Boribay Nazerke 21-5group 8.Make a glossary of the main notions and give their definitions. 1. Phonetics: The study of the physical sounds of human speech, focusing on their production, transmission, and reception. 2. Articulation: The process of forming speech sounds by the movement of the speech organs (tongue, lips, vocal cords, etc.). 3. Consonant: A speech sound characterized by constriction or closure at one or more points in the vocal tract, blocking the flow of air. 4. Vowel: A speech sound produced without significant constriction of the airflow in the vocal tract. 5. IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet): A standardized system of symbols used to represent the sounds of spoken language in a way that is independent of any particular language. 6. Voicing: The presence or absence of vibration in the vocal cords during the production of a speech sound. 7. Diphthong: A complex speech sound that begins with one vowel sound and glides into another within the same syllable. 8. Manner of Articulation: Describes the degree of constriction in the vocal tract during the articulation of a consonant, such as stops, fricatives, and approximants. 9. Place of Articulation: Describes where in the vocal tract a consonant sound is produced, such as bilabial, alveolar, and velar. 10. Pitch: The perceived frequency of a sound, often associated with the perceived 'highness' or 'lowness' of a tone. 9. Define the notion of "syllable". Give examples. Define the notion of “Accent”. Give examples 1)A syllable is a fundamental unit of sound in linguistic structure, serving as the building block of words. It consists of a vowel sound, often accompanied by one or more consonant sounds. Syllables contribute to the rhythmic and phonetic aspects of language, influencing pronunciation and overall word flow. Understanding syllables is crucial for various aspects of language learning, including phonics, pronunciation, and spelling. The rules governing syllabification can vary across languages, but in English, syllables are often determined by vowel sounds. Each syllable typically contains a vowel, and the number of consonant sounds around the vowel contributes to the syllable count. Let's explore some examples to illustrate syllables: 1. Monosyllabic Words: - "dog" (1 syllable) - "cat" (1 syllable) - "run" (1 syllable) 2. Disyllabic Words: - "happy" (2 syllables: hap-py) - "table" (2 syllables: ta-ble) - "water" (2 syllables: wa-ter) 3. Trisyllabic Words: - "elephant" (3 syllables: el-e-phant) - "banana" (3 syllables: ba-na-na) - "garden" (2 syllables: gar-den) Syllables play a vital role in maintaining the rhythm of spoken language and are integral to poetry and music. Additionally, they are fundamental in linguistic analysis and the study of prosody, which involves the patterns of stress and intonation in speech. In summary, syllables are linguistic units that contribute to the structure, rhythm, and pronunciation of words, playing a significant role in the overall dynamics of language. 2)Accent in linguistics refers to the prominence or emphasis placed on a particular syllable within a word, or on a particular word within a phrase or sentence. This emphasis can involve variations in pitch, duration, loudness, and sometimes vowel quality. Accents play a crucial role in the intonation and rhythm of spoken language. Types of Accents: 1. Word Stress: - In English, many words have primary stress on one particular syllable. For example, in the word "elephant," the stress falls on the first syllable: "ÉL-ephant." 2. Sentence Stress: - Certain words in a sentence receive more stress than others, contributing to the overall rhythm. For instance, consider the sentence "I didn't say he stole the money." By shifting the stress, you can convey different meanings: "I didn't say he stole the money" vs. "I didn't say he stole the money." 3. Pitch Accent: - Some languages, like Japanese or Swedish, use pitch variations to convey accent. Rising or falling pitch can alter the meaning of a word or phrase. 4. Dialectal and Regional Accents: - Different regions and dialects may have distinct ways of pronouncing words, including variations in vowel sounds, consonant pronunciation, and overall speech patterns. For example, the accent in British English differs from that in American English. Examples: 1. Word Stress: - "PHOto" (noun) vs. "phoTOgraph" (verb) - "reJECT" (verb) vs. "REject" (noun) 2. Sentence Stress: - "I'm going to the STORE" (emphasizing the destination) - "I'm going to the store TODAY" (emphasizing the time) 3.Pitch Accent: - In Japanese, the word "hashi" can mean either "bridge" or "chopsticks" depending on the pitch accent applied. Accents contribute to the natural flow of speech, aiding in communication by highlighting important information and conveying nuances. They are an integral part of linguistic diversity, reflecting regional, cultural, and individual variations in spoken language. Understanding accents enhances language comprehension and effective communication in diverse linguistic contexts. 10. Make a glossary of the main notions and give their definitions. Stress is a greater degree of force and loudness given to certain syllables in words. Stressed syllables are strong, loud, and clear. Unstressed syllables are weak, short, and less distinct. Stress is also called accent. Accent is stress placed on a syllable in a word. Accent makes a syllable more prominent in terms of loudness and pitch. Syllables-One vowel sound forms one syllable. A vowel sound may be represented by one vowel letter in writing (sit, last, form) or by a combination of vowel letters (read, law, group). A diphthong is one complex vowel sound consisting of two components. A diphthong forms one syllable (rain, boat, crowd). Word stress is stress in individual words. In isolation, each word has its own stress. Short words usually have one stress, and longer words usually have two stresses: primary stress and secondary stress. Place of stress-the majority of English words have primary or secondary stress on the initial syllable. There are certain typical patterns of word stress in English. Stress in derivative words may remain the same as in the words from which they were derived (CUStom, CUStomary; obJECT, obJECtion), or it may shift to another syllable (PERson, perSONify; preFER, PREFerence). Function words are articles (a, the), conjunctions (and, but), prepositions (in, on), auxiliary verbs (be, have) used in the formation of tenses. Function words are not stressed. Content words are important meaningful words: nouns, adjectives, main verbs, adverbs, numerals. Content words are always stressed. Emphatic stress is a special stress that is given by the speaker to some word in a sentence, usually to single out, compare, correct, or clarify things. Pauses mark the borders between parts of a sentence or between sentences. Pauses are very short / barely noticeable between sense groups, a little longer where the commas are, and quite clear where the full stops are. 12. Define the notion of “Intonation”. Give examples. Disclose the most important terms in a form of dictionary 1.What is intonation? Jones (1960) - "the variations which take place in the pitch of the voice in connected speech, i.e. the variations in the pitch of the musical note produced by vibration of the vocal cords." Unlike lexical tone (as in tone languages), changing intonation does not change the lexical identity/meaning of individual words, though it may alter the meaning of the sentence as a whole. Pitch accent languages (e.g. Japanese, Swedish) used to be regarded as an intermediate case: superficially like lexical tone languages, but phonologically pitch functions like stress in these languages. In most stress-accent languages, pitch is an important correlate of stress, so the dividing lines between tone, stress and pitch-accent are fuzzy. 2. Early treatments E.g. Steele (1775), Jones (1960) recorded intonation for whole sentences. Jones, following Kingdon (1958), analysed English intonation in terms of two sentence tunes. Refer to attached extracts from Jones for examples of the two tunes in use. It was recognised that the tunes might be distributed over a larger or smaller number of syllables, and that an utterance with several "sense groups" might have a multiply-peaked pitch contour, but the syntax of tunes was not explored deeply. Intonation is a complex system of meaning communicated through the rise and fall of a speaker's voice. English speakers use it to communicate many different types of meaning: ● grammatical meaning e.g. different types of questions and statements ● status of information e.g. main or subordinate, finished or unfinished ● attitude e.g. whether we're certain or not, have doubts or reservations ● feelings e.g. whether we're confident, happy, enthusiastic, sad or bored etc. ● relational e.g. how 'open', friendly or 'closed' we are towards a listener. Like stress, intonation operates on a system of contrasts - here, the contrast is between the movement of the voice UP ( ) or DOWN ( ). Intonation can change the meaning of what a person says even when the same words are used. Look at the examples below. The same words are used but different intonation communicates a different meaning. ● The most important part of the intonation pattern is the nucleus, which carries nuclear tone. The intonation pattern cannot exist without it. The nucleus can be described as a syllable which is marked by a significant change in pitch direction (where pitch goes distinctly up or down). Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. The three main patterns of intonation in English are: falling intonation, rising intonation and fall-rise intonation. Falling intonation Falling intonation describes how the voice falls on the final stressed syllable of a phrase or a group of words. A falling intonation is very common in whquestions. Where’s the nearest po!st-office? What time does the film fin!ish? We also use falling intonation when we say something definite, or when we want to be very clear about something: I think we are completely los!t. OK, here’s the magazin!eyou wanted. Rising intonation Rising intonation describes how the voice rises at the end of a sentence. Rising intonation is common in yes-no questions: I hear the Health Centre is expanding. So, is that the new d!octor? Are you th!irsty? Fall-rise intonation Fall-rise intonation describes how the voice falls and then rises. We use fall-rise intonation at the end of statements when we want to say that we are not sure, or when we may have more to add: I do!n’t support any football team at the m!om!ent.(but I may change my mind in future). It rained every day in the firs!t w!eek. (but things improved after that). We use fall-rise intonation with questions, especially when we request information or invite somebody to do or to have something. The intonation pattern makes the questions sound more polite: Is this your cam!er!a? Would you like another co!ff!ee? 15. Compare American and Brirtsh variants of pronunciation American and British English share many similarities because they both evolved from the same language and have a common linguistic heritage. However, there are also some important differences that can affect communication, especially in terms of vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and spelling. While both dialects share many similar rules, there are some important differences in spelling, punctuation, and word choice. Let's take a closer look at each one: Pronunciation Differences One of the most notable differences between American and British English is the pronunciation. Americans tend to pronounce words with more emphasis on the vowels, while the British accent is characterized by the way they emphasize consonants. British English is often characterized by the way speakers emphasize consonants and the way they pronounce vowels. British English tends to use more intonation in speech. For instance, while Americans might say "tomayto," Brits say "tomahto." Americans also tend to stress the first syllable of words, while Brits often stress the second. Confused yet? Spelling Differences Another significant difference is the spelling of certain words, such as color instead of colour, or flavor instead of flavour. Additionally, there are a number of words and phrases unique to American English, such as "truck" instead of "lorry" and "apartment" instead of "flat." Vocabulary Differences Another area where American and British English diverge is in vocabulary. In America, for example, we call it an "elevator," while in the UK, it's a "lift." Americans go to the "movies," while Brits go to the "cinema." And don't even get us started on "fries" vs. "chips" and "chips" vs. "crisps." Cultural Differences It's important to note that the differences between American and British English aren't just linguistic; they're also cultural. Americans, for instance, tend to be more direct and to the point in their communication, while Brits value politeness and diplomacy. Understanding these cultural nuances is crucial to effective crosscultural communication.
