“ALEKSANDER XHUVANI” UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF HUMAN SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND GERMAN LANGUAGES
ENGLISH LANGUAGE BRANCH
BACHELOR DEGREE
DIPLOMA THESIS
American Major Influences Overseas during the 20th and
21st Century.
PREPARED BY:
XHESIKA TEQJA
SUPERVISOR:
PhD.CAND ROZETA BICI
ELBASAN, JULY 2015
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
At the end of my thesis I would like to thank all those people who made this work a beautiful and
unforgettable journey for me. First of all I would like to express my deepest and sincere sense of
gratitude to my supervisor Professor Rozeta Bici for her continuous and unremitting
contribution, patience, encouragement motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge
throughout the course of this thesis. Very special thanks for her systematic guidance and great
effort she put into advising and leading me toward such a difficult experience. Thank you very
much; I just can’t thank you enough!
My very sincere thanks go to the whole department and all professors, for their support and
knowledge during these years. I am indebted to your work and education.
Furthermore I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation and profound gratitude
from my deep heart to my beloved parents, my siblings for their love, blessings and continuous
support, both spiritually and materially. My sincere thanks goes to my fiancé for being always
there cheering me up and standing by me through the good and bad times.
Finally, I am really thankful to my best friends and classmates for their help, support, and wishes
for the successful completion of my thesis. Thank you God for blessing me with all these people
and for giving me courage and wisdom to go ahead!
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ELBASAN, JULY 2015
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................................4
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER I .....................................................................................................................................7
THE BIRTH OF A SUPERPOWER: THE CHANGES IN THE US FOREIGN POLICY ...............7
1.1 From Neutrality to Isolationism (1776-1830) .............................................................................7
1.2 From Expansionism to Imperialism (1783-1914): The United States as an Emerging Power .........9
1.3 Isolationism and Internationalism ........................................................................................... 11
1.3.1 The Colonial Period ........................................................................................................ 12
1.3.2 The 19th century ............................................................................................................. 13
1.3.3 World War I ................................................................................................................... 13
1.3.4 World War II ................................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER II....................................................................................................................................... 16
THE AMERICAN CENTURY ....................................................................................................... 16
2.1 The Great War: The Origins of the War .................................................................................... 16
2.2 Why did the United States enter World War One? ................................................................... 17
2.3 The role of Wilson`s 14 points and the Treaty of Versailles. ..................................................... 20
2.4 The War that Launched the American Century......................................................................... 22
CHAPTER III...................................................................................................................................... 23
THE SECOND WORLD WAR ............................................................................................................... 23
3.2 The Course of World War II ..................................................................................................... 25
3.3 The Circumstances that Forced US Entry into another War....................................................... 28
3.4 The Post-war United States ..................................................................................................... 30
3.5 Franklin D. Roosevelt`s Enduring Legacy .................................................................................. 32
CHAPTER IV ..................................................................................................................................... 35
NON-VIOLENT AMERICA................................................................................................................... 35
4.2 The Cold War: The Bi-Polar World ........................................................................................... 36
4.3 The Post-Cold War US Diplomacy ............................................................................................ 41
CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................. 44
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................................. 46
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ABSTRACT
The aim of this study is to provide a detailed understanding of the history of the American
foreign policy from its beginning as a genuine nation onward. This thesis will provide you with
the main patterns of its foreign policy and the corresponding era. Its main objective lies on
giving a whole panorama of the way this policy has changed, the circumstances under which it
has changed and the benefits, or drawbacks which these changes has caused. This thesis deals
with the main phases of America`s foreign policy, the founders of these policies and the main
events that determined the crucial causes of these shifts. Moreover, it will mirror the most
important influences of America in the 20th century, the First World War, the Second World
War and the Cold War, the main causes of its involvement and the following impact on US
society. In addition, I will also introduce the redefined US foreign policy after the beginning of a
new era, how does its function, its main objectives and institutions by which it is implemented
and the real concluding evaluations regarding its real purpose. It will provide you with the real
causes across the history that definitely made possible its supreme position through the 20th, but
not only US foreign policy pattern of our century (21st century).
Keywords: America, foreign policy, superpower, world wars.
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INTRODUCTION
Dealing with a diploma thesis is a long and painful journey. Deciding and choosing the topic
was really confusing. During these years, dealing with different subjects, reading different
materials and searching on the internet have helped me decide the topic. Studying America as an
entire nation made it easier for me to choose as my thesis its main area of influence, its “Foreign
Policy”. But another reason why I did choose this topic was its significant impact on the world
stage by changing the destiny of several nations and the course of our history. Being considered
the world superpower, America has become the center of interest for every citizen around the
world. Realizing its impact, importance and influence over every world matter since its creation,
made me curious and profoundly interested on describing and exploring in a detailed way which
were those historical factors that determined its indisputable position over the years.
Through this thesis I aim at studying and analyzing US`s history, regarding its foreign policy
from its establishment as United States of America onward. Since, from the early stages of the
establishment of the US there were thoughts on the role that it should play in the world arena,
however, this role significantly changed over time by determining its crucial position on the
world stage. The main intention lies on explaining and analyzing how did this policy progress
and how its influence did change the course of the main worldwide historical events. Dealing
with this issue is a little bit complicated.
Due to the complex nature of US nation as a whole, treating this work in an accurate way is
really challenging. Based on this the organization of all the material was difficult. Before I
started to write down I felt a big necessity to study US foreign policy history carefully. The first
bases I took from the American History and American Civilization subjects with which I have
dealt during the third year of my studies. Later on I continued reading some books, literatures,
and articles that gave me the essential help. An important place in this work is devoted to the
research work done through internet. This work includes the gathering of information from
credible sources and reading books online as well.
Focused on the aim of this work I have tried to make a clear division of my thoughts and
purposes, through treating crucial turning points, mentioning important national figures and
comparing these elements with each other.
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ELBASAN, JULY 2015
Naturally, while studying the history of a certain country it is essential to mention the main
phases under which it has progressed. Following this argument, my work will begin with three
main divisions of the US foreign policy since its establishment. The first chapter deals with the
main phases of America`s foreign policy, the founders of these policies and the main events that
determined the crucial causes of these shifts. America was firstly introduced as a power that
supported non-intervention and ended up being a superpower whose presence around the world
cannot be ignored. With his Farewell Address, George Washington gave emphasis the US
relations with other countries making clear that he opposed the idea of the United States forming
alliances with foreign countries. He built the first foundations of the US policy over which other
developments were to take place. You will notice how Monroe Doctrine converted US policy
form neutrality to isolationism, and later on how US main interest became the territorial
expansion and trade on the years to com
Moreover, the second and the third chapter will introduce you with the most important
influences of America in the 20th century, the First World War and the Second World War, the
main causes of its involvement and the following impact on US society. It will explain why the
Great War unwittingly led to the “Second World War”. By analyzing the main factors that
determined US intervention into these worldwide events, I aim at emphasizing and procreating
the crucial role that it had on the establishment of the world`s new borders during the century.
Furthermore, this work will include another significant event that directly affected stronger than
ever its position in the world. The famous ideological “Cold War” once more demonstrated that
the 20th century was definitely the American Century. Finally, the next issue of the last issue will
cover the way US foreign policy changes at the beginning of the new century, by analyzing its
principles and functions that continue to operate in the same way currently.
The methodology used for this thesis is based on a detailed literary research regarding different
perspectives of historians, diplomats and analysts about this issue. Moreover, as a significant
mean of information has been used the internet, despite the books (official and reliable web
sites).
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CHAPTER I
THE BIRTH OF A SUPERPOWER: THE CHANGES IN THE US
FOREIGN POLICY
In order to deal with this topic, is very important and necessary to have a wide historical
background, regarding the main forms of US foreign policies, its evolutions and the
circumstances that had determined these changes.
1.1 From Neutrality to Isolationism (1776-1830)
The first established foreign policy of the United States was one of neutrality or noninvolvement which covers the years from 1776 until around 1830. During this time, it can be
argued that USA policy toward other countries (especially European powers) resembled that of
the newly established Third World nations in the twentieth century. 1 In an effort to maintain
itself from involvement in the wider conflicts of the Europeans and focus on domestic affairs, a
policy of neutrality was followed. The roots of this initial policy were seen as early as the
presidency of George Washington.2
Already during the whole colonial period, every war between the European powers had its
American phase. In order to stabilize its political institutions and economy this pattern had come
to an end continue. During the colonial period America was surrounded by British colonies to the
north, French Louisiana in the west and, in the south by the powerful Spanish empire. 3 “A few
weeks after Washington's inauguration in 1789, the French Revolution began. Once this conflict
intensified, America was caught in the middle. American loyalties were divided between the
French who had aided in America's revolution and the English to whom cultural and economic
ties were greatest. Washington decided that neutrality was the best solution to avoid the war
1
David Mauk & John Oakland American Civilization, An introduction, Fifth Edition, Routledge, London 2009
p.176
2
Joshua DeLorenzo ,Neutrality,© Last updated 2000 New York State High School Regents Exam Prep Center
http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/ushisgov/themes/foreignpolicy/neutrality.htm
3
David Mauk & John Oakland American Civilization, An introduction, Fifth Edition, Routledge, London 2009
p.176
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ELBASAN, JULY 2015
altogether. In this way USA refused to become involved even in French affairs for many years
(French Revolution).”4
“When he left office in 1796 after serving two terms as president, George Washington stated
the existing policy in general terms in his so-called (1796). Farewell Address`s main principle
consisted of avoiding political and military alliances while creating trading relations with other
countries. Washington cautioned the nation to "steer clear of permanent alliances", noting that
even temporary treaties or alliances were acceptable only under "extraordinary emergencies". It
was this tone, his call for neutrality and avoiding alliances that set the course of US foreign
policy that established neutrality as the first foreign policy of the United States. “5
“On the other hand, Monroe Doctrine was that foreign policy statement that contributed to the
development of the later policy. It was created as a necessity to prevent European interference in
Latin America, after Spain asked for help to defeat its colonies` (Central and South America)
rebellion, from them. This fact alarmed Americans. Being too weak to prevent European
interference in Latin America; it was forced to formally express its opposition through Monroe
Doctrine.” 6 This doctrine was reduced to three basic principles. The first was called noncolonization, including the US opposition toward new colonies in the Americas. The second, was
called non-intervention, that demanded exclusion from the New World`s affairs to the Europeans
powers. The third principle was called non-interference that accepted the presence of the
remaining Europeans colonies in the Americas and keeping them aloof from Europeans affairs.7
In this way, by totally focusing its attention on its internal affairs, a policy of neutrality was first
introduced by Washington as the only policy to maintain strong its political institutions and
economy without becoming involved in European affairs. The tendencies of isolationism in the
foreign relations of the country were made even more evident in 1823 with the Monroe Doctrine,
consolidating the golden rule of his predecessors. Both of these policies` main purpose lies on
national interests and security at home. If the first policy aims at reducing military or political
alliances by favoring trading ones and focusing more on its internal affairs the second restricts
Europeans presence, intervention, and colonization. Through Monroe Doctrine American
Joshua DeLorenzo ,Neutrality,© Last updated 2000 New York State High School Regents Exam Prep Center
http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/ushisgov/themes/foreignpolicy/neutrality.htm
5
Joshua DeLorenzo ,Neutrality,© Last updated 2000 New York State High School Regents Exam Prep Center
http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/ushisgov/themes/foreignpolicy/neutrality.htm
6
Bryn O`Callaghan, An illustrated History of the USA, Logman p.85
7
David Mauk & John Oakland American Civilization, An introduction, Fifth edition, Routledge, London 2009
p.177
4
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neutrality was transformed into isolationism. I think that this policy gave US a sense of idealism
of having a special mission in the world and ideological domination. A new example for the new
generations to come was established.
1.2 From Expansionism to Imperialism (1783-1914): The United States as an Emerging
Power
This period of US foreign policy covers the years from 1783-1914. In these years, the United
States wanted to spread its influence and power across the seas to Europe, Asia, and Latin
America. Eventually, the country spanned from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
This period also deals with the US preoccupation with developments that Americans often
viewed as internal affairs: the settlement of a frontier that constantly moved further west, the
struggle over whether slavery should be extended into new states or abolished, and the effort to
construct transportation systems to bind the continent together, and ease the exploitation of its
resources. That is because all these factors were related with territorial expansion and central to
the foreign policy as well.8
“Early in the nineteenth century, the US tripled its territory through treaty and purchase.
Through agreements with Britain, added the land between the Appalachians and the Mississippi
river, the northern section of Maine and parts of Minnesota and the Dakotas. America bought
Florida from Spain, and France offered the US the land from the Mississippi to the Rocky
Mountains in the Louisiana Purchase.”9 The further west people and institutions were, the more
truly American they appeared in the popular mind.
“By the 1840s, the idea of America`s expansion to the Pacific was being popularized as the
nation`s Manifest Destiny (its apparently inevitable, divinely determined fate). Facing threats of
armed conflict, Britain gave up its claims to Oregon. On the other hand, USA took Texas from
Mexico by war. The Mexican-American war was ended by a peace treaty signed in 1848, which
forced Mexico to hand over the majority of its territories to the US. In this way, US stretched
across the north America from ocean to ocean.”10 Believing in the famous doctrine of Manifest
8
David Mauk & John Oakland American Civilization, An introduction, Fifth edition, Routledge, London 2009
p.177
9
Ibid
10
Bryn O`Callaghan ,An Illustrated History of the USA, p.42
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Destiny, the acquisition of the Oregon and Texas once more verified that it was the intention of
the fate that USA should stretch across North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific
In the decades after the Civil War, expansionists were support from several sources.
Businessmen and farmers demanded the opening of new markets abroad to prevent
overproduction causing economic depressions at home. On the other hand, military strategists
pointed out that a strong navy and overseas bases were necessary to keep these markets open and
protect US shipping. Nationalist now using the language of Social Darwinism, claimed
Americans were the fittest to survive in the international competition for territory and influence.
When the federal government declared the western frontier closed in the 1890, people thought
that they would lose their strength and endurance 11
“Encouraged by the public opinion, US policy became territorially and economically imperialist
around the turn of the century. America used its hard power to impose its control on overseas
peoples, both formally (through colonization, annexation, and military occupation) and
informally (through military threats, economic denomination and political sub-version: In the
1898 the USA declared war on Spain, winning economic control over Cuba).”12Officially, U.S.
policy encouraged the new territories to move toward democratic self-government. In fact, the
United States found itself in a colonial role. It maintained formal administrative control in Puerto
Rico and Guam, gave Cuba only nominal independence, and harshly suppressed an armed
independence movement in the Philippines.13
American trade expanded rapidly, especially in Asia and Latin America, Hawaii, Samoa and
Wake Island were annexed and served as suitable bases for further economic expansion
eastward. To some extent, in Hawaii especially, economic interests had a role in American
expansion, but to influential policy makers, and to influential strategists the main impetus was
geostrategic. For these people, the major dividend of acquiring Hawaii was Pearl Harbor, which
would become the major USA naval base in the central Pacific.14
11
David Mauk & John Oakland American Civilization, An introduction, Fifth Edition, Routledge, London 2009 p.
178
12
Ibid p. 179
13 Expansion and empire, 1867–1914, Provided by U.S. Department of State
http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-newsouth/5488
14
Growth and Transformation, Last updated 05 April 2008
http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/publication/2008/04/20080407121204eaifas0.3910181.html#axzz3bX2Pig
nH
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“In order to counter the Europeans` claim to exclusive trade rights China “USA announced
the”Open Door Policy”, which demanded equal access to Chinese markets. Whereas, in Latin
America, President Theodore Roosevelt wanted the success of a Panamanian revolt against
Colombia with an aim to build and control the Panama Canal uniting in this way the two great
continents. Having become a power in both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, the United
States saw a canal as both economically beneficial and a way of providing speedier transfer of
warships from one ocean to the other.
“In 1904 ,a year later exactly, he made an addition or “Corollary” to the original Monroe
Doctrine, by stating that USA would intervene in the internal affairs of Latin American nations
in order to maintain them stable. By doing so, USA would remove any excuse for Europeans
powers to intervene in these affairs. Washington offered a variety of justifications for these
interventions: to establish political stability and democratic government, to provide a favorable
environment for U.S. investment (often called Dollar Diplomacy), to secure the sea lanes leading
to the Panama Canal, and even to prevent European countries from forcibly collecting debts. “15
“Critics known as the “anti-imperialists” actively opposed overseas expansion, because they
thought that such executive sending of US military forces for intervention and colonization
would make impossible the balance between the President and Congress. As a result of their
efforts Cuba was annexed and the Philippines were promised their freedom as early as 1916.
Leaders of progressive movements protested that America had to balance political matters and
inequalities at home and not wasting its powers and energies abroad.”16
On the other hand, I think that the rise of the United States to the role of Superpower is due in
large part to American expansion. Furthermore, such big increases in the country`s size
intensified the sense national pride throughout the country. Expanding overseas required a great
deal of government's time, energy, and money, but the benefits were even greater. Despite
gaining new territories it gained a significant position, that of newly established world power.
1.3 Isolationism and Internationalism
15
Growth and Transformation, Last updated 05 April 2008
http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/publication/2008/04/20080407121204eaifas0.3910181.html#axzz3bX2Pig
nH
16
David Mauk & John Oakland American Civilization, An introduction, Fifth Edition, Routledge, London 2009
p.179
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I want to turn a little bit back in time in order to make clearer the exact division among historical
periods and their relevant policies. I want to start it with the colonial period which established
the basis of US foreign policy. Moreover, the section will proceed with the first crucial events
where US entry was inevitable and determinative. As I mentioned above, a policy of neutrality
and later on a policy of isolationism dominated USA from its beginnings and throughout the
entire 19th century. But isolationism didn’t mean being totally disengaged from the world stage.
They were not against the idea that USA should be a world leader, especially focused in its
political, economic, territorial and ideological interests. Through this policy they wanted to make
clear the American perspective on the world, a perspective which differed from that of the
European powers.
1.3.1 The Colonial Period
“Their perspective dates back to colonial days. The first colonies were populated by many people
who left Europe because of religious persecution, economic privation and war. That new world
was seen as e new hope for improvement far away from the old days. The absolute distance from
Europe tended to emphasize the remoteness of the New World from the Old one.”17
Figures such as Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson and George Washington built the foundations
of a strong policy of isolationism. Through his famous pamphlet “Common Sense” Thomas Paine
become the voice of revolution and the national awareness. He had an enormous effect on
American opinion and prepared peoples mind for independence. Aside from clarifying that the
ultimate goal of the war should be independence from Great Britain the pamphlet also gave
soldiers the motivation to fight for their new goal.
George Washington in his Farewell Address placed the accent on isolationism in a manner that
would be long remembered:
"The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign nations, is in extending
our commercial relations, to have with them as little political connection as possible. Europe has
a set of primary interests, which to us have none, or a very remote relation. Hence she must be
engaged in frequent controversies the causes of which are essentially foreign to our concerns.
Hence, therefore, it must be unwise in us to implicate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary
vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordinary combinations and collisions of her friendships or
enmities.”18
17
18
Isolationism, Last updated 2015. u-s-history.com. http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1601.html
Ibid
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Through his Farewell Address, Washington formed the central statement of the American
purpose. It was a pure example of unity among its citizens, the greatness of being united,
preserving the national character and the common interest. But he didn’t call for total separation
from the world, he advised to form clear or permanent alliances with any part of the foreign
world, by preserving its neutrality and challenging external threats.
The United States terminated its alliance with France after which Thomas Jefferson, America's
third president warned in his inaugural address, "peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all
nations, entangling alliances with none."19
1.3.2 The 19th century
Throughout the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century US remained isolated. It
was concentrated on creating a nation that spanned the continent, avoiding foreign implication.
Industrialized and more prosperous, it sought for foreign markets and colonies. Expanding its
territories and influence across the seas to Europe, Asia, and Latin America gave to the US
another face, that of the world`s superpower.
“Nevertheless, external pressures would demolish that policy near the mid-20th century. The
approaching of German and Japanese expansionism would threaten the United States. The
occupation of the Philippines during the Spanish-American War pushed the U.S. interests into
the far western Pacific Ocean —Imperial Japan's sphere of interest. Improvements in
transportation and communication as steamships, and radio linked the two continents. Shipping
and foreign trade increased the America's world role.”20
1.3.3 World War I
At the beginning of the war, WW1 wasn’t seen as a concern of America but as a pure European
conflict. As a result of the USA will to maintain this conflict away from it, its involvement
wasn’t the case for about three years. This attitude was maintained by the president Woodrow
Wilson reflecting the traditional views of US electorate. Three important reasons couldn’t
maintain USA detached by this war. Firstly, because of the sympathy Wilson and other
politicians felt for the allies. Second, the vast majority of the Americans shared the same belief in
19
20
Isolationism, Last updated 2015. u-s-history.com. http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1601.html
Ibid
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loyalty to Anglo-American traditions. Lastly, the US economy depended on the trade with the
warring nations that tried to impede goods from reaching its enemy. Some two months before the
USA government declared war, Wilson provided his famous Fourteen Points, appealing to the
tradition of the American mission to create a new world order. Wilson`s fourteen points were
concluded into three major categories.’21
Three categories:22
 Adjusting post war boundaries based on the principle of self-determination
 Five general principles to govern international conduct; Open Diplomacy, Freedom of
the Seas, Freedom of Trade, Reduction in Armaments, and Reduction of Imperialism. 23
These were meant to prevent a return to the traditional European balance-of-power
strategies caused by the war.
 14th Point: A League of Nations that would help implements the new principles and
territorial adjustment as well as resolve future controversies
The treaty that Wilson brought home from the Paris conference wasn’t ratified by the US Senate,
as they rejected the idea of a permanent membership in an international alliance. His followers
were not isolationist. Their prospective was different; they wanted the traditional American
freedom do act unilaterally in world affairs.”24
Consequently these factors caused the US entry in the war, which gave an end to their traditional
perspective of isolationism, by converting it in a policy of intervention. Through his key
elements, Wilson introduces the main reasons or justifications for becoming part of this
European conflict. Based on his beliefs that US was just an association rather than an ally, he
explained to Americans that it was just an emergency coalition not an alliance. After its entry in
the war, its impact was very limited but decisive. Wilson and the public argued that the main
crucial reason why they were entering the war was their quest for high morals rather than its
personal economic interests.
“During the rest of 1920s, the US foreign policy was focused on international peace and stability
and on the elimination of the obstacles to American trade. Many Americans believed that free
21
David Mauk & John Oakland American Civilization, An introduction, Fifth Edition, Routledge, London 2009
p.180
22
http://rowewebpage.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/2/7/13273250/america_and_world_war_i.pdf
23
David Mauk & John Oakland American Civilization, An introduction, Fifth Edition, Routledge, London 2009
p.180
24
Ibid p.181
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ELBASAN, JULY 2015
trade could make nations more open and familiar with each other. During these years the country
advocated peace through disarmament, calling form arms reduction and destruction of 2 million
tons of navy ships. In 1928 through the Kellogg-Briand Pact (paper peace), sixty-two nations
agreed not to use war as an instrument of national policy.”25
1.3.4 World War II
The year 1940 signaled a final turning point for isolationism and a nationwide American
rethinking about its posture toward the war. During World War I USA found itself engaged in
European affairs, but after the war, another isolationist wave soon emerged through the country.
By refusing the League of Nation that Wilson brought after the end of the war, they were turned
into their initial position once again. Resulting as the least politically and economically damaged
country from the war USA found itself absorbed by the prosperity of the 1920s. Later on dealing
with the Great Depression at home in the 1930s, America was not prepared for war when the
Japanese attacked the USA fleet at Pearl Harbor in 1941. World War II changed its foreign
policy dramatically. Emerging as the most powerful country on Earth, it founded the United
Nations, intending to take preventive actions, ask members to send troops to an international
“peace-keeping” force and act against aggressors. Through the Marshall Plan it aimed at helping
war-devastated European democracies recover. It created a system of alliances, including the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
Isolationism is the main form of US foreign policy. Its main basis was the George Washington
neutrality that later on was reinforced by the famous Monroe doctrine that definitely changed it
into an isolationist perspective. This policy continued throughout the 19th century, and stopped
only after US entry into the WWI. After this, America was turned again inward as a consequence
of its effects and the American controversial public opinion. The middle of the WWII found US
again part of the world stage whose role was a crucial one. Resulting as the least damaged and
the world superpower, it founded the United Nations as an international institution, whose
importance will be described later on.
25
David Mauk & John Oakland American Civilization, An introduction, Fifth Edition, Routledge, London p.181
p.181
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CHAPTER II
THE AMERICAN CENTURY
2.1 The Great War: The Origins of the War
If we make a connection with the above mentioned phases, we realize that the Great War
coincides with that of “Isolationism and Internationalism”. But why? For the simple reason
because it marks the first turning point of US policy and the first major area of influence of the
USA on the world stage. World War I ended the long-standing American policy of neutrality in
foreign wars, dating back to the time of George Washington. They definitely abandoned the
isolationist perspective that had dominated US policy for already an entire century. The Great
War challenged the US mission in the world, that exemplifying the democratic commitment to
peace. The Great War signed the emergence of USA in the international stage as the catalyst to
end the war. But how did this conflict started, who were the main responsible nations that caused
the most dreadful conflict world had ever seen? Through this section I will analyze the main
events and causes that led to WW1 and that consequently swept even US.
“The catalyst for the war was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir of the throne
of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, by a Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip in June 28,
1914. His assassination brought to a head the tensions between the Austro-Hungarian Empire
and the neighboring kingdom of Serbia. Nationalist aspirations, internationals rivalries, and an
inflexible alliance system transformed that conflict into a general European war and definitely
into a global struggle, involving thirty-two nations. Twenty-eight of those nations, known as the
Allies and the Associated Powers, fought the coalition known as the Central Powers. The Great
War lasted from August 1914 to November 1918, that conflict surpassed all previous wars in
geographic extent by forced men, women, and children on five continents to participate in a
struggle that many didn’t understand. It was considered a total war, as governments mobilized
every available human and material resource for the conduct of war. The industrial nature of the
conflict meant that it was the bloodiest war ever seen.”26
26
Jerry H.Bentley, Herbert F. Ziegler, Traditions Encounters, A Global Perspective on the Past, University of Hawai
Volume 2: From 1500 to the Present, 2003 p.972,
Page 16
ELBASAN, JULY 2015
“As it was mentioned above the conflict had its roots in Balkans and culminated with the
assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary. They blamed the Serbian
government for the assassination of the Archduke and issued an ultimatum. The Serbians agreed
to all but two of the demands, one of which was the placement of Austro Hungarian troops
within Serbia. The Serbians appealed to Russia for support and Russia agreed to support Serbia.
Meanwhile, the Austro Hungarians secured the support of their traditional ally, Germany. At this
point, the Austro Hungarians declared war on Serbia. In response to the declaration of war,
Russia mobilized her military forces. When Russia refused, Germany attacked Russia. The effect
of the war on the Russian front was devastating. The Russians were ill prepared for war and lost
millions of men.”27
“On the other hand, France was obligated to declare war on Germany as a result of a treaty she
had signed with Russia. The Germans attacked France by marching through Belgium, now
Germany who hadn’t a permission to do so were in a state of war with Belgium as well. England
on the other side having a treaty with Belgium was obliged to declare war on Germany as well.
Italy entered the war on behalf to the Austro Hungarians (they wanted to gain territory from the
Russians and gain control in the Balkan region). By 1914 ,Europe`s major powers had
transformed themselves into two hostile camps- the Triple Alliance , also known as Central
Powers (Germany, Austria Hungary and the Ottoman Empire) and the Triple Entente (England,
France and Russia later to be joined by Italy, the United States and Japan). In the end the Triple
Entente defeated the Triple Alliance. The war was fought mostly in French territory. Germany
hoped to negotiate a favorable treaty, but as we shall see this was not to be the case. The Treaty
of Versailles was signed ending the war and blaming Germany for the entire conflict. This blame
and the consequent punishment set the stage for years of resentment and another world war,
something American President Woodrow Wilson had hoped to avoid. “28
2.2 Why did the United States enter World War One?
“In the years following the Civil War, the United States enjoyed the fastest economic and
industrial growth in the history of the world. By 1910, America had become the world’s leading
financial and industrial power, and she had taken her seat alongside Britain, France, Germany,
27 Why did the United States enter World War One, Mr. Bill" - Bill Jackson, Last updated © 20012015http://www.socialstudieshelp.com/Lesson_72_Notes.htm
28
Ibid
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Russia, and Austria-Hungary at the table of Great Powers. On July 28, 1914 the First World War
began and in short order, all the Great Powers of the world were involved in what would become
the deadliest conflict in human history.”29
“United States President Woodrow Wilson took full control of foreign policy issues within the
limits of the Constitution. Wilson was very aware that the modern European scenario was a
complicated one. For this reason, he maintained America’s neutrality, as he did not believe that
any of America’s interests were threatened by a European war – as long as her trade was allowed
to continue unhindered.”30
“But this sentiment soon changed, as after the war began United States pursued a policy of
neutrality that favored the Allies, by becoming more and more committed to an Allied victory.
During the first two years of the war U.S. economy dealt with a deep recession that caused the
failure of thousands of businesses and as a result the raise of the rate of unemployment. During
this period the only way to recover economically was the sales of war materials, especially to
Britain. By selling big amounts of supplies to the Allies, insisting on a policy of neutrality
seemed highly hypocritical. As the war progressed, the Allies took out large loans with American
banks which arouse a good financial sense. An allied victory and the ability to pay off the Allied
war debts could only be accomplished by direct U.S. participation in the Great War.”31
“On the other hand, its neutrality was soon tested on what the U.S. considered free international
waters. It became the official factor in the United State`s decision to enter the war, in February
1917. Both the Allied and Central Powers hoped to gain advantage over the other by controlling
America’s trade relationships. Britain, who controlled the span of the North Atlantic Ocean,
refused to allow American goods to be shipped to Germany and declared all cargo in neutral
waters to be contraband. Britain then began seizing U.S. goods.”32
“When the war began England enforced a naval blockade of Germany in the hopes of cutting off
supplies. Germany responded by unleashing the U Boats, capable of staying submerged for long
29
What led the United States to enter into World War One? ,Andrew Fletcher October 27, 2012 Social Studies
Methods 430 Grade 12,
https://www.uww.edu/Documents/colleges/coeps/cni/social%20studies/lesson%20plans/20122013/WWI%20Lesson.pdf
30
America And World War One, C N Trueman
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/america_and_world_war_one.htm
31
Jerry H. Bentley, Herbert F. Ziegler, Traditions Encounters, A Global Perspective on the Past, University of
Hawai Volume 2: From 1500 to the Present, 2003 p.992
32
Aboukhadijeh, Feross. "U.S. Entry into WWI" StudyNotes.org. Study Notes, LLC., 17 Nov. 2012. Web. 10 Jul.
2015. <https://www.apstudynotes.org/us-history/topics/us-entry-into-wwi/>.
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periods of time. Every ship in the war zone was considered an enemy, and Germany didn’t limit
its attacks to military vessels. Its subs often sank neutral merchant ships without first giving a
warning as it was required by the international law. This became known as unrestricted
submarine warfare. In 1915 the British cruise ship Lusitania was sunk off the coast of England.
Over 1,198 passengers including 128 US citizens were killed. Technically this ship was a
legitimate target, as it contained cases of ammunition toward a declared war zone.”33
Under these conditions and brutality, America demanded a stop to this type of attack. In 1916,
after the sinking of the passenger liner Sussex, Germany agreed to end unrestricted submarine
warfare in the "Sussex pledge."The Sussex pledge only put off the inevitable American entry into
the war. Woodrow Wilson began to actively campaign for Americans to support the Allies as it
shared a cultural bond with England and France, but they were America`s trade partners as well.
From 1914 to 1916 trade with the Allies grew from 825 million dollars to 3.2 billion dollars.34
“Wilson closed his speech to Congress by saying "It is a fearful thing to lead this great peaceful
people into war... But the right is more precious than peace and we shall fight for the things
which we have always carried in our hearts."35 On April 6, 1917, the United States of America
declared war on Germany.
Finding itself in the middle of all these external and internal pressures, US was obliged to enter
the war. It changed the course of the war significantly. At first it was seen as a possibility to
recover economically, by selling large amounts of goods to the Allies and by lending large loans
from its banks. With its entry US changed the course of the War significantly. US involvement
meant that the British and the French now had an almost unending of food, weapons, and people,
which demoralized the Germans. Trading interest was another push factor that motivated US
entry in the war in support of the Allies. If the Allies lose the war its trade partnership relations
would be threatened. Furthermore, US felt a national duty as a democratic nation to defend the
great democracies from a dictatorship nation. Wilson had a strong belief that those American
economic goods, America’s democratic political structure and America's blend of morality and
Christianity would save the world.
33
Jerry H.Bentley, Herbert F. Ziegler, Traditions Encounters, A Global Perspective on the Past, University of Hawai
Volume 2: From 1500 to the Present, 2003 p. 993
34
Why did the United States enter World War One, Mr. Bill" - Bill Jackson, Last updated © 20012015http://www.socialstudieshelp.com/Lesson_72_Notes.htm
35
Ibid
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2.3 The Role of Wilson`s 14 points and the Treaty of Versailles.
During his presidency Woodrow Wilson encouraged Americans to promote ideals, morality, and
the spread of democracy abroad. His war aims went beyond US economic interests. Through his
declaration he set the American vision toward the war, a vision that completely differed from
that the other nations. This was because he saw the nature of the war changing in a dangerous
direction that would make the democracy unsurvivable. For this reason in1918, one year prior to
the opening of the Paris Peace conference, US Wilson forwarded a proposal for a just and
enduring post-war peace settlement in 1918 in a famous speech outlining what came to be known
as the Fourteen Points. In his eyes, the purpose of the war was not to punish Germany or to gain
wealth or territory for the US but to create a new international order in which nothing like the
Great War could ever occur again. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, he fought hard, but
was not able to incorporate his Fourteen Points in the treaty.
“His general principles aimed at removing the fundamental causes of war:

Peace agreements should be arrived at openly, not secretly (This is in response to the
secret deals he learned about when the U.S. entered the war.)

Free use of the seas for all nations in peace or wartime (A response to U-Boats, mined
waters, etc.)

The removal of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade
conditions among all nations (Thus removing the types of trade rivalries that led to wars.)

Reduction in national armaments to a point that would allow nations to defend
themselves, but not threaten their neighbors.

The interests of colonial peoples should be considered in settling colonial disputes.
(Countries that held colonies – or that were, in other words, "empires" – should pay more
attention to the desires of the people who lived in the colonies.)
The next eight points dealt with territorial readjustments that would occur in Europe after the
war. Wilson strongly claimed that all changes should be based upon the principle of selfdetermination. In other words, the people affected should make the decisions, democratically. To
Wilson, point number 14 called for a new world organization – "a general association of nations"
– that would be designed to guarantee the territory and independence of every member nation. In
other words, each participating nation would send a representative to a world organization
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(which would later be named the League of Nations) in which disputes among nations could be
settled peacefully, through debate and democratic voting.”36
“Then by 1919, world attention shifted to Paris where the victorious powers gathered to arrange
a postwar settlement and set terms for the defeated nations. The representatives’ leaders of
France, Great Britain, and the United States met at the palace at Versailles to draw up what
would be known as the Treaty of Versailles.”37 The Treaty of Versailles was the peace treaty
that officially ended World War I between the Allied and Associated Powers and the German
Empire. Although there were many provisions in the treaty, one of the more important and
recognized ones required that Germany accept full responsibility for causing the war and, pay
reparations to the Allies.38
The United States of America took a more peaceful view towards the reparations of Germany
but the Allies weren’t so enthusiastic toward his policy. In the end, the treaty was less harsh
toward Germany than it would have been had Wilson not taken part in drafting it, but it was still
harsh.
“Wilson, however, was largely satisfied with the treaty, because it contained a section known as
the "League Covenant" which established the rules for a League of Nations. According to Article
10 of the League Covenant, the League could impose economic sanctions against any aggressive,
misbehaving nation, and, could request troops from its member nations to impose force on an
aggressive country. Wilson faced political opposition at home. He believed that the American
people would support the treaty and the League and that the Senate would therefore have to
ratify the treaty. But when the Republicans took control of the Senate, Sen. Henry Cabot Lodge
became chairman of the powerful Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Wilson’s last, desperate
hope was that the American people would use the 1920 Presidential election to speak their mind
on the treaty. But by this point most Americans were sick of the war and Wilson’s crusading, and
Republican Warren G. Harding won in a landslide, ending any hope that the treaty would be
ratified. The U.S. never joined the League of Nations, and Wilson died a broken man in 1924, his
dreams crushed.”39
36
Handout 8: The Peace Treaty, http://www.westga.edu/~hgoodson/The%20Peace%20Treaty.htm
Jerry H.Bentley, Herbert F. Ziegler, Traditions Encounters, A Global Perspective on the Past, University of
Hawai
Volume 2: From 1500 to the Present, 2003 p.994
38
New World Encyclopedia, Treaty of Versailles, Last updated 4 April 2008, at 02:14.
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Treaty_of_Versailles
39
Handout 8: The Peace Treaty, http://www.westga.edu/~hgoodson/The%20Peace%20Treaty.htm
37
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2.4 The War that Launched the American Century.
“In 1914, the US intended to stay out of a European conflict, a place from which most
Americans were thankful to have escaped. But, as a result of the above mentioned reasons, on
April 6, 1917 Congress voted to declare war on the Kaiser and his Allies. Until then, America
had done very well out of the war. Exports to Europe boomed and its financial institutions piled
into markets previously dominated by Britain. Such a momentous step required momentous
justifications and Wilson was the man to provide them. His plan for a new world order was set in
his ‘‘Fourteen Points’’ based on principles of open diplomatic dealing, free trade and national
self-determination. But, the Versailles Treaty ended up a mish-mash of “Wilsonian” idealism and
old-fashioned vengefulness. “40
“Something had happened to the US that ensured this was to be the American Century. “US was
transformed internally by its entry into the war. The war had boosted American industry and
speeded up the conversion of U.S. economic strength into diplomatic and military power. In the
course of the war, financial dominance had moved across the Atlantic from London to New
York, as the U.S. became the world's largest creditor. “41
“The experience of participation and victory gave the country a new cohesiveness and
confidence that gave it the role of leader of the free world. Americans felt that they had set an
example of how a nation - no matter where its citizens were from — should behave. The triumph
of American capitalism was also a historical inevitability, but accelerated by the industrial
pressures of the war. USA emerged from its brief, but heavy involvement as unmistakably the
most powerful nation in the world. Its tiny army had expanded to a mighty five million, paving
the way for the foundations of its military superiority at the close of the century.”42
This conflict was first seen as a European matter. Considering it as a great way to prosper
economically and politically and as Wilson saw it as a great opportunity to spread US democratic
idealism on the world, foreign policy makers decided to involve .The end of the war found
America transformed positively the US society and beliefs.
40
The Telegraph, Friday 10 July 2015 , http://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-one/inside-first-worldwar/part-nine/10801898/why-america-joined-first-world-war.html
42 Margaret Macmillan, Updated June 20, 2014, http://www.wsj.com/articles/world-war-i-the-war-that-changedeverything-1403300393
42
The Telegraph, Friday 10 July 2015 , http://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-one/inside-first-worldwar/part-nine/10801898/why-america-joined-first-world-war.html
Page 22
ELBASAN, JULY 2015
CHAPTER III
THE SECOND WORLD WAR
3.1 The Main Issues that led to the Second World War
After the end of the First World War none of the participant countries thought of once again
being involved into another war. Based on the widely spread belief that it was the war to end the
wars, the possibility for another war to happen seemed remote. Unfortunately, WWI left many
nations destroyed and many other betrayed by its result and decisions. But, far more distant
seemed another involvement of the WWI emerging superpower of the, US into another conflict.
This war marks the second major turning point in America`s foreign policy, history and society,
far more significant that the first one. This war disturbed once more the famous isolationist
perspective into which US was overwhelmed again after the end of WWI. Through this section
you will discover and understand what the Second World War was, what forced America to get
involved again and its significant impacts.
Discussing about the Second World War, makes each of us part a strong debatable topic whose
conclusion is not yet well-defined or better say approved by everyone. Asking when and why it
started may be a good way to start reasoning further. It is widely argued that it was simply a
continuation of the First World War that had theoretically ended in 1918. Exactly as I mentioned
above the war ended with a peace treaty signed in Paris, the Treaty of Versailles, which was an
armistice based on United States’ President Woodrow Wilson’s “Fourteen Points”.
But, unfortunately, the peace settlement aroused a wide range of grievances especially for those
states that regarded themselves as victims, by failing in achieving its idealistic aims as it was
intended. It aimed at blaming Germany for World War I, by reducing its territories, agreeing to
disarm, paying the war reparations, and diminishing the military, by becoming one of the main
causes of the Second World War. They felt humiliated, developing a deep resentment toward the
Allies, which in turn caused the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist Party
(Nazi Party). Hitler promised the German people the suppression of the Treaty of Versailles,
paving the way to the Second World War. “He promised that he was going to reunite all
Germans under the fatherland once again. He began to disregard the Treaty of Versailles when
Page 23
ELBASAN, JULY 2015
he took Germany out of the League of Nations. Germany starts rearming in 1933. Hitler
bolstered that by 1940 Germany would be fully prepared for war. “43
Moreover, the years between the first and second world wars which were a time of instability
during the worldwide Great Depression that began around 1930, became a fertile land for the
emergence of Fascism in Germany and Italy. “Germany, Italy and Japan developed intense
nationalist feelings that led to a desire to expand, by creating the scene for another war: Germany
in Northern and Eastern Europe, Italy in Africa and Greece, and Japan in Asia and the South
Pacific.”44
Furthermore, a policy of “Appeasement “, was firstly used by Neville Chamberlain, the Prime
Minister of Britain consisting of giving into a nation’s demands in order to avoid further conflict
or war.” It was used to deal with an aggressive Germany, hoping to avoid another world war at
least until it was ready to fight again. The largest example of appeasement in Europe was the
Munich Agreement made mainly between Germany and Britain which allowed Germany to have
the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia in agreement that Germany would not try and advance on
any other land but, Germany would end up breaking this agreement and take the rest of
Czechoslovakia less than a year later. Germany was met with no resistance from the other
European nations; Germany believed that it could what it wished. The use of appeasement as a
form of foreign policy in order to prevent war ended up only encouraging another devastating
war by allowing Germany to take action without consequences.”45But what about the famous
League of Nations? “Article 11 of the League’s Covenant stated: Any war or threat of war is a
matter of concern to the whole League and the League shall take action that may safeguard
peace.” 46
USA whose President was the main architect, failed to show its support by not joining the
League because of its inner demands from the Great depression. The lack of support from the US
had a big impact since the UK and France were not enough to impose strength or aid. “On the
other hand Soviet Union which was excluded from it because of the prevailing hostility toward
43
The Versailles Treaty, Carlos Magana, UC Santa Barbara, Fall 2003, Last updated December 7, 2003, 12/15/05
http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/33d/projects/1920s/VersaillesTreatyCarlos.htm
44 Facts, information and articles about World War II, 1939-1945 , http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii
45
Appeasement and League of Nation as Causes of WWII,
https://uahsibhistory.wikispaces.com/Appeasement+and+League+of+Nations+as+Causes+of+WWII
46 League Of Nations Failure C N Trueman, 2000-2015,http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-worldhistory-1918-to-1980/league-of-nations-failures/
Page 24
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communism regarded it as a mask to cover the interests of imperialist capitalism.” 47 Its
weaknesses and its lack of power in regulating aggressors were easily realized since its
beginning, culminating with its failure to stop Germany when it broke from the Treaty of
Versailles. Therefore, any conflict between nations, which ended in war and the victory of one
state over another, had to be viewed as a failure by the League and its main principles to achieve
balance among its member, another crucial cause that paved the way to the second most
destructive conflict ever. “The whole situation only reinforced the opinion that the League really
was a Franco-British puppet designed, in the words of American "radio priest" Father Charles
Coughlin, "to make the world safe for hypocrisy."48
3.2 The Course of World War II
Due to the instability created in Europe by the First World War, unresolved tensions, conflicts
and the unexpected failure of the League of Nations, the stage for another international conflict
was set–World War II–which broke out two decades later. Two groups of nations fought against
each other during the Second World War. The “Axis “ which were led by Germany, Italy and
Japan whose leaders were dictators and the “Allies” made up of a total of 50 countries, were led
by Great Britain, the Soviet Union, France, China and the United States.
“Three events were the first catalyst that led World War Two: Japan overran Manchuria; Italy,
under fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, invaded Ethiopia; and - most important -- Adolf Hitler
came to power in Germany. He rearmed the country, in violation of a treaty signed after World
War One, and soon began to threaten other European nations. Arrayed against these powers
were, principally, Britain, France, the Soviet Union and, later, the United States.”49
Rising to power in an economically and politically unstable Germany, Adolf Hitler and his
National Socialist (Nazi Party) rearmed the nation and signed strategic treaties with Italy and
Japan to further his ambitions of world domination. Immediately after signing alliances with
Italy and Japan against the Soviet Union, Hitler sent troops to occupy Austria in 1938 and the
following year annexed Czechoslovakia. Because United States and Soviet Union were
concentrated on their internal affairs at the time, and neither France nor Britain was eager for
Europe after World War I”:November 1918-1931, http://history.howstuffworks.com/world-war-i/europe-afterworld-war-12.htm
48
ibid
49
World War II, Last updated 07-05-2015 19:11:47 ZULU,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/world_war_2.htm
47
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confrontation after resulting devastated from the previous war, Hitler’s open aggression went
unchecked. This fact provided Hitler with that kind of freedom he needed to realize his aims
further.
In late August 1939, Hitler and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin signed the” German-Soviet
Nonaggression Pact”. The pact with Stalin meant that Hitler would not face a war on two fronts
once he invaded Poland, and would have Soviet assistance in conquering and dividing the nation
itself. This pact worried both Paris and London. Hitler had long planned an invasion of Poland, a
nation to which Great Britain and France had guaranteed military support if it was attacked by
Germany. In 1939, Hitler invaded Poland from the west; two days later, France and Britain
declared war on Germany, beginning World War II. Stalin’s forces then moved to occupy the
Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and defeated a resistant Finland in the Russo-Finish
War. 50
“Simultaneously, on April 9, 1940, Germany`s invaded Norway and occupied Denmark, and the
war began in earnest. On May 10, German forces swept through Belgium and the Netherlands in
what became known as “blitzkrieg,” or lightning war. Three days later, Hitler’s troops crossed
the Meuse River and struck French forces at Sedan. Throughout the summer of 1940, German
planes bombed Britain extensively. The Royal Air Force (RAF) eventually defeated the
Luftwaffe (German Air Force) in the Battle of Britain, and Hitler postponed his plans to invade.
After the fall of Franc and Britain’s defensive resources pushed to the limit, Roosevelt involves
indirectly by providing Britain with crucial aid under the Lend-Lease Act, passed by Congress in
early 1941.”51 “By early 1941, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria had joined the Axis and German
troops overran Yugoslavia and Greece that April. Some months later, Hitler ordered the invasion
of the Soviet Union, codenamed Operation Barbarossa.” Once again US enters the war scene by
providing Soviet Union with enormous quantities of war material, totally critical in helping them
to outnumber the Germans, by expelling from their territory and beyond.” 52
With Britain facing Germany in Europe, the United States was the only nation capable of
combating Japanese aggression, which by late 1941 included an expansion of its ongoing war
with China and the seizure of European colonial holdings in the Far East. On December 7, 1941,
360 Japanese aircraft attacked the major U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. In North
50
World War II History, http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/world-war-ii-history
Ibid
52
World War II History, http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/world-war-ii-history
51
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Africa, British and American forces had defeated the Italians and Germans by 1943. An Allied
invasion of Sicily and Italy occurred; causing the fell of Mussolini’s government fell in July
1943.53
In 1944, celebrated as D-Day”–the Allied began a massive invasion of Europe, landing British,
Canadian and American soldiers on the beaches of Normandy, France. In response, Hitler poured
all the remaining strength of his army into Western Europe, ensuring Germany’s defeat in the
east. Soviet troops soon advanced into Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania, while
Hitler gathered his forces to drive the Americans and British back from Germany in the Battle of
the Bulge the last major German offensive of the war.”54
Definitely the Second World War was the broadest; the most destructive and horrible conflict
human race had ever dealt with. A combination of economic ambition and racist ideology
determined the root motivations of Germany Italy and Japan to construct such a dangerous
project. Obsessed with his concept of lebensraum, the natural “living space”, and his sense of
hatred for the Treaty of Versailles made him undertook crucial steps that dived the whole world
in such turmoil. Realizing the great danger from the Nazis and fascist dominance, Roosevelt duty
of preserving and protection the democratic ideologies awakened the American desire to
demonstrate the world who`s the boss. Moreover a shared realization between US and the SV
that each country needed the other to defeat fascism joined their Ideological differences to a
common goal. Regarding the nature of the war, this war provided the proper ground for big
technological innovations.
” This war introduced continual advancements in technology, mandatory to maintain a
competitive edge over the enemy. The WWII era housed a great many changes which affected
weaponry, logistical support, communications and intelligence, medicine and various industries.
Advancement in military weaponry occurred rapidly during the WWII, due to the increased
mobility of troops in WWII saw significant advancements, including increased speed, armor and
firepower Aircraft development was crucial during WWII due to its increased use throughout
the war – as bombers, fighters and reconnaissance. Massive bombing raids were being utilized as
an alternative to static trench warfare. Air superiority was the goal of both the Allies and the
Axis, each dedicating as much man/woman and machine power as possible to produce the
53
54
World War II History, http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/world-war-ii-history
Ibid
Page 27
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ultimate air weapon. No doubt WWII played a critical role in the industrialization of many of the
nations around the world on which every military greatly relied. “ 55
3.3 The Circumstances that Forced US Entry into another War
With the end of WWI America was returned to its long-standing isolationism. Americans came
to feel that America`s entry into the war was a big mistake. The rise of the Mussolini`s Fascist
Government in Italy and the increasing strength of German Nazi Party, jointly with the Great
Depression of the 1930s intensified their opposing feeling of avoiding the entry into another war
at any cost. Furthermore, during this period the country`s focus was on domestic issues. On the
other hand, President Roosevelt saw the emergence of such events as a threat and a big necessity
to become more involved into international affairs. American feelings were divided between
isolationists and interventionists. Jointly with the rise of such dangers so did the feeling of
interventionists to become involved. The fall of France in 1940 made them think that Britain was
the only stronghold between US and Germany. Influenced by such factors, US policy of
isolationism was step by step replaced by a policy of interventionism. The United States soon
found that its strategy of isolationism, and strict neutrality failed to make the country secure and
keep it out of war.
Isolationist tried to remove any potential reason that US might have to enter the war. They
passed a number of laws called Neutrality Acts, banning arms sales and loans to countries at war.
“When in 1939 war did broke out in Europe Roosevelt believed that this was a fundamentally
different war from World War I. Germany, he believed and most Americans agreed with him
was in this case a clear aggressor. Roosevelt therefore sought to provide assistance for the Allies,
while still keeping the United States out of the war. He began by asking Congress to amend the
neutrality laws to allow arms sales to the Allies. Later on, after German forces overran France,
the president asked Congress for a massive program of direct military aid to Great Britain—an
initiative that Roosevelt dubbed "Lend-Lease." 56The President justified his actions by declaring
that the United States must become the "Arsenal of Democracy.
55
Advancement in Technology in World War II, Wilson Lewis, Last updated May 17, 2012,
http://armedforcesmuseum.com/advancements-in-technology-in-world-war-ii/
56
From Neutrality to War: The United States and Europe 1921-1941, http://edsitement.neh.gov/curriculumunit/neutrality-war-united-states-and-europe-1921-1941
Page 28
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The debate among isolationists and internationalists was still tense when the Japanese aircraft
attacked Pearl Harbor on December 1941. At this point the Americans became fully aware that
US participation on the Second World War was inevitable. But before coming to conclusion I
want to analyze in brief the reasons why USA and Japan declared war on each other. “As I listed
above, the Japanese expansion in the East Asia in 1931 with the invasion of Manchuria was one
of the three main catalysts that led world to another war. In 1937 it had invaded even China.
And in 1940, Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy, thus entering the military
alliance known as the "Axis." Later on by 1941, they also occupied the French colony of
Indochina.”57
This fact alarmed the American government that considered the growing power of China as a
threat to both peace in Asia and US trading interests. In order to curb Japanese aggression and
force a withdrawal of Japanese forces from Manchuria and China, the United States imposed
economic sanctions on Japan. Faced with severe shortages of oil and other natural resources and
driven by the ambition to displace the United States as the dominant Pacific power, Japan
decided to attack the United States and British forces in Asia and seize the resources of Southeast
Asia.
58
Japan launched a surprise attack on the United States Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor,
Hawaii, on December 7, 1941 which severely damaged the American fleet and determined the
final and decisive involvement of America. The war in Asia and Europe became one war. In
response, the United States declared war on Japan; in turn Germany being part of the Axis
powers declares war on United States. Following this declaration of war on the United States, the
United States also declared war on Germany. United States government organized the whole
American economy towards winning the war. It placed controls on wages and prices and
introduced high income taxes. Gasoline and some foods were rationed. Factories stopped
producing consumer goods such as automobiles and washing machines and stated making tanks,
bombers and other war supplies. The government spent a vast amount of money on a top
research scheme. The scheme was named Manhattan project. By 1945 scientists working on the
scheme had produced and tested worlds “atomic bomb”. 59
57
World War II in the Pacific, ENCYCLOPEDIA Last Updated: JUNE 20, 2014,
http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005155
58
World War II in the Pacific, ENCYCLOPEDIA Last Updated: JUNE 20, 2014,
http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005155
59
Bryn O`Callaghan ,An Illustrated History of the USA p.105-106
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In order to fight effectively US decided to use most of its forces to defeat Germany in Europe
and then shift its attention in Asia. This fact gave Japan large opportunities to achieve a long
series of military successes
“The turning point in the Pacific war came with the American naval victory in the Battle of
Midway in June 1942. Allied forces slowly gained naval and air supremacy in the Pacific, and
moved methodically from island to island, conquering them and often sustaining significant
casualties. On August 6, 1945, the United States Air Force dropped an atomic bomb on the
Japanese city of Hiroshima. Tens of thousands of people died in the initial explosion, and many
more died later from radiation exposure. Three days later, the United States dropped a bomb on
the Japanese city of Nagasaki. Approximately 120,000 civilians died as a result of the two
blasts. On August 14, 1945, American forces began to occupy Japan. Japan formally surrendered
to the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union on September 2, 1945.”60
Everything was over the war had ended .Germany and Japan were defeated. The Soviet Union
was strong in much of Eastern Europe. And the United States found it had become the world's
strongest military, economic, and political power. World War II was a watershed in the history of
the United States. Wartime developments in science and technology provided new tools for the
solution of prewar problems that had been put aside and new ones created by the exigencies of
the war. The contribution of science to the security and prosperity of the Nation was more widely
recognized than ever before.61
3.4 The Post-war United States
To the majority of Americans WWII and the great depression were the most important events
during the 20th century. World War II had a crucial impact on the United States. Even though
the war wasn’t fought on the American mainland, United States was the main provider of the war
materials necessary to fight, and the war affected it in every possible phase of the American life.
Immediately after the end of the war its effects were soon felt. America had won the war and
defeated the forces of evil in the world.” The years after the war were remembered as a period of
economic growth and cultural stability. The hardships of the previous fifteen years of war and
60
World War II in the Pacific, ENCYCLOPEDIA Last Updated: JUNE 20, 2014,
http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005155http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleI
d=10005155
61
World war II, Last updated 07-05-2015 19:11:47, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/world_war_2.htm
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depression were replaced by rising living standards, increased opportunities, and a newly
emerging American culture confident of its future and place in the world. “62
“There was seen an emergence of the federal government from the war as a potent economic
actor, able to regulate economic activity. American industry was revitalized by the war, and
many sectors of economy were sharply oriented to defense production (for example, aerospace
and electronics) and in many cases completely dependent on the atomic energy. The American
experience resulted impressive as scientific and technological change positively affected
virtually every facet of the war economy. The war’s rapid scientific and technological changes
continued and intensified trends begun during the Great Depression and created a permanent
expectation of continued innovation on the part of many scientists, engineers, government
officials and citizens. “63
The economic boom was encouraged from several important social trends. Among these trends
was the expansion of employment, which paralleled the expansion of industrial production.
Eager Americans flooded the work force and for the first time in years, there was no
unemployment in America. Americans reacted to the crisis effectively and efficiently. Although
discrimination didn’t fully end, minorities and women found many new opportunities.” 64
As a result 10.5 million Americans who could not then have had jobs (or who would not have
then sought employment 3.5 million women, for instance) were now employed. By 1945, the
percentage of blacks who held war jobs approximated blacks’ percentage in the American
population.65 African Americans improved their economical standing by accepting war industry
positions. It was estimated that by the end of the war 19.5 million women were in the world
force, most of whom were married.
66
Though most continued to hold traditional female
occupations such as clerical and service jobs, two million women did labor in war industries
(half in aerospace alone) (Kennedy, 778). Employment did not just increase on the industrial
62
Economic Recovery Lessons from the Post War II Period, Cecil Bohanon, Last updated Sep 10.2012 ,
http://mercatus.org/publication/economic-recovery-lessons-post-world-war-ii-period
64
World war II Affected Almost Every Aspect of American Life, https://www.kibin.com/essay-examples/worldwar-ii-affected-almost-every-aspect-of-american-life-5vS8ESqm
65
The American Economy During World War II, https://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-american-economy-during-worldwar-ii/
66
World war II Affected Almost Every Aspect of American Life, https://www.kibin.com/essay-examples/worldwar-ii-affected-almost-every-aspect-of-american-life-5vS8ESqm
Page 31
ELBASAN, JULY 2015
front. 67 During WWII business executives were offered key positions under Roosevelt in an
effort to unite industry with government, and as a result of this collaboration their production
doubled as they found demand in markets that hadn’t existed before.68
Migration was another major socioeconomic trend. African-Americans moved with particular
alacrity and permanence. Migration was especially strong along rural-urban axes, especially to
war-production centers around the country.69
Moreover the social life of many Americans was affected in countless ways. Work ethics were
enhanced and unemployment rates decreased. The working class was earning more incomes.
Even entertainment patterns differed. Leisure times consisted of hours in front of the radio or
TV. Despite large amounts of American causalities the United States was credited with victory
and due to drive and determination of its people it emerged as the world`s leading industrial
nation. Their optimisms of further economic growth gave the country e sense of positivisms.70
As a result the war greatly damaged every major economy in the world. In USA its impact was
completely different from that of the other participant nation. The war created a USA
economically and politically strong by a huge industrial expansion during the war and the post
war period. It created the conditions of collaboration between the federal government, private
enterprise and the labor unions whose connections strengthened and contributed to the economic
growth onward. Simultaneously this fact paved the way for another significant development, the
social one, improving the life of every American -whites and blacks, men and women, skilled
and unskilled. For the first time Americans experienced a level of materialistic comfort. They
could safely say they were living the American dream
3.5 Franklin D. Roosevelt`s Enduring Legacy
During the Second World War period the man who was leading the American government was
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR). Talking about him means talking about the American history,
about the climax of its economic, political, social and ideological life. He served as the president
67
The American Economy During World War II, https://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-american-economy-during-worldwar
68
World war II Affected Almost Every Aspect of American Life, https://www.kibin.com/essay-examples/worldwar-ii-affected-almost-every-aspect-of-american-life-5vS8ESq
69
The American Economy During World War II https://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-american-economy-during-worldwar-ii/
70
World war II Affected Almost Every Aspect of American Life , https://www.kibin.com/essay-examples/worldwar-ii-affected-almost-every-aspect-of-american-life-5vS8ESqm
Page 32
ELBASAN, JULY 2015
of the United States from 1933 to 1945. He may have done more during those twelve years to
change American society and politics than any of his predecessors. He was the man that led
America during its most historical significant turning points. The man that believed strongly in
his and USA`s capacities to combat the Great Depression of the 1930s and the victory of
Germany and Japan over the democratic societies. His beliefs, hard efforts and his responses to
the challenges made him the defining figure of the American history.
With a belief that he would be able to combat the Great Depression Roosevelt was elected by the
Americans as their president. Roosevelt promised a "new deal" and he certainly delivered. By
implementing a variety of innovative policies, FDR was able to pull the United States away from
the brink of economic, social, and perhaps even political, disaster—and lay the foundation for
future stability and prosperity. Under FDR, the American federal government assumed new and
powerful roles in the nation's economy, in its corporate life, and in the health, welfare, and wellbeing of its citizens. The New Deal sought to insure that the economic, social, and political
benefits of American capitalism were distributed more equally among America's large and
diverse populace. If FDR was elected in 1932 to fight the Depression, he was largely re-elected
in 1940 because Americans believed he could guide the nation through a period of treacherous
international relations. FDR correctly understood that Japan and Germany threatened the United
States, which in turn endangered the cherished freedoms Americans enjoyed at home. 71
In addition to these noteworthy achievements, FDR, had another enduring legacy for which he is
remembered even nowadays - his role in the creation of the United Nations.
“As the Second World War was raging across Europe and the Pacific, FDR played the role of
"global statesman" by looking not simply to ensure the Allies victory, but that after the end of the
war, there would be an international venue for nations to resolve their differences without
resorting to war. A previous attempt to create such a body - the League of Nations - after World
War One had proven a failure, in part because the United States never agreed to join the League
despite the efforts of then - President Woodrow Wilson.” 72
The Senate’s rejection of U.S. membership in the League “was a bitter experience for FDR and it
influenced him very, very deeply. Determined to avoid another mistake, FDR worked throughout
the final years of his life to create the United Nations and ensure that the U.S. would play an
71
Franklin D Roosevelt: impact and legacy July 14, 2015 Last
updated,http://millercenter.org/president/biography/fdroosevelt-impact-and-legacy
72
ibid
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active role in the organization. He secretly instructed the State Department to start working
because of isolationist sentiment in the United States at the time. The U.S. was more powerful in
1945 than it is today so FDR didn’t have to create the U.N. But he feared that the U.S. would not
get involved in world affairs if it was not embedded in an organization the U.N. Roosevelt was
so committed to the idea of an international collective security organization that he wanted to
quit the presidency and become the U.N.’s first secretary general. This is what he really wanted
to be remembered for. But FDR died 15 days before the conference opened and stewardship of
the project fell to Harry Truman who turned out to be one of the greatest internationalist
presidents of USA.73
With an aim, to promote world peace, collective security and friendly relations among most of
the world’s nations through co-operation between nations in international law, international
security, economic development, social, cultural, and humanitarian issues.
In 1944 preliminary plan was drawn up the Great Powers, United States, the Soviet Union, the
United Kingdom, and China. Fifty nations negotiated and signed the United Nations Charter at a
conference held in San Francisco from April 25 through June 26, 1945, and it went into effect on
October 24, 1945, after a sufficient number of nations had ratified. 74 But FDR died 15 days
before the conference opened and stewardship of the project fell to Harry Truman who turned
out to be one of the greatest internationalist presidents of USA.75
From 51 original members, the U.N.'s membership has grown today to include 192 member
states. The United Nations today is actively involved in a wide range of areas including
peacekeeping, peace building, conflict prevention and humanitarian assistance. 76 Its staying
powers for seven decades remains remarkable a tribute to Roosevelt's vision.
73
FDR and United Nations: An Enduring Legacy, http://globalsolutions.org/blog/2010/04/FDR-and-UnitedNations-Enduring-Legacy#.VaTzzF-qqkp
74
Teaching Eleanor Roosevelt Glossary, The United Nations
http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/un.cfm
75
United Nations Created Through FDR`s Determination, Schlesinger Says, Posted October 14 2014
http://www.law.virginia.edu/html/news/2004_fall/un.htm
76
FDR and United Nations: An Enduring Legacy, http://globalsolutions.org/blog/2010/04/FDR-and-UnitedNations-Enduring-Legacy#.VaTzzF-qqkp
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CHAPTER IV
NON-VIOLENT AMERICA
4.1 The Road to another War
Since at the very beginning of this work, I had just a clear vision in my mind, which has
followed me during every single step of this work- dealing, treating, describing and
understanding those main turning points that defined USA`s worldwide role and importance
across the centuries. Throughout the first chapter I wanted to give the reader a clear picture of the
US foreign policy since its establishment as United States of America onward, by making a
connection between the phases and the following events treated further. I just cannot finish
talking about America`s major influences without including, may be, the most crucial event,
which determined its position as the world`s unique superpower.
The years from 1900-1945s mark the most violent period of the American history, and in turn
that of the whole world. It was exactly through these years when two of the most significant
world war took place. After the end of the Second World War another unusual war took place the
famous ideological “Cold War”. On the same time this period marks the end of the European
domination and the switch of power from the European powers to USA- the world`s future
superpower. Considering its importance the XX century is thought to have started in 1914 with
the beginning of WW1, hoping to be the last. Than 20 years later the world and USA was once
again involved into another global conflict. This era marks the darkest period in the history of
mankind, with the introduction of new inhuman methods from the burning of people alive to
atomic bombs. The lack of a collective security resulted in the emergence of World War II, and
as I stated before jointly with it’s the creation of United Nations aiming at “Peace and
International Security”.
The middle of this century coincides with the above mentioned episode the beginning of the
Cold War. The war among two of the world`s emerging superpowers after the end of WWII,
United States and USSR. Based on the purpose of my paper, this period deserves the maximum
attention as the critical point of American history until then, and as one of the main factors that
determined its future as the globe's only superpower.
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4.2 The Cold War: The Bi-Polar World
During WWII United States had experienced an extended period of economic expansion, and
following the war, for more than a decade the U.S. economy continued with great strength.77
After, their success against Germany and Japan in 1945, most Americans initially viewed their
place in the postwar world with optimism and confidence, but within two years of the end of the
war, new challenges and perceived threats had arisen to erode that confidence.78 “By 1948, a new
form of international geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle tension had emerged
between two world superpowers, the USA and the USSR- the Cold War.” 79 “The two
superpowers
jointly
with
their
corresponding
different
ideologies—Communism and
Democracy—collided with advances in science such as the nuclear bomb and created an
atmosphere of paranoia throughout the world and especially, within America.”80
“This war introduced the world with two different ideological systems nurtured by their domestic
values and dramatically different worldviews, the Soviet Union envisioning a world-wide global
revolution leading to a Communist utopia and the United States believing in democracy and
private enterprise. While ideology cannot entirely explain the origins of the Cold War, it may
help explain why the cold war became so enduring and contentious.”81 The nature of the first few
years of the early Cold War (between 1945 and 1948) was more political than military. By 1950,
however, certain factors had made the Cold War an increasingly militarized struggle.82 These
main shifts regarding the nature of the war will be analyzed further based on certain reasons and
circumstances.
The tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States began to mount even before the
end of World War II, based on their interest to shape the post-war international order. During the
Cold War, Germany became the center for all the tensions between Democracy and
Communism. The location of Germany as the gateway between East and West Europe made it
the ideal place for these political struggles to occur. Following the Potsdam Conference in
77
America in the Post War Period, David Pierce, VOL. 1NO. 10 | PG. 1/1,2009
http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/2/america-in-the-post-war-period
78
The Post War United States, 1945-1968
http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/postwar/
79
Ibid
80
America in the Post War Period, David Pierce, VOL. 1 NO. 10 | PG. 1/1,2009
http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/2/america-in-the-post-war-period
81
Ideological Foundations of the Cold War, Harry S. Truman, Library& Museum
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/
82
Teaching Eleanor Roosevelt Glossary, http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/cold-war.cfm
Page 36
ELBASAN, JULY 2015
August 1945 Germany was formally split into American, British, French and Soviet zones of
occupation.83 The former capital, Berlin, was similarly divided. “At the close of World War II,
the Soviet Union stood firmly entrenched in Eastern Europe, intent upon installing communist
governments. It also sought to expand its security zone even further into North Korea, Central
Asia, and the Middle East. Similarly, the United States established a security zone of its own that
comprised Western Europe, Latin America, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and
Japan.”84
“One of the most important flashpoints was Poland, in which Stalin established a Polish
Communist government by never fulfilling the agreement of the establishment of freely elected
governments in recently liberated areas of Eastern Europe in the Yalta Conference in February
1945. Understanding the Soviet Union intentions, George F. Kennan, the temporary head of the
American embassy in Moscow, through the "long telegram”, sent his assessment of Soviet
foreign policy to Washington arguing that the Soviets were bent on expansion and opposed to
the United States and the West, as well as to capitalism and democracy.” 85He argued that the
strategy to deal with this threat should one of containment. 86Containment remained the basic
strategy of the United States throughout the Cold War. Two weeks later, former British Prime
Minister Winston Churchill, declared that the Soviets were bringing an "Iron Curtain" down
across Europe and that the United States and Britain needed to vigorously oppose Soviet
expansionism.87
“ A serious concern, about the fact that devastated European nations by WWII might elect
Communist governments that would orient them politically, economically, and militarily toward
the Soviet Union, and the tensions in Greece, Turkey, and Iran during 1947, led President Harry
Truman respond to Soviet pressure by announcing that the United States would support any
country threatened by communist aggression.”88 Truman announced in March 1947 what came
to be known as the Truman Doctrine. “During the Truman administration United States national
83
Germany During the Cold War, http://www.johndclare.net/cold_war1_Germany.htm
Teaching Eleanor Roosevelt Glossary, http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/cold-war.cfm
85
Harry. S. Truman: Foreign Affairs, Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. “Harry S. Truman:
Foreign, Accessed July 20, 2015 http://millercenter.org/president/biography/truman-foreign-affairs
86
Ideological Foundations of the Cold War, Harry S. Truman, Library& Museum
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar
87
Harry. S. Truman: Foreign Affairs, Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. “Harry S. Truman:
Foreign, Accessed July 20, 2015 http://millercenter.org/president/biography/truman-foreign-affairs
88
Civilizations Past And Present, The Bipolar "North," 1945-1991 Leon Clarck, http://historyworld.org/beginnings_of_the_cold_war.htm
84
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ELBASAN, JULY 2015
security policy revolved, around more than ideology. In the eyes of Washington's policy makers,
American predominance depended on power, meaning control of resources, industrial
infrastructure, and strategic superiority. The National Security Council (NSC) and the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) used the same criteria when assessing potential Communist threats
and American vital interests. Moreover, the broad economic and political policy of containment
came into. Becoming one the most important initiatives of the early Cold War, the Marshall Plan
of 1947 served these economic interests and finalized the division of the world into two hostile
camps. The Secretary of State George Marshall announced a multi-billion dollar aid program for
Europe, which became known as the Marshall Plan that he hoped, would encourage both
political and economic stability and reduce the attraction of communism to Europe's suffering
population.” 89 The Marshall Plan also institutionalized and legitimized the concept of U.S.
foreign aid programs, which have become an integral part of U.S. foreign policy. “90
Moreover in 1948, Soviet-backed communists seized control of Czechoslovakia, the last
remaining independent democracy in Eastern Europe. “In another confrontation, the United
States, England, and France, each occupying a zone of Germany, accelerated the process of
merging those regions into a separate country that, by 1949, would become West Germany. The
Soviets responded by blockading western access routes to Berlin. Truman, determined not to
abandon the city, ordered an airlift of food and fuel to break the blockade. When the western part
of Germany constituted itself as the Federal Republic of Germany in spring of 1949, the
U.S.S.R. initiated the permanent division of the country by establishing the German Democratic
Republic in the former Russian occupation zone.” 91 Over the next 12 years, cut off from its
western counterpart, East Germany and basically reduced to a Soviet satellite, saw millions of its
citizen’s head to West Germany in search of better opportunities. In 1961, under Soviet Premier
Nikita Khrushchev order, the famous Berlin Wall divided from friends or family members in the
89
Cold-War 1945-1950, The Start of the Atomic Age, Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security
http://www.faqs.org/espionage/Co-Cop/Cold-War-1945-1950-the-Start-of-the-Atomic-Age.html
90
Historical Timeline of US Foreign Policy Barcelona, Information Provided by the Information Resource Center
U.S. Consulate General, Barcelona, May 21 2009
http://irosteveperry.pbworks.com/f/History%20of%20US%20Foreign%20Policy%202009%20IRC%20BARCELO
NA%20INFOPACK.pdf
91
Harry. S. Truman: Foreign Affairs, Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. “Harry S. Truman:
Foreign, Accessed July 20, 2015 http://millercenter.org/president/biography/truman-foreign-affairs
Page 38
ELBASAN, JULY 2015
other half of the city the Berlin residents, becoming one of the most powerful and iconic symbols
of the Cold War. 92
On April 4, 1949, the United States, Canada, and ten Western European nations had reacted to
Soviet hostilities forming the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a military alliance
designed to protect its members against a potential Soviet attack. The USSR was responded in
1955 with the creation of the Warsaw Pact completing the formation of two opposing economic
and military alliances.93
By mid-1949, Europe was divided politically, economically, militarily, and ideologically. Thus,
by 1950, the framework of the Cold War was firmly in place, prompting both sides to enhance
their military capabilities, in particular their nuclear arsenal. However the soviet threat wasn’t
considered as important until the detonation of their Soviet atomic bomb in 1949. On the other
hand shocked and frightened by such a news President Truman responded by approving
development of the hydrogen bomb and ordering a complete review of U.S. national security
policy.” 94 The result was National Security Council Paper (NSC 68), which became the basis for
American Cold War strategy, predicting an indefinite period of conflict with the Soviet Union,
calling for a vast American military buildup.95
“Their ideological confrontation focused in Europe and especially Germany but not only, other
nations of would be part of a silent war between two superpowers. The continent which became
the basis of the militarily confrontation was Asia, where Chinese communists defeated their
nationalist opponents in the Chinese Civil War. By the time communist North Korea attacked
American-backed South Korea in June 1950. In this atmosphere of national emergency,
government officials believed that continued American superiority in nuclear weaponry was vital
to preventing a third world war. In 1950, following the beginning of the Korean War, the United
States nearly tripled its defense budget. During the 1960s, the space race became a much more
peaceful, and beneficial, battlefield- this time for technological and ideological superiority, the
Soviet Union tested the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), a feat dramatized
two months later by the launch of the "Sputnik" satellite. The following year, the United States
92
Berlin is Divided, http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/berlin-is-divided
Cold-War 1945-1950, The Start of the Atomic Age, Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security
http://www.faqs.org/espionage/Co-Cop/Cold-War-1945-1950-the-Start-of-the-Atomic-Age.html
94
Ideological Foundations of the Cold War, Harry S. Truman, Library& Museum
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar
95
Harry. S. Truman: Foreign Affairs, Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. “Harry S. Truman:
Foreign, Accessed July 20, 2015,http://millercenter.org/president/biography/truman-foreign-affairs
93
Page 39
ELBASAN, JULY 2015
first began limited operation of its own ICBM. The era of "mutual assured destruction," or
"MAD," had dawned. Aware that nuclear exchange would be a disaster for both sides, the
superpowers fought each other through a variety of proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan,
and dozens of other places. After four decades of an enormously expensive arms race, the
Soviet economy in the 1980s finally collapsed. Once it became clear that the Soviet Union would
no longer intervene militarily, the people of Eastern Europe rejected communism in a wave of
mostly peaceful revolts throughout 1989 and 1990. Masses of East and West Germans alike
gathered at the Berlin Wall and destroyed it. As this symbol of Cold War repression was
destroyed, East and West Germany became one nation again. The notorious symbol of the war
was destroyed and jointly with it a part of the world’s history, politics and diplomacy. On
Christmas Day, 1991, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time over the Kremlin, and the
Soviet Union officially ceased to exist.” 96
Exactly like the WWI that that left many conflicts unresolved, the Second World War paved the
way for another global war. According to my opinion a brief summary of the real causes of this
war would be the differing political systems, war devastation, and the disagreements over
rebuilding Europe. I think that this “postwar” period shaped the world as we know it today in the
same way it was shaped itself by the war that had proceeded it. The man who gave the
Americans the official framework for understanding the Soviet challenge was Kennan, whereas
the one who brought the threat home to the public was Churchill and his iron curtain. On the
other hand, Truman played a very crucial role through his policy of containment determined to
maintain strong the democracy and prevent the expansionism of the communist system. The cold
war definitely strengthened the USA position as of hegemonic dominance over other capitalist
countries as a result of the devastating impact of the Second World War on the economy and
security interests. This dominance gave United States the role of hegemonic leadership, and I
totally think that its main success lies not only on its economic or military strength but in the
main factor under which this war was fought, the ideological one. It was its representative
democratic ideology and capitalist economy where other capitalist states found themselves
defended.
96
The Manhattan Project an Interactive History, US Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage
Resources, https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1945-present/cold_war.htm
Page 40
ELBASAN, JULY 2015
4.3 The Post-Cold War US Diplomacy
As the history of the world has always been in a continuous process of change the same thing
happened with USA foreign policy. I started my work with the first pattern of USA policy, with
marks even the first established foreign policy of USA. George Washington`s Farewell Address
characterized USA foreign policy for more than a century, the principle of which was to
withdraw from the world in favor of focusing solely on the home front. In accordance with its
national interests, foreign policy changed from neutrality to isolationism, expansionism and later
on to interventionism. The 19th century was characterized by a big determination to span
overseas by avoiding foreign entanglements, whereas on the other hand the 20th century found
America on an imperial position, shaped by major events each of which I have mention
throughout these chapters. The end of the Cold War marked the beginning of a new era. The
Cold War changed its position in the world and consequently its foreign policy. External threats
that had shaped its position throughout the previous two centuries like European empires or
Communist threats belonged to the past.
“ The non-negotiable demands of human dignity: rule of law, limits on the power of the state,
respect for women, private property, equal justice, religious tolerance" -- are not narrow
American values that benefit Americans only , to the contrary, they are universal values that
people everywhere would benefit from.” “Between President Bush words we find more than
clear the principal aims of American foreign policy of the 21st century. Integrating other
countries and organizations into arrangements that will sustain a world consistent with U.S.
interests and values, and thereby promote peace, prosperity, and justice as widely as possible
defined the new perspectives of USA.” 97
“While investigating the nature of current United States foreign policy, the logical source is the
State Department, whose job it is to define and direct it, manage and control international
relationship between foreign governments, organizations and people. The management of all of
these relationships is called diplomacy.”98
Its main goals are concluded in six main objectives:
 Preserving the national security of the United States
97
Defining US Foreign Policy Richard N. Haass, Director, Policy Planning Staff, US Department of State Archive
Arthur Ross Lecture, Remarks to Foreign Policy Association, January 2001-2009 http://20012009.state.gov/s/p/rem/9632.htm
98
Foreign Policy, What Now? American Government 2oo8-2014, http://www.ushistory.org/gov/11a.asp
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 Promoting world peace and a secure global environment
 Maintaining a balance of power among nations
 Working with allies to solve international problems
 Promoting democratic values and human rights
 Furthering cooperative foreign trade and global involvement in international trade
organizations99
“The crucial objective of foreign policy is to use diplomacy — or talking, meeting, and making
agreements — to solve international problems, by avoiding military settlement. All these
objectives are held and developed by some people and organizations The President who almost
always has the primary responsibility for shaping foreign policy, signs treaties with other nations
with the "advice and consent" of the Senate. Moreover, the Secretary of State coordinates all
governmental actions by affecting relations with other countries. To maintain harmonious
relationships with other countries, the Foreign Service, consists of ambassadors and other official
representatives to other countries, and the embassies protect Americans overseas. The National
Security Council on the other hand deals with foreign, military, and economic policies that affect
national security. And finally, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is one of the best-known
agencies that set foreign policy, gathers, analyzes, and transmits information from other
countries that might be important to the security of the nation.”100
“The main ways that describe its diplomacy in action include: the fighting of terrorism which
threatens the United States, its allies and interests, and the world community, homeland security
that begins at home but extends beyond USA borders, regional stability the use of its diplomacy
in all regions of the world to keep local conflicts from becoming wider wars that may harm U.S.
interests, Middle East intervention, promoting and supporting the development of democracy
in Iraq, Israel, Egypt, other Middle Eastern countries, and the Palestinians to find a way for them
to live peacefully together, collaboration with the Western Hemisphere to confront terrorism
and illegal drug trafficking, work with Europe and Eurasia with key institutions such as NATO,
on a range of global issues to promote stability and international cooperation, fighting
International Crime, Illegal Drugs and Criminal Acts , providing Economic Prosperity and
99
Foreign Policy, What Now? American Government 2oo8-2014, http://www.ushistory.org/gov/11a.asp
Ibid
100
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Security, and the last but not the least promoting Democracy and Human Rights around the
world.”101
While analyzing and studying the way USA operates through its foreign policy, I can definitely
say that its work has always been a serious and effective one. But on the other hand each of us
should be realist and unbiased if it comes to give a pure and sincere evaluations of its policy.
Dealing with this issue during all this work I got a clear picture of the USA foreign policy history
and interests. Its foreign policy suffered significant shifts but the main intention was always
there, unchanged. Its main concern was and still is the evolution of the world order. The
perspectives of the Americans through the centuries included the same goals, the need for a
strong national government, domestic stability, integration in the global politics and economy, a
moral and a national obligation to spread social and democratic values by establishing a peaceful
international order, spread of democratic ideology and humanitarian actions, and the most
important the physical security and economic prosperity for the Americans.
All these points define its policy, which according to my opinion serve its national interests to
establish a world order based on democratic peaceful states by developing USA security interests
and reflecting crucial values of the American people. Based on all these argument I might say
that USA goals, objectives and decisions have always been a combination of self interest and
idealism. But If continue to be sincere once again I would say that this unique, complex and
successful foreign policy gave to America the role of the world’s supreme power, and if these
national and idealistic interests will continue to be combined in this way the future looks bright.
101
Diplomacy: The US Department of State at Work, Bureau of Public Affair, June 2008
ttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/rls/dos/107330.htm
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CONCLUSIONS
This study introduced us with the main patterns of US foreign policies, from the first established
us policy regarding neutrality to its policy of intervention. The following chapters gave us a
complete picture of USA position in the world after those events and the consequences they had
not only on USA political life but also in its society.
Firstly, it was focused on the main foreign policy forms, from Washington policy to maintain
strong its political institutions and economy without becoming involved in European affairs to
Monroe Doctrine that transformed neutrality to isolationism, giving US a sense of idealism of
having a special mission in the world and ideological domination. Moreover, it provided us with
the main events that led to the rise of the United States to the role of Superpower spreading its
influence and power across the seas by expanding to Europe, Asia, and Latin America, from the
Atlantic to the Pacific. This section led to a better understanding of the first steps which were
undertaken, that later on shaped its role as the globe superpower. The next issues introduced the
way US policy of the 1920s became focused on international peace, trading interests, national
stability and on the elimination of the obstacles to American trade relations.
The second chapter analyzed the first turning point of US policy and the first major area of
influence of the USA on the world stage, the entry in World War I which in turn ended the longstanding isolationist perspective that had dominated US policy for already an entire century. It
introduced you with one of the most preeminent American figure, Wilson, whose 14th points and
League of Nations played a crucial role on the post-war situation involving US and the
international stage. And finally it made clear how this war shaped US policy and society mainly
positively.
Moreover, the third one explains and reflects the way WWI`s unresolved matters, that led forced
once again the world and US entry into another struggle, and the future impacts of the war on US
society. In addition, this chapter provided you with a panorama of the post-war period, that
definitely gave and end not only to the Great Depression but to some social issues related with
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the women`s role and that of the minorities after the war( of course discrimination didn’t cease to
exist) .
Finally, the last chapter signed the beginning of an unusual war, the ideological “Cold War” that
marked the end of the European domination and the switch of power from the European powers
to USA-the globe superpower. At the end, I have closed my study by mentioning and explaining
the main principles of the newly established US foreign of the new century, our 21st century. It
also included some unbiased arguments related with the US foreign policy real interests,
connecting these arguments with the early stages as well, and making a comparison between its
current principles and that of the previous century.
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