE) is an
indicator of the overall health of a population. It
combines measures of both age- and sex-specific
health data, and age- and sex-specific mortality
data, into a single statistic. Health-adjusted life
expectancy is an indicator of the average number
of years that an individual is expected to live in
a healthy state. It is a summary measure that
combines both quantity and quality of life. It can
be used to measure the burden of disease and
injury in the population, risk factors, and the
performance of public health efforts.
•
Poor sanitation
•
Poor medical support
8. Diseases of poverty
Environmental causes – these derive from
generally poor living conditions affecting sanitation
and water supply. Many LICs have humid tropical
climates, in which disease-transmitting organisms
and malarial mosquitos thrive. These are also ideal
conditions for the growth of bacteria and insects
that spread disease.
17
Social causes – households in which parents are
missing (possibly due to AIDS) struggle to avoid
disease.
Low income families are more susceptible to
disease.
Diseases of affluence
These usually relate to sedentary lifestyles, lack of
exercise, and excess calories. These can result in
diseases such as cancer and chronic conditions,
which can reduce quality of life.
9. In 1990 the leading causes of premature death in
China were:
(1) Lower respiratory infection
(2) Cerebrovascular disease
(3) Neonatal pre-term births
In 2013 the three main causes of premature tests
were:
(1) Cerebrovascular disease
(2) Ischemic heart disease
(3) Road traffic accidents
This change is typical of a LIC undergoing the
epidemiological transition.
10. LICs pass through the epidemiological transition
as they develop economically. In the early
stages of development their domestic situation
improves, especially where freshwater and good
sanitation are concerned. Thereafter the incidence
of infectious disease declines and their living
conditions improve. With the gradual increase
in income they are able to afford a more affluent
lifestyle. The population becomes less likely to die
from infectious diseases, but diseases of affluence,
such as heart disease and cancer, increase. As
they make this transition from infectious to
degenerative, the death rate also rises on account
of road accidents. The reason for this is that traffic
is unregulated at this stage and safety devices and
precautions have not yet been enforced. Therefore
road accidents are inevitable and often fatal.
China has passed through this transition since
1990, along with Egypt
Food systems and the spread of disease
1. The water footprint is a measure of the amount
of water consumed by a farming activity, an
industrial process, a river basin or a country, and it
18
can also be calculated on a global scale
2. Intensive farming systems have a high
labour or capital input per hectare. Primitive
agricultural systems will be labour-intensive,
such as subsistence rice growing, whereas
commercial systems such as tulip production in
the Netherlands have a high capital input. This
results from use of greenhouses and other energy
subsidies such as fertilizers.
3. The energy efficiency ratio (EER) is the amount of
the energy input into a farming system relative to
the energy output. Farming systems such as agroforestry in the tropics use energy from the sun and
natural fertilizers. They are energy efficient (EER
65). Conversely, greenhouse lettuce production
in temperate areas requires large energy inputs
(subsidies) for greenhouse lighting, heating,
transport of other inputs such as fertilizers and
transport of lettuces to market. (EER 0.002)
4. The diffusion of innovations was a process devised
by Hägerstrand. In agriculture farmers’ adoption
of innovations (new technology, seeds, breeds
and techniques) depended upon several factors:
information, financial status, personal traits such
age and level of conservatism and proximity to
other adopters.
Those elderly and conservative farmers living in
isolation with inadequate information were slow
to adopt and reluctant to change.
5. As society moves from a state of food shortage
to adequate supply and income per household
increases, diet usually changes.
Several stages in this process can be observed:
(i) a mineral-deficient, high in carbohydrates and
low in protein diet
(ii) the quantity of food increases and nutritional
status improves
(iii) with more income society begins to shift
towards a diet high in protein and low in
carbohydrate. This is called the nutrition transition.
6. There are several types of disease diffusion:
•
Expansion diffusion occurs when the
expanding disease has a source and diffuses
outwards into new areas.
•
Relocation diffusion occurs when the
spreading disease moves into new areas,
leaving behind its origin or source of the
disease. An example could be a person
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING: ANSWERS
•
•
•
infected with AIDS moving to a new location.
•
Bed nets (ITNs) sprayed with insecticide.
Contagious diffusion is the spread of an
infectious disease through the direct contact of
individuals with those infected.
•
Indoor spraying with insecticide.
•
Vaccination – this attacks the life-cycle of
the plasmodium parasite, but it is not yet
commercially viable.
Hierarchical diffusion occurs when a
phenomenon spreads through an ordered
sequence of classes or places, for example,
from cities to large urban areas to small urban
areas.
Network diffusion occurs when a disease
spreads via transportation and social networks.
Again, the spread of AIDS in Southern Africa
along transport routes is a creditable example.
In addition to the nature and pattern of spread
there are several agents involved in this diffusion
process:
•
Water borne, such as cholera
•
Vector-borne, such as malaria, with which the
anopheles mosquito carrying the plasmodium
parasite is involved.
9. (a) Contagious – leprosy
(b) Infectious – cholera
(c) Degenerative – cardio-vascular disease
(d) Non-communicative – Parkinson’s disease.
10. Cholera can best be controlled by the education
of vulnerable people exposed to humid tropical
environments where mosquitos thrive and the
disease is endemic. Cholera spreads easily in areas
of temporary housing without fresh water and
good sanitation where transient populations live.
The advice given will control the spread and lower
its mortality rate especially amongst under-5s.
•
Effective hand-washing.
•
Disinfection of areas of food preparation.
•
Covering of disinfected water.
(i) Global scale
•
Avoidance of shellfish.
•
In 2015, 95 countries and territories had
ongoing malaria transmission.
•
Thorough heating of food.
•
Careful disposal of faeces.
•
About 3.2 billion people – almost half the
world’s population – are at risk of malaria.
•
Separation of sewerage and water-supply
systems.
•
Sub-Saharan Africa carries a
disproportionately high share of the global
malaria burden. In 2015 the region suffered
88 per cent of malaria cases and 90 per cent of
malaria deaths.
•
Treatment for serious cases involves the use of
antibiotics.
•
Oral rehydration therapy restores body fluid
in all cases.
7. The impacts may be social and economic and can
be viewed at different scales:
(ii) National scale
•
•
Malaria can reduce national GDP by 5–6% per
annum due to employee absenteeism and the
costs of treatment.
Malaria deters investors and tourists, reducing
national income.
(ii) Household scale
•
African families lose 25% of their annual
income through this disease.
•
Education is impacted, wages are lost through
absenteeism, and income is severely reduced
by the cost of treatment.
8. There are three principal ways:
Stakeholders in food and health
1. This body was established by the UN and has three
principal functions:
(i) To eradicate hunger, food insecurity and
malnutrition.
(ii) To eliminate poverty.
(iii) To ensure the sustainable management and
utilization of natural resources including land,
water, air, climate and genetic resources.
2. Farmers were guaranteed a market for their
produce and this had the following results:
(i) Overproduction – they knew they could sell
19
produce and so wanted to maximize their profit.
(ii) Concentration of production in one area,
which has the environmental consequences of
monoculture.
(iii) Specialization in one type of produce had
economic consequences because a lack of diversity
was risky when prices were volatile.
3. This involves TNCs that control agriculture in all
stages: production, processing and distribution.
Large profits are achieved through economies of
scale, for example, in the case of McDonald’s and
Tesco.
4. Advantages:
•
Training in new technologies
•
Increased investment
•
Can open up remote areas for plantation
nutrition would enable them to make provision
for periods of acute shortage, for example.
Currently women are deprived of such rights and
this would therefore have a negative impact on
food security at the household level.
8. The main causes of famine in Ethiopia have been:
•
Drought and flooding– recurrent or
prolonged drought has restricted the build-up
of food reserves. Flooding causes soil erosion
and destroys land.
•
Land holdings have decreased in size with
population growth.
•
Land degradation – overpopulation has caused
overgrazing and overcultivation. All of these
lower productivity.
•
Political unrest with Somalia has limited food
production and destroyed food distribution
lines.
Disadvantages:
•
Deprives free access to markets
•
Unsuitable food aid.
•
Transfer of inappropriate technology.
•
Population growth (Malthusian).
•
Exploitation of farm workers.
•
Declining terms of trade.
•
Rise in the price of staple foods on the world
market has impacted the ability for poor
families to access food.
5. TNCs increasingly control food production and
can adversely transform the diets of people,
particularly in LICs. TNCs are particularly keen
on expanding the market in this area and urban
populations no longer tied to agriculture are happy
to adopt the products they offer such as fast foods.
The dietary consequence is that urban populations
consume less carbohydrate, more protein and
more fat. The combination of dietary change and
a more sedentary lifestyle has resulted in serious
negative consequences to health.
6. People starve when they cannot access food
because its price relative to their income is too
high. It's possible that they may have exchange
entitlements. This is when they use belongings and
animals as a form of exchange instead of money
and thus they can overcome the crisis. High local
food prices may also result from drought and
other local conditions that reduce production and
increase the price.
7. Women are responsible for production and
processing (cooking). Usually they look after
livestock and therefore control the family's intake
of protein. Although women have an important
role in farming in LICs, they very often lack basic
rights such as land ownership and education.
Understanding the basics of agriculture and family
20
9. Media coverage is measured by the total length
of articles published either in print or online by
six mainstream news outlets in the US and UK.
TV coverage with emotive images, such as the
report on BBC by Michael Buerk on the Ethiopian
famine of 1984–5, provokes a huge response.
Google searches and Twitter mentions are other
ways information is spread more rapidly.
The response to media exposure of a food
crisis depends upon the gravity of the crisis
relative to other global news items, the length
of TV programs and newspaper articles, and
the involvement of celebrities (Bob Geldof in
Ethiopia). A food shortage receives less public
support if it is designated an “emergency” rather
than a “famine” by the government.
10. Advantages: In the short term it relieves hunger,
but in the long term it may create dependence
Disadvantages: Food aid depresses the price
and income of local producers. Some food aid is
diverted to the military.
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Future health and food security and
sustainability
1. As a country develops economically more food
waste is generated. This occurs because crude
harvesting methods cause waste, and poor
infrastructure means that produce is frequently
handled inappropriate and stored under unsuitable
conditions. Bruising and decay result in the case
of fruit and vegetables, but other crops may be
damaged; losses of rice can be up to 80% in less
developed parts of Asia.
•
Natural hazards
•
Poverty
Improvements since 1970:
•
Government investment in HYVs and
irrigation for rice production.
•
Better storage and infrastructure have
also helped to overcome problems of food
insecurity..
•
Self-sufficiency exists in rice, eggs, potatoes,
vegetables meat and fish production, but
insecurity still remains at the household level
and 50 million people are still food insecure in
Bangladesh.
In HICs food waste could be minimized by:
•
buying locally
•
consuming imperfect (bruised and misshapen)
produce
•
eating local foods in season
•
composting waste food.
2. These include:
•
at the household level, annual storage of
surplus food
•
intensification using pesticides and artificial
fertilizers; this has adverse environmental
consequences
•
extensification by putting a greater
area of land under production; this is
environmentally undesirable with continuous
urbanization
5. With rapid urbanization in LICS, vertical farming
is a means of producing food all year in high-rise
buildings.
Advantages:
•
Involves no carbon-emitting transport.
•
Food supplies are secure where no transport is
involved.
•
Indoor production does not involve the use of
pesticides.
•
The plants use 98% less water than
conventional farming methods.
Disadvantages:
•
Electrical consumption is very high.
•
GM crops
•
It is too technically advanced for many LICs.
•
vertical farming
•
•
in vitro farming.
It is too costly to be a quick solution to food
insecurity.
3. These include:
•
Water supply may be guaranteed by irrigation.
•
Greenhouse light and heating allows for a
longer growing season.
•
Infertile soils can be fertilized.
•
Drainage can reduce flooding.
•
Irrigation provides essential water.
•
Insecticides, herbicides and fungicides can
eradicate pests.
4. Case study – Bangladesh.
Problems of food production:
•
Land scarcity
6. Conventional livestock farming involves a large
amount of land and has environmental impacts
such as methane (GHG) production. Some would
argue that compared to conventional farming
in vitro is unnatural and may not be acceptable
to some people and therefore not economically
viable.
Two months of in vitro production could deliver
up to 50,000 tons of meat from 10 pork muscle
cells. This in vitro production does not involve the
slaughter of animals therefore it is more humane.
7. Transnational biotechnology companies are taking
over global food production and more power
should be given to farmers and consumers. The
dominance of North American biotechnology
companies has threatened the self-sufficiency of
21
some farmers in the LICs.
Strict regulatory laws in the EU restrict adoption of
GM crops and their sale.
GM crops might, if allowed, have relieved famine
in Zambia in 2003.
In some countries such as Venezuela, GM crops
are banned.
8. The incidence of degenerative diseases, such as
diabetes, has increased dramatically during the last
40 years. It brings other secondary conditions such
as blindness and circulatory problems.
There are two approaches to treatment; lifestyle
modifications; controlling diet (sugar) and taking
plenty of exercise to prevent disease in the first
place. This approach is recommended by the
WHO and is less costly than medical alleviation
of symptoms by the use of drugs. The more
technological aspects of treatment involving blood
sugar monitoring are too expensive for LICs to
adopt.
9. Pandemics are global epidemics and fortunately
they rarely occur.
They are complex to manage because populations
have become much more mobile and, depending
upon the type of disease, they might be highly
infectious such as Ebola in 2015. Air travel is likely
to have assisted the rapid spread of infectious
diseases.
International differences in legislation and human
rights make laws difficult to enforce.
Isolation and containment regulations do not
always conform internationally.
Economic differences may make some countries
more vulnerable.
There must be medical agreement on symptoms,
diagnostic methods and treatment and common
codes of practice.
10. Obesity is considered a disease of affluence and
is caused by excessive consumption of food and
a sedentary lifestyle. It is characteristic of urban
living and therefore more common in HICs. The
nutrition transition that is currently occurring in
LICs means that obesity is likely to develop there
too.
Its control depends upon individuals adopting a
healthier lifestyle.
This means reducing their calorie intake and also
22
increasing the amount of exercise taken. There
may be other factors contributing to the problem,
such as alcoholism and obsessive compulsive
eating disorders. These need to be addressed too.
Raising public awareness of the problem is a
starting point, but in many cases the problem is
national and therefore difficult to solve.
Option G Urban environments
The variety of urban environments
1. Population size – city, large; village, small.
Type of employment – city, diverse; village,
agricultural in LICs, retirees in HICs.
Number of administrative functions – city has
many; village, few or none.
Evidence of residential and commercial zones
– large cities develop distinct land use zones,
whereas villages are too small to develop these.
2. Settlement hierarchies develop with the growth of
population and urbanization. In one region there
may be several cities at the top of the hierarchy
and as you descend this pyramid, the number of
settlements increases but their size decreases. A
diagram might very effectively substitute for text
here. Briefly identify these levels and name a
settlement in each one.
3. The sphere of influence is the area around a
settlement which it serves. Normally, its size is
proportional to the size of the settlement it serves.
Whereas a village providing only basic shops and
services will have a small sphere of influence, a
city provides these as well as high-order goods and
services with a long range. The size of the sphere
of influence can change dramatically over time.
Settlements which offer seasonal attractions such
as resorts will have larger spheres of influence
during the summer. An international sporting
event such as the Olympics will vastly expand the
city’s sphere of influence because its support is
international.
4. A sketch map of a city showing industrial zones
might substitute for text here.
Industrial location depends upon the type of
industry:
•
Industries requiring skilled labour and or
access to customers close by such as fashions
and newspapers are usually found in central
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locations.
•
•
•
Polluting industries (petrochemicals) or those
which import and process bulky raw materials
(sugar refining) require cheaper land and easy
access such as ports.
Hi-tech and light industries (pharmaceuticals)
are located in accessible areas of clean air,
often along radial routes such as the M4
corridor, west of London or Silicon Valley,
California.
Industries requiring a lot of cheap land
for assembly production are found in the
suburbs where they have access to motorway
transport and labour, for example, Hyundai
car works at Busan, Korea.
5. Bid rent is the amount of rent a potential land user
is prepared to pay to occupy a particular zone.
6. Commercial activities in an urban area consist of
shops and offices. Their location is determined by
the rent they can afford relative to other land users
(residential and industrial).
Shops selling mostly high-order goods occupy the
CBD where potential customers (pedestrians) have
the best access and high revenue allows businesses
to afford the high rents. Offices tend to occupy the
edge of the CBD and access is also important, but
their revenues are lower so they can only afford
a more peripheral location. They may also choose
to occupy the upper floors of the CBD (above the
shops) where rents are cheaper.
7. Four indicators are used:
(i) Physical – housing condition, levels of land,
water and air pollution.
(ii) Social indicators – the levels of crime, standard
of health, education, and single parents.
(iii) Economic indicators – access to jobs, low
wages.
(iv) Political indicators – voting opportunities and
local participation in improvement schemes.
8. Nature – the informal economy (sector) employs
60–70% of the urban working population in
LICs. It may be divided into the bazaar economy
(family workshops) and the street economy (street
traders).
•
Provides temporary employment for inmigrants.
•
Uses local materials.
•
Rapid manufacturing production.
•
No long-distance commuting.
Negative characteristics:
•
Job insecurity.
•
Lack of pollution controls.
•
Unregulated working conditions.
•
Poor pay.
9. A household or group of individuals living under
the same roof who are lacking one or more of the
following five characteristics:
(i) Durable housing, built from permanent
materials.
(ii) Living space.
(iii) Access to improved water supply.
(iv) Access to improved sanitation.
(v) Secure tenure.
10. The movement out of the city by retailers has
occurred because of push and pull factors.
Push factors at the centre: traffic congestion,
difficulty with access, awkward deliveries and high
land values and rents.
Pull factors out-of-town: out-of-town locations
offer more space, affordable land, access to
deliveries, access to customers (due to urban
sprawl and counter-urbanization) and access to
workers.
Changing urban systems
1. Definition: centripetal movement of populations
from rural to urban areas. This was typical of
19th-century Western Europe and USA and
urbanization was the result. It is an urban process
ongoing in LICs.
Urban effect
•
Young immigrants are likely to boost the BR.
•
Overcrowding and urban stress.
Positive characteristics:
•
Inadequate public services.
•
•
Urban economic growth.
Labour intensive.
Rural effect
23
•
Improved household income through
remittances from urban migrants.
•
Ageing population.
•
Rural overpopulation and pressure on
resources relieved.
2. Definition – this is the increasing proportion of
urban dwellers relative to rural dwellers in a
country.
It occurred in the HICs during the 19th century in
response to pressures and poor employment in the
countryside.
In urban areas the result was the creation of
wealth through manufacturing, a growing
population as a result of young rural populations
migrating to cities. On the whole natural increase
in cities was significant and contributed to
urbanization but to a lesser extent than migration.
3. De-industrialization involves the declining output
and employment in manufacturing which may
occur at the same time as a rise in employment
and output of service industries. This process has
been occurring in HICs since the 1960s and has led
to the decline of cities that had an economy based
upon the manufacturing.
Positive outcome – decline in workforce leads to
greater efficiency per worker.
Negative outcome – decline in workforce but no
associated increase in efficiency and there is no
growth of services.
4. Definition: counter-urbanization is the centrifugal
movement of people and businesses from urban
areas to the surrounding rural hinterland. It is
typical of HICs.
Advantages
•
It relieves urban stresses.
•
Cheaper housing in rural areas for urbanites.
•
Commuting is possible with improved
transport systems
the surrounding villages and countryside.
This occurred in 19th century Europe when
people migrated from congested inner city to
more open suburb (a centrifugal movement).
More recently in LICs there has been a further
expansion of the suburbs, fed by migrants from
rural areas (centripetal movement).
6. These are sites that are currently out of use and
blighted by dereliction. They are often found in
the inner areas of HICs. Their original function
was often industrial, but also residential or
commercial. In a state of dereliction these areas
have low economic value but high potential.
Redevelopment has increased their value and it
is preferable to redevelop Brownfield sites than
to convert Greenfield sites to urban land uses.
Brownfield sites may be costly to redevelop
because land is often contaminated, but the
ecological reward is high.
7. During the 1980s when fixed line phone
subscription took off, the government was
concerned about national security and wanted to
keep the system within their control. However,
when China was admitted to the WTO the whole
process of globalization allowed foreigners to take
some part in the ownership of these new facilities.
The pattern of growth has been similar to that in
other countries:
Fixed lines were first established in 1985 but they
were overtaken by the mobile subscribers in 1997.
Soon afterwards the Internet was established
and that continues to operate at a lower level
of subscription. Establishment of an efficient
telecommunications network was considered to
be fundamental to the economic development and
global participation off Shanghai and also of China
as a whole.
8. Shanghai’s population has doubled since 1987
to 23,000,000. The problems associated with this
growth are:
•
road congestion and its associated high level of
pollution
•
river traffic on the Huangpu emitting products
of combustion
•
contaminated water supply as a result of
pesticides and saltwater incursion
•
provision of fresh water to the remaining 20%
of the population
•
provision of modern sewage systems to the
Disadvantages
•
Traffic emissions, land and water pollution
transferred from the city to the country.
•
Urbanization of the countryside.
•
Second homes deprive locals of housing
•
Cultural change due to wealthy newcomers.
5. The outward growth of towns and cities to engulf
24
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remaining 30% of the population
•
solid waste disposal that has minimal
environmental impact– for example,
methane.
9. The growth of Detroit was stimulated by the
automobile industry:
In 1903 the Ford Motor Company arrived
followed by General Motors in 1908 and Chrysler
in 1925.
Assembly line processes were introduced, which
required very little training and therefore suited
the African American migrants in the city.
During 1939 to 45 Detroit contributed to artillery
production and then in 1959 they developed
Motown records. The economy had been
renowned for its innovative industries until the
1960s.
10. The adverse economic conditions leading to
outmigration
•
•
Declining expenditure on infrastructure due
to declining income tax.
Poor provision of public transport due to
automobile obsession.
•
De-industrialization.
•
Lack of industrial diversity due to reliance on
the car industry.
•
Ethnic conflict (race riots) caused
abandonment of city centre, depopulation and
dereliction.
Consequences of declining population
•
Ageing city population remains after young
leave.
•
Sprawling city of 275 km² with inadequate
infrastructure.
•
Brain drain – a low percentage of college
graduates to lead the city out of recession.
•
Dereliction and neglect.
toxic gases. Industrial activity also contributes to
this.
2. These include the following:
•
Greater scattering of short-wave radiation by
particulates.
•
Urban fabrics retain heat; concrete and tarmac
have a low albedo and high thermal capacity.
•
Tall buildings can shade streets, reducing
incoming solar radiation, but their upper
floors can become over-exposed to reflected
radiation due to glazing.
•
Low buildings reflect radiation and
accumulate heat at low levels especially at
night.
3. (i) Lower average wind speeds due to the height
of the buildings and surface roughness.
(ii) Air pollution and photochemical smog.
(iii) Higher burning of fossil fuels domestically and
commercially.
(iv) Building fabrics have a low albedo which
allows them to retain and conduct heat.
(v) The availability of surface water and
atmospheric moisture is reduced by the lack of
vegetation and efficient drainage systems.
A combination of the above is responsible for
increasing the temperatures of the urban area
above that of the surrounding districts by an
average of 2 to 4°C; UHI.
4. Areas of high building density (CBD) have higher
temperatures.
Airports, railway termini and highways with high
levels of combustion and heat emission have
higher temperatures.
Lower than average temperatures are found in
open spaces such as parks, lakes and rivers where
evaporation is higher and therefore temperature
marginally lower.
5. These are human inputs and they include:
Urban environmental and social stresses
1. Towns and cities produce more dust than the
surrounding area. These particulates act as
hygroscopic nuclei which help to create fog and
photochemical smog in strong sunlight.
Motor vehicle emissions containing harmful
amounts of low-level ozone, NOx, VOCs and other
Domestic and industrial heating, emissions
from manufacturing and motor vehicles, street
heaters and cooking for cafes and restaurants, air
conditioning exhausts.
6. (i) Reducing petrol consumption.
(ii) Increasing public transport provision.
(iii) Car pooling and lift-sharing.
25
(iv) Increased use of bicycles and walking.
•
Heat
(v) NOx reduction by the use of catalytic
converters in cars.
•
Noise
•
Waste
7. Crimes of all types occur where population
densities, and therefore opportunities, are greater.
Therefore, urban areas have a higher incidence
of crime than rural areas. The type of crime
varies within the urban area. For example, the
highest incidence of grievous bodily harm and
pickpocketing occurs in the CBD where human
activities are most intense, levels of distraction
are high and opportunities for crime are more
available. Out-of-town, greater wealth is evident
and the nature of crime changes to match this.
For example, burglary, car-theft and sexual
offences are more common in these low-density
neighbourhoods with limited police surveillance
8. Currently, Dharavi is an area of very dense
population where the informal economy
thrives. The living conditions are very poor
and overcrowding is a problem, but Dharavi’s
inhabitants live and work with close family
networks and this leads to a stable society.
Developers such a Mukesh Mehta recognize
Dharavi’s accessibility and would like to see
Dharavi replaced by an international business
centre and amuch more affluent society, with the
emphasis on generating wealth. In other words
they are competing with the people themselves
who do not want to move or change their way of
life. Therefore this area is contested.
9. The causes:
•
Overcrowding
•
Crime
Building sustainable urban systems for the
future
1. These include:
•
Evapotranspiration increases atmospheric
moisture in cities.
•
Interception by vegetation reduces rainfall
impact, surface runoff and flood hazard.
•
Evaporation reduces city temperatures.
•
Vegetated surfaces have a lower albedo and
absorb less heat than buildings.
•
They provide shade.
•
Green spaces in cities have aesthetic value.
•
They provide sites for urban leisure.
2. Unsustainable cities are usually large with
population and infrastructure covering an
extensive area. An eco-city is a sustainable city
with minimal environmental impact. It achieves
this in a number of ways. It may not be possible to
adopt all of these options:
•
Reducing the use of fossil – for example, by
promoting public transport.
•
Airplanes at low altitudes.
•
Road traffic at high volumes during rush
hours.
•
Keeping waste reduction at a level that can be
treated locally.
•
Heavy trucks and emergency vehicles such as
ambulances and police cars.
•
Providing sufficient green spaces.
•
Reclaiming and re-using derelict land, such as
Brownfield sites.
•
Encouraging active involvement in the local
community.
•
Conserving the non-renewable resources.
•
Using renewable sources.
•
Road drills.
•
Noise levels exceeding 35 dB.
The consequences:
•
Hearing impairment.
•
Neurosis.
•
Anxiety.
•
Depression.
10. Physical:
•
26
Social:
Air pollution
3. It aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 75%
of the 1990 level by 2050.
Increasing use of public transport – more energyefficient hybrid buses used, making their carbon
emissions 60% lower.
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Water would be conserved.
Unit 1 Changing population
Green spaces are increased through the use of roof
gardens.
Population and economic development patterns
The repaving of alleys with permeable and lightcoloured materials to prevent rapid run-off,
flooding and overheating.
4. Urban waste which in many cases ends up in
landfill sites emits methane which is a greenhouse
gas and 20 times more damaging than CO2.
Waste-to-energy conversion (WTC) is a solution in
urban areas whereby electricity can be produced
from the combustion of paper, cardboard,
wood and food waste. WTC installations are
unsightly and not an ideal long-term solution.
A more progressive approach is to adopt the
principle of waste minimization whereby the
urban population sorts its waste by household
and business into categories – recyclable metals,
plastics, glass and paper. Biogas can be generated
from types of biological and organic wastes.
5. Improvement of sanitation is important for LIC
cities because of the increasing volume of waste
that is generated. Waste needs to be remove and
treated, otherwise it could lead to the spread of
infectious diseases, such as polio and cholera.
1. Physical factors that affect population distribution
at a global scale include climate, soil fertility,
relief, access to water and availability of mineral
resources.
2. Human factors that affect the distribution of
population include mineral resources, ease of
communication and level of development.
3. Centrally planned economies; newly
industrializing countries; low income countries
and high income countries.
4. Between 1990 and 1995, the pattern of migration
was quite varied. The largest flows were to the
south-east and east, but there were also flows to
the west. However, by 2000–2005, the sources
of migrants were more concentrated (largely
from the eastern side of the country) and the
destinations were very much concentrated on the
south and east coastal regions.
5. Much of the land is too high/steep and too dry to
support much agriculture or people.
6. The Apartheid system was responsible for the
redistribution of population in South Africa.
7. Examples of projects that have benefitted the poor
include the bus rapid transport system in Bogota,
Colombia and the cable car system linking El Alto
and La Paz, Bolivia.
7. The main areas of high population density in
South Africa include Gauteng/Mpumalanga,
Durban/KwaZulu-Natal, and Cape Town/Eastern
Cape.
8. Cities may lose populations due to counterurbanisation (high price of property, overcrowding, pollution, crime and so on), natural
hazards (for example, Port au Prince, Haiti and
New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina), ageing
populations, deindustrialisation, out-migration etc.
8. Physical factors such as the amount of rainfall
and distribution of mountains affect populations
density, as does the distribution of mineral
resources and the apartheid/separatist policies of
the South African government.
9. The risks associated with a narrow urban economy
(for example, one based on heavy manufacturing
or tourism) could be vulnerability to changes in
demand, increased overseas competition, currency
fluctuations, cheaper imports, changes in fashion
and so on.
10. Less than 4% of the population of China live on
the least densely populated 50% of the area.
10. Rapid urbanization can be a cause of poverty
because there might not be sufficient employment,
housing, school places, piped water, adequate
sanitation or access to services to enable everyone
to have a reasonable quality of life/standard of
living.
9. In China 11 per cent of the population live on the
most densely populated 0.5 per cent of the land.
Changing populations and places
1. The main changes shown by the demographic
transition model are those from high birth rates
and death rates to low birth rates and death rates.
Death rates tend to fall earlier than birth rates,
allowing the population size to increase.
Towards the end of the transition, death rates
increase as the population ages.
27
2. Ireland’s demographic transition model (after
the 1840s’ potato famine) was characterized by
rising death rates and falling birth rates (due to
the emigration of young people, and the resulting
ageing population).
3. Natural increase is the increase in population as a
result of birth rates being higher than death rates.
4. Doubling time is calculated by dividing 70 (years)
by the rate of natural increase (per cent), and is
expressed in years.
5. The highest rates of fertility (that is, over five
children per woman) are largely found in SubSaharan Africa. There are a few exceptions
found in the Middle east and West Asia and the
Philippines. The lowest fertility rates (fewer than
two children per woman) are largely found in
high income and middle income countries such as
Canada and the USA, Russia, China, the UK, most
of Europe, Australia and Brazil.
6. The highest life expectancies are found in HICs,
such as Japan, South Korea, Canada, Australia,
and north-west Europe.
Most other areas, such as the Americas, Eastern
Europe, MENA and most of Asia have life
expectancies of over 70 years.
The lowest life expectancies (less than 70 years)
are found in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.
There are a few exceptions in South America and
central Asia. The very lowest life expectancy (less
than 50 years) are found in central north Africa.
7. The dependency ratio is the number of young and
elderly in relation to the adult working population.
In contrast, the ageing ratio is the number of 65+
year olds in relation to the number of 20–64 year
olds.
8. The main reasons for the growth of megacities
is migration (workers in seek of better paid jobs)
and the age-structure of the population. Having a
youthful population structure leads to an increase
in the birth rate and a decrease in the death rate.
Employment opportunities and investment by
companies and the government encourages people
to move to megacities.
9. Different types of forced migration include
conflict-induced displacement (for example, war
in Syria); development-induced displacement (for
example, the Three Gorges Dam), and disasterinduced displacement (for example, eruption of
Soufriere volcano, Montserrat).
28
10. The impact of forced migration may include the
increase is internally displaced people or refugees;
people living in poverty or forced to depend on
aid for survival; a strain on health, education
and public utilities; reduced access to water and
sanitation; spread of disease.
Challenges and opportunities
1. The older dependency ratio refers to the balance
between the number of over 65 year olds, and the
working population that support them.
2. Japan has an ageing population. Over 25% of the
population is over 65 years old, and the percentage
of young people is less than 15%, and falling
rapidly. The proportion of very old (over 75 years)
is increasing, and is set to become the dominant
cohort by 2050. The shape of the population
pyramid tells us that Japan has a low birth rate
and a low death rate.
3. Pro-natalist policies encourage people to have
children (for example, increased child allowance,
provision of maternity and paternity care) whereas
anti-natalist policies try to reduce the number of
children that people have (for example, China’s
historic one child policy).
4. China’s one-child policy is said to have reduced the
birth rate and fertility rate in China. It prevented
over 400 million births from taking place.
However, it has also led to a gender imbalance in
the country, infanticide and discrimination against
girls and women. It has also led to a shrinking
labour force.
5. Girls in Kerala are educated to the same standard
as boys; there is open access to colleges and
universities; jobs in health and education have
been open to women since the early 20th century;
women have independence in their personal life;
the sex ratio is the highest in India; life expectancy
is 74 years and the infant mortality rate is low.
6. Most women are in low paid jobs so opening
higher paid jobs to women would help improve
their status. There are also very few women
employed in the legal system. Many women are
responsible for collecting water and fuelwood so
greater availability of piped water would help.
Many women are subject to violence and sexual
harassment, many within their own household.
7. The main ways of tackling trafficking include
increasing public awareness about the risks
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involved as well as designing policies to prevent
trafficking. Governments can start by having upto-date registration of births and migration into an
area.
By allowing trade unions, workers’ rights are more
likely to be protected and trafficking reduced.
The three Ps of anti-trafficking are: protection
i.e. increased efforts to protect foreign national
victims as well as non-immigrants; prosecution
of traffickers related to forced labour and sexual
exploitation, and prevention – to assist other
governments to reduce trafficking.
8. Anti-trafficking measures have had limited
success. Of the 128 countries covered in the
latest UN report, 15 per cent did not record a
single conviction. In addition, the number of
countries that punished traffickers operating in
their territory was very limited. Globally, less
than a quarter of suspects are convicted. Many
governments and NGOs believe that confiscating
the proceeds of crime is appropriate and effective
as a punishment and a deterrent. It also disrupts
criminal activity by cutting off some of the funding
available, creates an image that crime does not
pay, and helps win over public support. Although
many countries have laws that allow victims
to claim compensation, trafficked people rarely
receive any.
9. The demographic dividend is the advantage that
a country receives when there is a bulge in the
working/adult population.
10. The advantages of a demographic dividend
include an increase in the size of the workforce,
an increase in the savings rate; an increase in tax
revenue for the country; healthier women with
fewer pressures at home; greater investment in
the health and education of children, and, greater
sending power for the household.
Unit 2 Global climate – vulnerability
and resilience
The causes of global climate change
1. (a) Short-wave radiation
(b) long-wave radiation.
2. Convection: the transfer of heat by the movement
of a gas or liquid.
Conduction: the transfer of heat by contact.
Radiation: the emission of electromagnetic waves
such as X-rays, short waves and long waves.
3. The Earth’s atmosphere contains greenhouse gases
whereas the soon’s does not. Greenhouse gases
allow short-wave radiation to pass through but
trap some of the out-going long-wave radiation.
This heats up the atmosphere, and the Earth’s
atmosphere is about 33°C warmer than the
moon’s.
4. The Earth’s atmosphere consists of nitrogen (78
per cent), oxygen (21 per cent), argon (0.9 per
cent) and a variety of other trace gases such as
carbon dioxide, helium and ozone. In addition,
there is water vapour and solids (in the form of
aerosols) such as dust, ash and soot.
5. The term albedo means reflectivity. Light surface
reflect more insolation whereas dark surfaces
absorb more. For example, fresh snow has an
albedo of 75–90% whereas a black road surface
has an albedo of 5–10%.
6. Cirrus is the cloud type that reflects most
insolation.
7. A natural cause of global dimming is a volcanic
eruption. An anthropogenic cause of global
dimming is air pollution (soot, ash, sulphur
dioxide, contrails).
8. Rising temperatures, due to global warming, melts
the polar ice caps resulting in less ice and lowers
planetary albedo.
Since ice is more reflective than water, less ice
leads to less reflection. Lowering albedo increases
the amount of solar energy absorbed at the Earth’s
surface, and leads to an increase in temperature,
which results in less ice and so on.
9. The greenhouse effect is the process by which
certain gases (greenhouse gases) allow shortwave radiation from the Sun to pass through the
atmosphere but trap an increasing proportion of
outgoing long-wave radiation from the Earth. This
radiation leads to a warming of the atmosphere.
In contrast, global warming is an acceleration of
the greenhouse effect, caused largely by human
production of greenhouse gases. It is also called the
enhanced greenhouse effect.
10. The increase in the world’s greenhouse gases is
linked to globalization. As globalization proceeds,
there is increased industrialisation and trade.
These release huge amounts of greenhouse gases
as they operate. Many LICs and NICs are actively
29
industrializing and adopting a consumer culture.
Industrial activity among the NICs has great
potential to add to atmospheric CO2. Nevertheless,
the per-capita emissions in HICs are responsible for
much of the growth in atmospheric CO2.
The consequences of global climate change
1. The annual pattern of sea ice in the Arctic is a
maximum extent during winter (up to 14–16
million km2) but a reduction in summer, down to
c. 5–8 million km2. The extent has been declining
since the late 1970s.
2. It rose intially from around 7 million km2 in 1979
to over 8 million km2 in 1980 but has since fallen
erratically to a low of less than 4 million km2 in
2012 and has recovered slightly to over 5 million
km2 in 2014.
3. Temperatures projections for 2100 are +4°C
(average) and >5.5°C (worst case), and for sea
level rise 40 cm (average projection) and > 80 cm
(worst case scenario).
4. A carbon sink is where the carbon goes to when
used – 85% of the world’s carbon is stored in the
oceans, 2% in the atmosphere 5% in biomass and
8% in fossil fuels. As fossil fuels are burnt, about
40% of the carbon remains in the atmosphere,
32% on land, and 28% in the oceans. A carbon
source is where new carbon is produced –
photosynthesis on land and in the oceans produce
carbon dioxide, and volcanic eruptions release
carbon. Decomposition, respiration and human
activities, such as cement production, also release
carbon.
5. Negative impacts from the rise in temperatures in
the UK include increased damage from storms,
floods and erosion; an increase in sects but a
reduction in the number of plant species; an
increase in soil drought, soil erosion and shrinkage
of clay soils.
6. If temperatures rise by 3°C, there will be in crop
yields in some areas, such as in Africa and the
Middle East. Changes in the location of cropgrowing areas can be expected, with movements
north and south from the equator, for example,
movements of the corn belt and the wheat belt.
Many wheat-growing regions of the USA will
become unviable by 2050. However, there will
be an increase in Canada’s growing season. Since
drought reduces crop yield, the reduction in water
30
resources will make it increasingly difficult for
farmers in many areas to irrigate fields. Crop types
may need to change and changing water resources
will either limit or expand crop production
depending on the region and local weather
patterns.
7. The positive impacts of global climate change
on the UK include an increase in timber yields
(up 25% by 2050), especially in the north;
a northward shift of farming zones by about
200–300 km per °C of warming, or 50–80 km
per decade, which will improve some forms of
agriculture, especially pastoral farming in the
north-west; enhanced potential for tourism and
recreation due to increased temperatures and
reduced precipitation in the summer, especially in
the south.
8. As global temperatures increase, sea level is
predicted to rise as the ice caps and glaciers melt
and due to the steric effect – the expansion of
water as it gets warmer, thereby leading to a slight
rise in sea level. By 2100, it is estimated that sea
levels will have risen by between 40 cm (average
prediction) and 80 cm (worst-case scenario).
Coastal flooding, caused by the melting of the
polar ice caps and the thermal expansion of the
oceans, will particularly affect countries that have
land below sea level, such as the Netherlands, and
may lead to economic and social stress due to loss
of land and resources.
9. Global climate change may lead to changes in the
distribution of diseases. For example, up to 60
million more Africans could be exposed to malaria
if world temperatures rise by 2°C. Mosquitoes
would be able to breed in areas previously too
cool for them. Other tropical diseases can also be
expected to spread as warmer conditions extend to
higher latitudes.
10. Global warming may well lead to an increase in
human migration. Already, some communities
are claiming to be environmental refugees,
forced to leave their homes due to sea level rise
caused by global warming. Residents of low-lying
islands such as Kiribati in the South Pacific have
abandoned their homes.
Responding to climate change
1. The population groups most vulnerable to climate
change include the very young, the elderly,
those with disabilities, the poor, minority groups,
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refugees and indigenous people. Carers, who are
generally women, are also vulnerable, because of
their burden of caring for the young, the elderly
and the sick. Single-parent households are often
very vulnerable to climate change as they may
combine many at-risk characteristics, such as age,
gender and poverty.
2. The factors that increase vulnerability to climate
change include exposure (the degree to which
people are exposed to climate change), sensitivity
(the degree to which they could be harmed by
exposure to climate change) and adaptive capacity
(the degree to which they could mitigate the
potential harm by reducing their exposure or
sensitivity).
3. In 1962, post-monsoon rainfall at Rajshahi was
about 125mm, pre-monsoon rainfall 50mm,
and monsoon rainfall just under 250mm. By
2012, post-monsoon rainfall had fallen (to about
100mm) but the pre-monsoon rainfall, and
monsoon rainfall (trend) had increased.
4. Pre-disaster coping mechanisms include saving
money, selecting flood-resilient crop varieties,
diversifying income sources, preparing to shelter
at a friend’s or relative’s house, evacuating items
to a safe place, receiving flood warnings, building
dykes with sandbags, raising the base of the house,
building machan (storage spaces) for saving goods.
During the disaster people may try to diversify
their income, evacuate the family and belongings,
help other community members, and build
machan. After the disaster, people may search
for relief materials, repair damage to the house,
borrow money, sell their assets, and help other
community members.
5. Under the Kyoto Protocol, high-income countries
were required to cut their carbon emissions by
20 per cent by 2012, compared with their 1990
emissions. Low-income countries were not
obliged to meet specific targets. However, the
USA did not sign the treaty, and although Canada
and Australia signed, they did not implement
it. At the same time, emissions soared in China
and other rapidly industrializing nations. Under
the Paris Agreement, 2015, the key objective is
to limit global warming to 2°C compared with
pre-industrial levels. It also seeks for zero net
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions between
2050 and 2100. To achieve a 1.5°C goal would
require zero net emissions by 2030–50. Unlike the
Kyoto Protocol, there are no country-specific goals
or a detailed timetable for achieving the goals.
Countries are expected to reduce their carbon
usage “as soon as possible”. However, there is no
mechanism to force a country to set a specific
target, nor is there any measure to penalize
countries if their targets are not met. The USA and
China both agreed to limit greenhouse emissions.
6. Adaptation refers to initiatives and measures
to reduce the vulnerability of human and
natural systems to climate change (adapting to
the consequences of climate change) whereas
mitigation refers to attempts to reduce the causes
of climate change.
7. Pollution management strategies for global
warming include reducing atmospheric pollution,
stopping forest clearance, increasing forest cover,
developing alternative renewable energy sources,
improving public transport, setting national
limits on carbon emissions, developing carbon
dioxide capture methods and developing recycling
programmes. These strategies aim to reduce the
amount of fossil fuels being burnt and to increase
the amount of carbon that is locked in trees.
8. Carbon capture and sequestration (CSS) refers to
attempts to capture the CO2 instead of allowing it
to accumulate in the atmosphere. Two main ways
to do this have been proposed: capture the CO2 at
the site where it is produced (the power plant) and
then store it underground in a geologic deposit
(for example, an abandoned oil reservoir); allow
the CO2 to enter the atmosphere but then remove
it using specially designed removal processes (for
example, collecting the CO2 with special chemicals
that attract the carbon). However, the amount of
research and development of CSS is limited.
9. Carbon taxes are environmental taxes on the
burning of fossil fuel (coal, petroleum products
such as gasoline and aviation fuel, and natural
gas) in proportion to their carbon content.
These taxes are most effective if they are applied
internationally, but are also valuable nationally.
CO2 imposes high costs on society (including
future generations) but those who emit the CO2 do
not pay for the social costs that they impose. The
result is the lack of a market incentive to shift from
fossil fuels to the alternatives. Economists have
suggested a carbon tax in the order of $25–$100
per tonne of carbon released.
10. Civil societies play a major role in attempts to
address global climate change. They attempt
to educate people about the likely impacts of
31
climate change, and put pressure on international,
national, and local governments, as well as
companies and institutions to adopt a more
environmentally-friendly approach to their
business. For example, WWF pressurizing major
mature economies and emerging economies
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions; calls
on governments to sign up to international
agreements to reduce the use of fossil fuels and to
conserve forests and to work towards a transition
to 100 per cent renewable energy by 2050.
Unit 3 Global resource consumption
and security
Global trends in consumption
1. $1460 (accept up to $1500).
2. The main growth of the middle class by 2050 is
predicted to be in Asia-Pacific.
3. The components of the ecological footprint include
carbon (mainly consumption of fossil fuels),
fishing grounds (national yield yields), cropland
(the amount of vegetables produced), built-up
land (and the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem
services), forest products (the release of carbon
and the loss of ecosystem services) and grazing
land (the amount of meat consumption).
4. Ecological footprints can be reduced by reducing
the amounts of resources it uses; recycling
resources; reusing resources; improving the
efficiency of resource use; reducing the amount
of pollution it produces; transporting waste
to other countries to deal with; improving
technology to increase carrying capacity; importing
more resources from other countries; reducing
its population to reduce resource use; using
technology to increase carrying capacity (for
example, using GM crops to increase yield on the
same amount of land), and, using technology to
intensify land use.
5. LICs tend to have smaller ecological footprints
than HICs because of their much smaller rates
of resource consumption. In HICs, people have
more disposable income, which means that
consumption and demand for energy resources
are high. HICs’ resource use is often wasteful
and HICs produce far more waste and pollution
32
as by-products of production. People in LICs, by
contrast, have less to spend on consumption and
the informal economy in LICs is responsible for
recycling many resources. A meat-eating diet,
prevalent in HICs where 30 per cent of the diet
may be based on animal protein, requires the use
of much more land than a vegetarian diet. This is
because animals use up about 90 per cent of the
food they eat for things like respiration, mobility
and feeding; only a small percentage is converted
into new biomass. Greenhouse gas emissions from
agriculture also affect footprint totals. Populations
more dependent on fossil fuels have higher carbon
dioxide emissions.
6. Annual renewable water resources in Africa
varies from over 10,000 m3/person/year in parts
of central Africa to less than 500 m3/person/year
in North Africa, southern Africa and the Horn of
Africa. Much of West Africa has between 4000 m3/
person/year and 10,000 m3/person/year.
7. HICs use water mainly for industry (59%),
followed by agriculture (30%) and domestic
(11%). In contrast, LICs use water mainly for
agriculture (82%), followed by industry (10%)
and domestic (8%).
8. Virtual (or embedded) water refers to the way in
which water is transferred from one country to
another through its exports.
9. More food will need to be produced in future
due to the increase in population and due to the
increase in standards of living/the growth of the
middle class. As people become better off, there is
a change from a grain-based diet to one which is
more varied, and includes more meat and dairy
products.
10. The geographical pattern of demand is projected
to shift from the OECD region to NICs. The major
consumers of energy are the HICs, although
demand for and use of energy resources by NICs
has been rapidly increasing. Energy resources are
used in large quantities for manufacturing and
transport. LICs and MICs will continue to grow
faster than HICs but their consumption remains
low by comparison.
Impacts of changing trends in resource
consumption
1. Food security is the availability and access to
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sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet the
dietary needs and food preferences for an active
and healthy life.
2. Water is essential for the mining, extraction,
refining and transport of energy sources. Water is
also needed for the production of hydro-electric
power.
3. The water–food–energy nexus refers to the very
close links between these three sectors and the
ways in which changes in one sector have an
impact on one or both of the other sectors. The
nexus approach stresses the need for stewardship
of these resources.
4. Problems involved in trying to feed Asia’s
population include the high number of poor
and under-nourished people that live there, the
rapid growth in population and declining land
availability/head, the requirement of water- and
energy-resources to produce food, the change in
demand for food (more varied foods, including
more meat and dairy products), global climate
change disrupting traditional farming patterns,
and the growing demand for water from nonagricultural sectors.
5. Most of the world’s rubbish (in kg per person per
day) is generated by HICs, in particular by the
USA, Norway and Switzerland. The lowest rates
are produced in LICs and NICs, mainly in subSaharan Africa and in South Asia. High rates are
generally produced in HICs and oil-rich countries
(South Africa is an exception), intermediate rates
are found in NICs (India is an exception), and the
lowest rates in the poorest countries (Uruguay and
Paraguay in South America are exceptions).
6. (a) Germany has the best record of recycling in
Europe.
(b) Romania has the worst record of recycling in
Europe.
7. (a) Goods that can be recycled include bottles,
cans, paper, plastic and some metals.
(b) Goods that can be reused include bottles,
containers, pots and bags (for example, ”bags for
life”).
(c) Goods that can be ”reduced” include
packaging, water (boil only the amount of water
that is needed) and energy (turn off lights/walk
rather than drive).
8. The problems associated with incineration include
air pollution (carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and
particulates which can lead to acid rain and smog);
increased volume of traffic – this comes from the
need to get the waste to the incinerators, again
leading to greater air pollution, noise, vibration,
and accidents; toxic ash – this is usually equal to
10–20 per cent of the mass of the original waste,
and still needs to be disposed of in landfill; and, the
high initial capital cost.
9. The export of waste to China provides
employment and an income, but at a cost.
China imports more than 3 million tonnes of
waste plastic and 15 million tonnes of paper
and cardboard each year. Low wages and a
large workforce mean that this waste can be
sorted much more cheaply in China, despite
the distance it has to be transported. E-waste
contains toxic substances such as lead, mercury,
cadmium, arsenic and flame retardants. Once in
landfill, these toxic materials seep out into the
environment, contaminating land, water and the
air. Workers at these sites suffer frequent bouts
of illness. Guiyu in China has been described
as the e-waste capital of the world. Most of the
recycling takes place in people’s homes. The
industry is worth $75 million to the town each
year, but Guiyu’s population has elevated rates
of lead poisoning, cancer-causing dioxins, and
miscarriages.
10. Living near to landfill sites increases the risk
of health problems, including heart problems
and birth defects. Landfill can give off gases
such as methane and may contaminate water
supplies. When biodegradable waste such as food
decomposes anaerobically, it releases methane,
which, as a greenhouse gas, contributes to global
warming. It is also explosive. Chemicals and heavy
metals can pollute the soil and groundwater.
Leachate that drains from organic waste also
contains harmful substances, causing the same
problem. The noise, smell and vermin associated
with landfill means that they should be sited away
from residential areas.
Resource stewardship
1. The Neo-Malthusians believe that the growth of
population will deplete the world of its resources,
and that for human-kind to survive there needs
to be population control, an increase in food
33
production, and a redistribution of wealth to
reduce global inequalities.
2. Food production could be increased through use
of fertilisers, irrigation, high yielding varieties of
crops, genetically modifies organisms, terracing
of steep slopes, drainage of wetlands, use of
indigenous species, and multi-cropping.
3. The term carrying capacity refers to the maximum
population that an environment can support.
4. Overpopulation occurs when there are too many
people, relative to the resources and technology
locally available, to maintain an adequate
standard of living. In contrast, underpopulation
occurs when there are far more resources in an
area (such as food, energy and minerals) than
can be used by the people living there. Canada
could theoretically double its population and still
maintain its standard of living.
5. The four global commons include the high seas,
Antarctica, the atmosphere and outer space.
6. The “tragedy of the commons” refers the lack of
control over the way common resources are used
and how the selfish acts of a few individuals/
nations can destroy the resource for others.
7. Recycling of phones would generally occur close
to the market and result in reduced imports of
phones, which are mainly produced in Asia. Only
about 15 per cent of phones are currently collected
and recycled. Increasing collection rates to 50 per
cent would make a huge difference: second-hand
sales of phones would be profitable even after
collection, processing and remarketing.
8. The aims of the Sustainable Development Goals
are to reduce extreme poverty by 2030, end
hunger and malnutrition, improve maternal and
child health, improve education and training,
ensure availability of sanitation and water,
promote affordable energy, promote sustainable
economic growth, develop infrastructure, reduce
inequalities within and between countries, make
settlements more sustainable, promote sustainable
consumption and production, combat climate
change, conserve and promote sustainable use
of the world’s seas and oceans, manage forests
sustainably, promote inclusive societies, and
develop partnerships to implement the SDGs.
9. The SDGs may be difficult to achieve because they
are so ambitious; population continues to grow,
and standards of living (and so consumption)
34
are rising; the concept of sustainable is an intergenerational one, and will never end; there are
many political and terrorist organizations for
which sustainable development is not their main
focus.
10. Goal 10 attempts to reduce inequalities in gender;
Goal 8 attempts to eradicate human trafficking
and forced labour, which includes many women;
Goal 3 focuses on improving reproductive and
maternal health; and Goal 4 aims to improve
education and training, which includes better
education and training for girls and women.
Unit 4 Power, places and networks
Global interactions and global power
1. The three components of the KOF Index are
(1) The economic dimension – long-distance
flows of goods, capital and services, as well as
information and perceptions that accompany
market exchanges (36 per cent of the Index);
(2) the social dimension – the spread of ideas,
information, images and people (38 per cent of the
Index); (3) the political dimension – the diffusion
of government policies (26 per cent of the Index).
2. The New Globalization Index is based on finance,
trade and politics, and social factors. It also differs
slightly from the other Globalization indices in that
it measures the distance of goods traded.
3. Britain declined as a superpower after World War
II, probably as a result of the World War costing
the country in terms of finances, manufacturing
capacity lost, the cost of rebuilding housing and
infrastructure, and the cost of trying to run an
Empire pitted against the wishes of the British
colonies desiring their independence.
4. The USA has by far the world’s largest and most
technologically advanced fleet of warplanes,
ships, tanks and artillery systems. These give it
dominance over air, sea and land. Control of
space and information are key aspects of US
military strategy for the 21st century. The US
defence industry employs over 2 million people.
Approximately one in six households in the
USA have someone employed in the militaryindustrial complex. Annual spending on defence
exceeds $100 billion a year. Federal funding for
military research is $40 billion a year, twice what
is spent on health, energy and the environment
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING: ANSWERS
combined. The institutions and organizations that
have developed over 50 years of intensive military
spending have created vested interests with huge
political influence.
5. The USA invests about eight times as much in
defence as China, and about fourteen times that
of Russia. Although China has more military
personnel and tanks than the USA, the USA
has more planes and anti-aircraft weapons than
China. All three countries have a relatively similar
number of submarines.
6. The G7 countries are all wealthy countries, and so,
could be considered to have successful economies.
However, it does not represent communist
countries (Russia was suspended in 2014), nor
does it represent emerging economies or low
income countries.
7. A cartel is an agreement by members of an
organisation to control prices and keep them high,
and to control production and supply of goods.
8. OPEC controlled the production and price of oil
throughout much of the 1970s and 1980s, giving
the Middle East increased political and economic
leverage. All world regions became increasingly
dependent on the Middle East. Arguably, this has
provided an incentive for the old industrialized
countries to increase energy conservation
or develop alternative forms of energy. The
importance of oil means that countries need to
maintain favourable relationships with OPEC
countries. It also means that there is a need for
political stability in the Middle East and a need to
reassess coal and nuclear power as energy options.
9. The IMF’s objective is to stabilize international
exchange rates and facilitate development.
Member states with balance of payment problems
may request loans to help fill gaps between what
they earn and/or borrow from other official
lenders and what they must spend to operate.
However, the IMF has been criticized due to
the Structural Adjustment Plans (SAPs) that
are imposed on troubled countries, in which
governments sell as much of their national assets
as they can, normally to western corporations
at heavily discounted prices. Moreover, the IMF
sometimes advocates “austerity programmes” –
increasing taxes even when the economy is weak
– to generate government revenue. The IMF is
for the most part controlled by the major Western
nations.
10. The source of funding for the New Development
Bank was initially $10 billion from each of Brazil,
Russia, India, China and South Africa (that is, $50
billion), potentially rising up to $100 billion/year.
Global networks and flows
1. World merchandise trade increased dramatically
between 2005 and 2008, but then fell sharply in
2009. It recovered and grew rapidly to 2011, and
then grew more slowly, until it fell between 2014
and 2015. Over the whole period, it increased
by about 50%. The trade in services grew slowly
and steadily between 2005 and 2015. There were
minor falls in 2008–2009 and 2014–2015. Overall,
it increased by approximately 40–50%.
2. The contribution to world trade in exports,
2011–2015, has been largely dominated by Asia
and Europe. The Americas have had a diminishing
role over the five-year period. Similarly, in terms
of imports, Asia has a dominant role in 2011, but
it decreases over time. Both Europe and North
America declines between 2011 and 2013, but
increased during 2014 and 2015.
3. Top down development is usually large in scale
and can respond well to disasters, providing
emergency relief. It is carried out by governments
and international organizations, often using
“experts”, and so may not involve local people in
the decision-making process. In contrast, bottom
up development involves local communities, and
is run by locals for locals. However, there is limited
funding available and it does depend on the skills/
initiatives of local people, many of whom may
have limited access to capital/equipment.
4. Aid is effective when it provides humanitarian
relief. It can also provide external resources for
investment and finances projects that could not be
undertaken with commercial capital. It may help
develop infrastructure, training and help introduce
and support better social and economic policies.
However, it may help promote dependency, and it
may be tied to the introduction of poor economic
and social policies. It might not necessarily reach
those for whom it is intended. It may be shortterm rather than long-term.
5. The main aid donors are (a) Saudi Arabia (1.8%
of GDP in 2014), UAE (1.26%) and Sweden
(1.0%) (b) USA ($33 billion), UK ($19 billion) and
Germany ($17 billion).
35
6. Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) are
loans requiring the borrowing country to cut its
government expenditure, reduce the amount of
state intervention in its economy, and promote
liberalization and international trade. SAPs are
explicit about the need for international trade and
long-term economic growth.
7. The largest regional migrations are from South
East Asia to the Middle East, drawn by the oil
economy and the boom in the construction
industry. The largest flow between two single
countries is from Mexico to the USA. There
are also important flows from the UK to India
and Nigeria, from the USA to China and the
Philippines, and from France to North Africa.
8. The main flows in the heroin trade are from
Afghanistan to Pakistan, Iran and Central Asia.
From Pakistan it is moved into a variety of places
including China, South-East Asia, Africa, the
Middle East and Iran. From Iran, the majority is
passed through Turkey into Europe. From Central
Asia, most of the heroin passes through Russia and
into Europe.
9. The Tata group have diversified into a wide range
of products including chemicals, consumer goods,
services, energy, ICT, materials and engineering.
This allows them to share the risk of a down-turn
in any one sectors, and also allows them to access
different markets world-wide.
10. Apple Inc. has received criticism for the treatment
of workers in its supple chain due to allegations of
poor working conditions, long hours, low wages
and a high number of suicides and attemptedsuicides among workers at the Foxconn factory,
Apple’s principal supplier.
Human and physical influences on global
interactions
1. A trading bloc is an arrangement among a group
of nations to allow free trade between member
countries but to impose tariffs (charges) on other
countries that may wish to trade with them.
Examples of trading blocs include the European
Union (EU) and the Association of South East
Asian Nations (ASEAN).
2. A customs union has free trade between members,
and all members operate a common external tariff
on imports from abroad. In contrast, common
markets are customs markets which allow, as well
36
as free trade in goods and services, free movement
of people and capital.
3. An export processing zone is a customs area in
which it is possible to import materials, machinery
and equipment for the manufacture of export
goods. In contrast, a free trade zone is a small-area
offering storage and distribution facilities for trade
and re-export of goods.
4. Migration may be controlled through a quota
system, border controls (such as the “wall”
between the USA and Mexico), deportation,
issuing of visas that expire after a number of years,
and monitoring of migrants within a country.
5. The volume of cross-border data flows in 2005
was relatively small. The largest flow (500–1000
Gbps) was between North America and the
European Union. Smaller flows (100–500 Gbps)
linked North America with Asia, and with Latin
America. All other inter-continental flows were
less than 50 Gbps. In contrast, in 2014 the flow of
date between North America and the European
Union was >20,000 Gbps, 45 times greater than
in 2005. Flows of between 5,000 and 20,000 Gbps
lined North America with Latin America and with
Asia, and the European Union with the Middle
East. There were also large flows (1,000-5,000
Gbps) between Europe and Africa, Europe and
Asia, and between North America and Oceania.
6. Distance decay suggests that areas that are close
together are usually more likely to interact with
one another, whereas areas far apart are less likely
to interact with one another. There is a decline in
interactions as distance increases.
7. The advantages of containers are that they are a
standard size, and so can be uploaded and offloaded from containers ships to railways/trucks
and vice versa very easily. Up to 90% of non-bulk
cargo is transported on containers stacked on rail
wagons/trucks and container ships.
8. The global distribution of fixed landlines shows
that most (over 28.44 per 100 people) are in North
America and Australia-New Zealand. Exceptions
include Iran and Uruguay. The lowest rate of fixed
telephone lines (<5.6 per 100) are found in SubSaharan Africa and South Asia. Exceptions include
Papua New Guinea and Honduras. In contrast,
global variations in mobile cellular subscriptions
per 100 people are very different. The highest
values (>139.66) are found in Russia, parts of
North Africa and the Middle East, and in some
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING: ANSWERS
parts of Latin America and South East Asia. The
lowest rates (<44.93 per 100) are found in northcentral Africa and Madagascar. However, there
are relatively low rates (44.93–85.02 per 100) in
Canada and Mexico, as well as Southern Africa
(excluding South Africa and Namibia) and South
Asia.
9. Global variations in Internet use vary from over
65.4 per 100 in most of North America, Europe,
Russia, Japan, South Korea, Australia and the New
Zealand (that is, the Global ”North”) to less than
12.25 per 100 in much of Sub-Saharan Africa,
Western Asia and South East Asia. Exceptions
include Chile, Malaysia and the UAE who are all
high users, and Cuba and Jamaica who appear as
low users.
10. The availability of natural resources is a significant
factor in world trade. Countries endowed with
other raw materials, such as food products, timber,
minerals and fish, also have the potential to trade.
Countries with a single resource product are
more vulnerable to climate extremes, disease and
currency fluctuations because they have fewer
alternative ways to earn foreign currency. Isolation
from world markets can be a major limiting factor.
Increased transport costs and times may reduce
access to markets. Countries that are landlocked
may also have to pay substantial tariffs to export
their goods.
Unit 5 Human development and diversity
Development opportunities
1. The main aims of the UN Sustainable
Development Goals are to end poverty in all its
forms everywhere; to end hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition, and promote
sustainable agriculture; to ensure healthy lives
and promote well-being for all ages; to ensure
inclusive and equitable quality education and
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all; to
achieve gender equality and empower all women
and girls; to ensure availability and sustainable
management of water and sanitation for all; to
ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable
and modern energy for all; to promote sustained,
inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full
and productive employment and decent work
for all; to build resilient infrastructure, promote
inclusive and sustainable industrialization
and foster innovation; to reduce inequality
within and among countries; make cities and
human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable; to ensure sustainable consumption
and production patterns; to take urgent action to
combat climate change and its impacts; conserve
and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine
resources for sustainable development; to
protect, restore and promote sustainable use of
terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests,
combat desertification, and halt and reverse land
degradation and halt biodiversity loss; to promote
peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable
development, provide access to justice for all
and build effective, accountable and inclusive
institutions at all levels; and, to strengthen the
means of implementation and revitalize the Global
Partnership for Sustainable Development.
2. The highest HDIs are in North America, Europe,
Japan/South Korea and Australia/New Zealand.
Exceptions include Saudi Arabia and Argentina.
The lowest HDIs are found in Sub-Saharan
Africa and south Asia. Papua New Guinea is an
exception.
3. The Gender inequality index is measured using
(1) reproductive health – that is,maternal
mortality ratio and adolescent birth rates; (2)
gender empowerment – that is, the proportion
of parliamentary seats held by women, and the
proportion of adult females and males aged over
25 years with some experience of secondary
school; and (3) economic status – that is, labour
force participation by males and females aged 15
and over.
4. Gender inequalities have been reduced
between 1995 and 2014. There have been slight
improvements in school enrolment and in the
labour (these started off at a high level of equality).
The main improvements have been ministerial
positions, seats in parliament and in administrative
and managerial positions, which all started off at a
low level of equality.
5. Progress in gender equality in Colombia has
largely benefited well-educated, urban women,
whereas many rural women are illiterate and
poor, and continue to experience gender-based
discrimination and violence.
6. Microfinance lending schemes aim to reduce
poverty, address social issues including gender
discrimination, and enable market access for
the poor. Most people who use microfinance
37
are people in rural areas, mainly farmers, who
cannot access other forms of finance. They need
to borrow money to improve their farms, and
buy seeds and fertilizers and so on. Microfinance
schemes often focus on women, who in some
societies are unable to own land or borrow money.
7. Critics of microfinance argue that its interest rates
are higher than those of commercial banks, that
some people will use the loans to pay for food or
health care rather than for starting or improving
their business, that many poor people are not
entrepreneurs and so the loans may be wasted,
and finally, that microfinance loans may be used
to pay off other loans rather than for business
purposes.
8. People Tree’s eco-policy is to: promote natural
and organic farming, avoid polluting substances,
protect water supplies, use biodegradable
substances where possible, and, recycle materials
where possible.
9. The main reason for the growth of the textile
industry in Bangladesh is the availability of cheap
labour – about 20 per cent of China’s minimum
wage.
10. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to
the attempts of companies to assess the social,
economic and environmental impacts of their
activities, and reduce these impacts if necessary.
Its main advantages are that it offers, in theory
at least, some form of protection to workers and
to the environment. However, companies might
not follow their own CSR, or may sub-contrast to
other forms. CSR may increase the price of goods
to the consumer.
Changing identities and cultures
1. Culture is a system of shared meanings used by
people who belong to the same community, group
or nation, to help them interpret and make sense
of the world. These systems of meanings include
language, religion, custom and tradition, and ideas
about ”place”.
2. Cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting
the culture, values or language of one nation in
another, less powerful one.
3. Global media complexes include Time-Warner,
Disney, BBC, News Corporation and Universal.
4. The idea of an emerging global culture suggest that
different places and cultural practices around the
38
world are converging and becoming ever similar.
New technologies such as the internet and satellite
communications mean that the world is becoming
more global and more interconnected. The
increased speed of transport and communications,
the increasing intersections between economies
and cultures, the growth of international
migration, and the power of global financial
markets are among the factors that have changed
everyday lives in recent decades.
5. There are between 8 million and 15 million
Syrian diaspora. The first wave went to Brazil and
Argentina in the late nineteenth century. During
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
many Syrians moved to the east coast of the USA,
especially New York, Boston and Detroit. Since the
1979s, there has been an increase in the number
of Syrians living in other parts of the Middle East.
6. The consumption of Coca-Cola varies hugely.
Most of the countries in which there is a high
consumption are HICs or NICs, although they are
not the richest counties. Mexico has the highest
consumption rate, followed by Chile and the USA.
The top five countries are all from the Americas.
South Africa is the only African nation to have a
consumption higher than the worldwide average.
7. Coca-Cola with lime – available only in the USA,
Canada, Singapore, the UK, Belgium and the
Netherlands; Coca-Cola clear (2016) – available
only in Canada, France and Australia.
8. Many urban landscapes in different countries
today look very similar. Tall towers are a feature
of many cities. Industrial estates and science
parks are increasingly globalized, as TNCs
outsource their activities to access cheap labour,
vital raw materials and potential markets. Many
cities have pedestrianized shopping centres,
open markets and out-of-town supermarkets.
The homogenization of urban landscapes has
occurred due to many factors: improvements in
communications technology (television, internet,
and so on), so that people in cities around the
world are aware of opportunities and trends in
other cities; increased international migration
and the spread of ideas and cultures; time–space
convergence, which allows faster interactions
between places; the desire of global brands (TNCs)
to reach new markets; improvements in standards
of living and aspirations to be part of a global
network of urban centres; and globalization of
economic activity, culture (art, media, sport and
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING: ANSWERS
leisure activities) and political activity.
9. Diaspora refers to the forced or voluntary dispersal
of a population sharing a common racial, ethnic or
cultural identity, after leaving their settled territory
and migrating to new areas.
10. Diaspora groups take with them some of their
culture. This can be in the form of religion, music,
sports, language and dress, for example. Where
there are sufficient numbers of a diaspora groups,
they may continue to practice some aspects of
their culture; for example, the Irish diaspora
continue to play Gaelic Games and support
traditional Irish music and dancing.
Local responses to global interactions
1. There are many reasons for the rise of antiimmigration groups. The main concerns of those
opposed to immigration are the perceived threats
over competition for jobs, and the cost of housing,
education and healthcare. In some cases, notably
in LICs and NICs, environmental issues may also
be a concern, due to rapid population growth.
Some argue that certain immigrant groups isolate
themselves from society and refuse to integrate
into mainstream society. If migrants are unable
to assimilate into society, they may form ghettos.
Other concerns include increased crime rates and
the spread of infectious diseases.
2. A UN enquiry into human rights in Eritrea claimed
that there were systemic human rights violations,
widespread detention and indefinite military
service. Hence, many Eritreans wish to leave the
country. In contrast, Europe is seen as a place of
opportunity – jobs, democracies and freedom to
move around. There are more opportunities in
Europe than there are in Eritrea’s neighbouring
countries, hence many Eritreans migrate to
Europe.
3. Protectionism reduces trade between countries.
This may be achieved through taxes on imports
(tariffs), limits on the volume of imports (quotas),
administrative barriers (for example, food safety,
environmental standards), subsidies to home
producers as well as anti-dumping legislation and
campaigns to buy nationally produced goods.
4. The global economic slowdown since 2008 has
resulted in many HICs imposing protectionist
policies, as they are being undercut by cheaper
imports.
5. The Debswana mining venture is a 50:50 diamond
operation between De Beers and the government
of Botswana. Debswana accounts for 50% of the
government’s revenue, 70% of Botswana’s export
earnings. Some 80% of its profits go directly to the
government.
6. Resource nationalism occurs when a country
decides to take all, or a part, of one or more
natural resources under state ownership. It
means that the government of the country
receives the benefits of resource development.
Mining is a capital-intensive industry and much
of the equipment is extremely expensive. Many
governments need the mining companies to
extract the resources. Companies worry that
investments may cost billions of dollars, and
take up to a decade to get a return. They fear
that they may lose out on their investment if
the government changes the contract details.
Although resource nationalism holds many
benefits for countries, the state must be prepared
to help industries when they face tough times. It
is important for the countries to give companies
enough return on their investments that they will
continue to invest in the future.
7. PGA’s hallmarks are:
•
A very clear rejection of capitalism,
imperialism and feudalism, and all trade
agreements, institutions and governments that
promote destructive globalisation.
•
A rejection of all forms and systems of
domination and discrimination, including, but
not limited to, patriarchy, racism and religious
fundamentalism of all creeds. They embrace
the full dignity of all human beings.
•
A confrontational attitude, since PGA does
not think that lobbying can have a major
impact in such biased and undemocratic
organisations, in which transnational capital is
the only real policy-maker.
•
A call to direct action and civil disobedience,
support for social movements' struggles,
advocating forms of resistance which
maximize respect for life and oppressed
peoples' rights, as well as the construction of
local alternatives to global capitalism.
•
An organisational philosophy based on
decentralisation and autonomy. (https://www.
nadir.org/ nadir/initiativ/agp/en/)
39
8. There has been large-scale political change in
Myanmar, from the decades of authoritarian
military rule to the democratic election of Aung
San SuuKyi of the National League for Democracy
party in November 2015, and her swearing in as
president in March 2016. Nevertheless, there are
still many important challenges ahead, notably
for Myanmar’s ethnic Rohingya community and
for minority religious groups. Fears have been
raised that a population control bill tabled by the
government could be used to enforce population
control on the largely stateless Rohingya
population. In 2014 the Myanmar government
expelled humanitarian groups, thus preventing
healthcare and aid for the Rohingyas. They remain
highly discriminated against.
9. In 1982 Burma’s Citizenship Act created three
categories of citizen: national, associate and
naturalized. Full citizenship was only for national
ethnic groups such Bamars, Mons and Rakhines,
and for those whose ancestors had been in Burma
since before the first Anglo-Burmese war (1824).
The government claimed that the Rohingyas
entered the country after 1948. Thus, the
Rohingyas became stateless.
10. There are many reasons why the Arab Spring
was more successful in some countries. These
include: strong civil societies – countries with
strong civil societies were more successful than
those without because they were able to transform
the country after political change; the degree of
state censorship – in countries where there was
widespread media coverage, mass violence by the
government and the military was supressed; social
media – countries with greater access to social
media were more able to mobilize support for
the protests; support of the national military; the
mobilization of the middle class – countries with
a strong, vocal middle class were more likely to
see political change than countries with a weak or
limited middle class.
Unit 6 Global risks and resilience
Geopolitical and economic risks
1. Cybercrime refers to criminal activity using the
internet/computers/computing.
2. There are a number of types of identity theft.
Trashing is the retrieval of documents from
40
rubbish bins or obtained during a burglary.
Phishing relied on emails to trick people into
revealing personal and financial information.
Spear phishing occurs when highly personalised
e-mails are sent to specific targets. Pharming
or spoofing refers to information that appears
relevant to the recipient, and encourages them
to open an email. Smishing is the sending of text
messages to potential victims. Vishing refers to
messages sent by voice that are designed to corrupt
the recipient’s voicemail and phone. Data can also
be collected from lost or stolen laptops or from
discarded laptops that have not been wiped clean.
3. Vulnerable groups include university students and
military personnel, medical patients and even the
deceased. In urban areas in Florida, whites were
most likely to be the victims of identity theft (72
per cent) and Hispanics the least (1 per cent).
4. Global supply-chain risks are influenced by
many factors: physical environmental factors
include natural disasters, extreme weather
events and epidemics; political factors include
protectionism, trade restrictions, and conflict;
economic factors include currency fluctuations
and trade restrictions; and, technological factors
include disruption to transport networks and ICT
networks.
5. Profit repatriation is the return of a company’s
foreign-earned profits or financial assets to that
company’s home country.
6. Some TNCs have avoided paying tax because they
have made a deal with a national government to
invest in that country, in return for a low tax rate.
7. Drones have many advantages: they can be
used for surveillance in natural and man-made
disasters, to survey damage, locate victims, help
the police search for lost children and monitor
large crowds. They can be used to make structural
surveys of buildings, to monitor environmental
conditions and to provide farmers with
information. However, concerns exist about the
use of drones for military manoeuvres and for
surveillance. Drones used in war are operated far
from the conflict zone and may thus desensitize
armed personnel to war and killing. In addition,
drones have caused many civilian fatalities.
8. 3D printers have great potential in engineering,
medicine, the military, construction, architecture,
education and the computing industries. In 3D
printing it is possible to use a variety of different
materials. 3D printing allows manufacturers to
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create complex 3D objects in a short time. There
is little waste involved, as products are built up
rather than reduced in size. In addition, designs
can be transferred over the internet. However,
3D printing technology poses risks. The lack
of legislation and regulations concerning the
technology means that it can be used to create
weapons, parts of weapons, guns, knives and
counterfeit goods. Internationally, where gun
controls are strict and real firearms less easily
available, the impact of this may be great. Critics
argue that 3D printing will replace labour in
increasingly complex tasks, as technology already
has with ATMs, online banking, mobile payment
systems and so on.
9. Globalization had led to increased nationalism
in many places. The cause of the increase in
nationalism was due, in part, to poor economic
growth following the financial crash of 2008, rising
inequality, and, in Europe, rising immigration.
The changes brought about by globalization led
many people to look for stability in national or
local features, such as a shared culture, history or
language. This new nationalism takes many forms:
protectionist policies such as trade barriers, policies
favouring domestic workers, anti-immigration
measures and resource nationalism.
10. China and Japan have become investment
competitors within Asia. There is competition
to build transport infrastructure and industrial
supremacy in Asia. Moreover, both countries
have built up their defence export industries.
There is a possibility of this competition spilling
over into military conflict. Both China and Japan
have increased their military capacity to protect
their overseas investments. There is also growing
concern that China’s military might respond to
a perceived threat in the South China Sea and
initiate a conflict in the region.
Environmental risks
1. Dry deposition of pollutants occurs typically close
to the source of emission and damages nearby
buildings and structures. Wet deposition, by
contrast, occurs when the pollutants are dissolved
in precipitation, and may fall at great distances
from the sources.
2. Many of the lakes in north-east Canada have
lost their calcium due to acidification. Calcium
is required for the survival of tiny, plankton-like
crustaceans, Daphnia – an important basis of
the food chain. Their place has been taken by a
plankton species, Holopedium. It is larger than
Daphnia and its jelly-like coating largely protects
it from predators, so some other species have lost
their food supply.
3. The main areas affected by pollution by shipping
include narrow shipping lanes, such as in the
Indian Ocean between Singapore and Sri Lanka,
and others in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, the
Mediterranean Sea and along the route from
Singapore to China. Such tracks are less evident in
the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, where ships are
not concentrated in narrow zones. However, there
are also high rates of pollution off major trading
areas such as the east coast of the USA and the
western coast of Europe.
4. The carbon footprint for trade in food is complex
and includes food production, storage, distribution,
retailing and consumption. Total carbon emissions
for transport and storage are 420g/unit of
production, and production emissions are over
140 g/unit product.
5. The flow of foodstuffs around the world has its
own carbon footprint and link the main producers
and consumers. Most countries in the world are
linked with food production and consumption.
In contrast, the largest carbon footprint associated
with the flow of goods mainly links east Asia
(China as a net exporter) with North America,
Europe and Japan (net importers) and the Middle
East and west Asia/Russia (neutral). The Southern
Hemisphere accounts for none of the world’s
largest flow of CO2 associated with the transfer of
goods.
6. Population flows have an impact of carbon
footprints. For example, in the USA, CO2
emissions of the average immigrant (legal or
illegal) in the USA are 18 per cent lower than
those of the average native-born American;
immigrants produce four times more CO2 than
they would have in their countries of origin; legal
immigrants have a much larger impact than illegal
immigrants because they have higher incomes
and higher resulting emissions, and are more
numerous.
7. Developed countries have more robust green
laws, greater social supervision and more effective
governments; pollution emissions are higher
in developing countries, where environmental
regulations and their enforcement are weaker.
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These less regulated environments give richer
nations a chance to export their waste and
pollution. The environmental vulnerability of
developing countries to pollution is due to their
underdeveloped systems as well as their need for
the economic benefits of the polluting industries.
8. Agribusiness is large-scale, intensive, high-input,
high-output, commercial nature of much modern
farming, which is increasingly globalised in the
demand for cheaper food.
9. The main impacts of globalised farming on
Happy Valley, Kenya include: the use of 25 per
cent of the water previously available to over
100,000 small farmers; the use of land previously
used by nomads; pollution from pesticides and
deforestation caused by migrant workers from the
growing shanty towns foraging for fuel.
10. The concept of food miles describes how far
food has travelled before it appears on a plate.
The greater the distance, the greater the carbon
footprint due to transport. However, it is also
important to consider how the food has been
transported and even packaged; frozen food,
for example, has higher energy costs. Critics
also argue that transport cost is only part of
the environmental impact of food production
– there could be other costs such as reduction
in biodiversity, eutrophication, decreased water
quality and increased risk of flooding.
Local and global resilience
1. The main focus of the WWF is to restore
populations of keystone species – species that are
important for their ecosystem or people, including
elephants, whales and tuna – and to reduce
ecological footprints in terms of carbon emissions,
cropland, grazing, forestry and water.
2. Critics argue that the WWF is too close to some
large companies, such as Coca-Cola and IKEA. It
receives large donations from corporations ($80
million in 2010). A documentary Silence of the
Pandas (2011) criticized WWF’s involvement with
TNCs responsible for destruction of the natural
environment. In 2016 Survival International
complained that the WWF was using eco-guards
who had abused the rights of indigenous people in
the Cameroon rainforest.
3. Oxfam’s main interests in the development
process include: economic justice – improving
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farming for farmers and labourers, fairer trade,
and reducing shocks from energy changes and
climate change; essential services – the provision
of health education, water and sanitation; rights
in crisis – assistance given during conflicts and
after disasters, attempts to prevent conflict,
improve peacekeeping and allow reconciliation;
gender justice – support for women’s leadership
and increase the number of women receiving an
education.
4. Oxfam was initially founded to deal with famine
relief whereas now it has a wider interest in
development support (reducing poverty),
microcredit schemes and humanitarian support.
5. The membership of Oxfam is quite limited. With
the exception of India, all members are from HICs
– North America, Europe, Japan, Australia and
New Zealand. Observer countries include South
Africa and Brazil.
6. Reshoring is the relocation to the home country
of a business’s or company’s operations that were
overseas. Reshoring is taking place in many HICs
due to rising transport costs, a relative lack of
skilled labour in LICs compared with HICs, rising
labour costs in LICs and NICs, greater risks in the
supply chain, a tradition of manufacturing and
public demand to maintain employment in HICs,
consumers in HICs increasingly demanding quick
delivery times, and higher levels of R&D in HICs.
7. Crowdsourcing is the process of sourcing
ideas, services, finances and information from
the public via the internet in order to benefit
from the collective abilities of a large group of
people. Crowdsourcing allows for the creation of
social networks of experience and knowledge.
It allows for the rapid transmission of ideas
and opportunities, which would have been
more difficult in the era before the internet.
Crowdsourcing is a high-technology, bottom-up
approach to empowering communities around the
world.
8. Cybersecurity, or computer security, is the
protection of information systems, hardware
and software from theft or damage, as well as
the protection of information on computers and
related technology. The need for cybersecurity
is increasing as more and more people and
organizations rely on computers and the internet.
Common targets are large organizations,
government departments, military computer
systems and airline carriers.
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9. Cybersecurity is difficult to manage because there
are no international regulations or common rules
to abide by. Moreover, national security may
be vulnerable to attacks from another country,
making any international treaty difficult to
regulate and enforce.
10. The advantages of e-passports include faster
checking in and border clearance, crime detection,
improved security as e-passports are difficult to
forge, so security is improved. Disadvantages
include the possibility of hacking into the system
and changing the data, and illegal use of the data.
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