1. Chapter One: Introduction
There is no question that learning a foreign language is a particularly demanding
undertaking for most students. It can be made far more challenging for students with
specific learning difficulties (SpLDs). SpLDs occur when one or more of the cognitive
processes necessary to comprehend or use language, whether written or spoken, are
impaired and may present itself in a reduced ability to listen, read, spell, think, or do
mathematical functions (Alfonzo and Flanagan, 2018). Dyslexia is a common SpLD
and is categorised as a reading disability with a neurobiological base and is associated
with difficulties in the phonological processing of language (Wiseheart et al, 2009).
Dyslexia is also described as a speech and language disorder in which learners
experience difficulties with literacy‐related skills (Kormos, 2017; Nijakowska, 2010).
The general consensus is that dyslexia adversely affects cognitive abilities and makes
students' engagement in literacy-related tasks particularly challenging.
Learners studying English as a Foreign Language (EFL), or English as a Second
Language (ESL) attend an institution that uses English as the primary medium of
instruction despite the fact that English is not their first language. In the field of
languages, the difficulty is exacerbated by the fact that the scripts and vocabulary of
languages tend to be dissimilar; therefore, this may cause additional burdens to the
learners, particularly when writing and reading. In English speaking countries, 10% of
the population has dyslexia, substantially higher than in Chinese, Persian, and
Japanese (to name a few) speaking countries (Daloiso, 2017). The English language
is deeper orthographically, which means it has a higher deviation of the written
language from a straightforward letter-to-phoneme correspondence (Daloiso, 2017).
The extensive orthographic depth of the English language reveals yet another
potential complication for dyslexic English language learners. Additionally, the
differences between scripts may present another obstacle for a learner with dyslexia
since they may have already developed coping mechanisms to decode written text in
the first language (L1). Hence, when assessing dyslexic students and planning
teaching strategies, the role of the L1 must be considered. There are some aspects of
L1 writing that are not easily transferable to the L2 and it may be necessary to relearn
a new script system and develop new motor-coordination skills (Daloiso, 2017). L2
writers need to be aware of the culturally specific characteristics of different types of
texts. Learners with languages that use pictorial scripts may have difficulty connecting
new letters or word shapes to sounds (Schneider & Crombie, 2004). In addition to
learning new-sound letter correspondences, there should also be an awareness of the
new phonological and morphological rules (Kormos & Smith, 2012, p.75).
In general, it is assumed that university students have all the necessary academic
skills to be successful; however, this is not always the case owing to certain underlying
conditions which tend to manifest themselves when the students have to read and
write a great deal of material, especially in a foreign language. This is when dyslexia
becomes more evident and can affect students’ academic performance. The general
public and sometimes many educators have the misconception that because of this
need, learners cannot learn a new language effectively. Nevertheless, dyslexia should
not be regarded as a barrier when learning English but an opportunity for the teacher
to compensate reading and writing skills through alternative strategies, minimizing the
impact of dyslexia on students' learning experiences and outcomes.
An adult university student with dyslexia has managed to successfully meet the level
of education required for further education despite facing many challenges. For
dyslexic students, learning the English language requires significant extra effort to
compensate for the deficits they have in their academic abilities. This is regardless of
whether they had previously been diagnosed or supported in their prior
education. Even so, educators have a duty to provide learners with the support they need to
fill these gaps. There has been an increasing number of studies showing that effective
instructional strategies can help dyslexic learners achieve improved reading and
writing skills (Copeland and O’keefe, 2018; Gerber, 2012; Hock, 2011; Swanson,
2012). However, teacher’s beliefs and level of preparedness have been described as
inadequate when it comes to teaching foreign languages to learners with dyslexia. It was
found that in mainstream classroom context teachers are inadequately prepared to
meet the needs of special educational needs (SEN) learners when teaching foreign
languages. (Nijakowska,et al. 2018). This was coupled with teachers’ lack of belief in
their capacity in using inclusive instructional strategies. Also, teachers felt a level of
apprehension in the workload, skills and knowledge necessary to create inclusive
learning for students with dyslexia. Washburn et al, (2011) found that teachers lacked
explicit knowledge on concepts related to teaching learners with literacy difficulties.
Likewise, in the same research teachers were found to have a lack of understanding
of what dyslexia entails for the learner and they had misconceptions on the deficits it
presents within the individual.
The focus on instructional interventions in English learning contexts can be a powerful
tool for improving conditions for this group of learners.
1.1. Statement of the problem
Higher education students with disabilities are on the rise. The number of students
with a known disability increased by 47% since 2014/15 in UK higher education. In the
same period, SpLDs were the most frequent report of disability - this category includes
dyslexia, dyspraxia and AD(H)D ( Hubble & Bolten, 2021). Internationally, there has
been an increase in the number of dyslexic students in higher education, although
identification and reporting are less thorough outside the western world (Aboudan et
al., 2011). It is only natural that these students should be able to gain the same access
to knowledge as their peers without disabilities. Thus, education should be inclusive
and account for barriers that hinder students' learning.
The issue of dyslexia in education, particularly at the primary and secondary levels, is
well researched (Erkan et al, 2012;Troeva, 2015; Bogdanowicz et al, 2016; Schneider
& Crombie, 2003; Singleton, 2009; Washburn et al, 2011), and recommendations on
how to support these learners are extensive. In university education, dyslexia
research is far less prevalent, something that is even less pronounced in the ELT
university contexts. Studies have indicated that language learning can be challenging
for individuals with dyslexia due to reduced cognitive abilities in verbal and nonverbal
domains, as well as lacking literacy skills (Cappelli et al., 2018). Several cognitive
factors contribute to language aptitude, including working memory, phonological
coding and decoding skills, and first-language learning and literacy skills (Smith &
strong, 2009). In addition to this, English is one of the more challenging languages to
learn due to its deep orthographic structure which means it is less transparent than
most languages (Daloiso, 2017; van der Leij & Morfidi, 2006; Nijakowska et al,
2018). Consequently, university students with dyslexia have quite an arduous
endeavour in their quest to acquire proficiency in English.
There is a critical void in research regarding how to make learning more accessible
for these learners in order to maintain parity and achieve better learning outcomes.
Also, it is clear from the research that learners with dyslexia require specialized and
targeted support on a variety of matters related to reading and writing (Coskun&
Mitrani, 2020; Daloiso, 2017; Pino & Mortari, 2014; Nijakowska et al, 2018, Singleton,
2009). Fostering an effective learning environment begins with a strong framework. It
is possible to accomplish this by first identifying the difficulties faced by English
language learners with dyslexia at the university level and, secondly, identifying and
evaluating effective teaching strategies that address these difficulties and contribute
to student success.
1.2. Context
Students around the world are increasingly opting to pursue degrees from universities
which offer their courses in English as a medium of instruction (EMI) (Galloway et al,
2017). This enables them to enhance their career opportunities, gain knowledge
concerning their subject matter, and develop English proficiency all at the same time.
The majority of English language learners at university have had enough learning
experience to develop their own expectations and beliefs about the level of teaching
and learning support they should receive from their institutions. There may be
differences in expectations across countries since some have more developed policies
for supporting dyslexic learners, but generally all learners expect effective instruction
and support. As for the institutions, they have their own perceptions of the ideal
university student; one that is self-motivated, independent, and self-directed in their
learning process.
Language learners are exposed to objectives through the Common European
Framework of Reference (CEFR), and the development of a self-directed learning
framework is littered with terms such as “self-setting", "self-assessment" and "selfawareness" (Council of Europe, 2001). Promoting independence is generally regarded
as a positive factor in developing a well-rounded individual who will eventually aim to
succeed in the workplace. Moreover, Dornyei,(2005) noted the recognition of
competence and autonomy resulted in a significant increase in second language
intrinsic motivation. However, when learners are unable to match the expectations with
their capabilities, there may be a disadvantage. Development of autonomy is a double
process involving an individual cognitive ability, as well as a social-interactive
dimension of learning (Kuhn, 2012). Therefore, students with SpLDs, such as dyslexia,
will likely have difficulty achieving this level of autonomy and self-direction.
As the effects of dyslexia do not present themselves physically or obviously, it is
considered a hidden disability. In addition to that, dyslexia labels can be quite complex,
and there are many common negative misconceptions and beliefs held about dyslexia
that make it difficult to label the learner. Some cultures have very high expectations,
and someone who has dyslexia can be met with prejudices. In many cases, social
attitudes are a deterrent, and the disorder can be viewed as something that
undermines their educational attainment. Brunswick (2012) maintains that it is
detrimental for dyslexics to deal with dismissive or negative cultural attitudes that
undermine positive self-perceptions related to dyslexia. According to the qualitative
findings of Denhart (2008), the notion that a person without reading or writing skills
can be considered intellectual is unimaginable in societies where reading ability is
regarded as a measure of intelligence. There seems to be the stigma that those with
dyslexia are mistaken as intellectually inferior. This is often coupled with the argument
that dyslexia is a myth and that the underlying problems with literacy stem from
laziness or stupidity (Alexander‐Passe, 2015; Armstrong and Humphrey, 2009;
Cameron and Billington, 2015; (Ingesson, 2007; Riddick, 2000). Mather et al.'s, (2020)
qualitative study paints a grim picture of the global attitudes towards dyslexia. The
concerning finding was that students in some countries (China, Bangladesh, Namibia)
with an inadequate understanding of dyslexia are physically punished and ridiculed for
literacy difficulties. In Australia, the study addressed the "conundrum of failure", which
refers to the discrimination found in schools and society that marginalizes those who
struggle with literacy. In Korea, parents were reluctant to acknowledge that their child
may have a disability due to cultural prejudice. The study also noted cases of
discrimination and prejudice against people with dyslexia in western countries,
including Canada, Luxembourg, Greece, and Sweden.
These negative perceptions and beliefs may lead a learner to be reticent to disclose
any SpLDs they are affected by to avoid a negative reaction. Additionally, it may
negatively impact learning experiences and impair the quality of learning. To ensure
that learners with dyslexia have the support required to pursue higher education, there
is a need to increase awareness of and dispel myths surrounding dyslexia in the
academic community and society. Possibly, society's positive expectations and
perceptions of these learners may instil a sense of confidence in their abilities and
enable them to succeed academically.
1.3. Aim of the study
This study aims to
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Exploring the difficulties that students with dyslexia have when engaging with
the written text at a university level.
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challenge teachers' attitudes and beliefs about dyslexia by challenging the
perceptions that learners with dyslexia are incapable of reading or writing in
English.
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Identifying how effective strategies for reading can enhance reading
comprehension of specialised texts.
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Evaluating the effectiveness of some strategies to address issues of decoding
helping reading comprehension.
1.4. Research question
Dyslexia is defined as a language processing difficulty of varying degrees that
primarily affects the reading and writing of letters and numbers. The difficulties arise
from differences in the brain's abilities to process auditory and/or visual information.
Specific strategies provided by teachers can help dyslexic individuals develop
successful coping techniques (Deacon, 2012). In this regard, I intend to examine the
following questions:
1. Which are the most effective teaching strategies to support learners
decode written texts?
2. How can effective teaching develop reading comprehension skills?
3. To what extent can the above techniques support reading fluency and
accuracy?
1.5. Structure of the study
This study will be presented in the form of an extended literature review covered over
six chapters. The research around the subject will be analyzed, evaluated, and
synthesized to answer the research questions and reach the objectives of the study.
Chapter one will introduce the subject of dyslexia and the relevance it has to ELT and
the adult learner. As well as laying the grounds for the context, the aims of the study
and the identifying the research question. Chapter two will lay out the methodology of
the research from a qualitative research perspective. Chapter three, four and five will
be themed chapters reviewing and critically analyzing the literature around Dyslexia,
the ELT adult learner, and intervention and inclusion respectively. Chapter six will
conclude the study by summarizing and synthesizing the research as well as bringing
forth recommendations to support dyslexic university learners in an English medium
setting.
2. Chapter Two: Methodology
Researchers in conducted in order to gain knowledge through gathering, organizing,
and analysing data for the purpose of gaining a better understanding. It involves
examining critically the various aspects of your professional work, formulating guiding
principles for a given procedure, developing, and testing new theories that contribute
to the advancement of your practice (Kumar, 2011). Research is generally driven by
the idea of gaining unique insights into the area, whether out of interest or to support
the next phase of the endeavour. The purpose of research is to discover some
condition in which knowledge or understanding is incomplete (Thomas, 2017).
2.1. Extended Literature Review
This study will take the form of an extended literature review based on the identification
and selection of secondary sources. An extended literature review is a method used
for qualitative projects and is a piece of secondary data used in synthesising a body
of literature to create a new understanding of the research topic. Taking a deep dive
into various sources of information is an essential part of this type of research, in order
to formulate solutions or answers. The process of an extended literature review
involves the recognition and limitation of a specific topic; forming a set of questions;
collecting, organizing, verifying, validating, analysing, and selecting data; answering
the questions and writing a report (Cohen et al, 2007). Similarly, it can also evaluate
existing work to find weaknesses, contradictions, and patterns or to simply find
solutions. This type of research enables a thorough exploration of different studies
already done whose outcomes can inform the development of more effective
interventions. It is a challenging area of inquiry but offers significant benefits such as
shedding light on some educational issues, bringing about understanding of how the
current system has developed; and creating a solid foundation for future development
(Cohen et al, 2007). The advantages and aims of conducting this literature review is
as follows:
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Survey existing information and practices related to the research topic.
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Determine where research gaps exist.
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In relation to education, exploring different models of approaches to change
attitudes and classroom practices.
Moreover, an extended literature review offers in-depth knowledge in the field and can
adopt multiple approaches. In addition to avoiding duplication of research, it is timeefficient since primary data collection is not required.
An extended literature review differs from research that collects primary data in writing
of the methodology, results and discussion subsections. Since extended literature
reviews do not rely upon participants or primary sources of data, no specific
methodology is necessary, nor must any data (in the form of interviews, transcripts,
numerical data, observations, etc.) be explored and analysed. Sources of data in an
extended literature review may be categorized into two categories: primary sources,
or original data collected first hand, and secondary sources, which may replace or
supplement primary sources. In a secondary source, the source describing the event
was not present, but acquired the description from another party (Cohen et al, 2007).
Secondary research is advantageous as a large scope of professionally collected data
will be easily accessible. Moreover, Cohen et al. (2007) suggests, secondary data
source allows continuity in a tradition, places work in context, and learning from earlier
endeavours (Cohen et al., 2007). I used secondary sources of data that were primarily
published in books and journals rather than conducting my own research. I was in the
position of curating based the following criteria:
The criteria I will follow for the selection of my sources will be:
(a) Special educational needs in a university context, particularly dyslexia.
(b) Population: young learners studying undergraduate courses in English who
may or may not have been formally diagnosed.
(c) Context: University settings offering some kind of support for students with
special educational needs.
(d) Support available for students learning through the medium of English.
2.2. Qualitative Approach
A key element of research design is developing procedures for collecting, analysing,
and interpreting data. In defining approaches, we are referring to the range of methods
used in educational research to collect data that may be interpreted, explained, and
predicted (Cohen et al, 2007). According to Bell & Waters (2014), qualitative
researchers are more interested in understanding individuals' perceptions of the world
versus social facts. This research employs a qualitative approach which relies on
secondary research, namely collecting existing data in the form of texts. In qualitative
data analysis, data are organized, accounted for, and explained according to
researchers' interpretations, themes, categories, and patterns. (Cohen et al,
2007). Essentially qualitative approach is based on interpretation and exploration
rather than quantifying.
In the pursuit of this research, a qualitative stance was adopted. Research stances
are the philosophical assumptions that guide the research process. Likewise,
Brinkmann et al., point out that:
In the qualitative stance, processes and phenomena should be described before
they are theorized, understood before they are explained, and seen as concrete
qualities rather than abstract quantities. Taking a qualitative stance requires
focusing on cultural, everyday, and situated aspects of human thinking, learning,
knowing, doing, and understanding ourselves as people at the same time as
remaining scientific. In adopting a qualitative stance, the following goals are
sought:
-
Understanding learning.
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Critiquing Theory.
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Challenging qualitative research
(Brinkmann et al. 2009, pp.1–6).
Research involves describing, interpreting, analysing, and then articulating choices
made during the process. To explain the choices made in this study, the interpretive
paradigm is applied. Interpretive paradigm describes how one understands the
subjective experience of humans (Cohen et al., 2007). To construct a meaningful
reality, interpretive approaches tend to rely on naturalistic methods such as the
analysis of existing texts. The interpretive paradigm lends itself well to the qualitative
approach since data analysis requires subjective interpretation. The qualitative
method offers considerable scope for interpretation (Guest,2014). Thus, Cohen et. al,
concludes:
…theories are emergent and should be grounded in data generated by the
research; they should not precede but follow research. Researchers build their
theories directly on experience and understanding. Thus, data will contain the
meanings and purposes of the individuals who are their sources, and the
resulting theory must make sense to those to whom it applies.
(Cohen et al. 2007, p22).
2.3. Sample
To be valid, the sampling scheme chosen must be suitable for the research purpose,
the time schedule and constraints, the methods of data collection, and the
methodology used in the research. (Cohen et al, 2007). Using a qualitative model
based on secondary research, a thorough review of existing data is required in this
study. I evaluated sources sampled for my study based on authority, usefulness, and
reliability. It was important to select authors who had credentials, expertise, and were
cited by highly reliable sources in the topic of choice. In selecting sources, I looked for
sources related to my topic and ones that were current. The sources used were
carefully chosen based on their reliability and validity by consulting reputable websites.
Secondary data for this study will be sourced primarily from scholarly journals,
literature review articles, technical reports, review articles, books, and reference books
in the area of dyslexia in higher education and ELT. Sources will be drawn from a
variety of platforms such as Google Scholar, the University of East London Online
Library, EBSCO database, z-library, e-journals, and other open repositories of
academic journals such as Academia and ResearchGate.
2.4. Data Analysis
In the analysis of literature sources, a thematic approach will be taken. This method
of analysing qualitative data entails searching for recurring patterns in a data set so
as to identify, analyse, and report these patterns (Braun and Clarke, 2006). This
identifies, analyses, organizes, and describes themes that occur within the collected
literature. Research that is thematically edited is organized into a series of themes,
topics, or headings, often in a chapter-by-chapter format (Cohen et al, 2007).Themes
or theoretical concept critical for understanding the topic of dyslexia and learning
languages will guide the categorization and discussion of existing literature. An
analysis of themes is useful for summarizing key features of a large data set because
it requires a systematic approach to handling data, ultimately resulting in a clear and
organized study. As a starting point, I will be using an inductive approach consisting
of these themes: reading, writing, age, course, support, and outcomes. In qualitative
research, the data are non-numerical and less structured, thus making them more
flexible and inductive (Guest,2014). It is the aim to gain a general understanding of the
research question through exploration and analysis of the themes. According to
Thomas (2017), the inductive process is following many observations to derive a
general principle, and that experiences of similar character led to universal principles.