lOMoARcPSD|28959533 Ancient History Notes Prelim - Case Study on Thera Ancient History (Sydney Girls High School) Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 Notes Case Study 1: Thera 9.1 Representations of Thera: Ancient or Modern Santorini Sources ● Representations are often blended in written articles and documentaries ● There are not a lot of ancient sources that are directly linked to Thera The link between Atlantis and Thera ● Many theories have been developed about the location of Atlantis ● Popular theory was that Atlantis was located in the Atlantic Ocean ○ There is no evidence anywhere in this vast ocean of the magnitude of volcanic activity needed to destroy a continent ○ No continental remains have been found so far on the Atlantic seabed. ● Atlantis seekers have suggested that Atlantis was the Mediterranean island of Thera ○ Based on the evidence of volcanic activity consistent with that described by Plato. Plato and Atlantis ● Timaeus c. 360 BC gives a detailed account of what happened in Atlantis ● Critias begins with an alleged war that took place between Athens and Atlantis ● Atlantis is said to be situated near the Pillar of Heracles ● Theories have developed upon reading Plato’s work on the location of Atlantis Location ● The island of Thera is part of the Cyclades, a group of Aegean islands located between Greece and Turkey. ● It was strategically placed for making trading contacts with Crete to the south and mainland Greece to the west. ● This is evident in the archaeological record of Akrotiri, the Bronze Age site excavated from the late 1960s. Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 ● It is apparent that Thera also maintained close links with other Aegean islands ○ the discovery at Akrotiri of natural resources from these places. ○ Other finds suggest contact with Syria, Palestine and Egypt. 9.2 Discovery of Akrotiri General Discovery ● Theran settlement of Akrotiri was a small community dependent on fishing and farming for survival; thrived ● Their culture reflected not only the Cycladic islands but also the Minoan culture ● Akrotiri increased in significance after 2000 BC by playing a greater role in Aegean trade ● Metal-working centre ● Caused because of its location — between Cyprus and Crete (copper trade route) ○ Seen by the presence of crucibles and molds in archaeological finds ○ Crucibles: a metal container in which metals or other substances may be melted. Excavations Early ● Carded out In the late 19th century ● Quarrying for the Suez Canal ○ Quarry: A person or object being pursued ○ Suez Canal: a sea-level canal linking the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea Further ● French Archaeological School ○ 1870 ○ Excavated near Akron ● Baron Friedrich Hiller Von Gaertringen ○ 1894-1903 ○ Found ruins of a settlement dating to the 9th century BC. ● Greek Archaeological Society ○ 1960 Spyridon Marinatos ● Developed a theory that the sudden destruction of the Minoan civilization on Crete was linked to the eruption of the Theran volcano ○ Published Theory in 1939 ● Excavated the site of Akrotiri on the southern tip of Thera in 1967 ○ Used information from locals who remembered or were associated with the 10. century excavations Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 ○ Findings included potsherds: a pottery fragment that has archaeological significance. ● Died in 1974 as the result of a fall while excavating Christos Doumas - Greek ● Joined the excavation team and became the director of the project in 1975 after Marinatos death ○ No further excavations are being carried out today ● Uncovered parts of the site are not disturbed unless they need to be consolidated or preserved. 9.3 Site of Akrotiri ● Major source for interpreting ancient Thera. ● Excavations have revealed the remains of a long and narrow section of the original town, running on a north-south axis. ● Building were named after Greek alphabet or based on the decoration found within. ● Buildings labelled xeste were called because of their style of construction, which included the use of carefully cut and dressed stone blocks. ○ Xeste: A name given to houses in Akrotiri based on their construction using ashlar masonry ○ Ashlar: type of masonry in which rectangular, smoothly dressed blocks of stone are laid in regular courses. ● Buildings and their decorations tell us: ○ 1) Construction methods used by ancient builders ○ 2) Pottery styles and types ○ 3) Different sorts of food eaten ○ 4) Methods of storing food Features ● Narrow paved streets, with occasional small town squares ● Houses of several storeys built of stone blocks and mortar, reinforced with wooden beams ● Drainage system beneath the streets made of narrow slab-covered ditches ● Plumbing in the form of clay pipes that drained waste from domestic toilets into the town system ● Stone or wooden staircases ● Windows that allowed light and ventilation ● Several mills ● Workshops, many containing hammers and anvils Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 ● Polythyra or large rooms divided by pier-and-door partitions used for large gatherings ○ Polythyron: Large room that can be divided into smaller spaces by use of partitions ○ Pier-and-Door Partition: a Minoan architectural feature dividing a large room into two smaller ones by means of partitions set between upright slabs or piers. 9.4 Architecture of Akrotiri Three different types of buildings: ● Mansions ● Large freestanding buildings ● Building blocks or joined housing Mansions ● Buildings named Xeste 2,3 and 4 have specific features ○ Nanno Marinatos thinks there are similarities to the palace sites on Crete ● These include facades of ashlar masonry, lustral basins and polythyra ○ Facade: the front of a building ○ Lustral Basin: A sunken room accessed by ashore flight of steps, possibly for ritual use ○ Fresco: Painting on wet plaster on walls or ceilings ● Xeste 3 had all of the above ○ The polythyron In the eastern part of the building, which could be used by a large number of people, suggests that the house had a public purpose. ○ Lustral Basin points to a religious function ○ Frescoes appear to depict a religious ceremony. ○ Rooms containing storage jars and plain pottery could have been service areas for the preparation and storage of food. ○ It uncertain if people lived in the building Freestanding Buildings ● Service areas on the ground floor ● Ceremonial and residential rooms in the upper floors ● Nanno Marinatos considered these types of houses to rank lower than the mansions Building Blocks ● Each block appears to have only one kitchen ○ Cooking was possibly done on a communal basis Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 Building Techniques and Materials ● Features common to all buildings: ○ 1) Windows were placed next to doorways of buildings ○ 2) Basements had small windows ○ 3) Windows on upper storeys tended to be large ● The most common building materials were unworked stone and clay. ● Walls were supported by timber frames to help protect them from earthquake damage. ● Ashlar masonry used in Xeste 2, 3 and 4 made these buildings much stronger. ● Internal walls were made of thin mud bricks or straw filled clay reinforced with timber. ● Doors and windows were wooden ● Stairs were usually of stone but sometimes wood in upper storeys ● Floors were usually beaten earth except for a few that were paved with stone or covered with crushed seashells. ● Flat roofs made of branches, reeds or rubble laid on wooden beams and covered with a layer of earth. ● Rainwater was directed through long clay pipes onto the streets. 9.5 Wall paintings of Akrotiri ● Fresco paintings survived intact, due to their burial beneath layers of volcanic ash. ● Very little is known, so they are very valuable as; the diversity of subject matter in the frescoes provides evidence for a range of aspects of daily life; ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Daily life Attire and personal adornment Architecture Shipbuilding Flora and fauna ● Helpful for not just Thera but also bronze Age; Professor Peter Warren - Aegean Bronze Age ● Contextual association; when you find something in situ, it helps identify the purpose/meaning of the artefact ● Via Cycladic sailors, contact with people from further east (Mesopotamia) is implied as the art has adopted their mythical creatures Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 Analysis of the wall paintings of Thera requires us to look at four elements: ● Techniques and materials ○ Buon fresco: a technique where walls are painted in pigment mixed with water on wet plaster ○ Fresco Secco: a technique of painting in watercolours on dry plaster ● Iconographic program ● Subjects ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Geometric motifs (e.g.running spirals) buildings or structures abstract patterns plants (e.g. palm trees, crocuses and lilies) domestic animals (e.g. sheep, goats and cattle) wild animals (e.g.antelopes, swallows, ducks, dolphins and deer) Humans ■ women feature prominently; depicted with white skin and dressed elaborately VS boys and men always depicted with brown skin, frequently naked or wearing loincloths. ● Styles ○ Naturalism (realistic representation) ■ Nature ■ readily recognisable materials ■ human figures ○ Narrative Composition ■ Sequence of events ○ Two dimensional-depiction ■ Suggested by layering Spring Fresco - Found in Room 2 of the Delta sector ● Only room where the frescoes were found in situ (original place) and in a ground floor room ● Hypothesis: Spyridon Marinatos - the scenes in this room was religious in nature ○ Three walls of the room display a mountainous landscape with rocks depicted in black, red, blue and yellow - common colours ○ From the rocks grow clusters of red lilies, in various stages of blossom, bud to fully flown. ○ Swallows fly among the lilies, in pairs or individually. ○ Influence of Cycladic art in use of whole space rather than zones Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 Young Boxers Fresco - Room 1 of the Beta sector ● Appear on a wall in a small space between two doors. ● The boys' heads are painted blue ○ Indicate that they have been shaved ● Two long locks of hair each and two small locks over their foreheads. ● Boys wears jewellery (earrings, necklaces, bracelets, anklets and a waist girdle) ● Boxing glove on right hand ● Hypothesis/Interpretation: ○ S. Marinatos thinks that they are either; ■ a) Ordinary children playing a game ■ b) "princely brothers" ○ Evidence: ■ The positions of the boys' arms suggest that they are engaged in a boxing bour or carrying the movements of some type of dance. Admiral’s Fresco / Naval Campaign Fresco / Miniature Frieze - West House ● Many sections are damaged and fragmentary ● Accurate reconstruction has proved extremely difficult ● Hypothesis A: An expedition to North Africa in search of booty - S. Maranatos and Denys Page ○ A careful record of expedition between Thera to North African coast ○ Search of women and children, or corn supplies ○ Evidence: ■ Red colouring ■ African figures appearances ■ Flora and fauna ● Hypothesis B: An expedition within the Agean in search of booty - Peter Warren ○ Women, children or corn could be obtained closer to Thera ○ Plunder the fertile coasts of Crete ○ Evidence: ■ Architecture is similar to Aegean settlements ■ Flora and fauna ● Hypothesis C: A religious festival celebrating a military victory - Nanno Marinatos ○ Depict a sea battle between Therans and enemies - Egyptian or Near Eastern origin ○ Enemy drowns and Therans win ○ Youth into manhood festival Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 ○ Evidence: ■ Special ornamental decorations on ship - festive ■ Flora and Fauna suggests Spring ■ Men are dominate the miniature, women are overlookers Fisherman Fresco - Room 5 of the West House contained ● Two panels decorated with paintings of naked youths holding bunches of fish ● North-east corner fresco is the better preserved of the two. ● Detached from the wall but otherwise intact ● Shows a young, nude male figure holding a bunch of fish in each hand, 7 in right and 5 in the left ● Hypothesis/Interpretation: Nanno Marinatos ○ Figures are not simply fishermen, but are youthful adorants, or worshippers, making an offering of their catch to a god or goddess. ○ Evidence: ■ Their nudity and their shaven heads indicate that they belong to a special religious group Young Priestess Fresco - Door jamb (side post) between Rooms 4 and 5 ● Narrow fresco, over 1 metre high ● A female wearing a long, heavy garment and holding a metal vessel. ● Interpretation: Spyridon Marinatos identified her as ‘a young priestess’ ○ Evidence: ■ Her elaborate garment ■ She holds what he interpreted as a gold and silver vase containing a ‘kind of cake’ or ‘fig pudding’. ● Interpretation: Christos Doumas suggested that lady was a priestess or a girl of the household ○ ‘seems to be moving from Room 4 to Room 5 or vice versa, censing the house with some aromatic substance.’ ○ ‘Done for any religious purpose or merely to purify the air is difficult to decide.’ ○ Evidence: ■ Subsequent discovery of a number of bronze and clay artefacts similar to the one held by the woman indicates that the vessel is more likely to be a; ● brazier (a metal container for holding hot coals used for cooking or heating) ● an incense burner Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 9.6 Artefacts from Akrotiri ● Pictorial program: the combination of decorative elements and artefacts in a structure that need to be interpreted together Pottery ● Majority of pots were made locally by potters ● Local pots were made from coarse, buff-coloured clay and painted in black, brown and red ● The running spiral was very common ● Some pots were decorated with small clay knobs painted as eyes, necklaces and even nipples. ● Influence of Cycladic tradition: ○ painting the entire surface of their vases with floral and faunal motifs arranged at will. ● Influence of the tradition of Minoan potters: ○ Dividing the surface into zones separated by horizontal bands, in which they painted geometric motifs. ● Pots were also imported from other Cycladic islands and from Crete. ● Pottery was used for a huge variety of purposes; the shapes, sizes and decoration of pots reflect their purpose. Some uses include: ○ storage – food, clothing, liquids ○ food preparation, cooking and display ○ eating and drinking ○ bathing and washing ○ ritual activity ○ transportation of goods ○ bee keeping ○ plant growing and floral decoration. Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 ● Chris Doumas stated the standardisation of types and the association of certain decorative motifs with particular forms suggests production on an industrial scale. ○ Impression that there was somewhere a major centre where vases were manufactured to cover all the requirements of the city. ○ Perhaps the potters themselves were organised into some kind of corporate body, such as a guild. Stone Artefacts ● They include: ○ Tools ○ Vases ○ Pestles and Mortars ○ Hammers ○ Anvils - heavy steel or iron block with a flat top ○ Millstones - each of two circular stones used for grinding grain ○ Anchors ● Locally produced items as well as those imported from nearby islands. ● Locally produced stone artefacts were made from Theran volcanic materials and also from imported fine stones, such as alabaster, limestone and marble. Metal Artefacts ● Mostly made of bronze ● These included: ○ fish hooks ○ Knives ○ Sickles ○ Chisels ○ Lead balance weights ○ Bronze scale pans ○ Incense burners ○ Cooking pots, bowls and ewers (large jug to carry liquids) Ibex - 1999 ● For some time silver seemed to be the only precious metal known at Akrotiri ● The figurine had been kept in a clay chest within a wooden box. ● The figurine was hollow and its body had been made using the ‘lost wax’ technique ○ A metal-casting method in which the figure is first moulded in wax and then covered in plaster; when the plaster is set, the wax is melted out and replaced by metal Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 ● The legs, neck and tail had been soldered on after the initial core had been removed from the body. Tool marks indicate that the figure had been hammered in the finishing process. ● Interpretation: Christos Doumas suggested that; ○ the figurine was a gift, possibly from someone coming from the East ○ it could have been a sacrificial artefact associated with religious ritual Furniture ● Solidified volcanic ash from the eruption surrounded items of wooden furniture and set hard ● Liquid plaster of Paris was poured into the spaces to produce plaster casts ● Cast of a small bed was recovered from Room Delta 2. ○ Had a wooden frame with a base made of animal skins laced tightly to it ○ Resembled a modern camp stretcher Features of Everyday Life in Thera; Theran Society ● Do not have enough evidence to construct a clear picture of everyday lives of the people of Akrotiri. ● No written texts to help ● Rely on interpretation of material remains (may be inaccurate without sufficient evidence) ● Archaeologists have inferred from town remains and frescoes that Theran society was hierarchical. ● Evidence: Differences in the style, size and finish of housings ○ Freestanding and block housing suggest different social status. Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 BUT little evidence of who the ruling class was: ● Nanno Marinatos argues that social organisation was based on groups of people attached to shrines and that, ultimately, government and power lay with the priests who controlled these centres. ● Religion is important in daily life. Evidence is: ○ Presence of a hierarchy of shrines, from those of the mansions and large independent houses to the humbler centres in communal blocks ○ The shrines may also document the existence of a hierarchy among the priesthood Frescoes Common Themes Nature ● Sea, rivers and landscapes ● Swallows, crocrises and lilies were motifs signalling the appearance and regenerative powers of spring ● Animal life ○ This is apparent in the Antelopes Fresco, the Admiral's Fresco and the Spring Fresco. Public festivals ● Aspects of religious life ● Conferring of status on individuals ● Ceremonies involved with these activities were major concerns. ○ The Boxing Children Fresco, with its portrayal of ritual sports and the Admiral's Fresco, which appears to record a public festival, are examples of this type of subject matter. Social/Religious Rank or Status People of Thera In the Admiral's Fresco: ● ● ● ● Men in tunics who are stationed on the upper levels of buildings Country life; groups of shepherds, herds - men and women, involved in pastoral activities. Priests, sailors and shepherds are gathered Warriors and mariners figure strongly. Social Status in Admiral’s Fresco MARINERS: ● Helmsman and priest are of higher status, and herdsman and paddlers are of lower status Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 PICTURES/POSITIONING: ● The paddlers depicted In the fresco are insignificant and indistinct, while the helmsman of each of the ships is identified by his Minoan-style dress and curled lock of hair. ○ The helmsman's status is high but not as high as the occupants of the covered cabins. ○ These were possibly the ships' captains. ● An imposing figure, possibly the admiral, is port-tinned in the stern of the flagship. ● The size and decoration of the ships further suggest the importance and status of certain groups and individuals. CLOTHING + HAIRSTYLES Lyvta Morgan draws attention to hairstyles and clothing as indicators of social status. ● The white linen - expensive to manufacture - used for the priests' cloaks and the loincloths of the helmsman was therefore a status symbol. ● The red wool - wool cheaper - loincloths and cloaks worn by the herdsman leading his flock and by the small figures who greet the incoming ships suggest lower social status. WOMEN: Portrayal and positioning of women in the fresco document the religious status and importance of women in Theran society. ● The subject matter of other town frescos such as the Crocus Gatherers and the Room/House of the Ladies point to the strong role played by women in the ritual life of the island ● Of 370, 10 are women 9.7 Thera and the Minoan Civilisation ● Minoan is the culture that developed on Crete during the Bronze Age ● Scholars’ theories: (remains a contested issue) ○ Minoans established a colony on Thera and may even have controlled Thera in the Late Bronze Age - but others reject this theory on the basis of a lack of evidence ○ Therans and Minoans were trading partners only ■ Thera was an independent and flourishing settlement in its own right. ● Considerable contact between Thera and Crete but exact nature of this contact is difficult to determine. ○ Doumas hypothesises that ‘high degree of cultural influence exercised by the Minoans over the population of the Cycladic islands’, however, that this was only an influence, and that the indigenous Cycladic culture remained dominant. Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 Frescoes ● Use of Minoan techniques ○ lime plaster ● Naturalistic style more Cycladic than Minoan Pottery ● Influence of the tradition of Minoan potters: ○ Dividing the surface into zones separated by horizontal bands, in which they painted geometric or linear patterns/motifs. ● Cycladic pictorial motifs more popular Trade ● Small Kamares style cups imported from c. 1700 BC ○ Kamares style: type of fine pottery produced in Minoan Crete ● Much Minoan pottery from later times found at Akrotiri used either as: ○ containers for other goods (e.g. textiles, foodstuff) ○ traded in their own right ● Small number of Minoan seal stones (small engraves stones used as seals) found ● Fine stone vases imported from Crete ● Minoan metric system used ○ Large numbers of disc-shaped lead weights found in various sizes ● Large jars found containing white snail shells suggest import of this delicacy from Crete, where they were common ● Large numbers of tripod mortars exported to Crete ● Islanders perhaps used as trading middle men by the Minoans Religion ● ‘Priestesses’ wore Minoan-style dress ○ flounced skirts; tight-fitting, breast-revealing bodices ● Knot of Isis worn by a priestess similar to that of Minoan priestesses ○ A religious symbol originating in Egypt and it resembles a knot or sash that held together the garments worn by the gods ● ‘Horns of consecration’ a Minoan religious symbol, found outside Delta sector Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 Shipbuilding Uncertain, but: ● Ships shown in the ‘Admiral’s Fresco’ could have been Minoan ● Alternatively, the Therans could have influenced Minoan shipbuilding Writing ● Pottery fragments found bearing Linear A signs ● A large ewer found in Room Delta 4 had a Linear A inscription on the shoulder ○ Linear A: Main script used by the Minoans Architecture ● No palaces, no evidence of a ruler or king ● Nanno Marinatos suggested that mansions on Thera resembled palaces on Crete ● Lustral basin or adyton, a Minoan sacred structure found in Xeste 3 9.8 The Theran Eruption ● The results of geological studies indicate that the eruption consisted of four phases and occurred over several days. ● First Phases ○ Eruption that carried a column of ash about 35km into the atmosphere ○ Rain of pumice from this cloud covered the island ● Second/Further Phases ○ Magma from the eruption came into contact with seawater ○ Hot, dry avalanches of ash and pumice (pyroclastic flows) raced down the sides of the volcano ● Eventually, the centre of the Island collapsed ● Not an extinct volcano, the latest eruption occurred in 1950. Impact of Eruption ● The palace of Knossos was rebuilt and shows clear evidence of Mycenaean occupation. ● After the destruction of 1450 BC, they used Knossos as a centre for their Aegean trade. ● Theories suggested to explain the destruction of Crete: Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au) lOMoARcPSD|28959533 Spyridon Marinatos Theory Downloaded by Mark Thompson (thompsons@iinet.net.au)
