The Colonial Problem Notes
Introduction and Purpose:
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“In Canada, many dance around politics with politeness, avoiding
the fact that dispossession and colonialism are at the root of
Indigenous injustice.” (xxxi)
“Indigenous peoples became dispossessed of their land base, were
forced to live under a Canadian system of law and governance,
and because of dispossessed, were compelled to become
dependent on a foreign colonial system” (xxxi)
“Canadians cannot understand why Indigenous peoples face
injustice; it gets glossed over or told incorrectly. How can one
understand the injustice and crimes perpetrated against Indigenous
peoples when a discourse exists upholding Indigenous peoples as
savages or as a contemporary problem, when one thinks that no
pre-contact Indigenous governance structures existed or that
colonial Norther America was “discovered” wilderness almost
empty of people, when one doesn’t know that Indigenous peoples
has – and still have – the Indian Act to constrain them, or when
one doesn’t know the full extent of what happened in residential
schools?” (xxxii)
Ch 1: Intro to Indigenous Peoples in Canada
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Classifications
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Canada as a nation and the educational system ignores, denies or
depreciates Indigenous people’s knowledge, history and ways of
coming to interpret and understand existence. “based on colonial
and colonizing mind-sets” both past and present.
“Indigenous” describes “a large and very diverse group of peoples
in Canada. Indigenous is a colonial term.” Author uses this
colonial term within the English language to draw on the term and
concept.
“Pan Indian” / all-encompassing terms
o one group (indigenous) who speak distinct languages –
inaccurate and restrictive.
o Terms listed below are “pan-indian”
o Label and define the continent’s first peoples according to
the cultures, perceptions and languages of the European
colonizers, a form of identity control that angers many.
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o Patricia Monture-Angus: “not being in control of the
process of naming…serves as one of the most express
examples of silencing I can think of”
Identity:
o Many indigenous people identify with a specific nation,
treaty or ancestral heritage or background.
Terminology:
o Indigenous, Aboriginal, Native: ***all terms connote a
political identity and defined in relation to colonizers.
Indigenous:
o origin from 17th century from Latin root “indigena”
meaning “sprung from the land” and later “as born in a
country, native”.
o It is also used by the UN in an international context to
define people in relation to colonizers.
Aboriginal:
o “in reference to inhabitants of lands colonizes by
Europeans”
o Lydia Gray states that “ab” means “not” ex abnormal,
although, in Latin “ab” means “from” and used in law
frequently (“ab initio” or “from the beginning”), however,
“ab” means “off, away from” in the word forming element.
Lydia Gray refers to herself as “ANoriginal”
o Constitutional term in the Constitution Act of 1982,
defining Aboriginal people as “the Indian, Inuit and Metis
peoples of Canada”
Native:
o Mid-15th century: term described “person born in bondage”
and in 16th century is described a “person who has always
lived in a place” and in the 17th century with growth of
colonialism, coming to mean “home-born slave” and
definitional meaning “original inhabitants of non-European
nations where Europeans hold political power.”
Indian:
o Monchalin grandparent’s marriage certificate referred to
them as “sauvagesse” and “indian” from French “savage”
and “indian”
o Indian Act and Indian Status
o “Indian” is a historical farce where Christopher Columbus
met Taino people in 1492 and incorrectly labelled them
“Indians” thinking they were from the Indies. (Columbus
said he discovered a new world but the Americas were
already home to 112 million Indigenous peoples)
o Indian is a derogatory term because of the Euro-Canadian
government system and its racist documents, policies, and
acts.
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Constitution
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o Indian can also be a term of resistance and can be
reclaimed by its people.
o Patricia Monture-Angus: wants to reclaim “indian” that
was “once forced upon us and make it feel mine”
Anishinabek Nation
o 42 member communities in 2008 endorsed to the Ground
Council Assembly to stop using the term “Aboriginal” as it
represented assimilation through displacement of First
nation-specific inherent treaty rights as the term lumps in
First Nations, Metis and Inuit.
o Grand Counil Chief John Beaucage: “we represent the
cultures and traditions of our Metis and Inuit brothers and
sisters … their issues are difference from out”
“Niskapi” and “Montagnais”
o colonizers called Innu people from Quebec and Labrador.
o Niskapi means “uncivilized”
o Montagnais coming from the French “mountain people”
Innu
o Innu people called themselves Innu which means “human
being” and is now a common name.
“Huron” and “Wendat”
o Colonizers terms “huron” do define Wendat people.
o Wendat means “Dwellers of the land” – “Wendake” people
o The French renamed
o French called Wendt people “Huronia”
o Today, some Wendat people refer to themselves as Huron,
Wendat to Huron-Wendat
Constitution Act – 1982, Section 35 – Aboriginal people inclusive
of “the Indian, Unuit and Metis peoples”
o For some this was important for recognition. The
constitution also recognized past treaty agreements and
guaranteed these rights. Metis also considered this
significant to be recognized.
4 Major groups in Canada
o Indian
 Some registered under the “Indian act” through
affiliation to a band that has a signed treaty – also
considered “Treaty Indians”
 Politically recognized as First-Nations – it’s a
neologism, used for status and non-status
 First nation grew in use in 1970 and has
replaced “Indian” and “band”
 First Nation is not synonyms with
Aboriginal as it does not include Inuit or
Metis.
o Non-status Indian
 Have indigenous ancestry but lost their status under
the act or never received status.
o Metis
 Distinct from thoes claiming some indignoeus
ancestry
 Alberta and Sask metis Nations define Metis as
“self-indetifies as Metis, is distinct form other
Aboriginal Peoples, is of historic Metis Nation
ancestry and is accepted by the Metis Nation”
 Alberta Metis Nation: Metis people were born
originally from the marriage of “Cree, Ojibwa and
Salteaux woman” with French and Scottish fur
traders, starting in mid-1600’s. Also, Scandinavian,
Irish and English men also intermarried and their
decedents are Metis.
 Manitoba Metis Federation: Manitoba is birthplace
of Metis Nation – because of the Red River and
Louis Riel’s contribution to the Metis resistance.
However, the focus on the Red River Metis leaves
out other Metis who do not have roots in the Red
River.
 “Who is the original Metis”
 For some, Metis people have a distinctive
connection to their Metis community and
can trace their lineage back to a European
settlement during Fur Trade.
 Also embraced by non-status First Nations
without a Metis community but have
Indigneous and European roots ex. not
coming from a specific era – though some
say they are not “true” Metis and has
become a catch-all phrase.
 As such some call themselves “Michif” to
describe Metis identity. This is the language
of the Metis people – combining Plains
Cree and French.
 Chris Andersen: to understand “metis” one must
not focus on “mixedness” but instead focus on
history, events, leaders, territories, language and
cultures around growth of buffalo hunting and
trading of the northern Plains beginning in early
19th century and 1885 North West Uprising. Not a
“kitchen soup” for Indigenous people and
communities who have becomes disenfranchised by
the Canadian state.
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o Inuit
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R. v. Powley 2003: legal definition of who is
entitled to Metis rights. Father and Son – Steven
and Roddy Powley who killed a moose outside
Sault Ste. Marie, On. And charged with unlawfully
hunting without a hunting license and knowing
possessed a hunted game; it went to the supreme
court where it unanimous decision that Saul ST.
Marie Metis could exercise their right to hunt,
protected under section 35 of the constitution act of
1982 – it also provided definition of Metis – along
with definition from earlier there are 3 additional
factors outlined: self-identification as Metis, and
ancestral connection to historic metis community
and acceptance by a metis community.
Daniels v. Canada 2013: 13 year court battle of
Metis and non-status people took gov. to court
because of discrimination. Although Aboriginal,
they were not recognized as Indian leaving them in
jurisdiction limbo and without the same rights and
“Indians” under the Indian Act. Federal court
deemed Metis and those Indigenous peoples
without status under the Constitution Act fall under
Federal Jurisdiction. Metis and non-status were not
added to Indian Act – but were not positioned for
future negotiation with the federal gov over specific
needs and rights.
 Purpose of case was about “attaining
recognition under federal jurisdiction so as
to open the door to discussion at the level of
gov. and expand discussion on issues,
concerns and needs.
In 1939, the Supreme Court recognized Inuit under
section 91(24) but the Indian Act was amended to
reject Inuit as to keep them distinct from “Indians”
 “Inuit” means “the people” in Inuktitut
 Inuit have occupied the Arctic land and water from
Mackenzie Delta to Labrador Coast and Hudson’s
Bay and High Arctic for more than 4000 years.
 The “Inuit Nunangat” meaning “land water and
ice” make up four distinct regions: The Inuvialuit
Settlement in NWT; Nunavut; Nunavik in Quebec,
and Nunatsivut in Labrador.
o Population:
 Issues with data collection: voluntary data
collection have low response rate and are over
Stereotypes
represented by those who typically do not respond.
Thus those who need services are underrepresented
in data. Creating a “non-response bias”
 20.1% population increase of Indigenous people
between 2006 and 2011 – non-indig grew by only
5.2%. From 1996 to 2006 Indigenous population
increased by 45%, whereas non Indig increased
only by 8%.
 Population increase for Indingeous people are not
always related to births. Changes in self-reporting
as changing affiliation depending on:
 Indian Act 1985 (Bill C31) redefined who
was entitled to legal Indian status. Prior
Indian Woman and children would lose
status if married to non-status man. This
change increased the population by over
100k between 1985 and 2001. However,
after 2 generations on non-status marriages,
the children no longer get status
 Bill C3 in December 2010: gendered
discrimination between men and women
marrying non-status. Bill allowed women to
reclaim legal status if marriying out of
status, but two generation could not.
 If denied Indian status by the government they may
not be allowed in the First Nation, to participate in
governance or run for elected office.
 Some deny their Indigenous background as they do
not want to be Indian. Some try to pass themselves
off as having another ethnicity.
Indig and Northern Affairs: status Indian pop would increase by 45k
members (6%) as a result of Bill C3, along with increase in living on
reserve and more modest in urban areas.
 Appearance and race:
o Western society focuses on biological race. There is a
significance placed on “blood” status, and distinct
hierarchies based on birth, color, race, lineage, religion,
profession, wealth, politics and other criteria – this is not
traditional to Indig cultures and this lack of bias shows
how advanced their cultures were in the development of
human relations.
o The Canadian Gov. defines “who is and who is not an
Indian based on a system of registration that has its roots in
a racist, archaic blood quantum concept” in order to
eliminate as many “Indians” and reduce obligations.
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o The concept of race stems from Medieval European ideas
that there were three continents with three separate races:
Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloid. Whereas, traditional
Indig knowledge acknowledges that “we are all people of
the earth” and they knew that there were other people on
the earth.
 Identity based on stereotypical physical
characteristics originates from European Colonial
concepts and history. Definition of identity based
on appearance or blood heritage are often more
about gaining power and maintaining control than
genetics.
o Having “one drop” of Indigenous blood was not
recognized by the gov as the gov wanted Indig people to be
“Absorbed into the body politic” and not Indig.
 John McDonald, in 1885, stated “Indians go with
the tribe; half breeds are whites” and that
intermarriage would be a tool of “Absorption” and
“white” blood would eliminate governmental treaty
responsibilities.
o “Adoption” of European and First nations adopted by
“foreign” clan or nation and racial and physical features
would not matter. It was the honor and respect that the
“adopted” person carried that mattered most.
 Wendat people adopted Europeans in the past.
o Family Structure: sophisticated and complex no insure
relatives did not intermarry and not as a form of exclusion.
Free Education Myth:
o High cost of tuition and larger distance to travel for
education, as well as poverty, culture shock; the experience
of Indingeous peoples going to university.
o There are limited funds from the education department of
their first nation.. available to help Indigenous peoples
attend university
o Indspire Scholarship: lengthy processes.. not free money
o In 1870, treaties 1-7, and then in late 1800 –early 1900;
treaties 8-11, treaties included or discussed education but
treaties have not been fulfilled and is illusionary. They
detailed that they would provide schools “whenever the
Indians of the reserve shall desire it”
o United nations delated in 2008: “indigenous peoples have
the right to establish and control their educational systems
and institutions providing education in their own
languages, in a manner appropriate to their cultural
methods of teaching and learning.”
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o In Canada, the crown defined education for First Nations
and was a responsibility of the federal government.
o In 1876, through the Indian Act, it produced a standards
approach to control and management of First Nations
communities, lands, money and properties… within this
the Crown chose to provide limited educational services as
an “assimilationist mechanism”
o Schools on First Nation communities are the only ones in
Canada that do not have a guaranteed funding base. 2%
cap in 1996.
No Tax Myth:
o Gasoline: “certificate of exemption” is a gas card through
the minister of finance that exempts 14.7 cents per liter –
must present card and only use gas for personal use and on
reserve.
o Free tax:
 Indian Act section 87, stipulates “personal property
of an Indian or a band situated on a reserve” is tax
exempt. However, without status and metis and
inuit are not eligible.
 Income tax exempt on reserve, but if work off
reserve and “indian” than you pay income tax.
Even if they live on a reserve and commute.
 Sales Tax exemptions: only apply – and
automatically – to purchase and on reserve and
deliveries to reserves. Can also make a claim for
tax exemption for purchase made off reserve but it
is lengthy process.
 Government gives tax payers money to Indigenous
people: 41% of funding for Indigenous and
Northern affairs never actually goes to the
communities but stays in the bureaucracy of the
government. [$7 billion to the same size population
of New Brunswick, but NB gets $8 billion]
“just get over it:
o History: Indigenous land – colonial project of assimilation
acts, policies and laws forced upon people and
communities and dismantled communities and government
structures. “Canada can’t forget the atrocities of the past,
especially because these didn’t happen very long ago and
because colonization is still ongoing.” As well as
residential schools.
o Many people do not know the correct history of Canada.
Chapter 2:
Chapter 3:
Turtle Island
-Peace, Harmony and Inclusion.
-Promotes equality and balance for understanding of how to govern.
-Sustains the view that Justice is rooted in relationships between the land,
animals, people, and the creator.
-Justice is used to restore balance and heal relationships.
Stems from creation stories:
 Haudenosaunee: Skywoman fell from the sky onto the back of a
turtle
 Cherokee: a-typical story – woman who fell from the sky and
birds place her on the back of a turtle
Governance
Structures
-Main goal: community welfare. This results in health and a lack of
poverty.
-Pre-contact: “achieved true civilization” through land, community,
gender quality and individual freedom, as well as egalitarian with no
authority structure and no distance between leadership and others.
Hierarchies:
-Everyone had their own unique role – but there were no wealth
hierarchies.
-Nuu-Chah-Nulth: recognized different class of people but shared
resources generously.
 Whale: Functionally related parts = classes in society /
Boundedness of body = holism of the polity / nutritionally similar
pieces = mediation of hierarchy and solidarity in societies.
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Whale: “the Whales body reflects the togetherness of the whole
society. Necessities were apportioned according to the need
although certain pats within the whole played particular roles”
Leadership
- Leaders do not ask, “What can I control” or “what do I get”, but “what
am I responsible for?” and “what can I contribute”
-Mikmaq: Chiefs provide sustenance for all connected to them and did not
have individual wealth.
-Cree: Chiefs had to give freely to needy and set tone for ceremony gift
giving. “okimow” means “chief” and derives from “give away”
-Nuu-chah-nulth: chiefly essence though generosity – ex. chief lead whale
hunt but give all away
Common form of Indig Governance: Clans, houses, counsels and
confederacies.
 Wendat: 5 nations: Attignawantan (bear), Attigneenongnahac
(cord), Arendahronon (rock), Tahontaenrat (Deer) and
Ataronchronon (Swamp or mud).
 Huron-Wendat: 4 levels: Lineage/clan segment (chiefs selected by
older women from linage), village council (civil affairs for each
lineage, of defense for same and elders), Nation councils (chiefs
from all clan segments, from all villages), Confederacy council
(civil chiefs meet each spring motivated by “an ideal of peace” –
deal with politics, trade, settlement, missions, expeditions, etc.)
 Black-foot Nation: confederacy of three nations: Sikaik in the
northern region (meaning blackfoot), Blood/Kainai from central
region (meaning many chiefs), and Peigan/Piikani from southern
region (means scabby robes). Tsuut’ina was added in late 1900’s.
While Nations shared same language/customs and are associate
together, they had separate political units. Nations were
subdivided into clans, which were governed by an elected clan
chief. Clan chiefs chose chief of the nation. Required bravery
generosity and compassion. “All comrades” society to preserve
order and protect the people through leadership over the affairs of
the clans.
 Gitksan and Wetsuweten: “the most basic of human relationships
– family” and “the house” or “Long house” is the main political
unit and common ancestry is shared. Responsibilities are passed
on through oral form from each house head chief. Matrilineal and
“a person is born into his or her mother’s house. The house head
chief is accountable for their house members activies and but can
also have “wings” of help from the head chief and other elders.
Then clans, the broadest group, Gitksan (4 clans) and Wetsuweten
(5 clans). No one from the same clan is permitted to marry as
people are historically related.
Disruptions to
Indig. governance
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Western
governance:
The
Haudenosaunee
Great Law of
Peace:
Sto:lo : displacement of women-centred society and social
organization. Si:le (grandmothers) played important role in
community. From 1869-1951:Indian act prohibited Sto:lo women
from voting or holding leadership roles. When a woman married a
man she was forced to be under his band,
Indigenous governance and laws are not about power and control
(p 44). In Halq'emeylem - no word for "government" or "control"
etc., as well that western governance lacks spirituality.
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-Power and control.
-Separate land, culture and governance (inseparable in Inding. gov)
-Indigenous people are dependent on the state which is a tool of
compliance
-"Band" councils and elected "chiefs" are apart of colonial impositions.
The great law of peace is the founding constitution of the Haudenosaunee
Confederacy. Wampum belts (clam shells and beads) held by the
Onondaga Nation. Symbolize or commemorate important events and
agreements.
"The great law of peace" translates from Mohawk to English is "the great
big nice" or "the great good way"
Taiaiake Alfred: "great law" is a mistake and a better translation would be
"big warmth" or "big harmony" - now a law but guidelines
Many version so The Great Law of Peace: but none preferred over
another.
The National Museum of the American Indian created a story combining
many stories and consulted with 5 different Haudenosaunee people and a
Mohawk editor. This version a man called "peacemaker" was on a journey
to spread peace wen the Haudenosaunee nations were at war. The
peacemaker came to the home of Hayo'wetha, an Onondaga leader, who
also wanted to spread the message of peace after losing wife and
daughter. They traveled together and showed strength and unity. Took a
single arrow and broke in two - then take 5 arrows and try to break cannot. The peacemaker symbolized the strength of a unifying
confederacy. This message of peace was taken by the Mohawk, Oneida,
Cayuga, Seneca and Onondaga Nations. Hayo'wetha and the Peacemaker
found Tadadaho (leader who killed Haywethas family) and invited him to
join the confederacy - with he promise that Onondaga would be capital of
the "grand council". The nations joined together and dug a hole and put
weapons in it and then replanted a white pine over the hole. This tree is
call "the tree of peace" It has four main long roots - pathways to peace,
and an eagle who sit atop the tree is a messenger to the creator from the
people. Each leader of grand council was called "hoyaneh" meaning
"caretaker of peace". Eventually clan mothers became say in who was
chief. Safeguard rights of the next seven generations.
This peace is no the nonexistence of conflict of war, but as human
actively strive for universal justice. Righteousness (shared ideology that is
pure and unselfish), Reason (the power of human mind to arrive at
righteous decision) , and Power (to enact a true peace as unified people on
path of righteousness and reason). Power involves telling others to lay
down their weapons, persuasion and power.
The idea of independency within a confederacy was used by the US for
colonied - they were influenced by Haudenosaunee. Benjamin Franklin
reference gov structure - recognized on Oct 4, 1988. (p 49). However,
constitution did not mention women's roles/clan mothers.
Clan Systems
Class systems of the Haudenosaunee- maintain "social, political,
economic and spiritual cohesion"
"otara" in mohawk means land, clay or earth as well as clan. - literally
asking "what is the outline or contour of your clay"
Cayuga, "de'ni:s nisa'sgao'de" meaning "what family or animal grouping
do you belong to?"
Clan membership includes reciprocal relationships and responisbilities.
"the teaching of the clan help people walk the good path" - repair person
and interpersonal detachment caused by loss, anguish or grief.
Marriage between clan members is prohibited. Even if clans are apart of
different nations.
If clan adopted a new memeber - the women would have final say.
"This quality of unified diversity, which is embodied in the clan system, is
significant for understanding not only Indigenous governance but also
Indigenous justice and methods od addressing crime."
Methods of
addressing crime:
Consensus based decision making
Dealing with crime/harm:
OBjibwa/cree: participation and consent of community
Navajo: agreement and concensus of everyone involved
Mikmaq: bring together disputing parties
Cree: collaboration and cooperation - restore health to those who were
harmed.
Swampy Cree: healing rather than punish - harm done to one affects all.
Omushkegowuk: banishment as to help perpetrator and work to reclaim
spiritual health and separate them from community, until find
responsibility.
Inuit: do not cause more problems - focus on maintaining wellbeing and
community strength.
Blackfoot: thieve or nuisance faced ridicue and scornful laughter.
Kiowa: inflict embarrassment through ridicule and scorn. Ex. ridicule for
rape. The women punish him themselves
Crime prevention:
Omush: education through stories ensure community and encourage
appropriate behavior.
Ojibwa: leaders taught through example.
Carrier Nation: laws were ingrained in youth
Murder:
Cheynne: serios offence- deny participation in national activities for up to
10 years
Lakota/crow: murder is private affair delt with parties involved - and
accused family offer reparation to victims family.
Blackfoot: compensation or taking the life of the murderer or of a fmaily
memebers. If compensation - third party does negotiating.
Haudenosaunee: settlement among involved - encourage admit guilt and
offer 6 white wampum for forgiveness. (customary number for life). Head
woman would decide on murderes fate - if murdere offered recompense
before decision was made, then possible to come to agreement.
Sometimes head woman of family adopted murdered as replacement for
list victim but would require to be branded.
Algonquin: wars/disputes that were raids/war parties but with low # of
deaths.
After Europeans came, more wars and disputes between Nations began to
occur.
70% of Indingeous nations did not practice war at all - and if they did it
was not like the war in our current society. More like a "nobel sport" - like
contact sports - not purposefully lethal.
Huron/Wendat: coercion and war were absent -
Mikmaq: no instruments or tools that are comparable to European torture
equipment and instruments of death - to use as a threat of violence for
control.
Chapter 4: Historic and Contemporary Colonialism
Property Rights
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When Europeans travelled to the Americas in 1492, they brought
with them pre-existing and ingrained ideas regarding ownership,
property and people” (63)
“The limits of self-determination were further narrowed through
the implementation of what came to be known as the ‘salt-water
thesis.’ This thesis stipulates that ‘only territories separated by
water or that were geographically separate from the colonizing
power could invoke self-determinism.’” (63)
“In defense of England’s colonial interests in the America, Locke
developed a concept of agrarian labour, its fundamental premise
being that the right to claim land as property was the result of
agricultural labour.” (66)
“Locke introduces his theory of peropty rights in Chapter Five of
his Second Treaties of Government […] He claims that it is a
natural right of man-kind to preserve itself by drinking, eating, and
taking things from nature. As he states, ‘ God, who hath given the
world to men in common, hath also given them reason to make use
of it to the best advantage of life, and convenience.’” (67)
“Essentially, he argues that England should colonize North
America so as to encourage economic and social development.”
(67)
James Tully, “contends that Locke intentionally created his idea of
property specifically to contrast with Indigenous customs related
to the land in order to refute the latter and to rationalize the
appropriation of Indigenous lands in America by English settlers.”
(p 68)
Doctrine of
Discovery
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How to acquire
land:
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Underpinnings
the Rights of
Property:
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Pope Nicholas V 1452: "Europeans were able to attack, conquer,
and subjugate Saracaens, Pagens and other enemies of Christ
wherever they were to be found."
Christopher Columbus 1492: Nother America home to 112 mil
Indingeous people when he arrived
Papal Bulls:
Inter caetera Divinia: approve Spain to spread Catholicism in
America + another bull = 500 years of non-Christians being put
under guardianship of Christians. No consult with Indigneous
peoples.
Papal Bulls + Doctrine of Discovery = use to gain authority over
land.
"terra Nullis" = "territory without people" or "the land is empty"
Canadian law continues to apply "Doctrine of Discovery" as
European superiority and Indigenous inferiority - or as
"conquered subjects"
1960 - UN - self-determination of Indig is not limited.
Salt Water Thesis - further narrow self-determination -only
separated by an ocean can invoke self-determination. To be
recognized as a separate nation, one must be separated by water
from their colonizers.
conquest: military subjugation for permanent sovereignty
Cession: official transfer of territory from one autonomous
political entity to another.
Settlement: attaining land that was formally unused unih=nhabited
or not belonging to another unit
Annex: crown annex in unilateral act
Differences in land acquirement results in different responsibilities
for the crown.
Canada relies on "settlement thesis" that thinks land claimed by
colonies as terra nullis - it requires "a certain elasticity of logic"
With the Discovery Doctrine, and the protestant reformation
(increase rationalism and decline religion) - need additional law to
support new legal and political doctrines of colonization.
Thomas Hobbes, 1651, argue there is no such things as natural
order or any jutice in nature - so human need to make a
government or an artificial man state call "Leviathan" and
claimed that Indigenous people had no laws at all. Rebellion
against the artificial man-state would break society's basic contract
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Colonialism:
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of peace and order - thus, fear and terror were used to assure no
return to the "original state of nature". Humans in nature are
"brutish, solitary, poore, nasty and shorte."
John Lock - saw humans in nature as "tolerant, joyful, free and
equal" while also "insure and dangerous in the freedom" and lack
'positive laws" They must give up this to preserve their rights to
property enforce by human law. Proclaimed "right" to instigate
war against Indig whom considered "dangerous" to their freedom
and property. Lock developed the concept of Agraian Law - the
right to claim land based on result of agri labour. This disposed
Indig. from their land.
Two treaties of Gov. - Lock drew on Hugo Grotius book from
1625 (founding writings on international law). They believe that
the earth was "given" to men from God. However, for Grotius,
obtaining property require agreement, and acknowledge Indig.
rights to land - whereas Lock did not. Lock thought that property
was acquired by adding labor to it -"labor theory of value"
(developed alongside theory of productivity). Lock states that
Indigenous peoples were in rich in land, but poor in all the
comforts of life" and that if "Devonshire farmers" came then it
would be much more valuable land. Lock created property to
contrast with Indigenous ways and to later rationalize the taking of
land. Locks ideas continue to morph modern day thought,
Respect toward land: not to be "improved, cultivated or
acquired" but is a gift from the creator - to Passamaquoddy people
- humans are connected to the land and the land has a soul.
"Indigenous peoples are in the late stages of "the state of nature",
one that is historically less developed when compared with
European political organization. Either nationhood not terrirorial
jurisdiction exists." (68)
Columbus brought "Wetiko psychosis" - in cree means "cannibal"
- not eating the flesh of another but rather "eating the life of
another" or "the sickness of exploitation" "You cannot be the doctor is you are the disease" - where westerns
have a suppressed consciousness, and that colonizes are "blind to
the ills" of their ways
Europeans came to Americas by escaping the Renaissance period
of religious persecution, political degradation and darkness. They
were fleeing their fears from home, and now only had "to fear the
unknown" - although, fear of the unknown is a powerful motivator
of violence and “what one fears one destroys”
Planned eradication:
o 1700’s colonizers planned to give blankets with small pox.
Sir Jeffrey Amherst wrote “could it not be contrive to send
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the small pox among those disaffected tribes of Indians?
We must, on this occasion, use every stratagem in our
power to reduce them” and Henri Bouquet quote back “I
will try to inoculate.… and take not to get the disease
myself”
o 1700’s John Hughes of Pennsylvania set dogs to kill
Indigenous people in B.C. – this would put the indingeous
people at self defense and make them easier to shoot at.
Michael Yellow Bird: three types of colonization:
o Internal: bio political and geopolitical management of
people and their land – all within the borders of an imperial
nation. Through control to manage population they use
schools, police, etc.
o External/exploitation: “the exploitation of fragments of
Indigenous worlds, animals, plants and human beings”
being explored for the benefit of the colonizer to build
wealth and privilege. Large multi-national corps reap
profits by extraction on Indigenous territory.
o Settler: “foreign family units move into a place and
reproduce” and “an imperial power oversees the
immigration of these settlers” and then settlers take over
land and try to destroy the original people there. Involves
master narratives where the “superiors” represent progress
and civilization. Then involves stripping away identity and
histories of original inhabitants. In Canada – disconnection
and dislocation from traditional territories and force under
the governing influence and control of European settlers.
o *all forms include external aggression and domination –
both are internal control, repression and violence.
Erica-Irene Daes: deliberate strategy of colonialism is to break
down the opposition of those being colonized and to think they are
helpless to resist and naïve to think they can try. Central purpose
of colonialism is to ingrain the impression that they are “out of
step” with everyone, have no friends, and that their thoughts of
resentment and resistant are irrational, crazy or unjustifiable and
then “serve” to prove how savage or ignorant they are. Colonizers
also use isolation as a tool to stop external foundations of
knowledge and information – thus, propaganda tries to persuade
them they are ignorant ..etc to have been colonized.
Jack D. Forbes: colonialism assigns low status to Native customs
and, if racial differences are apparent, than they assign low status
to the physical characteristics. They are made to feel inferior and
this is a “weapon of psychological warfare to control them”
James Youngblood Henderson: Modern Europ. Though is around
notion that “Terror” is a valid basis of sovereign power and law,
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Orientalism:
Contemporary
Colonialism:
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while also “hiding the effects of such terror on those who suffer
under the rule of law”
17th and 18th century political and legal thought shaped colonial
reasoning. Colonialism was a conscious choice taken by the
settlers. Europeans could have followed the notions of the treaty
commonwealth and entered into limited contractual alliance with
Indigneous peoples. However, they decide to create “new
hierarchies… that believed in the absolute superiority of
Europeans over the colonized, etc.
The concept of colonialism if a western concept – and not the only
story we use to tell about Indigenous peoples. Colonialism is
where the settlers power is the fundamental reference and this
inherently limits Indigenous freedom. We are privileging the
perspective of the assimilation and legitimizes the discourse –
which claims to have overtaken and overcome Indigenous peoples.
This is not true, Indigenous people have their own unique stories
and view – neither people or teaching eradicated - instead they
were interrupted and disrupted. Many are still fighting strong.
James Youngblood, Benson and Findlay agree that “colonialism is
an artificial construct of European elites using political ideology
and human made legal rules.”
When the west sees the east and fictionalizes socity and people
and assumes European superiority.
“Noble savage” through western lens
 A method of post-modern colonization in which domination is still
based on settler rules, but through more indirect ways to achieving
their goals. Colonialism is then sustain through relationship
between education, imperialisms and capitalism.
 2011 Canada was 6th on UN HDI, however, Indigneous peoples in
Canda were are 32nd place (using 2001 hdi scores).
 The Indian Act of 1985 is the most notable for Indigenous
communities having no running water, no sanitation and have
deplorable housing.
o The act regulates “Indians” in Canada and they fall under
Federal jurisdiction. The feds give less to First Nations
(water, housing, education) than they do to prov,
terrirtories and municipal govs. Ex. Education funding not
lept pace with inflation or growth rate of FN population.
These types of servies typically provided by not the federal
government to non-Indig communities and have no
legislative framework or guaranteed minimum standards.
Systemic Racism and continued colonialism.
 1869 Gradual Enfranchisement Act: a blood quantum requirement
was added for the first time. Only indigenous with at least ¼
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White Privilege:
indian blood were eligible. Then as Canada expanded West and
the population increased they wanted more stringent controls…
Indian Act of 1876: in effect today – still categories Indian based
on racist and sexist stereotypes.
Bonita Lawrence: regulatory regimes can be understood in terms
of discourse – in the sense that Foucault used the term. Regulatory
regiem is now so familiar it is seen as almost “natural”.
Indigneous people are classified by race. (p 76).
Constitution of 1982 – racial labeling reached height when
defintinon of who was “Aboriginal” was written into consti. –
created a false sense of inclusion.
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Failure to listen to post-contact experiences: 1) challenge the
relevance of the narrative for one’s life in the present; 2) lock
events in history to have no present; 3) dehumanize aboriginal ppl;
4) claim “there is nothing I can do”; 5) Claim the stories are too
hard to listen too.
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pre-contact indig. Had treaties based on peace and friendship and
were recorded orally and through exchange of sacred items.
Earliest treaty: “The great law of peace” of 1142. Haudenosaunee
Confederacy.
“Indian Treaties” are between Indigenous peoples and the crown
post-contact and based on a nation to nation basis. The crown also
honours treaties “as long as the sun goes round and the water
flows”
o Date back to early 1600. In 1700 they were about peace
and friendship to coexist.
Chapter 5:
Treaty overview:
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Royal
Proclamation of
1763:
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The treaty of
Niagara 1764
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Britian beat france in a war and the British monarch claimed land
that had been taken from Indigneous peoples by the French.
Settlers had to purchase land through crown – not Indigenous
peoples.
Lack of clarity regarding the interplay between indigenous
“possession” and british “sovereignty”.
Referred to as “Indian Bill of Rights” or “indian charter” as it
established constitutional framework for future negotiations - this
was the foundation for future treaty making.
o Interpretation 1: document took away indig people land
without constulation and without their knowledge. “it grew
out of villainous doctrince of discovery… turned into
wards of the crown.” Thoes following this interp. Note it
was written by British colonists for monopoly over Indig
terriority.
o Interpretation 2: according to film “The Invisible Nation”
Britain had economic incentives for the proclomaion. At
first Indingoeus peoples were happy about the RP because
it gave them control over their land. Overtime, though,
they realized it was not intended to protect them, but rather
to protect the beavers as Europeans could acquire pelts
through the fur trade.
o Interpretation 3: From John Borrows, as Indingeous people
were “active participants” in the formation and ratification
of the RP. “The RP should not be looked upon as a
document that undercuts Indingeous peoples rights… this
would be taking a colonial interpretation of it”. The Rp
was a way to attempt to convinve Indig that British would
respect their land and politics. The British included “the
several Nations or Tribes of Indinans and that they should
not be molested or disturbed”, however, at the same time
the Crown claimed sovereignty over indigenous lands.
British were trying to meet expectation of both sides and
has a “document awakrdly straddling the conflicting
interests of Indingeous people and the Crown.” However,
Indigneous title was recognized until ceded by a treaty
between Inding and Crown, while the RP also limitied
European rights on Indig land as it didn’t set out who
specific Indingeous peple would have power to practice
“autonomy through their own sovereignty”
o
John Burrows argues RP can be better understood through the
Treaty of Niagara of 1764. For burrows the wampum belts signify
Indingeous sovereignty.
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Lynn Gehl: The Niagara treaty meeting served to ratify the 1793
RP. the wampum belts make clear Indigneous nations are not
subjects of British.
John Ralston Saul: the meeting was originzed to “cement” the RP.
It was a “multinational alliance, often referred to as the Covenant
Chain of Friendship was declared, wherein no participant
renounced sovereignty”
Written, oral declaration and presentations, and exchange of
wampum belts.
Held at “crooked place” on the Niagara River.
Over 24 nations and over 2000 Indigneous people attended and
were regarded as the largest representation of Indigenous peoples
ever brought together for a treaty agreement.
Wampum belts were both given and received by both Europeans
and Indingeous. The beaded belts are like paper treaties. They
were used as a way to codify the historic event and to ensure clear
understanding.
2 wampum belts presented at meeting. They represented the
British and great lakes covenant chain confederacy wampum
(representing strong relations among equal allies, and a
relationship as strong as a chain, yet it could also tarnish just as
silver does – implying it required regular maintenance) & the
twenty-four nations wampum belt (representing renewed and
strengthened engagement and recognized Indig ppl promises of
friendship and attachment to the British.)
Sir William Johnson, Indian affairs superintendent: instrumental in
organizing the Fort Niagara meeting that resulted in the Treaty. It
was the winter after the RP. Johnson commissioned Algonquin
and Nipissing Anishinaabe nations as runners for 1764 conference.
Delegates invited them by travelling to and presenting white
wampum strings as a sign of peace as well as a printed copy of the
RP.
The Conference main function was agree to “Treaty of Offensive
and Defensive Alliance” and would lead to “a free fair and open
trade, at principle of posts and free intercourse and passage into
our country..bring to justice any persons who commit robbery or
murders on them and that we will protect them against their and
out enemy” but resulted in discussion to formulate governing
principals of crown-indigenous relations (said by William
Johnson).
Indingeous peoples presenting Johnson with the |”Gus Wen Tah”
or “two row wampum” as a way to demonstrate understanding on
the RP and Niaga treaty. This codified a nation-to-nation
relationship rooted in non-interference mediated by peace,
friendship and respect. White and Purple wampum beads and two
parallel purple lines- one representing canoes of inding with their
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customs, ways and laws, and the other was a European ship
carrying law, traditions and customs. The river is a white
background which represents purity of agreement. “Each boat
travel side by side but in agreement, never interfering or trying to
steer the others boat.” As well 3 rows of white wampum beads
separating the two purpoe rows and represents friendship, respect
and peace – the three rows keep the purple rows separate but also
bind them together. This is symbolic literacy.
Treaty of Niagara never found nugatory nor been overruled by
Canadnain law.
RP seen in light of Niagara Treaty – not “a unilateral decision of
the Crown” but “something to be entered into which Indigenous
peoples had significant say. The RP needs to be understood
“naturally” by the people of the time. Thus, RP can be seen as
Indigneous sovereignty.
Two related facts: 1) an alliance between Britain and Indig nations
and 2) Indig sovereignty. With this, the crown is required to seek
Indig consent for settlement on Indig land, as well as the creation
of open free trade and passage between Indigneous peoples and
the crown and an alliance between them.
Oral passing: elders make sure children are taught how to
memorize in great detail so stories can be passed down.
Kathryn V Muller: Two Row Wampum Belt biographer:
“although written documents provide a valuable source alongside
oral traditions and wampum belts if we are to grasp the intricacies
of post=contact diplomacy fully”
Contract: John Burrows argues that “Indian” treaties are classified
as sui generis and mean a unique contract. He says that the treaties
are legal contracts. And adds that contracts are not just what
appears at face value, but also what is implied in subsequent
agreements or ters that may have not been previously recognized.
Many Indingeous people interpret RP from the contract view.
Even though the RP says that Crown has sovereignty, First
Nations interpret that they are soverign. William Johnson did not
see the RP and Treat of Niagara as declarations of British
Sovereignty.
Sovereignty: a colonial concept. Taiaiake Alfred explains that
“Indingeous peoples are by defintions the orignila sinhabitatns of
the land and they never gave consent to Europeans for ownership
or sovereignty” and furthers that soverign is contradictory to
Indingeous notions of power - “inappropriuate concept” because
their society recovized no absolute authority - just the acceptance
of this concept thus reinforces the imposed foreign authority”
Alfred: “If Indigneous people frame their understanding within
this state-constructed concept of “sovereignty” and try to achieve
An organized take
over: the
conspiracy of
legislation (p 90)
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it as a goal, as they accept without really meaning to- this colonial
construct and the “State” as their model of governance”
The British chose to recognize only that the French passed to
Britian control and “ownership” of the land in Nother America
claims by France but not that the French never really properly
acquired it in the first place.
British Columbia: 1850-1854 – James Douglas from the Crown
negotiated 14 land agreements with Indigneous peoples on
Vancouver Island. “The Douglas Treaties”. He created reserves,
when he should have been creating treaties - and both non-indig
and indig could come to land agreements with crown to take up
farming mining or other activity on land outside of the reserves.
After Douglas retired the gov. took away right for Indig ppl to
make agreement with rights to their land, reduced size of reserves
and paid no compensation for loss of land, and denied Indig ever
owned land. Because B.C. was not recognized during the RP the
province did not have to recognize Aboriginal title to the land and
no need for treaties – saying “laws written before I was born do
not apply to me”
P 91
Chapter 6: Indigenous Peoples and the State: Legal Manipulation and Indian Legislation
Reserves, Agents
and Pass System:
Reserves: while occurring before, they were defined in the Indian Act of 1976 as lands
"reserved" for Indian use. When the word use was used, it made it seem like the
Indingeous poeple have freedom to their land. However, the lands were still considered
owned by the Crown.
Treaty 6: How cold reserved land be borrow from the Crown when all land was given by
the Creator for Indigenous people to use? After treaty 6 was signed, boundaries were
set for the reserves and limited it to 160 acers per person. Poundmaker spoke against
reserves in Treaty 6 negotiations.
Kitsilano, B.C.: Salish peple resided there and colonists prompted them to move. They
were seen as "encroaching on an emerging suburban neighborhood"
St. John's Beaver Band: After ww2 their reserve (IR 172) was made available for nonIndig returning from war, and then shortly after discovered oil on the land.
Purchasing: Investor did not invest in development of land that was not "Actually
owned" and belonged to the crown. There were restriction put on Idnigeous poeples -
in 1888 could not sell Agricultual products w/o consent of indian agent. and in 1941 restrict sale of wild animals and furs.
Indian agents: responsible for limiting traditional culture and customs or practices that
were deemed "uncivilized".
The pass system: in the prairies, First Nation people could not leave reserve w/o pass
issues by Indian agent. Originated in 1828 - came into full function during Riel
resistance and then remained in place until 1930's. It's aim was racial segregation.
Indian
Legislation:
in 1850 and 1851, first "Indian: legislation were enacted by Candain legislature: The Ace
for the Protection of Indian in Upper Canada from Imposition and the Property
occupied or enjoyed by them from trespass and Injury (1850) and an act for the Better
Protection of the Land and property of Indians in Lower Canada. Commissioned has full
contorl over property. Also offered first definition of "indian" - no Indigenous input
Defining Indian left out Metis and Inuit. And Indians were not considered "real" people.
1850 Legislation for Upper Canada made only the Crown permitted to deal with Indian
lands.
To "civilize" the Province of Canada qualified "Indians" to get cull citizenship and left
behind their Indian identity.
In 1857: Act of Encourage the Gradual Civilization of the Indian Tribes in Canda passed.
Adult Indians who were free of debt and has good morals, fluent in English nd French,
could qualify for enfranchisement or "foregoing "indian status". If worthy they could
received full citizenship (can vote), and 50 acers, and band money. The wife and
children of any enfranchised Indian man would also lose their status and become
colonial citizen. From 1857-1867: only a few applied for enfranchisement but One
person was accepted.
1860: Indian Lands Act - Canada was responsible for managing al lndian affairs from the
imperial gov
1867: Constitution: afford the federal gov absolute jurisdiction and power over "indians
and lands Reserved for Indians"
1869: Gradual Enfranchisement of Indians, the Better management of Indian Lands and
Extended the Provisions of Act 21stVictoria.
Any Indian woman who married "non-Indian" man could cease to be Indian - and
children of them would not have status.
Provisions for electing of chiefs and counsels by Can gov. FN did not follow rules and
after 2 years the Deputy Superintendent said this reluctance oculd be "Accounted for
from the fact that the Indian mind is in general slow to accept improvements."
The Philosophy and
Intent of the Indian
Act
1867: Indian Act. Assimilation and control were main purposes. Initially to be temporary
until Indian became assimilated.
Paternalism: First Nations were persons in need of specific regulation. FN viewed as
incompetent population that must be "civilized"
Many ammendments:
-between 1878 and ww2: ammends to reinforce assimilation
-1920: FN to seek permit to appear in traditional dress
-1951: lift some of the worst restirctions but also reinforced assimilation: - define
through assimilation of enfranchisement; non-traditional governing structure; indian
specific liquor laws and access to pool halls; outlaw Indian culture, dance and
ceremony.
Defining "Indians" out of existence and the system of entrancement:
Indian Act of 1867: concept of "Indian status" with emphasize on patrilineal, no status
to Metis. Broaden system of enfranchisement - take place in university, military,
professional and lose status. Between 1920-40: Indig people renounce their status to be
able to do these things.
1951: Revision to Indian Act - uphold gov authority on who was legally Indian and who
was not. "Indian blood" was replaced by a system of registration - that was biased. Also
kept enfranchisement - "double mother rule" child with Indian status would become
automatically enfranchised if that child's mother and grandmother had obtained their
status through marriage ot a status man.
1961: male compulsorily enfranchisement - change for women in 1985. Bill C-31 o A bill
to amend the Indian Act: Supreme court cases of Bedard and Lavell in 1973. Cases were
separate and then brought together - FN women lost their status through marriage. The
Federal court said they were not discriminated against and the marry out rule in the
Indian Act was upheld. Also UN Human Rights case of Lovelace - in 1981 UN found
Canada was in violation of the Internation Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Then in
1982, the Charted of Freedoms and Rights were passed - section 15 said that people
could no longer be discriminated against based on race, colour, ethnicity, mental,
physical or sex. Thus - Bill C31 was intended to bring the Indian Act in line with The
charter.
Page 112: "two generation cut-off clause" Section 6 of Indian Act.
Sharon McIvor fought court battle for Bill c-3 or the Gender Equity in Indian
Registration Act - received Royal assent on Dec 15 2010. However this is "a patchwork
solution to the fundamentally flawed provisions dealing with status and
citizenship" She applied to have case heard at Supreme Court - denied. Has contacted
UN.
Around 50% of status Indian marry without status. In 50 to 75 years, "Indians" will
cease to exist in Canada . There will be a dilution of status over time. "We just won't
have Indians... Legally that is." Bill C-3 will only delay this process by one generation.
The gov wants to reduce the number of people they are accountable for.
Indian act: set up to eliminate Indigenous peoples, detach women from communities
and acquire Indigenous land.
Chief and Band
Council
Structure:
Prohibition of
hereditary
leadership and
assault on
Indigenous
Lands:
1867 Indian Act said elected chief and council had replaced traditional forms of
governance. SUperintendent could order reserves to be surveyed and divided into lots force Indig into property ownership. Also, "band" was defined a a body of Indians who
use and benefit in common lands and legal title and are vested in the crown. And
"Reserve" was defined as a tract of land that Indians had "right" to use. Also, some
protections: no seize of land from debt of lien. Only Indian from band can live on
property - or get a licence to do so.
Language termination: 1900 policymakers thought living on reserves would discourage
enfranchisement and wanted to eradicate them so they "assaulted" reserve lands.
1905: amendment allow FN to be removed from reserve that were next to a town have
mroe than 8000 residents.
1911: Further amended for municipalities and companies to seize portions of reserve
for railway, road or other public works.
1911: Another amendment allowed judge to move whole reserve away from
municipalities with out band consent.
1918:amendment allow superintendent to leave out uncultivated reserve land to nonindig people to gain revenue through farming or pasture. Justify in terms of "progress"
1920: amended to disallow indingous bands to follow traditional hereditary leadership.
1936: permit Indian agents to lead band council meetings and to cast deciding vote in
case of tie.
1951: FN finally considered citizen and gained ability to pursue land claims, women who
could not vote in band election now could, and gain right if they had status.
Today: Bands enact own bylaws (to be consistent with Indian Act)
By-laws: Inding reluctance to make by-laws
 Must submit to federal minister who can decline
 Formulistic and delivered through Indian Act – unadaptable for First Nations.
 FN don’t have ways to enforce bylaws
 Most significant: reject Indian act as tool for effective self-governance.
o By laws don’t represent true self governance as they are not
inhedited from FN peoples. For example people of Six Nations “refuse
to vote in Indian Act … and Haudenosaunee”
Indian Specific
Liquor Laws and
Regulation Pool
Hall Entry
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Indian Act 1867 also consolidated laws regarding liquor and
Indians, where no one was permitted to sell liquor to status Indian.
If found of substance would be jailed until sober or locked up for
maximum 1 month – also add 14 days if not tell who gave
substance. And, ban possession of liquor on reserves.
Indian Act amended 1930, “indian who by inordinate frequenting
of a pool room either on or off an Indian reserve misspends or
wastes his time or means to the detriment of himself, his family
and his household.” Poolhall owner could face fine or 1 month in
jail.
Indian Act amended in 1951, allow indian into pool halls and
changes to possession of liquor – permission to drive in licensed
Outlawing Indian
Culture, Dancing
and Ceremonies
Scrap the Act?
places – but not take liquor to reserve, possession liquor off
reserve, or be intoxicated.
 Drybones case 1970: intoxication off reserve was dismissed – in
1969 Joseph Drybones was arrested in Yellowknife for being
intoxicated in a hotel lobby; at the time there were no reserves in
NWT. Drybones found case to Supreme Court and won. Found
police discriminated based on race under 1960 Bill of Rights.
 1985 Bill C-31: any provisions in Indian Act related to liquor laws
were repealed (now band and council set by laws relevant to
issues).
 Indian Act 1884-1951: outlaw “potlach” ceremony and traditional
sacred dance “Tamanawas”. Could be imprisoned.
o Potlach sacred to Westcoast people – and their people were
arrested for still having potlach.
o Government outlaw potlach because it was generous gift
giving – seen as too radical or “communist” and contradict
property rights they were trying to force at the time.
 1914 Amendment: needed authorization before wearing a “costume”
(regalia) or “dance, show, expedition, stampede or pagent”
o Euro-canadian saw these as paternalistic ignorance.
o 1921: Duncan Campbell Scott deputy superintendent of Indian
Affairs– “it has always been clear to me that the Indians must
have some sort of recreation, and if our agents would endevour
or substitute reasonable amusement for this senseless
drumming and dancing, it would be of great assistance”.
o 1927: more restrictive as section 140(3) of Indian Act stated
that MB, Sask, Alberta, BC or territories First Nations
participate in dance outside reserve or any dance etc in
“costume” or someone employes FN to do dance, are found
liable to fine of $25 or imprisonment for 1 month or both.
o 1951: revision made potlach and dance etc no longer illegal
and can wear “costumes” in public.
Indian Act today:
 Predominant version based on 1951 revisions – with ongoing
amendments.
 Amnesty, UN, Canadian Human Rights all condemn Indian Act
for infringing on Human Rights.
 Federal Gov/Crown legislative authority over reserve land &
Defines who is legally “indian”
 Implies FN are inferior because they must be regulated by special
law or morally insufficient and require special regulation.
White Papers:
 In 1969 Prime Minister Trudeau issues White Papers that
advocate to put Indigneous people on “equal footing” with other
Canadian citizens and eventually abandon Indian act and FN
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rights it guaranteed. Was a practical solution to the century old
“indian problem”.
Hawthorn Reports of 1966-67 survey circumstance of Indian in
Canada and reveal to be Canada most disadvantaged and
marginalized. As such Jean Chretien and John MacDonald sought
to consider White Papers, arguing it would make Canada a “fairer
nation” They said to eliminate status, end Indian Affairs, convert
reserve to private property, integrate ervices to FN to all
Canadians, and address existing land claims but no more treaty
negotiations. Trudeau considered Indingeous people to not be
sovereign and as such treaties, or agreements between to
sovereign states are void.
White papers were 13 pages total and its main tenant was
assimilation – it states “ to be Indian is to be a ma, with all a
man’s needs and abilities. To be an Indian is also to be different.
It is to spreak different languages, draw different pictures and tell
different tales and depend on values developed in different world”
o Dale Turner: the term “different” is stressed to imply that
although Indians are apart of humanity they are different
and separate in significant ways.
After initial emphasis on difference – white papers turn to
sameness, or assimilation.
Repeal Indian act and put responsibility on Provinces – not only
assimilation but also to offset costs of dept of Indian Affairs.
Treaties: takes very literal and plain reading of treaties and were
largely under acknowledged in White Papers, as they were
“widely misunderstood” and wampum belts and oral traditions
were not included.
Reserves: grant ownership to of reserves to bands but with
“obligations to accept taxation the way other Canadians do and to
pay for certain services”.
Rejecting the White Papers: Indigneous organizations reject and
became an important stimulus of Indigenous Activism. National
Indian Brotherhood /Assembly of First nations became vocal.
o Harold Cardinal, publish book in 1969 titled “The Unjust
society, that counters Trudeus claims that White Papers
were for a “just society.
Withdrew white papers in 1970 after widespread protest. Federal
gov made this change after Supreme Court supported concept of
Aboriginal Title in ruling on the Calder case in 1973. And
Trudeau said the views that the Nisga’a’s claims to Aboriginal
title were more than make believe because they weren’t based on
treaties and that soceities cannot be build on “might have beens”
and in 1970 said “we will keep them in the ghetto as long as they
want”
In 2014: Liberal party acknowledge White Papers were a mistake.
Red Paper /Citizens Plus
 From the Hawthorn Reports commissioned by Federal Gov in
1963
 Harry B Hawthorn: Indians were “citizens minus” due to failed
government policy, espically residential schools, and that they
should not be considered “citizens plus” and have additional rights
to the normal citizen.
o Alan Cairns: Citizens plus was referred to ongoing
entitlements from existing treaties.
 Presented under Cardinals leadership by Indian Chiefs of Alberta
to Federal Gov in 1970. It countered all proposals of white papers.
o White papers offer “despair instead of hope” and “gov
devised scheme to leave Indians with no land”
o
Chapter 7: The Impact of Assimilation: Residential Schools and Intergenerational Trauma
The Davin Report
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Nicholas Flood Devin was commissioned by Sir John A
McDonald (PM) to investigate the industrial schools established
for Indingeous people in the US. Mcdonald thought “indians”
were a problem.
1879 the Davin Report titled “Report on Industrial Schools for
Indians and Half-Breeds” where children were to be “Taken away
from the influence of the wigwam”.
Civilized: Davin Report declared Indingeous adult could not be
civilized where made “civilization a pizzle of despair” and states
“if anything is to be done with the Indina, we must catch them
when they’re young” –residential schools were a way to “Catching
Indians” when they were young enough to “civilize”
“Aggressive Civilization” through “civilizing education”
Davin was inspired by first Indian Industrial School in Carlisle,
Pennsyvania – 175 graves in schools cemetary today and many
bodies were sent home for burial. Also children got TB,
pneumonia and trachoma. Now seen as genocide.
Richard Henry Pratt – architech of American Residential School
System. Argued 200 years of contact between “the negro” and
“anglo saxon” has made the African American “fitted as a fellow
citizen” and that he would undertake the transformation of
Indigenous people. The objective of the US was “Kill the Indian.
Save the Man.” This idea of assimilation instead of extermination
seemed less bad.
Residential
Schools
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o Separate schooling of Indingeous and Africans as to not let
the public or them relate – and Indigenous people to
assimilate to anglo saxon.
In Canada from 1831 until 1996. The first school was the Mohawk
Institute in Brantford Ontario for boys from Six Nations.
Initially run by church and incorporated into Candian Federal
Policy. In 1892 federal gov entered partnership with churchs and
formalized funding through an order in council – after this # of
schools increased.
Federal Gov opened first in 1850’s.
Schools reach peak in 1931 with over 80 schools. Over seven
generations of children attended residential schools.
Mandatory attendance: 1920’s kids between 7 and 15 were
mandated to attend residential schools or day schools
More Indig children attended day school than residential schools
throughout 1944-45.
Indig parents had to rights as they were not “persons” under law,
but wards of the government until 1960’s – could not challenge
having their children taken away.
Process: Authorities took children from home and forced to stay
10 months of the year~; during stay denied family communication.
o 1889 Indian Affairs Doc: “it was a ‘danger’ to have
Indingenous children ‘under the influence of their homes”
o Reserves were specifically located far away from reserves
– for “the work of the school will go to nothing” if they are
close to home.
Education: adoption of the Christian religion – many Indingeous
children were taught their culture was the way of the devil and
were threated to go to hell if they practices their trasitional culture.
o Barbara Helen Hill: “Churchianity” to refer to forced
Indoctrination of Christian value
Language: forced to only speak English or French. They would be
whipped publically, confined for days or given lashes/beatings if
they spoke their cultural language.
Torture: Needle stuck thorugh childrens tounges and left in place
for extended periods. ; bed wetting: pull down pants and get
publically lashing/wear diapers or soiled clothes. Some beaten to
unconsciousness – including permanent injuries
Rupert’s Land Industrial School near Selkirk, Manitoba: burises
would last weeks and they were forced to eat rancid butter and the
Anglican principal would kiss the girls at night.
Pedophile rings: organized by clergy, plice and business and gov
officials/girls impregnated were forced to have an
abortion/involuntarily sterilized.
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Chapter 8:
Chapter 9:
Chapter 10:
Muskowekwan Indian Residenital School in lestock,
Saskatchewan: baby put in over and burned to death.
Infrustructure: building were typically in poor condition – and
over crowding. In 1953 report of raw sewage in boys room and the
“school should be closed”
Sanitatin: Poor sanitation and high rates of disease. In File Hills
Industrial School in SK 69% of students died of TB/ At Upker
Island 40% died before going home.
Chapter 11:
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“The push for a contemporary means of conducting land negotiations with Indigenous
peoples started to pick up in the 1960s and 1970s. In these decades, Indigenous peoples
witness the federal and provincial governments interests in industrial development and
natural resource development and extraction. At the same time, many Indigenous peoples
asserted the importance of protecting Mother Earth, as did others involved in the second
wave of the environmental movement. Yet economic growth fueled by industrial and
resource development – and not the environment – was the top priority of governments
during this time.” (235)
“In 1995, the federal government stated that it recognized ‘the inherent right of selfgovernment as an existing Aboriginal right under section 35 of the Constitution Act,
1982.” (236) […] In spite of these changes, the policy that guides the federal government
in these negotiations called the ‘comprehensive land claims policy,’ is still very similar in
aim and effect to its 1973 predecessor, the Statement on Claims of Indian and Inuit
people. […] its priority has been land surrender. It requires first Nations to extinguish
their Aboriginal title by negotiating their land into private property.” (237)
In a report to the Prime Minister in 2013, Douglas R Eyford, “outlines the need to
‘capitalize’ on the immediate oil and natural gas resource opportunities in Canada. […]
Canada need to ‘construct pipelines and terminals to deliver oil and natural gas to
tidewater.’ Also, ‘ Canada should continue to encourage industry and Aboriginal groups
to develop flexible and innovative models to facilitate Aboriginal participation in
economic development projects.”
Chapter 12
Chapter 13: Moving Forward: Lighting the Eighth Fire
The Seven Fires
Prophecy
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An Anishinabe prophecy that is handed down orally.
o Algonquin Elder Grandfather William Commanda, was the
Seven Fires Wampum Belt keeper from 1970 until 2011
when he passed. This had been passed down pre-euro
contact.
o Also can get in written form from The Circle of Turtle
Lodge – The Mishomis Book
o Turle Lodge story: the original ppl of nothereastern coast
of turtle island were given 7 predictions from 7 prophets –
each referred to as a fire and each fire represented a
specific time in the future.
 Fire 1: talks of when Anishinaabe people were
strong and the elders lead the people to an island
shaped like a turtle. Associated with earth’s
purification. Food growing on water means they
are in the right place. “If you do not move, you will
be destroyed”
 Fire 2: People living in big body of water and will
be lost. A boy will be born and lead them in correct
direction geographically and culturally.
 Fire 3: People continue on correct path toward
place where food grows on water (identified as
wild rice).
 Fire 4: The coming of a light skinned race. (two
prophets came forward with this fire.) First prophet
said of light skinned brothers will bring knowledge
and have great change for future generations. “if
they arrive to offer only a handshake and
information to share and if they come without
weapons” Second Prophet: warned if light skinned
people show “face of death” or disguised as face of
brotherhood. If they come with weapons and are
suffering. “Eventually, it will be known if they
came with the face of death because, if they did,
they will turn the rivers into poison, causing the
first to become inedible.”
 Fire 5: A time of struggle for Anishinaabe to
continue with traditional life or give up for false
promise of “joy and salvation” – if accepted it will
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The Royal
Commission on
Aboriginal
Peoples:
Considering and
Implementing
Recommendations
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cause total distruction. The light skinned will take
away Anishinabee land and independence.
Fire 6: a time of clarity to see the promise accepted
during era of 5th fire came in the way that was
false. Children taken away elders. This will cause
them to lose purpose, their balance, become ill and
face death.
Fire 7: This prophet was different from the rest of
the prophets – had a light in eye and was younger.
He explained that “new people” (Osh-ki-bi-ma-dizeeg) will come into being. They will retrace path
and see what is left behind – when they want to ask
elders they will find them sleeping as no one had
asked them about the culture for a long time or are
“silent out of fear”. “The Task of the new people
will not be easy” If they continue they will find the
Anishinabe Nation to be reborn – old flames relit
and witness sacred fire again.
Fire 8: The light skinned people will then be faced
with a decision – two paths – if they chose right
path it will light an 8th and last fire. Era of eternal
sisterhood, brotherhood, peace and love. Yet, if the
light skinned people chose the wrong path may
cause world wide suffering for all and many will
die.
The Light 8th flame there must be a new and strengthed
relationship with mother earth.
CBC doc: The 8th fire. With Wab Kinew as host.
1996: Royal Comission on Aboringinal People released. Final
released by commission which formed in 1991 in response to
high-profile incidents of Indingeous resistance to injustice
including the “oka crisis”
o Set out to examin relations between indigenous people and
cnaadian state at time with reccomendations. Ppl travelled
across Canada to document.
o Most comprehensive report on Idngeous people ever in
Canada. Costing $58 million. Final report in 5 volumes,
4000 pages, and 440 reccomendations.
o Notes need for renewed relationship based on principals of
mutual respect and recognition, sharing or reciprocity and
mutual responisiblity – underline all reccomendations.
o “It notes the need for Indig ppl to accept non-indig ppl
because they now have ancestors who have lived on these
land and because they consider parts of Turtle Island
The United
Nations
Declaration on the
Rights of
Indigneous
Peoples
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home” and non-indig need to recognize indig people are
original occupants of land.
o Emphasize mutual respect – “because we are all here to
stay”
o Reccomendations: child welfare, crime, education, health
disparities, improved pretention treatment and rehab
service, restoration of self-governance and control of an
adequate land base with institutions according to indig
culture. Engagement with first nations in interpreting or
renewing treaties.
 New Royal Proclamation and compation legislation
to demonstrate commitment to treaty relations –
recognize past and restore future. Companion
legislation: 1) “Aboriginal Nation Recognition and
Government Act” with fiscal agreements to support
indig. ; 2) “The Aboriginal Treaties
Implementation Act” to recognize and renew or
make new treaties. 3) “Aboriginal Lands and Treay
Tribulan AcT” to determine specific laims and
safeguards – organized and funded fairly. 4)
“Aborignal Parliament Act” established body to
represent indig within federal institutuions.
Originally House of First Peoples. 5) Aboriginal
Relations Department and Indina and Inuit
Services Dept Act” now indig and north affairs – to
implement new relationships ith indig ppl and
second would administer services to communities
that were not yet self governed.
o 20 year implementation plan which all reccomendations
would be implemented. In 2013, Gregory Younging notes
that less than 1% of reccomendations impleneted and
unlikely the remaining would be implemented in the
remaining 3 years.
2007: UN general assembly adopted UNDRIP (united nations
declations on the rights of indingeous people). Set international
standards. Recognizition of treaties.
Not to be subject to forced assimilation but “right to determine
own self identity” and to “maintain control and develop their
cultural traditions and knowledge”. Children must not be taken
away from home. Cultures cannot be destroyed. Children have
right to education. Partake in decision make that would affect their
rights, including land and resources.
Canada was originally involved in creation of UNDRIP and
liberal government supported it.
Got universal backing but Canada United States, Australia and
New Zealand intitially refued to sign.
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Decolonization,
Reconciliation
and Resurgence
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Canadas conservative/Harper government refued to sign UNDRIP
and argued it would conflict with Canadian constitutional law and
that Aboriginal people would be in a higher position than others.
Harper was scared because he didn’t understand the Indingeous
self governance and right to self determinations.
November 12, 2010 canada gave official endorsement. One month
later US did same.
Government endorsing mena s commitment to work in parthership
with Indingeous peoples.
Since November 2010 nothing has changed – at least practically.
Conservatives trample on UNDRIP
o Passing of Bill C45 with paternalistic tactics to take break
up Indingeous communtieis
Liberal Gov: October 2015 – JT made promise to Assembly of FN
to implement UNDRIP and “conduct a full review of legislation
unilaterally improsed on INdigoeus people by the previous
government”
Until Indingoeus lands are returned then legislative changes keep
indigenous people entrenched within the euro-canadian colonial
state. 292
Decolonization: unlearning and undoing of colonialism. It is a
process and a goal –
o reimagine relationship with land and people;
o conscious engagement with colonial structures, ideologies,
and discourses that are dominant: through teaching about
indig perspectices and understandings as opposed to
colonial ones in order to abolish the incorrect assumption
that indig lack civilization which is an excuse for the
injustice still fueled by mechainism of coloniaim.
o Having all candians recognize and admit that this land of
Canada is compromise many Indigineous territories.
o Learm amd acknowledge the wisdom and teaching of the
land and realize that land is shared for living and being on.
o For indig people: means having courage and conviction to
be who they are and stand up and assert their place on their
homelands. They must continue to challenge Canada in a
peaceful way. Goal is NOT for Indig to ignore the rights of
non indig people, but reather to encourage education and
peace, and growing awareness for true reality and
histories.
o Taiaiake Alfred: “decolonization nbecomes a reality wen
people collectively and consciously reject colonial
identities and institutuions that are the context of violence,
dependence and discord in Indig communities.
o Michael Yellow Bird: “It is the birth of new ideas,
thinking, technologies and lifestyles that continued to the
Reconciliation:
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advancement and empowerment of INdingeous people”.
Also we must use traditional ceremonies to change peoples
minds so the brain can heal from trauma … we must ree
ourselves from post-colonial culture and thought” (293).
The Brain/mind is Indingeous peoples greatet ally –
“neurodecolonization” to “engage in optimistic thinking
and believe colonialsm can be overcome, develop courage
to confront colonialsm and cultivate creative appraoes.
 Neurodecolonization is based on neuroplasticity
Gov has been doing this through apology. Yet fail to acknowledge
colonial structures.
TRC: “The truth of our common experiences”/”The full truth to
be told”. It is “an ongoing individual and collective process that
requires commitment from all those affected”
Chair of TRC: Murray Sinclair: in order to move forward must do
reconciliation. Ideas are passed down to both indig and non-indig
and it signals to Europeans that their racism is “okay”
o “If we can agree on reconciliation now, maybe in 7
generations or beyond we can see progress.” Why 7 –
that’s the amount of time it caused damage through
residential schools – it will take longer to build up identity
and self that was broken down.
Many people ask why “both parties have to forgive”
o Murray Sinclai was a residential school survivor and said “
how do you forgive something that doesn’t have a soul, or
an institution? Its about people”
o Churches and gov apologized and took account for actions
but can be offered as a justification for their actions.
Apology in June 2008: seemed to be a justification for actions.
Ono September 27, 2009 PM Harper announced at G-20 summit
that Canada is unique because it is “not tarnished by its history of
colonialism… we have all the great powers and this doesn’t seem
to bother people.”
Jeff Corntassel: reconciliation that is not followed by meaning
action simply reinscribes the status quo w/o holding anyone
responsible for injustices. Canada used apology to regulate
wrongs. Apology was really telling Indingoeus people to “move
on”.
o Resurgence: the ability to see life beyond the state.
Connect to homeland, ceremonies and culture.
Leanne Simpson: reconolization needs a much broader definintion
if it is to be meaningful and an actual decolonizing force. Policial
and cultural revival.
o Indig nations involved in regeneration languages,
traditions and oral culturs and governance, and eliminate
all residential school things.
Decolonization in
Practice: Artits
reversing the gaze
creating
conversations and
reawakening
spirits
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A tribe called Red: tells truth and contemoporay colonial
discourse. Include: Dj’s: Bean Witness(Cayuga), Dj
Shub(Cayuga) and Dee Jay NDN (Anishanabe). “Electric pow
wow”. Won June in 2014.
o Remix song called “Scalp Dem” – song tells of “Indians
from all directions” and flip to positive” Dj Bearwitness:
we made “more of a unity out of this song”. Music Video
includes clip of white people mocking indingous dance in
false and sexualized ways. Point to scene in Walking
Dead. They are engaging in process of decolonization: call
out inaccuracte depictions and understandings that fuel
colonialism.
Cree artist Kent Monkman who is an artist. Reverse gaze back
onto Europeans thorugh creations. Reclaim culture and expose
egotism, ignorance and greediness. Uses alter ego “Miss Chief
Ego” who is flamboyant and egomanic artist who is all of her
paintings. Serves to reverse gaze. Central themes sexuality and
colonized sexuality. Indig had openness to sexuality and
Colonization squashed it.
o Painting from George Catlin who idealizaed and
romanticized Indingieous people in painting, was reversed
by Monkman.
o “False narratives show a strong will to disappear us from
place where we lived and were born… must engage with
narratives about why we are where we are right now”
Musee Huron-Wendat in Quebec: exhibition “The Indian Act
Revisited”: Art pieces challenging coloniasm and its impacts and
realities. The cover of the book is created by Anishinabe artist
Jackie Traverse (301).
o A piece titled “reciprocity” took physical copy of Indin
Act into woods and shot it with a gun and splattered the
front with red paint to symbolize blood, and wampum
beads pouring out, signifying gov lack of treaty agreement.
o Chief Rock: hip hop arties: his song “Rez Reppin” reveals
realities of reserves , tells of dance and culture prohibition,
and tells people to be warned of “reppin the rez” and to
know consider the whole of turtle island, as they used to
be jailed for leaving the rez. A way to connect younger
people.
o Enter Tribal” Chief Rock and JB the First Lady. Released
“sisterz” to raise awareness of mmiwg
o Inez Jasper: belnds hip hop, r and b and pop with
traditional native sounds. Engage with young people. Was
featured on MTV called “rebel music”. “before traditional
Indingeous music was limited to a niche audience, not its
time for unity and change”
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Returning to the
Teachings:
traditional
Practices and
Healing
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Indigenous
Specific
Prevention
Programming
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Louis Riel: 1885 quote “my people will be asleep for 100 years
but will be awaken by artists”
Dwayne Bird: a poster series titled “Indigenous Rights
Revolution” which showed a Canada flag by putting a Raven
design inside the maple leaf. Also signs around “idle no more”.
Plex: Hip Hop artist says “the best day to be Native is now”
Patricia Monture Angus: We need to know where we come form
in order to move forward.
Indingenous cultures hold a key to the future survivial of
humankind.
Martin Brokenleg: Intergenetional trauma to be countered by
traditional teacings. Returning to traditional culture and
childrearing practices in part of the answer.
Singing and Drumming have been part of many Indig cultures.
The drum beat is the heart beat of mother earth.
Studies show better health outcomes for women who were
involved in handdrumming- researches were apart of Waabishki
Mkwaa (white bear) singes. Reported gaining sense of holistic
healitng, empowerment, renewal, strength and MinoBimaadiziwin (good life in anishanaabe)
Mino-Bimaadiziwin (good life in anishanaabe) requires people to
find balance between their emotional, spiritual, mental and
physical elements. (Hand drumming supported all these elements)
Medicine Wheel Framework evolved out of hand drumming
study. It placed culture at center of wheel and had four quadrants
– mental, spriritual, emotional and physical – surrounded by social
support network.
Responsibilty of drum: abstain from alcohol or drugs to have
clear mind and sense
Pow wow: similar teaching of the drum.
Study: participants who engaged in culture were less likely to use
drugs. And that spiritual practices can play a large factor in
abstinenece as many cultural teachings promote this .
Poonwassie and Charter: Counsellors. Ceremony helps people and
that story telling is also useful. Or sharing and talking circles. As
well as role models.
Prevention Programming can target poor health or crime. Ientify
risk factor or root cause related to undesired outcome with aim to
enhance protective factors.
Warrior Spirit Walking Project (WSW) funded through Canada’s
National Crime Prevention Centre (NCPC) for 4 years beginning
in 2007 I Prince Albet.Target ages 12 to 21 involved in gangs or
high risk of joining gangs.
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Aboriginal Justice
Strategy
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o Based on Martin Brokenleg’s “Circle of Courage” –
traditional child rearing practices. Four central values:
belonging, mastery, independence and generosity. (307)
o WSW consists of 7 programming components: cultural
school, presentiaon tream, youth activity centre, van
outreach, court outreach, counselling and meditation in
shools and activity groups.
o Results from 2007 to 2009 showed promising results.
THoes in program for 18 months saw highest increase, as
well as 12 months. Also more attached to labor force.
NCPC THREE MAJOR ISSUES:
o 1) all of programming if funded for pilot programs –
programs only operate for 4 years. 2) primarily funding
agency and people have to provide complex proposals. 3)
they have a small budget compared to stardard forms of
crime prevention.
NCPC: received 32 million per year between 1998 and 2000. Now
received 70 million per year. 1.1% of federal expenditures on
criminal justice in Canada – which is 6.18 billion.
Concern of over representation the federal gov created Aboriginla
Justice Strategy (AJS). Started pilot in 1991 and was. In 1996 it
was expanded and has continued to be renewed.
Community based funding and capacity based funding.
o Community based is to enhance culture
o Capacity is to enhance knowledge of admin and whatnot
Alternative to Justice System – diversion, alternative programs,
mediation, community sentencing and community court justice.
o Saddle Lake Restorative Justice – youth and family
focused to prevent, divert and reintegrate programming
through awareness and education.
Mikmaq Customary law Program: in nova scotia where
wrongdoers are held account able and achieve consensus.
Involves circles of justice, healing and sentencing.
o Justice Circles involve offender, victim, family members
and community ppl, who work together to hold
accountable and make amends. Then charge is withdrawn.
Then may refer to sentencing circle where they
acknowledge harm done and take responsibility.
o 214 programs receive AJS funding as of 2012, up 100 sinc
2007. Can reach up to 500k a year.
Findings from study of AJS program saw “increased sense of
community safety” in 11 of 13 communities suveryed.
Reoffending rates are lower each year. From 1998 to 2007.
Bandaid Solution to over representation in cjs.
To get AJS funding communities have to meeting requirements of
DOJ – not rooted in traditional indinidgoeus ways of living. Need
Indigneous
Specific
Education
Supports and
Programming
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Community
Based
Organizations
offering programs
by and for
inidngieou
speople
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to fit the “wants and needs” of government in order to receive
fudning
In colleges and universities.
University of Ottaway Aboriginal Resource Centre provides
culturally safe process for people to gather.
Kwantlen Polytechnic University has Aboriginal Gathering Place
that houses the office of the First Nationas Education
Coordination who has an open door policy. Also student peer to
peer tutoring.
Unviesrity of Alberta Aboriginla Student Service Centre has a
smudge and meditation room and provides snacks for students.
One a month hosts lunch. Elders, social workers, counsellors and
academic advisors are made available. Provide secured residence.
Brock University in Ontarion offers ABoringla student services as
an elder is on campus, and offered weekly lunches and a place to
print and also get tutoring, or make long distance phone calls, and
have a locker. Summer week long camp.
Saskatchewan – First Nations Univesrity of Canada. Est in 1976.
Three campuses: regina, Saskatoon and prince albert. Provides
culturally supportive enviro and focuses on indig knowledge.
Female and male elders.
Carelton Univesity (p 314)
Aboriginal Friendship centres – run and orginaized by inding.