1. Using Source A, and your own knowledge, describe the nature of the contributions
of Giuseppe Fiorelli to the excavations of Pompeii.
Giuseppe Fiorelli’s appointment to the excavations of Pompeii brought the site of Pompeii
to a new phase through the scientific nature of Fiorelli’s excavations provided historical
information and influencing further study. Source A states “ He introduced a Journal of
Excavations” identifying Fiorelli’s interest in attaining historical information unlike other
archaeologists whom “were interested only in finding treasure.” Firorelli’s notation of date,
starting time and finishing time of the excavation in conjunction with the recording of “what
they looked like and how they were found” provides historians with reliable information
about the excavations conducted at Pompeii and the nature of artefacts found at the site.
Fiorelli’s introduction of an new scientific method of excavation highlighted in “ cleared
away the mounds of waste…built roofs over the site…protect them from the sun and rain”
indicates Fiorelli’s primary focus on establishing an clear historical identity of Pompeii.
Fiorelli imposing a system of slowly uncovering buildings from top down allowed for the
extraction of historical information that had previously been destroyed or stolen, collecting
data to help restore ancient buildings. Fiorelli’s excavation technique indicates an primary
influence towards a movement of modern stratigraphic digging techniques. Fiorelli’s
innovation of filling cavities with liquid plaster to produce casts of humans, animals, and
plants contributed to the historical portfolio of Pompeii today, providing information
including diet, living standards and information on what happened on the eruption of
Pompeii. Hence Giuseppe Fiorelli’s scientific methods of excavation is the leading
contributor to historical information and further study of Pompeii.
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2. Using Source B, and your own knowledge, outline the role of the main buildings of
the Forum of Pompeii.
The primary role of the main buildings associated with the Pompeii’s forum where for
administration, religious and commercial functions. Source B identifies the Temple of
Jupiter, the main temple in the city that reciprocated the religious identify of the Roman
empire. The Temple was built for the residents of Pompeii to worship the mainstream
Roman gods Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. Source B identifies the Basilica, initially an area for
the administration of justice, the Basilica became vital in the commercial lifestyle of
residents living in Pompeii. The Basilica housed Pompeii’s courts yet simultaneously acted as
an market in which businessmen would take part in commercial trading. The building played
an crucial role in daily business and the local economy of Pompeii. The Municipal offices
identified in Source B were vital in the administration of Pompeii as an city. The municipal
offices include the Council of Decurions , Office of the Aediles and the Office of the
Duumviri. The Office of the Duumviri was the office of the highest authorities of the town
usually the magistrates. The Council of Decurions acted as the town council and the Office
of the Aediles were responsible for public work or maintenance of the town. Hence the
primary role of the main buildings of Pompeii’s forum were for means of administration,
religion and commercial activities.
The Pompeian forum is an 150 metres long by 40 metres wide rectangular paved area
surrounded by a white limestone double colonnaded portico featuring equestrian statues
honouring the imperial family.
3. Assess the value and limitations of frescoes and mosaics in understanding the role of
women in Pompeii and Herculaneum. In your response refer to Source C and other
sources you have studied pG 61, pG 156
Frescos and mosaics provide significant value in understanding the role in women in
Pompeii and Herculaneum yet are limited by the lack of information they can possess that
other written sources such as inscriptions or wall writings can provide.
Frescos and mosaics provide significant value in understanding the role of women in
Pompeii and Herculaneum yet are limited by the lack of information they possess that
written sources such as inscriptions or wall writings provide on all classes of women. Source
C identifies an Fresco highlighting’s Baker Terentius Neo wife with an stylus and wax tablets.
The fresco indicates the nature of education of women within Pompeii. It is unknown how
many women within Pompeii could read or write yet Source C through dressing the women
in prestigious gowns suggests the upper class women were educated by slave tutors within
the home. The fresco illustrating the priest of Isis, a cult of one third women identifies the
role of women in priesthood and other positions of power within the cult. Hence Fresco’s
identifies the ability for women to contribute and hold high positions in religious
proceedings in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Frescos are limited in the information they can
provide as they are usually of wealthy individuals without the how or why significant
women had financial and social emancipation. Written sources from Pliny the Younger
highlight the household role of women as “highly intelligent…careful housewife” when
describing his wife Calpurnia. The role of household women were to take care of children
and manage the home within Pompeii and Herculaneum. Inscriptions and wall writings on
women range from Julia Felix and Eumachia to prostitutes. An advertising inscription found
on Julia Felix’s shops identifies the role of women as merchants in roman society. Julia
Felix’s “ bathing establishment… bars, lock-up shops and rooms” identify the ability for
women in Roman society to accumulate large sums of finance and higher levels in status.
Graffiti provides information on lower class individuals such as prostitutes that frescos and
mosaics cannot provide. Graffiti revelling the names of women who worked in brothels and
the service they provided identifies the clear dichotomy in status of women within
Pompeian society. Hence Frescos and Mosaics provide some information on the role of
wealthy women yet such sources are limited by failing to provide information related to
women in written sources.
4. Explain what graffiti reveals about leisure activities in Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Support your response with reference to Source D and other relevant sources.
Graffiti found in the excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum indicate the importance of
taverns, brothels, baths and the main sites the theatre and amphitheatre as leisure activities
in respective cities. Source D identifies Graffiti from the Nucerian Gate indicating an
gladiator battle between subjects named as “Princeps” and “Hilarius” revealing the popular
leisure activity of watching gladiator battles. Thousands of residents would watch gladiators
in the amphitheatre as each battle ensured a different stage of fight. Battles included
gladiator style fights, heavily armed and light armed battles to satisfy the blood thirsty
displays residents demanded. Source D is located near the Amphitheatre to display the
losses and victories fresh into the minds of spectators. Graffiti at the entry of the bathhouse
reveals the importance of the bathhouses as an leisure activity. Apelles Caesar crude
language and identification of eating through “lunched” in graffiti highlights the specific
leisure activates in the baths. Citizens would engage in sexual activates within the
bathhouse with men and women as a mean of pleasure. Apart of many individuals daily
routine individuals would both relax and eat usually an light snack within the bathhouse.
Alternately men would engage in exercise such as bladder ball, read a book or stroll in the
gardens. Graffiti found in brothels was common for both Pompeii and Herculaneum. Graffiti
found in the Vico d’Eumachia brothel identifies sex as a mean of leisure evident in the
graffiti translated to “screwer of women”. In Pompeii and Herculaneum citizens many were
obsessed with sex as means of entertainment. Brothels were a symbol of good luck, and
location of power or prosperity. Taverns were a location of leisure in Pompeii and
Herculaneum through drinking and gambling. The importance of drinking and gambling is
evident in the Herculaneum bar where an individual “spent 105 and half sestertii” on
drinking, gambling and sexual leisure within the tavern. The leisure activity of attending
tragedies and comedy’s in the theatre was common in Pompeian and Herculaneum society.
Graffiti at the theatre identifies the respect of the actor Lucius Actius, described by the
audience as “Mysticus musician of the comedian Icuus.” Actors in the theatre acted as an
output for comedic release and dramatical engagement in order to entertain the residents
of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Hence Graffiti located in amphitheatres, theatres, brothels,
taverns and bathhouses reveal the diverse nature of leisure in Pompeii and Herculaneum.
https://www.pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/R8/8%2007%2020%20p1.htm
5. What does the evidence reveal about public and private religion in Pompeii and
Herculaneum. In your response make reference to Sources E and F and other sources
you have studied.
Archaeological and literary evidence such as frescos, mosaics, structural remains, artefacts ,
inscriptions and public notes reveal the polytheistic public and private nature of religion in
Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Evidence has proved Public religion was an vital facet of the social fabric in Pompeii and
Herculaneum for not just the worship of Roman gods but the worship of foreign deities in
the participation in foreign cults. Source E identifies the Temple of Apollo in Pompeii an
public haven dedicated to the Greco-Roman god Apollo. In Roman religion citizens saw the
gods as spirits for all aspects of life such as apollo for music, oracles, archery, medicine and
the sun. Evident through Source E Roman religion was concerned with ritual rather than
faith as the temple was dedicated to Apollo where rituals would take place carried out by
religious bodies to honour and gain the favour of the gods aspect of life. Foreign cults such
as the imperial cult and cult of Isis were a common public religious representation in
Pompeii and Herculaneum. The imperial cult religious veneration towards the Roman
emperor and significant imperial family first introduced in the time of Augusta as a mean of
honour. The structural remain of the Temple of Vespasian and the statues of the imperial
family provides historians with the understanding the public religion was primary linked to
politics. Religious rituals such as the sacrificial banquet were carried out Flamens for the
general population. The Cult of Isis indicates the foreign influence of Religion in Pompeii and
Herculaneum. A fresco adorned on the Temple of Isis of the priests and priestesses
featuring large ceremonies accompanied by music, chanting and the burning of sacrifices
identifies the salvation, happiness and consolation from suffering the worship of Isis
provoked. The roofless enclosure evident on the remains of the Temple of Isis provided
evidence into the Egyptian influence on Pompeian religion. Hence a vital faction of the social
fabric of Pompeii and Herculaneum was Public Religion constructed of Roman tradition in
conjunction with political campaigns and foreign influences.
Literary and Archaeological evidence indicates the importance of Private Religion in Pompeii
and Herculaneum in the means of private worship. Source F states “ What is there more
holy.. than the house of every individual citizen” highlighting how Private Religion was more
prominent and important that Public religion in Pompeian society. The Orations of Marcus
Tullius Cicero indicates the most holy location of the household was constructed of “his
alters…his hearths… his household gods.” The household gods included the dancing like
youths Lares, Penates and the Genius. The protector of the household were the Lares while
the penates were the gods honoured for the pantry and Genius was the spirit of the head of
house. Every home had a lararium to worship there household Gods. The paterfamilias
would gather with his family and make offerings, say prayers for protection and prosperity
from significant household gods. All classes of society indulged in Private religion evident in
the presence of both forms of the lararium being the remains of the wall niche and aedicule
found in Pompeii and Herculaneum. The remains of the aedicule from the House of Vetti
identified a snake on the alter an symbol of protection of the hearth an brought fertility. The
presence of the figure of Mercury identified how citizens would pray and conducted rituals
for everyday preferences such as commerce. Evidence relating to household gods and
practices highlight the importance of Private Religion in Pompeii and Herculaneum.