The War of 1812 (18 June 1812 – 17 February 1815) was fought by the United States and its indigenous
allies against the United Kingdom and its own indigenous allies in British North America, with limited parti
cipation by Spain in Florida. It began when the United States declared war on 18 June 1812. Although pe
ace terms were agreed upon in the December 1814 Treaty of Ghent, the war did not officially end until the
peace treaty was ratified by the United States Congress on 17 February 1815.[10][11]
Tensions originated in long-standing differences over territorial expansion in North America and British su
pport for Tecumseh’s confederacy who opposed U.S. colonial settlement in the Old Northwest. These esc
alated in 1807 after the Royal Navy began enforcing tighter restrictions on American trade with France an
d press-ganged men they claimed as British subjects, even those with American citizenship certificates.[1
2] Opinion in the U.S. was split on how to respond, and although majorities in both the House and Senate
voted for war, they divided along strict party lines, with the Democratic-Republican Party in favour and the
Federalist Party against.[d][13] News of British concessions made in an attempt to avoid war did not reac
h the U.S. until late July, by which time the conflict was already underway.
At sea, the Royal Navy imposed an effective blockade on U.S. maritime trade, while between 1812 and 1
814 British regulars and colonial militia defeated a series of American attacks on Upper Canada.[14] The
abdication of Napoleon in early 1814 allowed the British to send additional troops to North America and th
e Royal Navy to reinforce their blockade, crippling the American economy.[15] In August 1814, negotiatio
ns began in Ghent, with both sides wanting peace; the British economy had been severely impacted by th
e trade embargo, while the Federalists convened the Hartford Convention in December to formalise their
opposition to the war.
In August 1814, British troops captured Washington, before American victories at Baltimore and Plattsbur
gh in September ended fighting in the north. In the Southeastern United States, American forces and Indi
an allies defeated an anti-American faction of the Creek. In early 1815, American troops defeated a major
British attack on New Orleans.