GLOSSARY European Network for the Advancement of Business & Landscape Education (ENABLE) Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) 2017 Landscape Restoration for Sustainable Development: a business approach A Agroforestry A dynamic and ecologically based natural resource management system. Through the integration of trees in farms and landscapes, it diversifies and sustains production levels for increased social, economic, and environmental benefits for land users at all levels (IAASTD 2009). Agro-ecosystem A biological and biophysical natural resource system managed by humans for the primary purpose of producing food as well as other socially valuable non-food goods and environmental services. Agricultural ecosystems possess a range of functional attributes which distinguish them from natural ecosystems. Agro-ecosystems are designed for a purpose – that of producing certain goods to serve human needs. The outcome of this activity is often defined simply in terms of its biological productivity, i.e. of the biomass yield of the desired product(s). The products of agro-ecosystems are also given values beyond their biomass which may be computed in monetary terms, in terms of quality, or in the less easily defined social and cultural benefits associated with a particular type or process of production. Agro-ecosystems may thus be said to process a range of socioeconomic functions in addition to the biological functions that they share with natural ecosystems. These agro-ecosystem functions can be enhanced by increasing the planned biodiversity (mixed species and mosaics), which will also then create further niches for ‘unplanned’ biodiversity (IAASTD 2009; Swift et al. 1996). B Benefits from action These are actual benefits that are derived from taking action towards sustainable land management. If they are exchanged on a market (e.g. carbon sequestration, emission trading), they can be measured accurately after action is taken. If not, the benefits from action can be estimated using economic valuation. They may correspond fully or partially to the potential benefits from action (ELD Initiative interim report 2013). Biodiversity (a contraction of biological diversity) The variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part. Biodiversity includes diversity within species, between species, and between ecosystems. Biodiversity may be described quantitatively, in terms such as richness, rarity, and uniqueness. Biodiversity is critical to the health and stability of natural capital as it provides resilience to shocks like floods and droughts, and it supports fundamental processes such as the carbon and water cycles as well as soil formation. Therefore biodiversity is both a part of natural capital and also underpins ecosystem services. C Conservation Agriculture Achieving sustainable and profitable agriculture, with efforts subsequently aimed at improving the livelihoods of farmers through the application of three principles: minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover, and crop rotations. It holds tremendous potential for all sizes of farms and agro-ecological systems. It combines profitable agricultural production with environmental concerns and sustainability, has been proven to work in a variety of agro-ecological zones and farming systems, and is perceived by practitioners as a valid tool for sustainable land management (FAO 2012). Cost-benefit analysis A comparison of all the costs and benefits associated with action undertaken for sustainable land management, against “business-as-usual” (changing no habits, practices, or systems) (ELD Initiative interim report 2013). Cost of action The costs of appropriate actions that will prevent and/or reverse land degradation. It includes the costs of implementing interventions, such as conservation tillage or soil and water conservation structures. They are often better known than the potential benefits from taking action (ELD Initiative interim report 2013). Cost of inaction This refers to the forgone benefits under “business-as-usual”, when no change is taken towards adopting more sustainable management. It is usually associated with estimates of loss in production and productivity, and represents the maximum potential benefits of taking action (which may or may not materialize fully after the action is taken). Economic valuation techniques can be used to estimate them prior to taking action. The costs of inaction are often not as accurate as the costs of action, but tend to be greater than the actual benefits derived from taking action (ELD Initiative interim report 2013). Cultural ecosystem services The nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experience, including, e.g., knowledge systems, social relations, and aesthetic values. Recreation and mental and physical health: Walking and playing sports in green space is not only a good form of physical exercise but also lets people relax. The role that green space plays in maintaining mental and physical health is increasingly being recognized, despite difficulties of measurement. Tourism: Ecosystems and biodiversity play an important role for many kinds of tourism which in turn provides considerable economic benefits and is a vital source of income for many countries. Cultural and eco-tourism can also educate people about the importance of biological diversity. Aesthetic appreciation and inspiration for culture, art and design: Language, knowledge and the natural environment have been intimately related throughout human history. Biodiversity, ecosystems and natural landscapes have been the source of inspiration for much of our art, culture and increasingly for science. Spiritual experience and sense of place: In many parts of the world natural features such as specific forests, caves, rivers or mountains are considered sacred or have a religious meaning. Nature is a common element of all major religions and traditional knowledge, and associated customs are important for creating a sense of belonging. D Drought Prolonged absence or marked deficiency of precipitation which may contribute to desertification. Drylands Conventionally defined in terms of water stress, drylands are areas of land where the mean annual rainfall (including snow, fog, hail, etc.) is lower than the total amount of water evaporated into the atmosphere. This definition usually excludes the polar regions and high mountain areas, which can be classified as drylands as a result of their low average rainfall. Drylands can be found on every continent, and stretch over 41% of Earth’s land surface (IUCN 2008). E Ecological Restoration The process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem or landscape that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. Implementing ecological restoration typically refers to the technical process of restoring ecosystem functions so it can provide its services (Ecosystem Restoration). Ecological restoration can be applied at a wide variety of scales: we will look at the Landscape scale and call this Landscape Restoration. Loess Plateau, China (1995) Loess Plateau, China (2009) Landscape restoration and ecosystem restoration are often used as synonyms. A most cited definition of the International Union for Nature Conservation (IUCN) and the Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration (GPFLR) is: “Turning barren or degraded areas of land into healthy, fertile landscapes where local communities, ecosystems and other stakeholders can cohabit, sustainably”. We regard landscape restoration as a holistic term. It describes the process to restore the ecological functions of a landscape and revitalize the social and economic functions. This results in increased commitment and inspiration. The term ecosystem restoration is more limited to recovery of the biotic and abiotic processes in the ecosystem. Some make a distinction between Restoration and Rehabilitation, in which: o Restoration is a process that initiates or accelerates the recovery of a degraded ecosystem with respect to its health, integrity and sustainability. Land restoration aims to return an area of land to a close approximation of its condition prior to disturbance. o Rehabilitation is a process aiming to regenerate the capacity of the land to provide a certain range of ecosystem goods and services. Land rehabilitation does not necessarily return the land to its pre-disturbance conditions. In this MOOC we will use both terms interchangeably and refer to (landscape) “restoration”. Ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit. Terrestrial ecosystems: forests (tropical, temperate, boreal); grasslands, deserts, tundra’s Aquatic ecosystems: stillwater ecosystems, rivers & streams, littoral zones & coral reefs (oceans) Ecosystem approach A strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. This is another way of stating what can also be defined as ecosystem management: Ecosystem management An approach to maintaining or restoring the composition, structure, function, and delivery of services of natural and modified ecosystems for the goal of achieving sustainability. It is based on an adaptive, collaboratively developed vision of desired future conditions that integrates ecological, socioeconomic, and institutional perspectives, applied within a geographic framework, and defined primarily by natural ecological boundaries. Based on these ecological and ecosystem approaches we focus on the landscape scale to be able to integrate sectors and involve multiple ecosystems and communities (stakeholders). Ecosystem goods Products of land which have an economic and/or social value: they include land availability, animal and plant production, soil health and water quantity and quality (FAO 2011). Ecosystem processes Ecosystem processes are the processes involving fluxes of energy, nutrients and water in ecosystems or what we refer to as the energy, nutrient and water cycles that form the prerequisite for ecosystems to correctly perform their functions and deliver ecosystem services. Ecosystem services Ecosystem services refer to the benefits humans obtain directly or indirectly from ecosystems. Ecosystem degradation results in the persistent reduction in the capacity to provide ecosystem services. Ecosystem Services can be divided into provisioning services (food, water, wood, raw materials), regulating services (pollination of crops, flood and disease control, water purification, prevention of soil erosion, sequestering carbon dioxide), cultural services (recreational, spiritual and educational services) and supporting services (nutrient cycling, maintenance of genetic diversity). I Integrated Landscape Management (ILM) ILM refers to the collaborative, multi-stakeholder process in which stakeholders work together to resolve complex issues, such as water scarcity, biodiversity decline, deforestation, or adaptation to climate change, that cannot be successfully resolved by actors working alone or through farm-level or supply-chain interventions only. Stakeholders develop shared or agreed management objectives that encompass multiple landscape benefits. As such, ILM ensures that by managing the underpinning natural resource base and ecosystem services in a coordinated way, societal needs can be met in the short and long term. L Land The terrestrial bio-productive system comprised of soil, vegetation, other biota, and the ecological and hydrological processes that operate within the system. In very simple terms: it corresponds to the Earth´s surface and natural resources found there (UNCCD 1994, article 1e; ELD Initiative interim report 2013). Landscape A landscape is a socio-ecological system that consists of natural and/or human-modified ecosystems, and which is influenced by distinct ecological, historical, economic and socio-cultural processes and activities. Landscape approach A conceptual framework whereby stakeholders in a landscape aim to reconcile competing social, economic and environmental objectives. It seeks to move away from the often-unsustainable sectoral approach to land management. A landscape approach aims to ensure the realization of local level needs and action (i.e. the interests of different stakeholders within the landscape), while also considering goals and outcomes important to stakeholders outside the landscape, such as national governments or the international community. Land degradation Changes in ecosystem processes (energy, nutrient and water cycles) that reduce the capacity of the (terrestrial) ecosystem to provide goods and services. Land management Activities associated with the management of land as a resource from both an environmental and an economic perspective towards sustainable development. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Technique to assess the environmental impact of a product from its cradle (e.g. raw material extraction) to grave (e.g. disposal or recycling). LCA can be used to make informed choices in the development of a product, compare product development alternatives and evaluate if a new product will represent an improvement versus a market incumbent. N Natural capital The stock of renewable and non-renewable natural resources on earth (e.g., plants, animals, air, water, soils, minerals) that combine to yield a flow of benefits or “services” to people. These flows can be ecosystem services or abiotic services, which provide value to business and to society. Natural capital and the benefits that flow from it sustain us all: individuals, families, companies, and society as a whole. At the same time, our individual or collective actions can build or degrade natural capital, depending on how we use it. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) Nature-based Solutions has been defined as actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits. NbS are intended to support the achievement of society’s development goals and safeguard human well-being in ways that reflect cultural and societal values and enhance the resilience of ecosystems, their capacity for renewal and the provision of services. NbS are designed to address major societal challenges, such as food security, climate change, water security, human health, disaster risk, social and economic development. P Provisioning services The products obtained from ecosystems, including, for example, genetic resources, food and fiber, and fresh water. Food: Ecosystems provide the conditions for growing food. Food comes principally from managed agroecosystems but marine and freshwater systems or forests also provide food for human consumption. Raw materials: Ecosystems provide a great diversity of materials for construction and fuel including wood, biofuels and plant oils that are directly derived from wild and cultivated plant species. Fresh water: Ecosystems play a vital role in the global hydrological cycle, as they regulate the flow and purification of water. Vegetation and forests influence the quantity of water available locally. R Regulating services The benefits obtained from the regulating service, include, for example, the regulation of climate, water, and some human diseases. Carbon sequestration and storage: Ecosystems influence the global climate by storing and sequestering greenhouse gases. As trees and plants grow, they remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Part of that carbon ends up in the soil as soil organic matter and some of it remains in the soil for millennia. In this way plants and soils store carbon both above and belowground. Moderation of extreme events: Extreme weather events or natural hazards include floods, storms, droughts, tsunamis, avalanches and landslides. Ecosystems and living organisms create buffers against natural disasters, thereby preventing or mitigating possible damage. For example, wetlands can soak up flood water whilst trees can stabilize slopes. Coral reefs and mangroves help protect coastlines from storm damage. Erosion prevention and maintenance of soil fertility: Soil erosion is a key factor in the process of land degradation and desertification. Vegetation cover provides a vital regulating service by preventing soil erosion. Soil fertility is essential for plant growth and agriculture and well functioning ecosystems supply the soil with nutrients required to support plant growth. S Soil Erosion The wearing away of the land surface by physical forces such as rainfall, flowing water, wind, ice, temperature change, gravity, or other natural or anthropogenic agents that abrade, detach and remove soil or geological material from one point on the earth's surface to be deposited elsewhere. Soil erosion is normally a natural process occurring over geological timescales; but where (and when) the natural rate has been significantly increased by anthropogenic activity accelerated; soil erosion becomes a process of degradation and thus an identifiable threat to soil (National Soil Resources Institute 2007). Stakeholder Classically defined, a stakeholder is “any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organisation’s objectives” . Sustainable Business Model “A business model for sustainability helps describing, analyzing, managing, and communicating (i) a company’s sustainable value proposition to its customers, and all other stakeholders, (ii) how it creates and delivers this value, (iii) and how it captures economic value while maintaining or regenerating natural, social, and economic capital beyond its organizational boundaries” (Schaltegger et al., 2015: 4). Sustainable Development Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts: • the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and • the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs. (World Commission on Environment and Development [Brundtland Commission] 1987) Sustainable land management (SLM) SLM refers to integrated management of soil, water and biodiversity to adequately maintain and improve ecosystem services and meet human needs for present and future generations. SLM practices are increasingly promoted for adaptation and mitigation purposes and aim to reduce the vulnerability of socio-ecosystems, increase their resilience and alleviate the negative impacts from environmental change. SLM represents a holistic approach to achieving long-term productive ecosystems by integrating biophysical, socio-cultural and economic needs and values Supporting services Ecosystem services that are necessary for the maintenance of all other ecosystem services. Some examples include biomass production, production of atmospheric oxygen, soil formation , nutrient cycling, water cycling, and provisioning of habitat. The importance of ecosystems to provide living space for resident and migratory species is called “habitat service”. SWOT Analysis Strategic tool used to identify and evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of an organization, business model or project. T Total economic value (TEV) The full economic value allocated by society as a whole. This includes use value (direct and indirect, option value) and non-use value (ELD initiative 2013).
