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Chapter 1 - The Study of Crime
Criminology (University of Manitoba)
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SOC-2510-A03 - Criminology
CHAPTER ONE
CHAPTER ONE: What is Theory? What is Crime?
September 14th-18th
**The highlighted terms correlate with the highlighted topic of the same colour; terms that aren’t highlighted apply to several topics.**
Key Terms
● Anti-social behaviour: A complete disregard for the rights of others combined with impulsive, aggressive,
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or irresponsible actions and activities.
Bureaucracy: A formal organization with defined objectives, a hierarchy of specialized roles, and systematic
processes of direction and administration.
Crime wave: A sudden increase in the number of crimes committed in a community, an area, or a country.
Criminology: A social science that studies crime and crime-related phenomena, such as law-making,
criminal behaviour, victimization, and punishment.
Dark figure of crime: The amount of crime that is unreported or unknown.
Ideal types: An abstract model of a pure form of a social phenomenon. It is a model concept and does not
necessarily exist in exact form in reality.
Ideology: A linked set of ideas and beliefs that act to uphold and justify an existing or desired arrangement of
power, authority, wealth, and status in a society.
Moral panics: A term first used by Stanley Cohen in 1972 to suggest panic or overreaction to forms of
deviance or wrongdoing perceived to threaten moral order. Moral panics are usually created or fanned by the
media and led by community groups or leaders whose goals are to change laws or practices.
Panopticon: Plans for a prison design established by Jeremy Bentham that provided a circular structure that
allowed guards to see prisoners at all times while the prisoners could not see the guards. This allowed for “the
viewing of many by a few.”
Paradigm: A framework used in thinking about and organizing an understanding of natural or social
phenomenon. Thomas Kuhn (1970) argued that a paradigm was a set of assumptions about the kinds of
questions to ask in science and how to go about looking for answers.
Sexual assault: A broader classification of sexual offence than “rape.” It is an assault that violates the sexual
integrity of the victim. There are three levels of sexual assault that replace the earlier offences of rape and
indecent assault.
Synopticon: A direct counterpart to the panopticon. Instead of “the few seeing many” (panopticism),
technology and the mass media have now enabled an environment where “the many see the few”
(synopticism).
Theory: A set of concepts and the nominal relationship between these concepts, assumptions, and knowledge
claims.
Uniform Crime Reporting Survey (UCR): A system created by Statistics Canada and the Canadian
Association of Chiefs of Police and implemented in 1961 to provide a measure of reliability to crime statistics.
The survey provides police services with a standardized set of procedures for the collection and reporting of
crime information.
Victimization: An act that exploits or treats someone unfairly.
Criminology as a Field of Study
● Not monolith; various and competing perspectives. These perspectives depend on the context
● Vocational versus Critical Theories
○ Dual nature of contemporary criminology:
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■ Vocational (or professional) approach to criminology, in which the role of criminology is to
improve the immediate practices of the criminal justice system.
■ Critical Theories approach: Emphasis on critical or analytical approach; delving into deeper
philosophical issues (EX: “why do we continue to have and use institutions such as prisons
when they demonstrably do not work to prevent offending or reoffending? The critical, or
analytical, approach does not suggest improvements to the existing penal system, but
questions whether it is valid, or even viable, to begin with.” (p.2)
○ These two are linked and are dependent on each other.
● Three Areas of Focus
○ Sociology of law examines social aspects and the institutions of law
○ Theories of crime causation (also called criminogenesis); origin of criminal behaviour
○ The study of social responses to crime which examine in more depth the formal institutions of
criminal justice, such as the police, courts, and corrections
*These domains overlap and are almost inseparable
Defining Crime
● There are constantly changing ideas and conceptions; one’s definition of crime is dependent on an
individual’s interests.
● Legal and Sociological Definitions of Crime
○ List Hagan’s 6 different approaches to the definition of crime.
A formal legal
definition
says that crime is whatever the state identifies as a crime. If something is written into the criminal law
and has a penalty, then the activity is a crime.
A social harm
conception of crime says that crime involves both criminal offences (e.g., assault) and civil offences
(e.g., negligence), in that each type of action or inaction brings with it some type of harm. Each should
therefore attract some kind of penalty.
A cross-cultural
universal norm
argument
states that crime, in essence, does not vary across cultural norms. Thus, murder is murder regardless of
the society, and we can postulate norms of conduct that cut across diverse cultural backgrounds.
A labelling
approach
to the definition of crime argues that crime only really exists when there has been a social response to
a particular activity that labels that activity as criminal. If there is no label there is, in effect, no crime.
A human rights
approach
says that crime occurs whenever a human right has been violated, regardless of the legality of the
action. Such a conception also expands the definition of crime to include oppressive practices such as
racism, sexism, and class-based exploitation.
A human diversity
approach
defines crime in terms of the manner in which deviance represents a normal response to oppressive or
unequal circumstances. A major focus here is on power relations and the attempts by dominant groups
to restrict human diversity of experience, language, and culture
Historical Construction of Crime
● Legal definition of crime determines how society responds to wrong actions; remember that legal
definitions of crime are shaped by historical contexts.
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● Refer to textbook pages 4-5 for historical contexts and examples
Popular Media Images of Crime
● Perception
○ Media’s use of sensationalist language to create fear:
■ Newspaper articles on youth crime used such words as “epidemic”; “outbreak”; “crime wave”;
etc. These words portray crime as a disease.
■ Also shows youth crime as random and rising in seriousness and numbers
○ This causes people to develop the fear that it may happen to them
● The “Other” Identity
○ Oversimplifying youth involved in crime and creating the identity of “other” through the use of
attributes such as race, class, and offence history. Instead of using “her”, “him”, etc.; they use “assailant”,
“murderer”. The removal of personal and positive words to portray a negative image
■ This creates the concept of the “other”
○ Race and class also play a role in the creation of the other. There are overrepresentations of minority
groups living in low-income areas/households; underrepresentation of minority groups as victims.
● Personalization of Crime
○ Popular shows usually portray criminal events as violent and random—no one is safe and everyone is
a potential victim.
■ This fear is heightened by the way in which crime is seen to be random in nature, with anyone
and everyone a possible target for victimization.
○ There is an overrepresentation of “street crime” and less of “white collar” crime
○ Heavy exposure to media may result in the creation of a vision of society that is more influenced by
what is seen on television than by what actually exists.
● Morality and Crime
○ The idea that crime is related to morality; the criminal must have something wrong with him to
behave the way he did
○ The idea created is that there is a continuing law-and-order problem in society, and things are
constantly getting worse. This reestablishes the belief that police use legitimate violence to combat
“street violence”
○ Media also introduces legal/policy changes through moral panic
● Images versus Realities of Crime
○ Media and police rely on each other
■ “The media rely upon the police for much of their information, and the police use the media to
portray certain images relating to their work. The media, therefore, convey a sensationalized
image of crime and a protective view of the police and policing practices—and they make
unusual events usual events in our lives” (p.11)
○ Therefore common types of crimes receive little media attention; more focus of street crimes
○ Most crimes go unsolved; violence towards criminals is normalized due to police status as ‘heroes’
Measuring Crime
● Media definitions and treatment of crime are limiting and problematic; refer to the “facts” of the
crime (confirm crime trends and consider official data on criminal activity).
● What we “measure” depends on how we define crime and how we view the criminalization process.
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● In Canada, crime rates are measured by Statistics Canada through the Uniform Crime Reporting
Survey (UCR).
○ “UCR is an annual collection of data from police services across the country. The crime rates and
descriptions of types of crimes come from reports substantiated by police and are not necessarily
reflective of actual crime rates. The difference between the actual crime rate and that which is
reported to and by police is commonly referred to as the dark figure of crime.”
■ “Recent research has demonstrated just how sensitive the dark figure can be to police
discretion; for example, a change in reporting practices by Montreal police officers led to a
dramatic change in the official crime rates for certain types of offences during a given period,
despite there being no significant change in the number of reports of such crimes received by
police. This shows just one way in which police-reported crime statistics do not always
accurately reflect actual crime rates”
■ To put it simply: Data isn’t always accurate and is often a result of police records (which can be
tampered with)
● List the three broad strands within criminology that deal with measurement issues
Realist
Approach
● Crime exists “out there” in society; the dark figure of crime needs to be uncovered and
reported
● Official statistics can be limiting (if reliance is only on reported offences or police records).
● Role of criminology is to supplement official statistics through alternative and informal
ways.
● Emphasis on the problem of omission- to find the true extent of crime by methods like
surveys, test situations, hidden cameras, etc.
The
Institutional
Approach
● Believe that crime is a “social process” that rejects the idea that we can ever truly find out
the true extent of crime by fixing our measuring techniques.
● Concentrates on how crime systems (police, law, etc) process suspects and defines
individuals and behaviours as “criminal”
● Emphasis on the problem of bias- to show how the legal system targets some people are
criminals but not others.
The Critical
Realist
Approach
● Argues that crime measurement has elements of social process and a grounded reality.
● Purpose of this approach is to find why crimes against the vulnerable and least powerful
have been ignored or underrepresented.
● Emphasis on the problem of victimization- to empirically demonstrate how certain
groups are vulnerable to both crime and the fear of crime. This method also criticizes the
agencies like police for their lack of attention in protecting these groups.
Criminological Perspectives
● The style of questions you ask determines the answers you get
● Building Theory
○ Criminological theory can be studied in an abstract fashion to make up a series of separate
perspectives or approaches.
■ Each approach (paradigm) tries to understand different phenomena and asks certain types of
questions.
■ Usually, different approaches are essential. Governments rarely use one type of approach.
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SOC-2510-A03 - Criminology
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○ Useful to present ideal types of theoretical strands; allows use to clarify main ideas and identify
important differences in the various approaches. Ideal type doesn’t exist in the real world, it is an
analytical tool (not a moral statement of what should be).
■ EX: ideal type of bureaucracy would include impartial and impersonal merit and promotion
structures (following prescribed rules and regulations, a hierarchical chain of command, etc),
this is not always the case.
○ To construct ideal types, it is useful to identify the central focus of the theory; also consider the level of
analysis on which the theory is pitched.
○ Sometimes, a theory may attempt to combine all three levels to provide a more sophisticated and
comprehensive picture of crime and criminality
● Levels of Analysis
Individual
● Analysis of the victim or offender characteristics (like appearance, dress, public image of the
nature of crime causation or victimization)
○ EX: tattoos or piercings as indicators of criminal attitude
● This level looks at the psychological, biological factors that play a role in determining why
people engage in criminal activity.
○ Main concern is the explain crime or deviant behaviour in terms of the choices or
characteristics of a person
Situational
● The immediate circumstances, or situation, within which criminal activity or deviant
behaviour occurs (i.e. how different people are labelled by others, how participants define
the situation.
● Key concern is the nature of interaction between the different players within the system
Structural
● This approach looks at crime in terms of broad social relationships and the major social
institutions of society as a whole
○ Analysis looks at things like: class, sex, racial/ethnic groups, emplyment, education,
family, etc.
○ All of these approaches offer different outtakes of the same situation.
● Political Orientations
The geometric
circle
● Implies society is harmonious and people share the same values about equality and
community.
● Perpetrators are deviant (outside the circle); they either need to be pulled back into
the circle or kept outside.
The triangle
● Views society as a hierarchy (some people are at the top with wealth and power;
majority is at the bottom); implies conflict and inequality.
● Crime occurs as a struggle between the hierarchies and success depends on ability and
hard work. Translates inequality into injustice
● Law exists to maintain the rules of the triangle; but these laws are unequally applied.
People at the bottom are overrepresented.
The rectangle
or square
● Various interrelated rectangles represent different interconnecting institutions
(family, work, school etc). Crime is studied in relation to how these institutions affect
crime.
● Concern is not with the values (like in the circle) but with the smooth running of the
interconnected institutions.
● Issue is one of administrative efficiency and application of the right types of techniques
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● Places the focus on individuals and not society as a whole.
● Examines how individuals construct their realities; idea is that reality is socially
Non Geometric
forms
constructed.
○ How people act/react has an impact on the definitions of deviant or normal
● Views of Crime
○ There are 3 major paradigms (conceptual frameworks for understanding social phenomena)
in criminology; incorporate specific kinds of value judgment.
○ The motivation, conceptual development, methodological tools, and social values associated
with a specific approach are usually intertwined with 1 of 3 broad political perspectives:
conservative, liberal, or radical.
Conservative
● Supports the legitimacy of the status quo (accepts the way things are)
○ Conservatives believe dissenters should be made to conform to the status quo
○ There is a “core value system” and that everyone should follow it
○ The purpose of main institutions is to preserve the dominant system (and
maintains the good of society)
○ Values+institutions should apply equally to all people (regardless of social
background, historical developments, etc)
Liberal
● Accepts the limits of status quo; encourages limited changes in social institutions
● Avoids questions relating to the whole structure of society; emphasizes need for action on
limited “social problems”.
○ Specific problems such as sexism, racism, poverty, and so on, can be resolved
without fundamental changes to the economic or social structure.
● Policies can be developed to educate people about the world they live in
○ Problems tend to be studied in terms of their impact on certain individuals (like
the poor or the disadvantaged)
Radical
● Undermines the legitimacy of status quo
● Looks at society as a whole (like Conservative perspective); but it sees “social conflict” as
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a central concern.
The key issue is who holds the power and resources in any particular community.
Focus is to change the existing social order
Issues are explained in relational terms (like relationship between rich and poor, etc)
Solution is to deal with structural imbalances and inequalities that lead to the problem in
the first place
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○ No such thing
as value-free
criminology.
Values of the
right
(conservative),
left (radical),
and centre
(liberal) are
embedded in
the
criminological
enterprise.
● Dominant Policies
○ Dominant paradigm that is adopted by governments and represented in criminological circles varies
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over time.
1950s: Conservative perspectives (classical and positivist views based on punishment and control
strategies)
1960s: Liberal perspectives (labelling and efforts at rehabilitation; reform activity of criminal justice
system)
Mid 1980s: swing back to the right- persisted into 1990s
“1990s and early 2000s, the crime debate incorporated conservative elements stressing offender
responsibility and strong state action against anti-social and illegal behaviour, as well as liberal
perspectives that spoke of the need for restorative justice as a key philosophical principle in responding
to crime and criminality” (p.18)
The Act Respecting Juvenile Delinquents, which later became the Juvenile Delinquents Act
(1908)
■ Example of melding of conservative and liberal policies. Concluded that a child’s environment
played a large role in their criminal behaviour. Doesn’t want to punish children due to wrong
socialization.
■ Juvenile Delinquents Act (1908) was based on a welfare model that suggested negative
environmental influences. VS. Young Offenders Act (1984) adopted a more justice-oriented
ideology
■ Canadian justice system changed from seeing children as “adults-in-training” to a belief that
children are in need of protection and welfare.
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