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Psychology’s Roots, Critical Thinking, and
Self-Improvement Tools
Chapter 1
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Psychology Is a Science
 The Need for Psychological Science
 How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer
Questions?
 Psychology’s Research Ethics
Psychology in Everyday Life
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Chapter Overview
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Psychologists scientifically study how
people act, think, and feel by applying
critical thinking and a scientific approach.
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Psychology Is a Science (part 1)
 Critical thinkers do not blindly accept
arguments and conclusions.
 Science-aided thinkers challenge old
beliefs and forge new, fact-related paths.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Copyright © 2022 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved
Psychology
Is a
Science
(part 2)
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
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Wilhelm Wundt
Charles Darwin
Ivan Pavlov
Jean Piaget
Psychology in Everyday Life
• William James
• Mary Whiton Calkins
• Margaret Floy Washburn
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Psychology’s Earliest Explorers:
Magellans of the Mind
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Psychology in Everyday Life
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Psychology’s Increasing Diversity:
What Do You See?
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
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John B. Watson
B. F. Skinner
Sigmund Freud
Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
Psychology in Everyday Life
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Contemporary Psychology
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
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Structuralism
Functionalism
Behaviorism
Humanistic psychology
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive neuroscience
Psychology in Everyday Life
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Branches of Psychology
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Today’s psychology builds upon the work of
many earlier scientists and schools of thought.
 Psychology
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Unpacking the Definition of Psychology
 Science of behavior and mental processes
 Behavior
 Any action that can be observed and recorded
 Anything a human or nonhuman animal does
 Mental processes
 Internal states that are inferred from behavior
 Include sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts,
beliefs, and feelings.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Perspective
Examples of Subfields Using
This Perspective
Focus
Sample Questions
Neuroscience
How the body and brain enable
emotions, memories, and
sensory experiences
How do pain messages travel from the
hand to the brain? How is blood chemistry
linked with moods and motives?
Biological; cognitive; clinical
Evolutionary
How the natural selection of
traits passed down from one
generation to the next has
promoted the survival of genes
How has our evolutionary past influenced
our modern-day mating preferences?
Why do humans learn some fears so much
more easily than others?
Biological; developmental;
social
Behavior genetics
How our genes and our
environment influence our
individual differences
To what extent are psychological traits
such as intelligence, personality, sexual
orientation, and vulnerability to depression
products of our genes? Of our
environment?
Personality; developmental;
legal/ forensic
Psychodynamic
How behavior springs from
unconscious drives and
conflicts
How can someone’s personality traits and
disorders be explained in terms of their
childhood relationships?
Clinical; counseling; personality
Behavioral
How we learn observable
responses
How do we learn to fear particular objects
or situations? What is the most effective
way to alter our behavior, say, to lose
weight or stop smoking?
Clinical; counseling; industrialorganizational
Cognitive
How we encode, process,
store, and retrieve information
How do we use information in
remembering? Reasoning? Solving
problems?
Cognitive neuroscience;
clinical; counseling; industrialorganizational
Social-cultural
How behavior and thinking vary
across situations and cultures
How are we affected by the people around
us, and by our surrounding culture?
Developmental; social; clinical;
counseling
Psychology in Everyday Life
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Psychology’s Current Perspectives
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Psychology is growing and globalizing.
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Today’s Psychology (part 1)
 Globally more than 1 million psychologists
who share a common goal: describing and
explaining behavior and the mind underlying
it.
 89 member nations of International Union of
Psychological Science
 Science and profession; basic and applied
research
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Psychology also relates to many other fields.
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Today’s Psychology (part 2)
Biological psychology
Developmental psychology
Cognitive psychology
Personality psychology
Social psychology
Health psychology
Industrial-organizational psychology
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Psychology is a science and a profession.
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Today’s Psychology (part 3)
 Basic research; applied research
 Psychology influences modern cultures
and transforms people.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Psychology influences modern cultures
and transforms people.
 They are less likely to judge psychological
disorders as personal failures
 They are more understanding of other
peoples’ cultures that are different from
theirs
 Knowledge is power and changes our
actions
Psychology in Everyday Life
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Today’s Psychology (part 3)
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Biopsychosocial approach
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Modern Psychology’s Big Ideas:
The Biopsychosocial Approach
 Shared biologically-rooted human nature, “kin
beneath the skin"
 Psychological differences in traits, abilities,
and identities
 We are part of a larger social system: a
family, an ethnicity, a cultural group
 Biopsychosocial approach integrates these
three levels of analysis into a complete whole
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Kissing crosses cultures. Yet
how we do it varies. Imagine
yourself kissing someone on
the lips. Do you tilt your head
right or left?
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Culture and Kissing
 In Western cultures, in which
people read from left to right,
about two-thirds of couples kiss
right, as where Will Smith and
Jada Pinkett-Smith did on the
red carpet, and in Auguste
Rodin’s sculpture, The Kiss.
People reading Hebrew and
Arabic read from right to left,
and in one study 77 percent of
those readers kissed tilting left
(Shaki, 2013).
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 An age-old controversy over the relative influence of
genes and experiences in the development of
psychological traits and behaviors
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Psychologists use the biopsychospcial
approach to study major issues:
Nature–Nurture Issue
 Today’s psychological science views traits
and behaviors arising from the interaction of
nature and nurture.
 In most cases, nurture works on what nature
provides.
 In some instances, experience can influence
genetic expressions.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Identical twins have the same genes.
 This makes them ideal participants in studies designed to
shed light on hereditary and environmental influences on
personality, intelligence, and other traits.
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A Nature-Made Nature–Nurture
Experiment
 Fraternal twins have different genes, but often share a
similar environment.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Much of our everyday thinking, sensing,
memory and attitude operate on two levels.
 In dual processing, the mind processes
information at the same time on separate
conscious and unconscious tracks.
 Example: Vision is a two-track system.
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Perception, Thinking, and Memory :
Dual Processing With Our Two-Track Minds
 A visual perception track enables an individual to
think about the world (recognize things, to plan)
 A visual action track guides an individual’s
moment-to-moment actions (pick up object)
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 According to the Theory of Planned Behavior (Fishbein &
Ajzen, 1975), people who have strong attitudes toward an
attitude object are also likely to have strong intentions to act on
their attitudes, and the intention to engage in an activity is a
strong predictor of behavior!
Social psychologists (as well as advertisers, marketers, and
politicians) are particularly interested in the behavioral aspect of
attitudes.
Although there is generally consistency between attitudes and
behavior, the relationship is stronger in certain situations, for certain
people, and for certain attitudes
Psychology in Everyday Life
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Attitude as a predictor of behavior!
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Psychology in Everyday Life
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Psychology: A Science and a Profession
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Psychology is also a profession that helps
people
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Copyright © 2022 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved
Psychology as a Helping Profession (part 1)
Counseling psychology
Clinical psychology
Psychiatry
Community psychology
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Historically, psychology focused on understanding and
treating troubles (abuse, anxiety, depression, disease,
poverty).
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Contemporary views: Positive Psychology
 Positive psychology focuses on understanding and
developing the emotions and traits that promote
human flourishing (Martin Seligman et el., (2002,
2016).
 Egs., optimism, spirituality, grit, persistence.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 We use common sense to make sense of the
world…we learn much by observation.
 Most people’s mental life happens automatically,
but intuition, can lead them astray.
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The Need for Psychological Science:
Limits of Common Sense
The big question:
Should we use intuition in decision-making?
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Should we use intuition in decision-making?
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The Need for Psychological Science:
Limits of Common Sense
Why did you choose to attend Centennial College
over other institutions?
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
a. Elimination by aspects
Alternatives are evaluated against criteria, ranked
according to order of importance
Psychology in Everyday Life
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Decision-making strategies we use day to day
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
b. Heuristics
A rule of thumb that is derived from experience
and used in decision-making and problem
solving, even though there is no guarantee of its
accuracy or usefulness
Psychology in Everyday Life
Copyright © 2022 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved
Decision-making strategies we use day to day
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
b. Representative Heuristics
How do you choose a fast-food restaurant?
Chances are you use a representative heuristic
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Decision-making strategies we use day to day
A prototype that guides your expectations about:
How long it will take to get your food
What it will taste like
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
b. Recognition Heuristics
Strategy in which decision-making stops as
soon as a factor that moves one toward a
a decision has been recognized.
Psychology in Everyday Life
Copyright © 2022 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved
Decision-making strategies we use day to day
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Problem-solving: Framing
• The way information is presented so as to
emphasize either a potential gain or loss as the
outcome (the glass is half-empty vs. half-full)
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Problem solving strategies
• Positive framing leads people to prefer an option
E.g., Describing a “cure” as saving 300 people will
cause it to be favored over one that lists how many
will die.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Algorithm
• Systematic, step-by-step procedure that
guarantees a solution to a problem of a certain
type if applied appropriately and executed properly
Eg., Using a mathematical formula to solve a
problem on a test
Psychology in Everyday Life
Copyright © 2022 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved
Problem solving strategies
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Artificial Intelligence
• The programming of computer systems to
simulate human thinking in solving problems
and in making judgments and decisions.
• Work best when assisting a human
• Generates possible hypotheses that doctors
may not consider
• Does not help with critical-thinking.
Psychology in Everyday Life
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Problem solving strategies
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Psychology in Everyday Life
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The limits of using common-sense:
Hindsight Bias
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
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The limits of common-sense:
Overconfidence and Perceiving Order in
Random Events
 Overconfidence
People tend to think they know more than they
do.
 Perceiving order in random events
Humans have innate eagerness to make sense
of the world.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Post-truth occurs when many people’s
emotions and personal beliefs tend to
override acceptance of objective facts.
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Psychological Science in a Post-Truth World
 Examples of widely shared misinformation:
 The U.S. crime rate is rising.
 Many immigrants are criminals.
 Political party bias also colors Americans’
thinking.
 Extremely liberal and extremely conservative
Americans, both with similar self-confidence, view
their beliefs as superior (Harris & Van Bavel,
2021).
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Identifying negative influences
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False news
Repetition
Availability of powerful examples
Group identity and the echo chamber of likeminded
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Influences
 Building a real-truth world
 Slow, deliberate thinking versus gut reaction
 Awareness of personal biases
 Discussion before dismissal
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Terms to consider
and learn
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Psychology in Everyday Life
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The Scientific Method (part 1)
Theory
Hypothesis
Operational definition
Replication
Preregistration
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 A good theory:
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Features of a Good Theory
 Effectively organizes observations.
 Leads to clear predictions that anyone can
use to check the theory or to create practical
applications of it.
 Often stimulates replications and more
research that support the theory.
 Leads to a revised theory that better
organizes and predicts what we observe.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Descriptive methods
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Ways to Test Hypotheses and Refine
Theories
 Describe behaviors, often by using case
studies, naturalistic observations, or surveys
 Correlational methods
 Associate different factors
 Experimental methods
 Manipulate, or vary, factors to discover their
effects
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Case studies: Examine one individual or
group in depth
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Descriptive Techniques:
Case Studies and Naturalistic Observations
 Provide fruitful ideas
 Do not uncover general truths
 Naturalistic observations: Observe and
record behavior in a natural environment
without changing or controlling situation
 Describe but do not explain behavior
 Can be revealing
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Psychology in Everyday Life
Copyright © 2022 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved
Twitter Message Moods by Time and by Day
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Surveys: Descriptive techniques for
obtaining self-reported attitudes or
behaviors of a group, usually by
questioning a representative, random
sample
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Descriptive Technique: Surveys
 Wording effects
 Random sample
 Population
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Correlation
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How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer
Questions?
 Measure of the extent to which two events
vary together
 Measure of how well either variable predicts
the other
 Correlation coefficient
 Mathematical expression of the relationship
 Ranges from −1.00 to +1.00
 0 indicates no relationship
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Copyright © 2022 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved
Correlation Measures
 Correlation
 Positive correlation (above 0 to +1.00)
 Indicates a direct relationship
 Two things increase together or decrease together
 Negative correlation (below 0 to −1.00)
 Indicates an inverse relationship
 As one thing increases, the other decreases
 Weak correlation
 Coefficient near zero
 Indicates little or no relationship
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Correlation indicates the possibility of a
cause-effect relationship, but it does not
prove causation.
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Correlation and Causation
 Knowing that two events are associated does
not reveal which event causes the other.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Psychology in Everyday Life
Copyright © 2022 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved
Thinking
Critically
About
Correlation
and
Causation
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Experiment
 Method in which researchers vary one or more
variables (independent variables) to observe the
effect on some behavior or mental process (the
dependent variable).
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Experiment (part 1)
 Random assignment
 Assigning participants to experimental and control
groups by chance, thus minimizing any
preexisting differences between the groups
 Experimental group
 Control group
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Procedures and the placebo effect
 Aids in elimination of bias
 Both the participants and the research staff are
ignorant about who has received the treatment or
a placebo.
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Experiment (part 2)
 Defining terms
 Placebo
 Placebo effect
 Double-blind procedure
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Variables: In an experiment, those variables
or elements that are likely to change or vary
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Independent and Dependent Variables
 Independent variable: Variable that is
manipulated; variable whose effect is being studied
 Confounding variable: Variable other than the
variable being studied that might influence a
study’s results
 Dependent variable: Variable that is measured; variable
that may change when the independent variable is
manipulated
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Psychology in Everyday Life
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Experimentation
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
Research
Method
Basic Purpose
How
Conducted
What Is
Manipulated
Weaknesses
Descriptive
To observe and
record behavior
Do case studies,
naturalistic
observations, or
surveys
Nothing
No control of
variables; single
cases may be
misleading
Correlational
To detect
naturally
occurring
relationships; to
assess how well
one variable
predicts another
Collect data on
two or more
variables; no
manipulation
Nothing
Cannot establish
cause and
effect
Experimental
To explore
cause and effect
Manipulate one
or more
variables;
use random
assignment
The
independent
variable(s)
Sometimes not
possible for
practical or
ethical reasons
Psychology in Everyday Life
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Choosing a Research Design
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 The purpose of an experiment is to test
theoretical principles.
 The resulting principles, rather than the
specific findings, help explain everyday
behaviors.
 Psychological sciences:
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Predicting Everyday Behavior
 Focus less on specific behaviors.
 Focus more on revealing general principles
that help explain many behaviors.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Animal protection movements protest the use
of animals in psychological, biological, and
medical research.
 Use of animals for research is debated
among psychologists.
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Psychology’s Research Ethics: Studying and
Protecting Animals (part 1)
 Is it right to place the well-being of humans above
that of other animals?
 What safeguards should protect the well-being of
animals in research?
 British Psychological Society (BPS)
 American Psychological Association (APA)
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Benefits of animal
research for animals
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Psychology’s Research Ethics: Studying and
Protecting Animals (part 2)
 Invention of handling
and stroking methods
to reduce stress and
ease dogs’ move to
adoptive homes
 Improvement of care
and management in
animals’ natural
habitats
 Increased empathy and
protection for other
species
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 The APA and BPS ethics codes urge
researchers to:
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Psychology’s Research Ethics: Studying and
Protecting Humans
 Obtain participants’ informed consent to
participate.
 Protect participants from out-of-the-ordinary
harm and discomfort.
 Keep information about individual participants
confidential.
 Fully debrief participants.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 In making its historic 1954 school desegregation
decision, the U.S. Supreme Court cited the expert
testimony and research of psychologists Mamie
Phipps Clark and Kenneth Clark (1947).
Psychology in Everyday Life
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Psychology Speaks
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Values impact:
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Psychology’s Research Ethics: Values in
Psychology
 Which material is studied.
 How the material is studied.
 How results are interpreted.
 Applied psychology contains hidden
values.
 Psychology has the power to deceive,
though its purpose is to enlighten.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Using psychology
 Think, consider, improve
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Use Psychology to Become a Stronger
Person and a Better Student (part 1)
 Incorporating evidence-based suggestions
 Manage your time to that you get a full night’s
sleep.
 Make space for exercise.
 Set long-term goals, with daily aims.
 Maintain a growth mindset.
 Prioritize relationships.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Learning and retaining information
 Testing effect: Enhanced memory after retrieving,
rather than simply rereading, information
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Use Psychology to Become a Stronger
Person and a Better Student (part 2)
 Known as retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
 SQ3R: Study method that incorporates five steps
 Survey, question, read, retrieve, and review
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Distributing your study time
Learning to think critically
Processing class information actively
Overlearning
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition
 Use self-testing and rehearsal.
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Strategies That Help Learning and
Remembering
Implement the SQ3R study method.
Distribute study time.
Learn to think critically.
Actively process class information.
 Overlearn.
Psychology in Everyday Life
David G. Myers • C. Nathan DeWall | Sixth Edition