SOME HAUSA LEXICAL BORROWINGS IN JÁKÀTÓ AND NTÉNG
LANGUAGES: A PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Khairulbariyya Sulaiman Bala
kbsulaimanafawa@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper is intends to discuss some phonological processes undergo by some
Hausa loan words in Jákàtó and Nténg; Chadic languages spoken in Jos, Nigeria.
It also aimed at investigating the phonological processes on which the borrowed
Hausa words undergo in these two Chadic undocumented languages before
naturalizing the words in the languages. The processes are obligatory to undergo
before the words fit into Jákàtó and Nténg phonology. The data for this study was
generated from primary and secondary sources. The findings show that Hausa
words borrowed into Jákàtó and Nténg languages undergo certain phonological
processes. Some of the words undergo one process while others undergo more
than one phonological process. Single processes undergo by Hausa borrowed
words in Jákàtó language include those undergo Elision/Deletion, Insertion and
Substitution while those undergo more than one process include Substitution and
Elision, Substitution and Insertion, Elision and Insertion and Elision, Substitution
and Insertion. For Nténg, the words undergo Elision/Deletion, Insertion and
Substitution as single processes and those words undergo elision and epenthesis
and those undergo substitution and Epenthesis as multiple processes undergo by
Hausa loan words in Nténg language.
Key words: Phonology, phonological process, Hausa, Jákàtó, Nténg, Chadic, Jos,
Elision/Deletion, Insertion, Substitution and epenthesis.
Introduction
“Contact between languages occurs when the speakers of two or more languages
interact directly or indirectly with one another. It has been always happening
throughout the history of the world and it is difficult for someone to find a
language whose speakers have avoided contact with other languages for some
period of time. Face-to-face interaction between speakers is not always necessary
for language contact to occur” (Styblo Jr, 2007:9).
Linguistic borrowing, “loan words, loan adaption, words assimilation or
acclimatization, stolen words and phrase, etc. are all terms variously applied to
this popular linguistic phenomenon. Word borrowing is a common feature of
1
almost all human languages, that is nearly all languages have some new words,
phrases or even sentences imported from other languages into them” (Muibat,
2015:28).
“Borrowing happens when the search for a lexical item activates a word in L1 or
previously acquired non-native language and this item is taken over into the L2 in
an unmodified form” (Ringbom, 1987). Kemmer (2010) explains loan words as
adopted by the speaker of language from a different language (the source
language). A loan word can also be called a borrowing.
“Hausa is a Chadic (Afroasiatic) language spoken by an estimated 30 million or
more first-language speakers more than any other sub-Saharan language” (Brown
and Oglivie, 2009). “Its native speakers are mainly found in northern Nigeria and
southern Niger. Hence, it is spoken mostly by people in Diaspora, Muslim
scholars and immigrants in mainly urban areas of West Africa including Ghana,
Cameroon, Chad, Benin Republic, Burkina Faso, Togo, Sudan, and some of the
major cities of West, Northern and Equatorial Africa” (Brown and Oglivie, 2009).
Hausa is the most important and widespread West African language and continues
to expand as a transnational lingua franca. Hausa is used extensively in
commercial, governmental, educational spheres, and the mass media.
As a documented language, several books have been written in Hausa language
some of which include; grammar books, like, Hausa Grammar: An introduction,
Nahawun Hausa, Qa’idojin Rubutun Hausa, etc. Culture books like: Haihuwa da
Suna a Bahaushiyar Al’ada, Al'adun Hausawa, etc. Literature books like:
Magana jari ce, Shaihu Umar, Rabe-Raben Adabin Hausa, Ruwan Bagaja, Kulva
Na Varna etc. and linguistics such as Introduction to Hausa Phonology, Hausa
Tones, Supra-Segments in Hausa Phonology, Harshen Hausa da Rassansa etc.
There are also number of Hausa print and online newspapers that help in
spreading the language, these include: Aminiya, Rariya, Zuma, Kano a Yau,
Arewa, and many more. The language is also used in media broadcasting, in
Africa Hausa is transmitted from Nigeria, Niger, Ghana, Cairo, and some other
African broadcasting corporations. There are also international broadcasting
2
services transmitting in Hausa such as the B.B.C World Service, Voice of
America, Germany (Radio Deutsche belle), Radio Moscow, Radio Peaking, and
China Radio International, and few others (Brown and Oglivie, 2009).
“Hausa language borrows substantially some words from neighboring African
languages, such as Kanuri, like turba (route) manda(salt) Yoruba like, Ashana
(matches), Akwati (box), etc and Fulfulde like, nage (cow), Bukka (hut) etc. Hausa
a single language (with considerable dialectal variation), has enriched the Hausa
lexicon (words). Most loanwords come from Arabic, like, Allah (God), Sauti
(sound), Allo (board), etc, English, like, Banki (bank), Biredi (bread), Bokiti
(bucket), etc, and other languages” (Brown and Oglivie, 2009). Researchers such
as Rufa’i (1979), Zarruk (1978), Bello (1985), Yalwa (1994) explain different
aspects (most of which are phonological) of linguistic borrowing in different
language (especially English, Arabic and Hausa).
“The Jákàtó language, spoken in southern Plateau State, Nigeria, has not
previously been documented. As part of a survey to document the languages of
the West Chadic A3 group, a study was undertaken in October, 2016” (Blench,
2019:2).
“Jákàtó and Nténg are two undocumented Chadic languages spoken in Plateau
State of Nigeria. Like Hausa language, Jákàtó (Chákàtó) and Nténg are also
Chadic languages that belong to the West Chadic A3 group which also has Ngás,
Mwághávúl and Góemái as members. West Chadic also includes Hausa, the Rón
languages, Bole-Tangale. A3 is listed as ‘Angás proper’ in the Ethnologue and as
‘Unclassified Góemáic’ in the Glottolog” (Blench, 2019:2). Takacs (2004) calls
this group ‘Angás-Sura’, neatly combining two outmoded spellings.
Jákàtó language is spoken 50km north to Shéndám in Shéndám L.G.A in Dokan
Tofa town and nearby villages in southern Plateau state Nigeria. According to
Blench (2019), the language has about 500 native speakers all in Dokan Tofa
village.
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Nténg is spoken in eight villages, west of Gorom including Nténg itself, Gyeer,
Ɗoop, Kelaghan, Loon, Kwakii, Zhep Morop and Gorom (Blench, 2019:2).
Nténg as well is part of the West Chadic A3 group. Nténg is placed on the same
continuum with Chakfem and Mushere.
Figure 1: Chadic A3 languages tree (Adopted from Blench, 2019:3)
Sources of Hausa Loans
There are some basic sources from which northern Nigerian languages especially
Chadic borrowed words heavily from Hausa:
Trade
Hausas especially those from Kano are well known for their trade activities since
from the time of trans-Saharan trade. The Hausas go round different locations in
search of commercial opportunities. As the result, their language spread all over
the places they visited and lived in Nigeria, places are such as Ibadan, Sagamu,
Lokoja, Jos, Niger etc. and other African countries such as Ghana, Ivory Coast,
Cameroun etc.
Population
Being the most populous spoken language in West Africa, Hausa is becoming one
of the widespread language spoken in the area. The language becomes widespread
because of the number of population using it as their first and second languages in
northern Nigeria. Most of the speakers of minority languages in northern Nigeria
4
are using Hausa as their second language because of the high population of the
language.
Religion and Culture
Hausa culture is going hand-in-hand with Islamic religion, and help in spreading
the language which resulted in writing it in Arabic script "Ajami", a system which
according to Brown and Oglivie (2009), is prevalent in Qur’anic schools and still
used by many people who do not acquire Western education (non-westerneducated) Hausas for religious and literary purposes, before gradually been
supplemented by a modified Latin script/ alphabet called Booko, “Hausar Booko”
(Brown and Oglivie, 2009).
Methodology
The methodology used in collecting data for this study was largely secondary
source and some from second hand primary sources. The primary data were
collected from three (3) Jákàtó and Nténg native speakers (2 Nténg and 1 Jákàtó)
who were met at Kano, they came for their businesses at Wambai market. The
main method used for data gathering from these informants was oral interview
(face-to-face) method. This method was seen appropriate with regard to the nature
of this research being purely descriptive. The secondary sources of data were the
works of Roger Blench (2017 and 2019) on the current research on the A3 West
Chadic languages.
Presentation of the Data
The data collected from these two sources are hereby presented below together
with their Hausa counterparts and English glosses. An analysis of the collected
data is presented below using some phonological processes that the data undergo
in the receptor languages.
Jákàtó Language
Hausa words borrowed to Jákàtó language are analysed and discussed in this
section together with the phonological processes that they undergo before they
were adapted into Jákàtó language. The analysis is based on the number of
5
phonological process that they undergo; those with single process were separated
from those with more than one process.
A.
Words Undergo that One Phonological Process
Insertion
1.
mún
múu
we
In the above borrowed word, Jákàtó language speakers insert nasal consonant /n/
at the word final position. The Hausa word /múu/ turns into /mún/ in Jákàtó
language. The rule is stated as follows:
Ø
------->
2.
bíyàn
C
+nasal
-cont.
-lab.
/____#
bíyà
to pay
In the above borrowed word, Jákàtó language speakers insert nasal consonant /n/
at the word final position. The Hausa word /bíyà/ turns into /bíyàn/ in Jákàtó
language. The rule is stated as follows:
Ø
------->
3.
sónró
C
+nasal
-cont.
-lab.
/____#
sóró
rectangular building
The example above shows that Hausa borrowed word /soro/ undergoes the
process of insertion where the alveolar nasal consonant /n/ is inserted at the word
medial position before adapting the word into Jákàtó language. The Hausa word
/sóró/ turns into /sónró/ in Jákàtó language. The rule is stated as follows:
Ø
------->
C
+nasal
-cont.
-lab.
/____
C
+cont.
+ant.
-stride
Substitution
4.
laa
xaa
6
son/child
Jákàtó language borrows significantly from Hausa language; among the words
borrowed to the language is the word /xaa/ ‘son/child’. The word when borrowed
into Jákàtó undergoes the process of substitution; the implosive consonant /x/ at
the word initial position is substituted with lateral consonant /l/, the word xaa into
/laa/ in Jákàtó language.
C
+voice
+cons.
-stiff
5.
------->
/____
C
+lateral
+cont.
-lab.
fúrá
túrá
V
+low
-high
porridge
The Hausa word fúrá borrowed into Jákàtó undergoes substitution, where the
labial-fricative sound /Φ/ is substituted with alveolar-plosive /t/ at the word initial
position to become /túrá/ ‘porridge’. This can be shown in the rule below:
C
+cor.
+dist.
-ant.
------->
/____
C
+ant.
+cor.
-dist.
V
+round
+high
-front
6.
azami
azimi
fast
The Hausa borrowed word presented above can be stated by the following rule:
V
+low
-high
-front
------->
V
+front
+high
-low
/____
C
+cont.
+stride
-lab.
The above rule is saying that, when the word azimi ‘fast’ borrowed from Hausa
into Jákàtó, the word undergoes the process of substitution where the low vowel
/a/ at the word initial position changed to high-front vowel /i/ before the
consonant sound /z/.
B.
Words Undergo More than One Phonological Process
Substitution and Elision
7.
Jakuu
jaakii
7
donkey
The Hausa word jaakii in Jákàtó language undergoes the process of substitution
i.e. where the long front-vowel /ii/ is substituted with long back-vowel /uu/ at the
word final position. The word then turns into /jaakuu/.
------->
V
+front
+high
V
+back
+high
/____#
Substitution and Insertion
8.
Kaa
kâi
head
The word kâi after borrowed into Jákàtó language undergoes the process of
substitution. In the first place, the Hausa diphthong /ai/ is substituted with a short
low-mid vowel /a/. The word turns into /kâ/.
V ------->
[+diphthong]
V
-diphthong
+mid
/____#
Secondly, the word undergoes the process insertion where the low-mid vowel /a/
is inserted at the word final position. The word finally becomes /kaa/.
Ø
------->
9.
Muus
V
+low
+mid
Elision and Insertion
/____#
mussa
cat
The word mussa in Hausa language (Sokoto dialect) undergoes certain
phonological processes while naturalizing into Jákàtó language. The word started
with undergoing the process of elision; where the final syllable completely
deleted.
V
------->
+mid
+low
C ------->
[+fricative]
Ø
Ø
/____#
/____#
The word then undergoes the process of insertion in which the high-back vowel
/u/ is inserted at the word middle position; the word becomes /muus/ in Jákàtó.
8
Ø
------->
10.
Muut
V
/ C ____
V
[+back] [+nasal]
[+back]
mutuwa
death
Hausa modified word mutuwa is borrowed by Jákàtó; in the process of borrowing
and naturalizing the word to fit into phonological structure of this language, the
word undergoes some changes as a result of the different phonological processes.
The word undergoes the process of elision; the /wa/ syllable at the word final
position and the high-back vowel /u/ at the word medial position are also deleted.
V
------->
+mid
+low
C ------->
[+approximant]
V
------->
+high
+back
Ø
Ø
/____#
/____#
Ø
/____#
The word undergoes the process of insertion i.e. the high-back vowel /u/ inserted
before the word final consonant; the word be converted into /muut/ as it is being
using in Jákàtó language.
Ø
------->
11.
Nnaa
V
/ C ____
[+back] [+nasal]
V
[+back]
inna
mother
In the process of naturalizing Hausa word Inna into Jákàtó language; the word
undergoes the process of elision/deletion and insertion/epenthesis. The word first
undergoes the process of elision where the syllable /ʔi/ at the word initial position
was deleted.
C
+glottal
+stop
------->
Ø
/____
V
[+front]
V ------->
Ø
/____ C
[+front]
[+nasal]
The word also epenthesize with the low-mid vowel /a/ at the word final position;
the word turns into /nnaa/.
Ø
------->
V
/____#
[+mid]
9
Elision, Substitution and Insertion
12.
Ledee
alade
pig
The processes undergoes by the word Alade after borrowed to Jákàtó language
include the process of elision at which the first syllable /ˀa/ was deleted; the word
becomes lade in the receptor language.
C
------->
+glottal
+stop
V
------->
+mid
+low
Ø
/____V
[+front]
Ø
/____
C
+alveolar
+stop
-voice
Secondly, the word undergoes the process of substitution in which the low-mid
vowel /a/ is substituted with the front vowel /e/ as the result, the word turns to
lede.
V ------->
+mid
+low
V
+front
-mid
/____
C
+stop
+alveolar
-voice
Finally, the word undergoes the process of insertion where the front-mid vowel /e/
is inserted at the word final position; the word turns into /ledee/ in Jákàtó
language.
Ø
------->
V
/ ____ #
[+front]
Nténg Language
Words borrowed from Hausa into Nténg language is analyzed in this section.
Different phonological processes undergone by loan words before naturalizing
into Nténg language were discussed. The analysis covered the words undergo one
phonological process and those undergo more than one process.
A.
Words Undergo One Phonological Process
10
Elision/Deletion
1.
Mat
mata/mace
woman
The word mata after borrowed to Nténg language undergoes the process of
elision, the low-mid vowel /a/ at the word final position is deleted completely; the
word turns into /mat/.
V -------> Ø
+low
+mid
Insertion
2.
/____#
Ame
me
what
In Hausa language, wh-question /me/ has been borrowed into another Chadic
language Nténg. The word undergoes the process of epenthesis whereby a lowmid vowel /a/ is inserted at the word initial position; the word becomes /ame/ in
Nténg language.
Ø
------->
3.
Mun
V
+low
+mid
/ ____ C
+nasal
+labial
mu
we
In this above borrowed Hausa word mu, Nténg speakers as the process of
naturalizing the word so as to fit Nténg pronunciation, a voiced nasal consonant
/n/ were inserted at the word final position. The Hausa word /mu/ turns into /mun/
in Nténg language.
Ø
------->
C
/ ____#
+nasal
+alveolar
Substitution
4.
Rogoo
rogo
cassava
The Hausa word rogo in Nténg language undergoes the process of substitution
where the short mid-back vowel /o/ changes to long mid-back vowel /oo/ at the
word final position. The word then finally turns into /rogoo/ in Nténg language.
11
V
------->
+short
+mid
+back
B.
V
/____#
+long
+mid
+back
Words Undergo More than One Phonological Process
Those undergo elision and epenthesis
5.
Cii
cinya
thigh
The word cinya becomes cii in Nténg language after undergoing some
phonological processes and naturalized into the language. The word in the first
place undergoes the process of elision where the final syllable /ya/ and nasal
consonant /n/ at final position of the first syllable /cin/ were deleted.
V
------->
+low
+mid
C
------->
[+syllabic]
C
------->
[+nasal]
Ø
/____#
Ø
/____#
Ø
/____#
Secondly, the word undergoes the process of insertion where the high-front vowel
/i/ is inserted after the affricate consonant /t∫/; the word turns into /cii/ in Nténg
language.
Ø
6.
------->
V
/
+front
+high
Muut
C
____
+affricate
+post-alveolar
-voice
mutuwa
death
Arabic but Hausa adapted word mutuwa is loaned to Nténg and in the process of
borrowing and naturalizing the word to fit into the language phonology, the word
undergoes different phonological processes. The word undergoes the process of
elision; the final /wa/ syllable as well as and the high-back vowel /u/ at the word
medial position are deleted.
V
------->
Ø
/____#
12
+mid
+low
C
+approximant
+labio-velar
------->
/____#
Ø
The word undergoes the process of insertion where the high-back vowel /u/
inserted before the word final consonant; the word is converted into /muut/ in
Nténg language.
C
____
+stop
+ alveolar
-voice
Those undergo substitution and Epenthesis
Ø
7.
------->
V
+back
+high
/
Kaa
kai
head
Hausa word kâi while borrowed to Nténg language undergoes the process of
substitution. In the first place, the Hausa diphthong /ai/ is substituted with a short
low-mid vowel /a/. The word turns into /kâ/.
V
+low-high
-short
-long
------->
V
-long
+mid
-back
/____#
Secondly, the word undergoes the process insertion where the low-mid vowel /a/
is inserted at the word final position. The word finally becomes /kaa/.
Ø
------->
V
+mid
+low
/____#
8.
9.
Kwakaa
kwakwa
coconut
Nténg borrowed another word kwakwa from Hausa language and naturalizes the
word in their language. The process of which the word undergoes includes
substitution process where the labiovelar plosive /kw/ is substituted with plain
velar stop /k/ at the word’s second syllable.
C
+stop
------->
C
[+velar]
/____ V
+low
13
+labio-velar
-voice
+mid
Then the word undergoes the process of insertion in which the low-mid vowel /a/
is inserted at the word final position; the word turns into /kwakaa/ in the receptor
language i.e. Nténg.
Ø
------->
10.
Shwaa
V
+low
+mid
/ ____#
sha
to drink
The processes undergoes by the word sha ‘drink’ after borrowed into Nténg
language include the process of substitution in which the alveo-palatal fricative /ʃ/
is substituted with labialized alveo-palatal fricative /ʃʷ/ as the result, the word
turns to shwa.
C
+fricative
+alveo-palatal
------->
C
[+labialized]
/____
V
+mid
+low
Finally, the word undergoes the process of insertion where the low-mid vowel /a/
is inserted at the word final position; the word turns into /shwaa/ in Nténg
language.
Ø
------->
V
+low
+mid
/ ____#
Conclusion
The paper discussed some of the phonological processes a Hausa borrowed words
undergo before naturalizing into Jákàtó and Nténg languages. The processes
found in the study includes: words that undergo one process and those that
undergo more than one phonological process. Under single process undergo by
Hausa borrowed words; in Jákàtó language, the words undergo Elision/Deletion,
Insertion and Substitution and in Nténg language, the words undergo
14
Elision/Deletion, Insertion and Substitution while those undergo more than one
process includes Substitution and Elision, Substitution and Insertion, Elision and
Insertion and Elision, Substitution and Insertion in Jákàtó language, finally elision
and epenthesis, and substitution and Epenthesis as in Nténg language.
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