HAJEE MOHAMMAD DANESH SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY Introduction to the Concept of Governance Submitted By: Submitted To: Group-A Name: Sajib Kumar Roy Name: Md Sakib Islam Chairman Student ID: 2109610 Name: Mst Rimu Begum Student ID:2109601 Name: Rukiya Binte Shafiq Student ID: 2109617 Name: Apurbo Roy Student ID: 2009621 Faculty of: Social Science and Humanities Department of: Development Studies Course Name: Governance and Development Level- 02 Semester- ii Date of Performance: 01 january 2024 Date of submission: 10 january 2024 Department of: Development Studies Contents: Meaning of governance Historical evolution of the governance Governance and development Meaning of Governance: Governance is the process of making and enforcing decisions within an organization or society. It encompasses decision-making, rule-setting, and enforcement mechanisms to guide the functioning of an organization or society. Effective governance is essential for maintaining order, achieving objectives, and addressing the needs of the community or members within the organization. Furthermore, effective governance promotes transparency, fosters trust among stakeholders, and adapts to changing circumstances, ensuring the organization or society remains responsive and resilient in achieving its goals. It is the process of interactions through the laws, social norms, power (social and political) or language as structured in communication of an organized society over a social system (family, social group, formal or informal organization, a territory under a jurisdiction or across territories). It is done by the government of a state, by a market, or by a network. It is the process of choosing the right course among the actors involved in a collective problem that leads to the creation, reinforcement, or reproduction of acceptable conduct and social order". In lay terms, it could be described as the processes that exist in and between formal institutions. A variety of entities (known generically as governing bodies) can govern. The most formal is a government, a body whose sole responsibility and authority is to make binding decisions in a given geopolitical system (such as a political entity) by establishing rules and guidelines. Other types of governing include an organization (such as a legal entity recognized as such by a government), a socio-political group (hierarchical political organization, tribe, violent group, family, identifiable religious etc.), or another, informal group of people. Governance is the way rules, norms and actions are structured and sustained.[3] The degree of formality depends on the internal rules of a given social entity and, externally, with its business term. As such, governance may take many forms, driven by many different motivations and with many different results. Governance expresses a growing awareness of the ways in which diffuse forms of power and authority can secure order even in the absence of state activity. For instance, a government may operate as a democracy where citizens vote on who should govern and the public good is the goal, while a non-profit organization or a corporation may be governed by a small board of directors and pursue more specific aims. In addition, a variety of external actors without decision-making power can influence the process of governing. These include lobbies, think tanks, political parties, non-government organizations, community and media.Most institutions of higher education offer governance as an area of study, such as the Balsillie School of International Affairs, Munk School of Global Affairs, Sciences Po Paris, Graduate Institute Geneva, Hertie School, and London School of Economics, among others. Governance refers to the processes and structures through which decisions are made and authority is exercised in a society. It involves the interactions between governments, institutions, and citizens to manage resources, provide public services, and address societal needs. Development, on the other hand, encompasses improvements in economic, social, and political well-being, aiming to enhance living standards and quality of life. Effective governance is crucial for sustainable development, as it influences policy implementation, resource allocation, and overall societal progress. In further detail, governance includes aspects like transparency, accountability, rule of law, and citizen participation. These elements contribute to creating a stable and just environment. Development, meanwhile, covers economic growth, poverty reduction, education, healthcare, and infrastructure improvements. The relationship between governance and development is symbiotic, as good governance can foster positive development outcomes, while successful development can strengthen governance structures and institutions. Striking a balance between the two is essential for achieving sustainable and inclusive progress in societies. Governance involves not just formal government structures but also the role of nongovernmental organizations, the private sector, and civil society in decision-making. It's about creating an environment where power is exercised responsibly, ensuring the well-being of all citizens. Development is a multidimensional process that considers not only economic growth but also social justice, environmental sustainability, and the protection of human rights. The pursuit of equitable and sustainable development often requires effective governance mechanisms to address complex challenges and promote positive change. Within governance, key principles include the rule of law, which ensures equal treatment under established laws, and participatory decision-making, involving citizens in the democratic process. Development encompasses both human development, focusing on well-being and capabilities, and economic development, emphasizing economic growth and poverty reduction. Effective governance and sustainable development also rely on transparent and accountable institutions, as well as efforts to reduce corruption, promote gender equality, and address social inequalities. The synergy between good governance and development is fundamental for creating resilient and thriving societies. In governance, the concept of good governance emphasizes factors like responsiveness, consensus-oriented decision-making, and effectiveness in serving the needs of the population. It also involves the protection of human rights and ensuring that marginalized voices are heard. Development, beyond economic indicators, encompasses cultural, environmental, and institutional dimensions, recognizing the interdependence of various aspects of society. Sustainable development goals often aim to strike a balance between economic progress, social inclusion, and environmental responsibility, requiring thoughtful governance strategies to navigate complex challenges on a global scale. Governance refers to the system or process of governing and making decisions within a group or organization. It involves establishing and enforcing rules, policies, and procedures to ensure effective management and decisionmaking. In a broader sense, governance encompasses the structures and mechanisms through which individuals or entities, such as governments, corporations, or communities, organize and regulate themselves to achieve common goals, maintain order, and address challenges. Good governance typically involves transparency, accountability, and participation in decision-making. Governance refers to all aspects of the way the government fulfills its job for societal and economic development. It is a process of governing by which all governmental, as well as nongovernmental organizations, civil societies, and private sectors, are involved in the process of policymaking and the process of implementation of that policies. In simple words, The processes that lead policymaking and its implementation can be called governance. Types of Governance: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Participatory or Democratic Governance Global Governance Good Governance Corporate Governance Environmental Governance E-Governance 1. Participatory or Democratic Governance Participatory or democratic governance ensures the participation of citizens in the process of policy-making and its implementation. Participation can be through election, referendum, Landsgemeinde or local self-governance, protest, etc. Democratic governance is not just a set of rules and institutions, it refers to the processes in which democratic institutions are functioning according to democratic processes. The fundamental of this type of governance is to ensure the service delivery to all sectors of the societies. And it is only possible by securing the people’s participation in the process of decisionmaking processes in all the democratic institutions. 2. Global Governance This is one of the most relevant types of governance. The term ‘Global Governance’ was first used by Rosenau. He argues that “Global governance is conceived to include systems of rule at all levels of the human activity-from the family to the international organization- in which the pursuit of goals through the exercise of the control has transnational repercussions”. The idea of global governance has its roots in the fact that today the states exist with non-state actors. Today alongside states we have the presence of international institutions like the United Nations (UN), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, World Trade Organization (WTO). We also have powerful non-state actors like multinational corporations (MNCs), global civil society, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). This shows that the idea of governance in the present time and looking at it from the global perspective it’s a very complex and contested notion. Similarly, this also has implications for domestic policymaking that is governance in domestic realism also is having contestant contours. 3. Good Governance Good governance is the ideal concept or normative concept. This concept is born when ethics and values are included in the discussion of governance. Now the question is when will we call any governance good governance? When governance is characterized by Participation, Rule of Law, Transparency, Responsiveness, Consensus Oriented, Equity and Inclusiveness, Effectiveness, Efficiency, and Accountability then we called it good governance. Governance refers to all processes of governing, the institutions, processes and practices through which issues of common concern are decided upon and regulated. Good governance adds a normative or evaluative attribute to the process of governing. From a human rights perspective it refers primarily to the process whereby public institutions conduct public affairs, manage public resources and guarantee the realisation of human rights. While there is no internationally agreed definition of 'good governance', it may span the following topics: full respect of human rights, the rule of law, effective participation, multi-actor partnerships, political pluralism, transparent and accountable processes and institutions, an efficient and effective public sector, legitimacy, access to knowledge, information and education, political empowerment of people, equity, sustainability, and attitudes and values that foster responsibility, solidarity and tolerance. In summary, good governance relates to the political and institutional processes and outcomes that are necessary to achieve the goals of development. The true test of 'good' governance is the degree to which it delivers on the promise of human rights: civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights. The key question is: are the institutions of governance effectively guaranteeing the right to health, adequate housing, sufficient food, quality education, fair justice and personal security. Governance had also become widely used in the domain of development aid by the early 1990s. When trying to explain the failed implementation of the development agenda in sub-Saharan Africa, the World Bank identified the absence of recipient governments’ commitment to reform and labelled it a problem of ‘governance’ (World Bank 1989). In search of a methodological tool to analyse power games and national politics, it adopted a dictionary definition of governance as “the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development” (World Bank 1992, p 3). As the concept of governance was adopted by the World Bank, it soon lost its analytical function and instead became a tool for political transformation, with profound consequences. The World Bank developed a set of quality criteria aimed at evaluating the norms and practices of states and national institutions, mainly in developing countries, which were used to set objectives for the Bank’s programmes or to evaluate the allocation of funding: 1) Voice and accountability; 2) Political stability and absence of violence; 3) Government effectiveness; 4) Regulatory quality; 5) Rule of law; 6) Control of corruption. Faced with the limited effectivenessof its structural adjustment programmes and with fundamental questioning regarding its role in development aid, the World Bank had come underpres sure to intensify its interventions and extend them to political and institutional aspects in borrowing countries. The application of good governance criteria was actively promoted in the 1990s by the World Bank’s main shareholders, the G-8, which were especially preoccupied with corruption, weak rule of law, low effectiveness of public institutions, and economic mismanagement in developing countries. The World Bank walked on thin ice whenit addressed eminently political questions as if they were technical, clearly stretching the boundaries of its mandate. 4. Corporate Governance Today corporate governance is a buzzword in the corporate boardroom across the world. Corporate Governance is a set of rules or codes of conduct for the corporate sector or corporate governance. Through corporate governance, the government can regulate corporate companies. Every company has to follow those rules or codes of conduct to start their business in a particular state or region. Corporate governance is the system by which companies are directed and controlled. Boards of directors are responsible for the governance of their companies. The shareholders’ role in governance is to appoint the directors and the auditors and to satisfy themselves that an appropriate governance structure is in place. The responsibilities of the board include setting the company’s strategic aims, providing the leadership to put them into effect, supervising the management of the business and reporting to shareholders on their stewardship. Corporate governance is therefore about what the board of a company does and how it sets the values of the company, and it is to be distinguished from the day to day operational management of the company by full-time executives. 5. Environmental Governance It provides explanations of ways that can be implemented in the development of international environmental regulations, the development of environmental sciences and information, and sustainable development and implementation policies in line with national policy. It controls the management of the environment and natural resources for proper utilization of the resources and securing sustainable development. According to the UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), “Environmental governance is a key driver for the achievement of sustainable development.” It can be achieved by fulfilling three initiatives- Coherent international decision-making processes; Adequate capacities for agreed objectives and national environmental priorities through adequate legal and institutional measures; Integration of environmental sustainability in development at regional, sub-regional, and national levels. 6. E-Governance The application of Information and Communication Technologies in the process of governance gave birth to the idea of E-Governance. E-Governance or Electronic governance is a modern initiative to make the governing process more transparent and accountable. Its goal is to use technology for the greater good of society. This system secures service delivery to the citizens at minimal cost, effort, and time using internet services. It also ensures a strong relationship between the state and civil society and The functioning of public authorities at all levels of planning. This is also called a service-oriented. Dimensions of governance: According to the World Bank document ‘Governance and Development (1992), there are 4 key dimensions of governance. They are1. 2. 3. 4. Public Sector Management Accountability The Legal Framework for Development Transparency and Information 1. Public Sector Management This dimension has been emphasized in the capacity building of the public sectors for a sound economy and quality service delivery to the citizens. Within this dimension, there are basically three key areas that have been focused on: Public expenditure management, Civil service reform, and parastatal reform for improving public investment programming and the budget process, Strengthening the personnel management and The effectiveness and efficiency of public services through the process of decentralization. 2. Accountability This is one of the most important dimensions of governance. The World Bank very much emphasizes accountability. It has been described as ‘the heart of governance’. Generally, accountability means ‘holding public officials responsible for their action’. Political leaders have been responsible for the citizen for the implementation of sound socio-economic policies. It has also been referred to as the balance between public policy and its implementation and proper allocation of public resources for social and economic development. Public accountability depended on three indicators: The interrelationship between public services and people, relationship between political leaders and supervisors of public services or private services, aims and Objectives of Supervisors of public services. Accountability has been considered in terms of satisfactory service delivery to the citizens and how much effect the people’s participation in the policymaking process of governance. 3. The Legal framework for Development The bank has discussed the legal framework for development on the basis of the rule of law for stable economic growth. The rule of law has been considered the legal dimension of governance by the state. The bank has highlighted two ways of understanding the rule of law: Instrumental and Substantive. The former concentrates on the ‘formal elements necessary for a system of law to exist’ and later refers to the ‘content of the law and concepts such as justice (for example, due process), fairness (the principles of equality), and liberty (civil and political rights)’. 4. Transparency and Information The last but not the least dimensions of governance is transparency and information according to the bank, a competitive market economy requires that economic actors have access to relevant, timely, and reliable information. To the bank, transparency, and information have been beneficial in terms of three areas: Economic efficiency, transparency as a means of preventing corruption; and the importance of information in the analysis, articulation, and acceptance of policy choices. Historical Evolution of the Governance: Governance is the process of making and enforcing decisions within an organization or society. It encompasses decision-making, rule-setting, and enforcement mechanisms to guide the functioning of an organization or society. Effective governance is essential for maintaining order, achieving objectives, and addressing the needs of the community or members within the organization. Furthermore, effective governance promotes transparency, fosters trust among stakeholders, and adapts to changing circumstances, ensuring the organization or society remains responsive and resilient in achieving its goals. It is the process of interactions through the laws, social norms, power (social and political) or language as structured in communication of an organized society over a social system (family, social group, formal or informal organization, a territory under a jurisdiction or across territories). It is done by the government of a state, by a market, or by a network. It is the process of choosing the right course among the actors involved in a collective problem that leads to the creation, reinforcement, or reproduction of acceptable conduct and social order". In lay terms, it could be described as the processes that exist in and between formal institutions. A variety of entities (known generically as governing bodies) can govern. The most formal is a government, a body whose sole responsibility and authority is to make binding decisions in a given geopolitical system (such as a political entity) by establishing rules and guidelines. Other types of governing include an organization (such as a legal entity recognized as such by a government), a socio-political group (hierarchical political organization, tribe, violent group, family, identifiable religious suborg, etc.), or another, informal group of people. Governance is the way rules, norms and actions are structured and sustained. The degree of formality depends on the internal rules of a given social entity and, externally, with its business term. As such, governance may take many forms, driven by many different motivations and with many different results. Governance expresses a growing awareness of the ways in which diffuse forms of power and authority can secure order even in the absence of state activity. For instance, a government may operate as a democracy where citizens vote on who should govern and the public good is the goal, while a non-profit organization or a corporation may be governed by a small board of directors and pursue more specific aims. In addition, a variety of external actors without decision-making power can influence the process of governing. These include lobbies, think tanks, political parties, non-government organizations, community and media. Most institutions of higher education offer governance as an area of study, such as the Balsillie School of International Affairs, Munk School of Global Affairs, Sciences Po Paris, Graduate Institute Geneva, Hertie School, and London School of Economics, among others. Many social scientist use governance since it covers the whole range of institutions and relationships involved in the process of governing. Like government, the word governance derives, ultimately, from the Greek verb kubernaein [kubernáo] (meaning to steer the metaphorical sense first being attested in Plato). Its occasional use in English to refer to the specific activity of ruling a country can be traced to early-modern England, when the phrase "governance of the realm" appears in works by William Tyndale and in royal correspondence from James V of Scotland to Henry VIII of England. The first usage in connection with institutional structures (as distinct from individual rule) appears in Charles Plummer's The Governance of England (an 1885 translation from a 15th-century Latin manuscript by John Fortescue, also known as The Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy). This usage of "governance" to refer to the arrangements of governing became orthodox including in Sidney Low's seminal text of the same title in 1904 and among some later British constitutional historians. However, the use of the term governance in its current broader sense, encompassing the activities of a wide range of public and private institutions, acquired general currency only as recently as the 1990s, when it was re-minted by economists and political scientists and disseminated by institutions such as the UN, the IMF and the World Bank. Since then, the term has gained increasing usage. The following is a visual overview of nine stages in the evolution of governance 1. Clans Humans once lived in family groups as part of extended clans. These nomadic hunter-gatherers roamed around to find resources. But as resources became scarce, clans had to find a better way. 2. Kingdoms With agriculture, people settled. These settlements coincided with the appearance of kings and taxation. Because the threat of invasion required swift, coordinated action, strong rulers emerged capable of defending resources against “barbarians” and competing kingdoms. 3. Empires Dominant kingdoms developed new tactics. To protect themselves and secure more resources, they expanded through conquest and the suppression of people in new territories. A hierarchy of governors managed the increasing complexity of the new empire. The thing about empires: they eventually fall. 4. Democracies There are limits to what can be achieved through coercion. A more participatory system appeared in which power was given to the people in the form of votes. Democracy diluted the absolute power of authorities but introduced demagoguery and “tyranny of the majority. 5. Republics As civilizations expanded, more decision-making power had to be delegated, and political power became increasingly subordinated to laws. But delegating power, especially military power, risked the return of empower. 6. Constitutional Republics Combining features of democracy with features of a republic, nations began to separate powers and set out basic rights through charter, subordinating more political power to the rule of law. But times change, and power ends up on auction. Special interests collude with power such that the state has the power to pick winners and losers. (250 years) 7. Startup Nations In our future’s first phase, rules will likely still be attached to a territory but will provide better governance options than otherwise available. As the world’s complexity increases, we’ll see more entrepreneurial solutions—startup societies or contract-based private cities—less dependent on monopoly states. 8. Cloud governance Advanced technologies make it possible to make laws “in the cloud.” Here, good rules can exist independent of territory and may or may not involve coercive hierarchies. Thus, people will be able to select different forms of association from a menu of governance options, without relocating. 9. Rules Without Rulers The future of human organization is likely to mean most rules will neither attach to territory nor involve any power monopoly. Organizations are already pioneering hierarchy-free governance systems. Might these work on a global scale? Such systems allow self-organization, mimicking the natural world. Imagine teams within teams changing with circumstances, solving big problems without violence. Evolution: From Government to Governance The idea of governance is as old as the human civilization itself, but the term governance was not heard frequently within the development community until the late 1980s. The rise in the popularity of the term ‘governance’ is closely linked with the redefinition of the role of the government towards development enterprises and managing the economy of a state in an efficient and effective manner. The term came into existence in the 1980s with the initial efforts of international economic and financial organizations such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, United Nations Development Program and International Development Assistance. Notion about the competence of the structure of Government framed post-world war II began changing in the 1980s, and the process of transformation from government to governance was triggered. Following were the factors contributed to it: Government was found ineffective and inefficient in delivering the policy objectives relating to the progress and well-being of the common people in the developing countries. This period also witnessed the expansion of the term development and prosperity of the people and began encompassing health, education, happiness, human rights, and freedom and participation of the stakeholders in the decision-making procedures. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the cold war, proved the authoritarian model of government, a failure. The term governance came to be used to define the reinventing of public administration, particularly in the developing countries, to make it more receptive to the needs of Governance and development: Governance and development are intertwined aspects of societal progress. Effective governance, marked by transparency and accountability, fosters economic growth, social equity, and stability. In contrast, poor governance can hinder development by perpetuating corruption and inequality. Striking a balance between governmental authority and citizens' participation is crucial for sustainable development, ensuring that policies address diverse needs and promote overall wellbeing. Successful governance involves responsive institutions, rule of law, and inclusive decisionmaking. It plays a pivotal role in creating an environment conducive to economic development, attracting investments, and fostering innovation. Additionally, prioritizing education, healthcare, and infrastructure enhances human capital, contributing significantly to overall development. Countries with robust governance structures tend to experience more effective resource allocation, reduced poverty, and improved quality of life for their citizens. Continuous efforts to strengthen governance mechanisms are essential for sustained and inclusive development. Development is not solely an economic endeavor; it encompasses social and environmental dimensions. Social development involves improving education, healthcare, and reducing inequalities, while environmental sustainability ensures that progress does not come at the cost of long-term ecological health. Good governance facilitates coordination among stakeholders, aiding in the implementation of policies that address these multifaceted challenges. Collaboration between governments, businesses, and civil society is key to achieving holistic development goals, creating resilient and thriving societies. Continuous evaluation and adaptation of governance structures are essential to meet evolving global challenges and ensure sustainable progress. Governance refers to the exercise of political and administrative authority at all levels to manage a country’s affairs. It comprises the mechanisms, processes and institutions, through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences.1 Specific reference is made to democratic governance as “a process of creating and sustaining an environment for inclusive and responsive political processes and settlements.”2 The institutional and human capacities for governance determine the way in which the effectiveness of public policies and strategies is attained, especially in service delivery. What does it mean to promote good governance for human development? Much discussion about the definition of good governance has centred on what makes institutions and rules more effective and efficient, in order to achieve equity, transparency, participation, responsiveness, accountability, and the rule of law. These aspects are crucial for human development and the eradication of poverty since ineffective institutions usually result in the greatest harm to those who are poor and vulnerable. Without reference to a universal standard for governance, the notion of what is good is thus defined by the desired outcome, which varies from one situation to another. Nonetheless, two broad governance issues can be discerned. The first pertains to institutions of governance, including public administration and public services connected, in particular, with the sound management of resources, delivery of and equitable access to public services, responsiveness to the views of citizens and their participation in decisions that concern them. Strategies adopted in response – including better personnel management. Experience to date with the Millennium Development Goals has shown that, in many cases, sustained progress towards the MDGs has been underpinned by good governance and women’s empowerment, and hampered by their absence. Having identified good governance as a concern common to all countries, questions arise as to how member States might capture its various dimensions in a global development framework. Would it be feasible to propose explicit governance goals and targets in their own right? Should governance challenges be set out as part of the enabling conditions that need to be strengthened to foster development? Or, would it be better to mainstream. Governance issues into other development goals so as to build synergies among various development themes? Clearly much depends on the scope and format of the post-2015 development agenda. As noted earlier, objectives such as transparency, accountability, inclusion and so on apply both in general and to specific sectors. They reflect fundamental principles, such as openness, equity and engagement, while at the same time enabling achievement of particular development outcomes, such as poverty reduction, education for all and environmental protection. Thus, as a technical matter there appears to be some latitude in the formulation. One approach may be to reiterate a set of principles for the exercise of political and administrative authority at national and local levels. Drawing on international human rights treaties, the UN Convention against Corruption and other major agreements with near universal participation, such principles, clearly and simply stated in the post-2015 development agenda, might encompass commitments to increased transparency, enhanced accountability and oversight, stakeholder engagement and participation in decision-making, judicial independence and so on. Many of these principles have already been established as global reference points. Their non-binding nature in the context of the post-2015 agenda would help to reassure countries, especially those most challenged by weak institutions and issues with peace and security, that there is no conditionality attached. Such an approach, however, could be seen to avoid the lessons learned from the MDGs where principles without measures were not taken as a priority. If governance principles are adopted, their implementation would need to be regularly monitored and reported to generate the necessary impetus for moving forward. How are good governance and human rights linked? Good governance and human rights are mutually reinforcing. Human rights standards and principles provide a set of values to guide the work of governments and other political and social actors. They also provide a set of performance standards against which these actors can be held accountable. Moreover, human rights principles inform the content of good governance efforts: they may inform the development of legislative frameworks, policies, programmes, budgetary allocations and other measures. On the other hand, without good governance, human rights cannot be respected and protected in a sustainable manner. The implementation of human rights relies on a conducive and enabling environment. This includes appropriate legal frameworks and institutions as well as political, managerial and administrative processes responsible for responding to the rights and needs of the population. The links between good governance and human rights can be organised around four areas: 1. Democratic institutions When led by human rights values, good governance reforms of democratic institutions create avenues for the public to participate in policymaking either through formal institutions or informal consultations. They also establish mechanisms for the inclusion of multiple social groups in decision-making processes, especially locally. Finally, they may encourage civil society and local communities to formulate and express their positions on issues of importance to them. 2. Public service delivery In the realm of delivering state services to the public, good governance reforms advance human rights when they improve the state's capacity to fulfil its responsibility to provide public goods which are essential for the protection of a number of human rights, such as the right to education, health and food. Reform initiatives may include mechanisms of accountability and transparency, culturally sensitive policy tools to ensure that services are accessible and acceptable to all, and paths for public participation in decision-making. 3. Rule of law When it comes to the rule of law, human rights-sensitive good governance initiatives reform legislation and assist institutions ranging from penal systems to courts and parliaments to better implement that legislation. Good governance initiatives may include advocacy for legal reform, public awareness-raising on the national and international legal framework, and capacitybuilding or reform of institutions. 4. Anti-corruption In fighting corruption, good governance efforts rely on principles such as accountability, transparency and participation to shape anti-corruption measures. Initiatives may include establishing institutions such as anti-corruption commissions, creating mechanisms of information sharing, and monitoring governments' use of public funds and implementation of policies. Reference: Asian Development Bank (1995) Governance: Sound Development Management/ Retrieved from https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/32027/govpolicy.pdf. 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Development Administration, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, India Google Scholar Institute for Development Policy Analysis and Advocacy (IDPAA) is Proshika’s Policy Institute, Participatory Research in Asia (PRIA) (2001) Google Scholar Japan International Cooperation Agency (1995) Retrieved from https://www.jica.go.jp/jicari/IFIC_and_JBICI-Studies/english/publications/reports/study/topical/part/part_5.html. Accessed 11 November, 2016.
