PRACTICE: SOCIAL WORK IN ACTION, 2018
VOLUME 30
NUMBER 4 (SEPTEMBER 2018), 293–303
Social Work Practice with Canada’s
Indigenous People: Teaching a
Difficult History
Karen McCauley, and Duncan Matheson
Social work in Canada has been historically influenced by cultural and language
tensions; for instance, as a nation that has understood itself to have been
‘founded’ as a colony by the English and French. However, the legacy that
contemporary social work education struggles with most is how to articulate a
constructive narrative that acknowledges the role that the profession has played
in contributing to practices that have damaged Indigenous families and
communities. Today, Indigenous social workers are bringing missing perspectives
that help to inform critical reflection upon this legacy of colonisation. This
article adapts an Indigenous model of Foundational Principles for Practice to
consider ways that social workers from different cultural backgrounds may
engage in anti-oppressive practice; working as allies to advance healing, and
combat racism, which still oppresses Indigenous people in Canada. Further, this is
history that has lessons for all of us trying to learn from and value cultural
diversity in our communities in a world where many embrace a politics of fear
of difference.
Keywords: anti-oppressive; diversity; history; inclusion; indigenous;
reconciliation
Introduction
Social work practice in Canada has historically been influenced by cultural and
language tensions; for instance, as a nation that long understood itself to have
been ‘founded’ as a colony by British and French settlers who tamed the wilderness, harvested its natural resources, and created a sentimental literature
about the geography and its inhabitants. It is a nation that for most of its
history has been perceived as a colony by those founding European nations;
and, once established, as colonisers by the Indigenous population. The political
Correspondence to: Karen McCauley,
School of Social Work, Laurentian University, Sudbury,
Canada Ramsey Lake Road, Sudbury ON Canada, P3E 2C6. Email: Kl_mccauley@laurentian.ca
# 2018 British Association of Social Workers
https://doi.org/10.1080/09503153.2018.1483493
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leadership implemented discriminatory policy to re-affirm this cultural dominance. British North America’s Indigenous people were declared to be subjects
of the Federal government (Battiste and Henderson 2012), as articulated in
the Indian Act (1876). This colonising legislation formalised a policy of assimilation of Indigenous peoples with far reaching consequences that continue to
oppress Indigenous communities today. It is only relatively recently that social
work education has begun to articulate a constructive discourse that acknowledges the role that the profession has played in contributing to practices that
have damaged Indigenous cultures, communities and families (Baskin 2011;
Freeman 2017; Kennedy-Kish (Bell) et al. 2017).
Inter-generational, or historical trauma (Freeman 2017) has been the outcome of colonisation. Baskin (2011, 3) believes that ‘the near destruction of a
land-based way of living, economic and social deprivation, substance abuse,
the intergenerational cycle of violence, the breakdown of healthy family life,
and the erosion of traditional values for many Indigenous peoples today are
the direct result of colonisation and ongoing systemic oppression’, and social
work has been complicit in that oppression (CASWE 2017). The outcome of
generations of colonising practices is expressed as a cultural genocide by the
Truth and Reconciliation Commission (2015b), defined as the ‘destruction of
those structures and practices that allow the group to continue as a group’
(5), and exemplified in Canada’s residential school system. Today, many people
who were never were separated from their families, or suffered the abuse and
deprivations that regularly occurred in these institutions, continue to live the
legacy of colonising practices of assimilation. The effects of inter-generational
trauma are evident in higher rates of inter-personal violence, incarceration
and poverty among Indigenous peoples, and also compromised educational,
health and social outcomes (Battiste and Henderson 2012; Kovach 2015; Truth
and Reconciliation Commission 2015a; Freeman 2017; Statistics Canada 2017a).
Most non-Indigenous social work faculty today were brought up in a public
education system that scarcely addressed Indigenous peoples in its curriculum
(Qwul’sih’yah’maht 2015; Hyslop 2017), or if so only to the extent that ‘Native
Canadians’ were held up as a symbol of the multicultural mosaic that was promoted in the nation’s story of itself. While this curriculum has gradually been
revised to be more inclusive of minority perspectives, most students come to
social work largely ignorant of the effects of institutional racism. In recent
years, Indigenous social workers and educators have begun bringing missing
perspectives that help to inform critical reflection upon this legacy of colonisation (Harding 2009; Freeman 2017; Hyslop 2017; Kennedy-Kish (Bell) et al.
2017). However, non-Indigenous social work educators are often cautious about
how to incorporate these knowledge into the classroom in ways that can promote the development of allies in anti-oppressive practice. This caution is
often an expression of reluctance on the part of social work teachers to presume to tell another’s story, as we strive to communicate a history that is
authentic to all stakeholders.
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The diversity of First Nations languages and traditions make it impossible to
define a homogenous Indigenous culture (Baskin and Davey 2017), yet
‘spiritually connected similarities exist in their worldviews and their relationships to their land and to each other’ (Battiste and Henderson 2012, 89). For
many Indigenous people, relationships have been explored in non-linear ways
(Kovach 2015; Baskin and Davey 2017). Kennedy-Kish (Bell) et al. (2017) outline
four directional ‘foundational principles of Indigenous traditional social work
practice’ that resonate across cultures: ‘Kindness’ in the East, ‘Honesty’ in the
South, ‘Sharing’ in the west, and ‘Strength’ in the North, as often depicted in
a ‘Medicine Wheel’ (Partridge 2010; Wenger-Nabigon 2010).
We conclude our analysis by offering our own interpretation of these principles; sharing how we find at the centre of this circle, underlying all these principles, is a core value of Respect. It is our way of entering into dialogue with
Kennedy-Kish (Bell)’s model. As non-indigenous authors we regard this foundation as a starting place to explore opportunities associated with teaching a difficult history, and becoming allies in anti-oppressive practice. The findings
from Canada’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission (2015a) further suggest
how learning from this history may inform a path of healing and anti-oppressive social work practice; improving the quality of life for those who have the
deepest ancestral roots in this land, as well as those newly arrived.
Kindness
Kindness is expressed as a generosity of spirit; something that many people
struggle to achieve in a world that makes us wary of difference. It is recognised as a foundational principle that ‘has intention that is life promoting and
life sustaining’ (Kennedy-Kish (Bell) 2017, 6). This is fostered in social work
classrooms where mutual respect is modelled and expected, creating an environment where students and teachers are able to challenge assumptions that
they carry about difference. For some members participating in a social work
class these assumptions may have not yet been critically examined; and alternative, Indigenous perspectives that understand many problems as an outcome
of colonising practices ‘will be extremely new’ (Freeman 2017, 107). Learning
the ways in which members of society’s dominant, Western European cultures
benefit from systems that perpetuate oppression of other groups is often difficult for people who almost always come to social work with a desire to help
others, and assume that their Government’s influence upon Indigenous people,
and other minority groups has been benign. As Baines (2017) explains, antioppressive practice is a futile undertaking for anyone who perceives the status
quo as natural or inevitable.
Consistent with Indigenous principles, kindness should be extended to nonIndigenous students who are still often unaware of the ways that social work
has contributed to policies and direct interventions that have harmed
Indigenous families and communities because, at least until recently, this is a
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piece of Canadian history that has been largely silenced (Qwul’sih’yah’maht
2015). Many are reluctant to ask questions in class because they are afraid of
being inadvertently offensive or betraying their ignorance. Language can be a
minefield for students who don’t know whether, or how to refer to Indigenous,
Aboriginal or First Nations’ people, for example. Baskin (2011) observes that
as ‘Indigenous peoples, it is not our responsibility to do all the educating.
However, our allies need to be kind to themselves, take care of themselves,
and receive support, so that they, too, can continue their important work of
helping to educate others’ (78). Classrooms should be places where students
can learn how to be allies by being made to feel secure enough to ask difficult
questions without needing to worry about being denounced as colonisers,
or worse.
Teachers and students demonstrate kindness by actively listening to each
other’s stories, taking an interest in traditions different from their own, and
learning from alternative perspectives. In his writing, Ross (1996) offers examples of how applying his cultural assumptions to what he observed in
Indigenous communities lead him to false conclusions. On one occasion he
sought the insight of an Ojibway friend to help reconcile his notion of gender
equality with the practice he often observed among older Indigenous couples
in Northern communities where the wife would walk several paces behind her
husband. The friend asked Ross to consider that the trails where they hunted
and trapped would have been traditionally narrow; and where there was danger, the husband would face it first. She made a comparison to times of war:
‘“Where,” she asked, “do you put your generals? Are they out front or are
they in the rear, where they have time to see and plan and react?”’ (52).
Similarly, social work students need to learn how the cultural assumptions that
they bring to professional interventions at all levels of practice may not fully
apprehend the rationale of different cultural practices. The failure of social
workers to critically reflect upon their own assumptions about how people
should conduct their personal relationships has resulted in undermining the
integrity of families and communities. When educators endeavour to support
all kinds of inquiry, and respond to even naïve questions in a spirit of generosity and kindness, this helps to creates an environment that may stop the perpetuation of oppression grounded in ignorance.
Honesty
Social workers, in and out of the classroom should honestly ‘explore their own
oppressions and privileges, consider how the power they hold in their positions
impacts on those they work with, and reflect on how their values and biases
influence their actions’ (Baskin and Davey 2017, 7). While residential schools
pre-date the professionalisation of social work in Canada, the effects of this
history continue to undermine family ties in many Indigenous communities. If
they uninformed about this history then social workers will be ineffectual, at
SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE WITH CANADA’S INDIGENOUS PEOPLE
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best, and complicit in compounding oppression by working from harmful
assumptions and racist stereotypes (CASWE 2017; Freeman 2017). Fortunately,
there is a growing literature that teachers may draw upon to illustrate how in
earlier times it was believed that the “Indian question” could be settled by
the gradual disappearance of Indigenous identity through forced residency on
reserves, controlled under the Indian Act, and the indoctrination of children
in residential schools. The government tried to force people off the land and
onto reserves. In the twenty-first century, the desire seems to be to get
people out of reserves. (Angus 2015, 288)
Angus is a Member of Parliament for a vast Northern Ontario constituency
with a substantial Indigenous population who are profoundly impoverished. He
is a non-Indigenous ally who has learned the history of his constituents and
worked with them in ways that have brought their voices forth, becoming
active agents in the long process of bringing about change. Angus’ advocacy is
an example to non-indigenous social workers about how to be honest about
the colonial legacy that has undermined relations between Indigenous and
non-indigenous peoples and their institutions. He is an effective ally because
he has learned to value the contributions that Indigenous cultures bring to
community life, and its institutions.
The Canadian Association for Social Work Education (CASWE) (2017, para. 2)
recently published a ‘statement of complicity and commitment to change’,
acknowledging that ‘[u]nfortunately, social work education, research and practice have been, and continue to be, complicit in our colonial reality’. This
complicity was perhaps most evident in child welfare practices that have come
to be known as the ‘Sixties Scoop’. This makes reference to a time when child
protection workers routinely exercised their authority to apprehend Indigenous
children from their communities, and often placed them for adoption to nonIndigenous families (Pon 2009). Estranged from kin and culture many of these
children grew up isolated and often abused (Smith 2013).
More recently, Harding (2009) has undertaken a content analysis of media
coverage of children who have died under the care of child protection services. His research illustrates that the media tends to present issues involving
Aboriginal people in ways that are unsympathetic to their interests or circumstances. When social workers learn to consider the political and social contexts
in which accepted ‘facts’ are embedded, they can challenge representations
that perpetuate and compound oppression.
Learning this history informs understanding of contemporary social welfare
realities, including the fact that, today, there are more Indigenous children
involved with child welfare services than were ever taken into residential
schools (Baskin and Davey 2017), or at the height of the Sixties Scoop
(Kennedy-Kish (Bell) et al. 2017). Federal Indigenous Services Minister, Jane
Philpott, recently referred to the disproportionate number of Indigenous children involved with child welfare services as a ‘humanitarian crisis’ (Barrera
2017). Although greater efforts are made to maintain Indigenous children
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within extended kinship circles, and home communities (Smith 2013) this is
very difficult where entire communities are broken down by despair, poverty,
and violence.
Clearly, historical awareness on its own cannot eradicate the consequences
of inter-generational trauma. Canada’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission
(2015a) concludes that ‘reconciliation’ is about establishing and maintaining a
mutually respectful relationship between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples in this country. For that to happen, there has to be awareness of the
past, acknowledgment of the harm that has been inflicted, atonement for the
causes and action to change behaviour’ (Vol. 6, 10). This means something
more than regretting the past. Anti-oppressive social workers are actively
engaged in realising progressive social change. They ‘develop partnerships
with those who use their services and ensure their practice and experiences
become the major sources of knowledge development’ (Baskin and Davey
2017, 6). This knowledge then informs advocacy for the development of progressive policy, and investment of resources that fund child welfare, education, health and housing supports.
Sharing
Kennedy-Kish (Bell) et al. (2017) believes ‘it is the intention of knowledge and
understanding to be shared. Knowledges are not to be hoarded or squandered’
(p.7). Sharing involves giving of oneself, but it also entails listening to perspectives that further inform or even challenge one’s own world view. Baskin and
Davey (2017) explain that social work ‘practitioners must be ever-reflexive’
and open to new learning’ (5). In the classroom, it is important for teachers
and students to ‘hold space’ (Simpson 2017, para. 14) for alternative truths
and traditions.
This may be accomplished by bringing Indigenous Elders and other community
leaders into the classroom, but that isn’t always possible. Nor does it absolve nonIndigenous teachers from the responsibility of educating themselves in order to
take a constructive position in relation to this history, and be authentic collaborators in a movement for reconciliation and healing. The findings of the Truth and
Reconciliation Commission (2015b) define ten Principles of Reconciliation, including that ‘All Canadians, as Treaty peoples, share responsibility for establishing and
maintaining mutually respectful relationships’ (4). So, after honestly acknowledging past abuses and colonising practices, Indigenous and non-Indigenous social
workers need to model the kinds of dialogue and collaborative practices that promote healing and inclusion.
Often this sharing is expressed through story-telling. Freeman (2017)
explains how ‘storytelling is how information is shared within cultures. For
Native people, the sharing of life experiences or imperative moments allows
the listener (or reader) to connect to that experience in a way that is relevant
and non-intrusive to all’ (109). Indigenous knowledge is communicated through
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story (Kovach 2015; Qwul’sih’yah’maht 2015), and a process of mutual learning
can occur if opportunities are created for Indigenous and non-Indigenous social
workers to share their traditional stories (Baskin 2011).
As all cultures have their stories, so do individuals. Many people understand
the impact of history and contemporary policy as it is experienced through one
person’s life. Using personal memoir or biography in the classroom has been utilised by the authors as an effective teaching tool (Angus 2015; Edwards 2003;
Merasty and Carpenter 2017 are examples). Reading widely about experiences
that the reader otherwise would not be able to access increases capacity for
empathy, and offers an opportunity to critically reflect on their responses to the
text as locations for personal growth, and professional activism (Mar and
Oatley, 2008).
While sharing stories, healing traditions and cultural rituals may enrich
understanding of alternative perspectives, and help lay the foundation for a
shared vision for the future, Baskin (2011) cautions about the harms of appropriation. Using traditional Indigenous teachings and ceremonies in social work
practice is something that may only be undertaken after long tutelage, and
with the permission of Elders. Most non-Indigenous social workers will not be
qualified to lead a smudging ceremony, sweat, or a vision quest; however, all
social workers can learn to appreciate the spiritual value of these practices.
Social workers can be pro-active in locating and referring service users who
are looking for opportunities to participate in cultural practices that affirm
personal identity and a sense of belonging. Finally, social workers can learn
from Indigenous healing and restorative traditions and bring the principles of
kindness, honesty, and sharing into mainstream social work relationships in
more explicit ways, in order to make practice more compassionate and
anti-oppressive.
Strength
Strength is an outcome of practicing kindness, honesty, and sharing (KennedyKish (Bell) et al. 2017). This means that after being kind enough to recognise
the worth of all people, cultivating honesty to reconsider history and the
harms that policies of assimilation and racism continue to inflict, and sharing
and learning from alternative cultural approaches to social work practice,
social workers may exhibit the strength to foster new relationships as partners
and allies. This is an ongoing process.
For some non-Indigenous teachers, this means embedding Indigenous and
other stakeholder discourses into course syllabi. This article, for instance,
deliberately draws upon Indigenous and non-Indigenous perspectives, in dialogue, in order to try to articulate a way of being in the classroom, and in
practice, that is both inclusive and feasible. Enduring theories for practice,
such as narrative and structural approaches may be adapted to be inclusive of
Indigenous and other cultural discourses. ‘Structural social work encourages us
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all to reconsider … ingrained beliefs by taking a close look at reality and asking
questions about why there are so many immigrants with PhDs who are not able
to practice their area of specialty in Canada, or why over 1,200 missing and
murdered Indigenous women and girls are of such little concern to the state’
(Baskin and Davey 2017, 5). Structural social work de-pathologises the victims
of marginalisation, seeking transformation of institutions, and policies that
perpetuate the oppression of some people for the benefit of others; in this
way sharing the objectives of anti-oppressive social work practice (Baskin
2011; Baines 2017). ‘Indigenous anti-oppressive practice acknowledges, and
can be helpful to, not only Indigenous peoples, but all human beings’
(Freeman 2017, 105). This is a particularly important dimension of anti-oppressive practice given that, unfortunately, cultural oppression is not just the historical legacy of relations between Canada’s Indigenous peoples and early
western European settlers. Racism is a very contemporary experience for
Indigenous people and others in Canada today.
It takes strength to be an ally, but perhaps what takes the greatest strength
of all is for experts to have the humility admit what they don’t know. Social
policy and social work practice is still designed and enacted by people representing a relatively narrow band of the Canada’s cultural tapestry, which
means that continuous engagement in mutual sharing and learning essential to
working effectively for and advocate with people seeking services. The Truth
and Reconciliation Commission (2015b, 126) concludes that ‘together,
Canadians must do more than just talk about reconciliation; we must learn
how to practise reconciliation in our everyday lives’ (emphasis in original).
This requires strength of purpose. Indigenous and non-indigenous social workers need to collaborate to realise reconciliation (CASWE 2017), but there is a
further step: embracing the diversity that extends even wider to include people who have come to Canada from all kinds of places and cultural traditions.
Respect
We conclude that the common denominator that runs through each of the principles that comprise Kennedy-Kish (Bell’s) model is respect. Social workers
that respect the people with and for whom they work will share with kindness
and honesty. Conversely, without respect none of the other principles may be
realised. Respect is about more than atoning for the past. It entails humility
and taking a sincere interest in what Indigenous cultures contribute to enrich
society. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (2015b, 113) strikes an optimistic note when it observes that the ‘relationship between Aboriginal and
non-Aboriginal peoples is not a mutually respectful one. But we believe we
can get there’. Freeman (2017) agrees, adding that ‘all is not hopeless’ (107).
Perhaps the most important contribution that teachers make to the profession
is to facilitate creative ways to nurture respect between emerging social workers and the diverse populations and experiences that they will encounter in
SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE WITH CANADA’S INDIGENOUS PEOPLE
301
their careers. Modelling exchanges in the classroom around the principles
defined by Kennedy-Kish (Bell) will facilitate respect between teachers and
students, and amongst colleagues; thereby preparing students to engage as
partners and allies all fields of practice, with diverse populations.
Conclusion
The framework that was adopted from Kennedy-Kish (Bell) for this article
speaks to principles that inspire and transcend Indigenous traditions. Broadly
defined, these are principles that are understood and valued across languages,
cultural traditions, and geographic location. This is important for social work
practice in diverse communities, as the latest statistical evidence indicates
that the fastest growing populations in Canada are Indigenous people and
immigrants. At the same time, only 27.5% of the population identify French or
English as their first language (Statistics Canada 2017b). Yet, the diversity of
Canadian communities is still not well represented on university campuses,
partly because Indigenous peoples, and others who do not resemble Western
European descent, face barriers to academic inclusion (Baskin and Davey
2017). This places further responsibility on those of us in the social work classroom to be educated on how dominant social work discourse has often contributed to the oppression of others, and to educate students on how to be allies,
and create space (Kovach 2015) for Indigenous people and the many other
Canadians that also experience racism (Baskin and Davey 2017).
Going forward, Canadian communities will thrive based upon how the needs
of those whose cultures are most deeply rooted in this land, alongside those
newly transplanted, are met. Part of the appeal of Kennedy-Kish (Bell)’s model
is its simplicity but, unfortunately, there is no simple intake tool or assessment
strategy to operationalise these principles. Indeed, working as allies, in partnership with Indigenous healers, activists, and the diverse populations that use
social work services and make up our communities, is inevitably fraught with
challenges that come with being committed to holding space and engaging in
mutual learning. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (2015b) opens its
findings with ten ‘Principles of Reconciliation’, but the path to their realisation is not nearly so straight forward, and must follow many routes. However,
by starting with kindness that expresses itself in a desire to value all humanity
we can feel safe enough to be honest about a difficult history, our ignorance
and our anxieties for the future. Through sharing what we have in common
and our hopes for our families’ and communities’ futures, we will have the
strength to do the work to realise social inclusion, living peaceably and confidently with diversity. Social work has a leadership role to play in modelling
inclusive practices in our work with individuals and communities, and we can
learn how to do this by acknowledging difficult cultural histories and responding to them with humility and respect for all.
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Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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Karen McCauley is an Assistant Professor, with teaching and research interests
in the history of social policy, critical perspectives on disability, human rights
and administration.
Duncan Matheson is an Associate Professor, with expertise in social policy and
administration. He is the designer and editor of spon.ca: A teaching and
research tool to access contemporary reporting on issues under debate across
social policy domains.