EFFECTS OF MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI ON THE GROWTH OF PEPPER (Capiscum)
BY
LAZARUS CAROLINE GIBSON
DE.2019/6629
THE DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY, FACULTY OF
SCIENCE OF THE RIVERS STATE UNIVERSITY, NKPOLU-OROWORUKWO
PORT HARCOURT.
NOVEMBER 2023
i
EFFECTS OF MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI ON THE GROWTH OF PEPPER (Capiscum)
BY
LAZARUS CAROLINE GIBSON
DE.2019/6629
A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCE AND
BIOTECHNOLOGY, FACULTY OF SCIENCE OF THE RIVERS STATE
UNIVERSITY, NKPOLU-OROWORUKWO PORT HARCOURT. IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR
OF SCIENCE (BSc) DEGREE IN PLANT SCIENCE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
SUPERVISOR
Prof. M.T.V. ADELEKE
NOVEMBER 2023
ii
DECLARATION
I, LAZARUS CAROLINE GIBSON declare that this project work was carried out by me under
the supervision of Prof. (MRS.) M.T.V. ADELEKE.
______________________________
LAZARUS CAROLINE GIBSON
DE.2019/6629
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My gratitude goes to God Almighty for His unending love and grace upon my life especially in
my academic pursuit.
I want to appreciate my supervisor, Prof. (MRS.) M.T.V. Adeleke for her support and for giving
me a sense of direction in the course of this work through her supervision. I also want to appreciate
my H.O.D, Prof. A.B. Nwauzoma, and my lecturer, Mr. Victor Ajie, Dr.Kpekot .A. Kpekot Dr.
Chimankpa for their love and support.
A special thanks to my parents Pst./Deaconess Isaiah Gibson Lazarus, my guadiance Pst./Min.
Isaiah Gladday Lazarus, my brothers Prosper Gibson, Andrew, Awaji-Inyanaem Gibson and other
family members for their endless support and encouragement.
I will not forget to mention my wonderful friends and colleagues, M. Tamuno, Urangikor AwajiMimam, Urangikor Michael, Lebe Precious, Helen Egbe, Bernice Cleopas, Barileelee Aziaka,
Ruth Chisom Abiaza, Precious Ebere Fynface, Orupabo Onengiyeofori. Thank you all for being
there and God bless you all.
iv
DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to God Almighty, the custodian of wisdom.
v
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this project work was carried out by LAZARUS CAROLINE GIBSON in
partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) degree in the
Department of Plant Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Rivers State University,
Nkpolu-Oroworukwo, Port Harcourt under the supervision of Prof. (Mrs.) M.T.V. Adeleke.
PROF. (MRS.) M.T.V. ADELEKE
(Supervisor)
______________
Signature
___________
Date
DR. F.W. NMOM
(Project Coordinator)
______________
Signature
___________
Date
PROF. A. B. NWAUZOMA
(Head of Department)
______________
Signature
___________
Date
(External Examiner)
______________
Signature
___________
Date
vi
TABLE OF CONTENT
Title page
i
Abstract
ii
Declaration
iii
Certification
iv
Dedication
v
Acknowledgement
vi
Table of content
vii
List of Figure
ix
List of Plate
x
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of Study
1
1.2
Aim of Study
3
1.3
Objectives of Study
3
1.4
Justification of Study
3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
4
2.1
Capsicum
4
2.2
Pepper (Capsicum)
5
2.3
Classification of Pepper
6
2.4
Agronomy of Pepper
6
2.5
Nutritional Profile of Pepper
7
2.6
Health Benefits of Pepper
8
2.6.1 Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
9
vii
2.6.2 Characteristics of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
9
2.6.3 Importance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
10
2.6.4 Structures of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
10
2.7
14
Development of the symbiosis
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS
17
3.1
Experimental Site
17
3.2
Planting and Inoculation Methods
17
3.3
Experimental Design, Data Collection and Statistical Analysis
18
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
19
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSION
24
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
25
6.1 Conclusion
25
6.2 Recommendations
25
REFERENCES
26
APPENDIXES
32-35
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Plant Height of pepper before and after treatment application
18
Table 4.2:
Leaf Length of Pepper
19
Table 4.3:
Number of Leaves of pepper
20
Table 4.4:
Leaf Width of Pepper (cm)
21
ix
LIST OF PLATE
Plate 1: Before application of treatment
22
Plate 2: After treatment application
22
Plate 3: After treatment application
23
Plate 4: Treated plant with 5g of mycorryzal fungi Control bags
23
x
LIST OF FIGURE
Fig. 4.1: The effect of AMF on plant height of pepper before
20
Fig. 4.2: The effect of AMF on leaf area of pepper
21
xi
ABSTRACT
Bell peppers are a good source of vitamin C and A, and fiber. They also possess antioxidant
properties, which may help to protect against diseases such as cardiovascular disease and some
cancer. An outdoor experiment was conducted at the Department of Plant Science and
Biotechnology, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt, to ascertain the effect of mycorrhizal fungi
on the growth of pepper. Plant treatment consists of 4 treatment of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
(2g, 3g, 4g and 5g) and control (water) in three replications each. Changes were noticed on the
pepper: there was no significant difference in plant height but there was in leaf area as the day
progressed in comparison to the Control. Treatment 2 and 4 competed favorably with the control
especially in plant height and leaf area.
xii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of Study
Pepper is very important produced vegetables in the world. It is a plant with numerous varieties.
Initially, it originated from Americas; but recently pepper has cultivated to Asia, Africa and
Mediterranean. Pepper was commonly used for medicinal purposes and its usage and cultivation
may be around 5000 years ago as historically (Moreb et al., 2020). Pepper is a rich source of
carotenoids, phenolic compounds, and antioxidants. Moreover , a medium-sized pepper be able
contain up to 200% of a person's daily requirement of vitamin C Hallmann & Rembiałkowska,
2012). In addition, pepper contains many nutrients for instance fibers, fats, proteins and
carbohydrates and micro elements such as Zn, Cu and Fe (Ananthan et al., 2014, Moreb et al.,
2020). Due to the abundance of these, there were so many studies have focused on the health
benefits of consuming pepper (Clark & Lee, 2016, Moreb et al., 2020, Wang et al., 2006). Pepper
plants are commonly used in food, medicine and paint industries (Aybak, 2002). Previous studies
also showed that pepper plants are mycorrhizal dependent (Baum et al., 2015, Ortas et al., 2011,
Sensoy et al., 2007).
Mycorrhiza which live mutualism with around 80% of terrestrial plants (Egerton-Warburton et al.,
2005), provide plants with water and nutrients (Khan & Rao, 2019), as well as resistance to
diseases and pests, resistance to drought stress and increased the plant growth (Smith & Read,
2010). Moreover, there are various studies showing that mycorrhiza inoculation increases pepper
growth (Douds Jr & Reider, 2003, Ortas et al., 2011, Sensoy et al., 2007). Plants have a good root
and shoot system to get more nutrition and photosynthesis. These days, it has great importance to
use natural resources in agriculture in a sustainable way. Therefore, using a sustainable resource
1
such as mycorrhizal fungi in agriculture can prevent excessive fertilizer use and will also be more
economical and ecofriendlier. Although there are studies in the literature about the effect of
mycorrhiza inoculation on pepper growth, we still do not have enough information about the effect
of mycorrhizae on pepper as compared to other commercially important crops (Al-Karaki, 2017).
Bell peppers flourish in day time temperatures between 70 and 80 degrees F. at 90 degrees F and
below 60 degrees F blossoms can be damaged resulting in blossom drop or small, misshapen
fruit. Relative humidity levels of 50 to 70% are sufficient. Water regularly with 1 to 2 inches of
water per week. This doesn’t mean shallow watering; peppers like a good dousing but should be
left to almost dry out between waterings ; they need that period of relative dryness. Slow, deep
watering helps the root system grow stong.
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, are obligate root symbionts and are present in most soils and
establish a mutualistic form of symbiosis with several plant species (Lekberg et al., 2013).
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi belongs to the phylum Glomeromycota. They produce structures
inside plant roots (e.g., arbuscules), thus having an important role in plant mineral nutrition (e.g.,
P-uptake, N-uptake and micronutrients uptake) and water absorption (Smith and Read, 2008).
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are known for their important contributions in preserving plant
diversity, enhancing plant growth and maintaining the stability of the ecosystem. Arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi are considered to be the most significant and abundant symbionts on earth. They
have been found under adverse environmental conditions (Bever et al., 2001).
2
1.2
Aim of Study
The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of mycorrhizal fungi on the growth and
development of pepper under natural conditions.
1.3
Objectives of Study
1.
Obtain Pepper seeds and Mycorrhizal Fungi from commercial sources.
2.
Conduct field experiment to assess the influence of mycorrhizal fungi on the growth
parameters of pepper
1.4
Justification of Study
Pepper is a major crop in Africa, serving as a valuable source of Vitamin A and C which is good
for sight. Maximizing pepper growth and yield is of great economic and nutritional importance.
Understanding the influence of mycorrhizal fungi on pepper growth could provide sustainable and
eco-friendly methods to enhance crop production. Mycorrhizal fungi improve nutrient uptake in
plants, leading to reduced reliance on synthetic fertilizers. This can potentially reduce the
environmental impact of fertilizer use, such as nutrient runoff into water bodies and greenhouse
gas emissions.
3
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Capsicum Annuum
Capsicum is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae, native to the
Americas, cultivated worldwide for their chili pepper or bell pepper fruit. The generic name may
come from Latin capsa, meaning 'box', presumably alluding to the pods; or possibly from the Greek
word κάπτω kapto, 'to gulp'. The name "pepper" comes from the similarity of piquance (spiciness
or "heat") of the flavor to that of black pepper, Pipernigrum, although there is no botanical
relationship with it or with Sichuan pepper. The original term chill came from the Nahuatlword
chīll, denoting a larger Capsicum variety cultivatedat least since 3000 BC, as evidenced by remains
found in pottery from Pueblaand Oaxaca. Different varieties were cultivated in South America,
where they are known as ajíes (singular ají), from the Quechuaterm for Capsicum.
The fruit (technically berries in the strict botanical sense) of Capsicum plants have a variety of
names depending on place and type. The more piquant varieties are commonly called chili peppers,
or simply chilis. The large, mild form is called bell pepper, or by color or both (green pepper, green
bell pepper, red bell pepper, etc.) in North America and South Africa, sweet pepper or simply
pepper in the United Kingdom and Ireland, but typically called capsicum in Australia, India,
Malaysia, New Zealand and Singapore.
Capsicum fruits of several varieties with commercial value are called by various Europeanlanguage names in English, such as jalapeño, peperoncini, and peperoncino; many of these are
usually sold pickled. Paprika(in English) refers to a powdered spice made of dried Capsicum of
several sorts, though in Hungary, Germany, Sweden, Finland and some other countries it is the
4
name of the fruit (or the vegetable) as well, for example Paprikain Dutch means bell pepper. Both
whole and powdered chili are frequent ingredients in dishes prepared throughout the world, and
characteristic of several cuisine styles, including Mexican, Sichuan (Szechuan) Chinese,
Korean,Cajun andCreole, along with most South Asian and derived (e.g.
Jamaican) curries. The powdered form is a key ingredient in various commercially prepared
foodstuffs, such as pepperoni (a sausage), chili con carne (a meat stew), and hot sauces.
2.2
Pepper (Capsicum)
Pepper, (genus Capsicum), genus of more than 30 species of flowering plants in the nightshade
family (Solanaceae), several of which are extensively cultivated for their edible, often pungent
fruits. The genus comprises all the varied forms of fleshy-fruited peppers, including the mild bell
peppers that are used as a vegetable and the hot peppers, such as habanero and Tabasco, that are
used as relishes, pickled, or ground into a fine powder for use as a spice. Some pepper is grown as
ornamentals.
Peppers are native to tropical America and are particularly important in the cuisines of tropical
Asia and equatorial America. Traces of pepper fruits have been found in prehistoric remains in
Peru and Mexico, and the plants were widely grown in Central and South America by various precolumbian civilizations. Originally mistaken for a form of black pepper (piper nigrum), the first
pepper seeds were carried to Spain in 1493 and from there spread rapidly throughout Europe and
the rest of the world.
Pepper plants are perennials but are grown as tender summer annuals in most areas outside their
native habitat. They are propagated by seedlings directly in the soil or by transplanting seedlings
started in the greenhouses or hotbeds after 6 to 10 weeks. The plant become woody as the growing
5
season progresses and bear simple, alternatively arranged leaves with smooth margins. The paired
or solitary flowers are typically small with five white petals. The fruit is a berry. Pepper fruits
comes in a variety of shapes and sizes, ranging from the small and nearly circular aji charapita to
the long and thin Tabasco pepper and to the large, furrowed fruits of the bell pepper.
Hot pepper derive their pungency from capsaicin, a substance characterized by acrid vapours and
burning taste. Capsaicin is primarily concentrated in the internal partitions of the fruit and first
isolated in 1876; it is known to stimulate gastric secretions. One of the hottest pepper in the world
is the ghost pepper.
2.3
Classification of Pepper
Kingdom:
Plantae
Clade:
Tracheophytes
Clade:
Angiosperm
Clade:
Eudicots
Clade:
Asterids
Order:
Solanales
Family:
solanaceae
Subfamily:
Solanoideae```
Tribe:
Capsiceae
Genus:
Capsicum
2.4
AGRONOMY OF PEPPER
Pepper scientifically known as capsicum annuum, is a popular crop widely cultivated for it
curlinary and medicinal properties. The following are the agronomy of pepper:
6
1) Climate and soil requirements: pepper requires a warm climate with temperature ranging
between 20-30°C (68-86°F) for optimum growth. Well drained loamy or sandy soils with a pH
range of 5.5-7.5 are considered ideal for pepper cultivation.
2) Seed selection and seedling production: high quality seeds with high germination rates and
disease resistance should be selected for planting. Seedlings are usually raised in nurseries and
transplanted to field after 4-6 weeks.
3) Field preparation and planting: proper land preparation, including plowing, harrowing and
leveling is necessary before planting. Pepper is typically planted in rows with a spacing of 6090cm between plants and 90-120cm between rows, depending on the variety and climate
conditions.
4) Irrigation and nutrient management: adequate water supply is crucial for pepper production,
especially during dry season. Nutrient requirement vary throughout the crop growth stages.
5) Pest and disease management: common pest of pepper include aphids, thrip whiteflies and
mites. Integrated pest management practices should be employed to manage pest population
effectively. Disease like bacterial wilt, powdery mildew, etc can affect pepper plants. Crop
rotation, seed treatment and appropriate fungi application can help mitigate disease incidence
6) Harvest and post-harvest handling: pepper fruits are harvested when they reach the desired
maturity stage, which varies based on the intended use. Pepper handling and storage
techniques, including washing, grading and packaging should be followed to maintain fruit
quality and prolong shelf life. The plants will tolerate (but do not like) temperatures down to
12 °C (54 °F) and they are sensitive to cold. For flowering, Capsicum is a non-photoperiod
sensitive crop. The flowers can self-pollinate. However, at extremely high temperature, 30 to
38 °C (86 to 100 °F), pollen loses viability, and flowers are much less likely to result in fruit.
7
2.5
Nutritional Profile of Pepper
An 80% serving of red bell pepper (raw) provides the following:

17kkcal/71kj

0.6g protein

0.2g fat

3.4g carbohydrates

1.8g fibre

173mg potassium

60mcg folate

101mg vitamin C
2.6
Health Benefits of Pepper
Peppers have a lot going for them. They’re low in calories and are loaded with good nutrition. All
varieties are excellent sources of vitamins A and C, potassium, folic acid, and fiber. Plus, the spicy
ones liven up bland food, making it more satisfying. Bell peppers are low in calories and high in
nutrients, including several important vitamins, including vitamin C. over 120milligrams of
vitamin C can be gotten from just 1 cup of chopped green pepper. Vitamin C helps the body absorb
iron and heal wounds. It may also play a role in preventing a variety of conditions including heart
disease and cancer. Other health benefits of bell pepper within the context of healthy lifestyle, may
include:
1. Good Digestive Health: Dietary fiber helps digestive health by adding bulks to your stools.
This makes them easier to pass.
8
2. Reduced Risk of Diabetes: High fiber foods, such as bell peppers, slow down how quickly
sugar is absorbed into the blood stream. Vitamin C may also help reduce blood sugar levels in
people with type 2 diabetes.
3. Lower Blood Pressure: Several large studies show that people with high levels of vitamin C
in their bodies are likely to have high blood pressure, especially if they have a high-quality
diet.
4. Weight Loss: Capsaicin found in hot peppers has been shown to boost metabolism as well as
suppress appetite, at least slightly. Over time, the effect might give you an extra edge when it
comes to weight loss.
2.6.1 Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, are obligate root symbionts and are present in most soils and
establish a mutualistic form of symbiosis with several plant species (Lekberg et al., 2013).
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi belongs to the phylum Glomeromycota. They produce structures
inside plant roots (e.g., arbuscules), thus having an important role in plant mineral nutrition (e.g.,
P-uptake, N-uptake and micronutrients uptake) and water absorption (Smith and Read, 2008).
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are known for their important contributions in preserving plant
diversity, enhancing plant growth and maintaining the stability of the ecosystem. Arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi are considered to be the most significant and abundant symbionts on earth. They
have been found under adverse environmental conditions (Bever et al., 2001).
9
2.6.2 Characteristics of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are solely dependent on their host plants and thus incapable of
growing without their host (in nature or axenic culture) (Fitter, 2005). Arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi are also host specific, and there are proofs of highly specific host-fungal pairing (Johnson et
al., 2003). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi play a key role in mediating plant development and
establishment (Lekberg et al., 2013). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are monophyletic (a single
phylum) and they share a common feature; the formation of a network for the exchange of nutrients
(Carbon and Phosphorus) between the symbionts and the arbuscules (Smith and Read, 2008). Their
morphological structures are categorised into: arbuscules, vesicles, hyphae and spores. These
structures are formed inside the roots of the plant but hyphae and spores can also be formed outside
roots; in the rhizosphere. This forms a massive surface area of membrane to membrane contact
between plant root cells to Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi structures and soil resources to
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi structures (Hodge and Storer, 2014). Because of the vast diversity
of plant and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi species, there is no specific and standard mode of
colonization. Colonization between host plant and AMF is highly fungi-specific (Souza et al.,
2010).
2.6.3 Importance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal hyphae extend the roots of the host plants deeper into the soil
thereby absorbing P (phosphorus) from a larger volume of soil (Koide and Kabir, 2000). Increased
Phosphorus availability for plants has been considered the most important contribution of
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi to enhance plant growth and health (Bever et al., 2001). Arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi and plant roots function to release more Phosphorus and make it available for
10
plant uptake. Even in arable lands, where heavy fertilization is applied and availability of P is high,
crops with large root systems still depend on Arbuscular Mycorrhizal for absorption of sufficient
P and protection against soil-borne diseases (Daniell et al., 2001).Experiments under controlled
environment conditions showed that Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi confer a protective effect for
their hosts against potential pathogens, by competition for nutrients with potential plant pathogens
or by stimulation of plant defenses, possibly through systemic acquired resistance or improved
plant nutrition (Troeh et al., 2003). Mycorrhizal fungi provides relief against heavy metal toxicity
in host plants. Plants grown to a certain extent in contaminated soils acquire greater tolerance to
metal toxicity when their roots form mycorrhizal associations, and concentrations of zinc and
copper, were reduced in their shoots (Christie et al., 2004).
2.6.4 Structures of arbuscular myccorrhizal fungi
Mycorrhizal fungi can form structures either on the inside (endomycorrhizae) or outside
(ectomycorrhizae) of plant roots.
Hyphae
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi need to form a symbiotic association and colonize the roots of a
vascular plant to complete their life cycle (Brundrett, 2004). According to Kiriacheck et al (2009),
there are no reports of spores or vesicles formation in an aqueous or culture media as seen in other
fungi (Ascomycota or Basidiomycota). Phylum Glomeromycota consist of a large diversity of
structures with varied origins, physical structures and functions (Gamper and Walker, 2010).
Hyphae are usually found growing both inside- and outside roots, with spores, vesicles, and
11
arbuscules in different forms (Redecker et al., 2013). Hyphae found growing inside the roots are
intraradical hyphae, whereas those outside are the extraradical hyphae.
Intraradical Hyphae (IH)
Intraradical Hyphae originates during the onset of the symbiotic phase from the appressorium cells
(a specialized cell typical of many fungal plant pathogens that is used to infect host plants)
(Kiriacheck et al., 2009). It forms the infection unit (during colonization), and their length is
determined by the interaction between host and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (Ramos et al.,
2008). This hyphal transfers nutrients, metabolites and water from the soil environment to the
cortex of the root of the host plant. The IH exchanges these substances for carbon resources, like
hexoses which is a very important substrate to Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi nutrition (Ramos et
al., 2008).
Extraradical hyphae (EH)
Extraradical begins during the pre-symbiotic phase, mostly after the establishment of mycorrhizal
colonization from the appressorium cells (Ramos et al., 2009). Growth and elongation of the
extraradical hyphae is unlimited, it is able to grow and move beyond the rhizosphere. However,
their growth is determined by soil properties such as soil pH, and available Phosphorus and
peculiarities of the host-plant interaction (Host-AMF pairing specificity, root growth,) (Ramos et
al., 2008).
Extraradical hyphae cells are similar to Intraradical Hyphae cells in terms of structure, with just a
morphological difference; their cell walls are wider than IH cells and this enables them to adapt to
the various form of stresses from the soil microorganisms (Cruz et al., 2008). Extraradical hyphae
12
are categorised mainly into three forms accordingly with their functions (infection, absorption, and
reproduction).
1.
Infective Extraradical Hyphae: After germination of the spores, the cells grow from the soil
to the root surface. Both differentiation and specification of the appressorium cells usually
takes place and comes before the symbiotic phase. Higher or lower infective rates depends on
the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi species. (Redecker et al., 2013)
2.
Absorptive Extraradical Hyphae: They originate from the appressorium cells, they are able
to increase the nutrients uptake and also enhance the transfer of nutrients from Extraradical
Hyphae to the host-plant through the Intraradical Hyphae (Cruz et al.,2008)
3.
Reproductive Extraradical Hyphae: Reproductive Extraradical Hyphae cells are produced
after colonization. New spores are produced in the soil surface (Gamper and Walker2010;
Redecker et al., 2013).
Arbuscles
Arbuscules originates from Intraradical Hyphae and are found and formed within the root cortex
cell. They occur in a scattered and irregular manner along the roots, Arbuscules can assume one of
two types of colonization patterns: Arum (Linear Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi); mycorrhizal
associations that spread mainly by intercellular hyphae in roots, and Paris (Coiling Arbuscular
Mycorrhizal Fungi), mycorrhizal associations that spread mainly by intracellular hyphal coiling
within roots (Brundrett, 2004). Both Arum and Paris structures have profusely branched haustoria
13
that look like little trees, and are considered the most important point of exchange between the
fungus and host plant (Sena et al., 2004).
Spores
Spores can originate from Extraradical Hyphae, Intraradical Hyphae or vesicles (Ramos et al.,
2008). They are asexual spherical structures, and are the main survival units of Arbuscular
Mycorrhizal Fungi. The formation of spores can take place on the surface of soil (e.g. Glomus ),
in the soil (e.g. Funneliformis ), in the roots (e.g. Rhizophagus ), singly (e.g.,Gigaspora ), or
forming clusters (e.g. Diversispora ) ( Gamper and Walker, 2010). The walls of Arbuscular
Mycorrhizal Fungi are very thick with two or more layers and functions as propagules. Spores may
be metabolic quiescent or active, and this state is controlled by several factors, (both favorable
abiotic or biotic conditions) (Spain et al, 2006). The Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi spore are
usually formed between 3–4 weeks after the mycorrhizal colonization starts (Berbara et al., 2006).
Vesicles
They originate from IH in their terminal position, within or between root cells. Vesicles have a
very thin wall layer, especially in old roots, assuming globular, oblong, irregular lobed or rough
format. (Redecker et al., 2013). Vesicles do not occur in some genus from the order
Diversisporales, such as Gigaspora and Scutellospora. They play an important role in nutrient
storage, since their cells contain high levels of lipids and glycogen; but in some cases they might
assume a reproductive function, because vesicles may form spores that act as propagules (Berbara
et al., 2006). Vesicles formation process depends on the AMF species. For some species, vesicles
formation occurs very early after symbiotic phase establishment, while for others, it occurs at the
14
same time of sporulation, or even after the formation of the first arbuscules (Dalpé et al., 2005).
Usually, they can remain in roots for months or years.
2.7
Development of the symbiosis
The onset of symbiosis begins with spore germination. This phase is the symbiotic phase, because
the germination of spores does not depend on the host plant species. Instead, it depends on biotic
and abiotic favorable conditions to occur. These include appropriate moisture levels, temperature,
pH, mineral nutrients levels, organic matter, and soil microorganisms and pollutants action (Dalpé
et al., 2005; Ramos et al., 2008). Although spore germination does not require the host plant
species, Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi mycelium will not complete its life cycle if it does not find
a suitable root to establish a symbiotic relationship (Gamper et al., 2009). The next phase in the
development of symbiosis is the Pre-symbiotic phase. This phase starts when the contact with plant
roots and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi initial mycelium is established (Kiriacheck et al., 2009),
however even before the physical contact between Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and host plant,
the host plants produces ramification factors which helps symbiotic mycelium growth until
(chemotropism) (Zsögön et al., 2008). These ramification factors (RF) have been known as
flavonoids, CO2, and 5- desoxiestrigol (Besserer et al., 2006). 5- desoxiestrigol is very important
in changing Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi metabolism, thus increasing mitochondrial
multiplication, respiration, lipids catabolism, and ATP synthesis (Besserer et al., 2006; Ramos et
al., 2008a). The Pre-symbiotic phase begins when the symbiotic mycelium starts growing oriented
to the root surface (Zsögön et al., 2008). This growth is activated after the production and spread
of RF by the host plant. The third phase, Symbiotic phase starts when Arbuscular Mycorrhizal
Fungi mycelium establishes contact and starts to grow towards the root surface (Ramos et al.,
15
2009). Here, the hyphae produce mycelium factors and their cells differentiate into appressorium
(Lanfranco et al., 2005). After root penetration, appressorium cells differentiate in intra- and
extraradical hyphal (Cruz et al., 2008). Intraradical hyphal cross the hypodermis and start
branching in the outer cortex, while extraradical hyphal start growing beyond plant root zone
(Kiriacheck et al., 2009). Hyphal senescence takes place if the growing beyond plant root zone
(Kiriacheck et al., 2009). Hyphal senescence takes place if the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi is
not able to complete its life cycle without the host plant, (Radutoiu et al., 2003).
16
CHAPTER THERE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1
Experimental Site
An outdoor experiment was conducted at the Department of Plant Science and Biotechnology,
Rivers State University, Port-Harcourt, Nigeria, to determine the effect of abuscular mycorrhizal
fungi on the growth of Pepper.
Source of Planting Material and Mycorrhizal Fungi
Pepper fruit was gotten from timber market at mile 2 diobu, Port-Harcourt, Rivers State. Rootgrow
Arbuscular Mycorrhizae Fungi inoculum, which contains Funneliformis mosseae, F. geosporus,
Claroideoglomus claroideum, Glomus microaggregatum, and Rhizophagus irregularis
(Robinson-Boyer et al., 2016), was obtained from Plant-works Ltd, Unit 930 Comfort drive, Kent
Science Park, Sittingbourne, Kent ME9 8px, United Kingdom (UK).
3.2
Planting and Inoculation Methods
Seventeen seeds of pepper each were nursed in 15 containers for 2 weeks and then transplanted at
2cm deep into perforated polythene planting bags containing 5kg each of loamy soil. A total of 15
bags were used and each was thinned, after three weeks of transplanting, to one plant per bag.
Inoculation was carried out using the method described by (Olawuyi et al. 2011) using ring
method. Mycorrhizal fungi was added three weeks after transplanting at different treatment levesl
(2g,3g,4g and 5g) in replicates of three, while nothing was used on the Control.
17
Table 3.1. Treatment concentrations of mycorrhizal fungi used in the experiment
Treatment
Amount of AMF(grams)
Treatment 1
Control (water)
Treatment 2
2g of abuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Treatment 3
3g of abuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Treatment 4
4g of abuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Treatment 5
5 g of abuscular mycorrhizal fungi
3.3
Experimental Design, Data Collection and Statistical Analysis
The experiment was arranged in a completely randomized design and was replicated three times
for each treatment. Plant data were collected during and after experiment. Data taken from plant
were plant height, leaf length, width and number of leaves. Data were analyzed using analysis of
variance (ANOVA).
18
CHAPTER 4
RESULT
4.1
The effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the growth of pepper is shown in Fig. 4.1.
Result showed an increase in plant height in the different treatment as the day progressed.
Result also showed that there is no significant effect on the plant (p<0.05) indicating that
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi was not effective in increasing the plant height after planting. There
was also no significant difference (p<0.05) among the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) treated
plants.
The effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the growth of pepper is shown in Table 4.2. Result
showed an increase in leaf area in the different treatment as the day progressed.
Result also showed that there is no significant effect on the plant (p<0.05) indicating that
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi was not effective in increasing the leaf area after planting. Also there
was no significant difference (p<0.05) among the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi treated plants.
19
25
PLANT HEIGHT
20
15
10
5
0
Before Treatment
5 DAP
10 DAP
15 DAP
Control
2g Mycorrhizal Fungi
4g Mycorrhizal Fungi
5g Mycorrhizal Fungi
20 DAP
3g Mycorrhizal Fungi
Fig. 4.1: The effect of AMF on plant height of pepper before
12
LEAVE AREA
10
8
6
4
2
0
Before
Treatment
5 Daysafter
Treatment
10 Days after
Treatment
control
2g Mycorrhizal Fungi
4g Mycorrhizal Fungi
5g Mycorrhizal Fungi
Fig. 4.2: The effect of AMF on leaf area of pepper
20
15 Days after
Treatment
20 Days after
Treatment
3g Mycorrhizal Fungi
Plate 1: Before application of treatment
Plate 2: After treatment application
21
Plate 3: After treatment application
Plate 4: Treated plant with 5g of Arbuscular
Mycorrhizal fungi
Control bag
22
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
Result in this study on the effect of abuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the growth of pepper as shown
in Fig. 4.1 reveals that there was no significant difference in the effect of the various levels of
treatment on plant height (Fig.4.1). The result also show that the growth of some treated bags were
limited maybe due to the high level of rainfall.
Though other studies show that mycorrhiza inoculation increases pepper growth (Douds Jr &
Reider, 2003, Ortas et al., 2011, Sensoy et al., 2007). Plants have a good root and shoot system to
get more nutrition and photosynthesis. Although there are studies in the literature about the effect
of mycorrhiza inoculation on pepper growth, we still do not have enough information about the
effect of mycorrhizae on pepper as compared to other commercially important crops (Al-Karaki,
2017).
In my result, I found out that leaf area of pepper varied across different treatment. There was a
gradual increase in the leaf area on the Control with time.
Comparing the treatment groups, It also appears that the application of arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi had varying effects on the leaf area of pepper plants: treatment 1(2g) showed a consistent
increase in leaf area.
Treatment 2 & 4 shows increase over time but decreased on day 20 after treatment application,
that is to say that there is fluctuation at some point. While Treatment 3 exhibited a similar pattern
as Treatment 1. Which means that there is a constant increase in the leaf area with time.
23
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1
Conclusion
The effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the growth of pepper, in this study, it shows that
there is no significant differences in the different treatment application on the plant. It also shows
that there is an increase in the plant height of the plant as the day progresses this shows that the
mycorrhizal fungi has a positive effect on the plant height.
It also shows a fluctuation in the leaf area of the plant. This can be as a result of the high level of
rain fall.
6.2
Recommendations
Based on Findings in this study, it is recommended that
1.
Mycorrhizal fungi should be use for planting as it help provide nutrients for the growth of
plant, but the season for planting should also be considered as it has a great effect on both
the plant and the treatment.
2.
More research should be conducted on this topic’
24
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30
Appendixes
ANOVA Table - Plant Height
Sources of
Variation
Total
Treatment
Error
Degree of
Freedom
Sum of
Mean
Squares Squares
14
272.23
4
74.40
18.6
10
197.83
19.78
ns = not significant
31
Fcal
0.94ns
F tab
5%
1%
3.48
5.99
ANOVA Table - Number of Leaves
Sources of
Variation
Degree of
Freedom
Sum of
Squares
Mean
Squares
Fcal
Total
14
3692.4
Treatment
4
267.07
66.77
0.195ns
Error
10
3425.33
342.53
ns = not significant
32
F tab
5%
1%
3.48
5.99
ANOVA Table - Leaf Area
Sources of
Variation
Degree of
Freedom
Sum of
Squares
Mean
Squares
Fcal
Total
14
5036.45
Treatment
4
982.72
245.68
0.606ns
Error
10
4053.73
405.37
ns = not significant
33
F tab
5%
1%
3.48
5.99
Plant height of Pepper (cm)
20 Days
Treatments
Before
5 Daysafter
10 Days after
15 Days after
after
Treatment
Treatment
Treatment
Treatment
Treatment
Control
8.2 ± 1.8
9.8 ± 2.0
13.8 ± 2.3
16.2 ± 4.8
22.0 ± 7.4
2g Mycorrhizal Fungi
6.5 ± 0.9
8.6 ± 1.8
11.0 ± 3.3
13.2 ± 2.6
16.8 ± 3.6
3g Mycorrhizal Fungi
7.0 ± 2.0
8.5 ± 3.0
11.3 ± 2.3
12.7 ± 2.1
16.0 ± 3.0
4g Mycorrhizal Fungi
8.0 ± 1.7
9.2 ± 2.6
13.2 ± 1.6
15.3 ± 3.2
20.3 ± 3.0
5g Mycorrhizal Fungi
6.8 ± 0.3
9.5 ± 1.5
12.0 ± 2.0
14.2 ± 1.8
18.0 ± 3.6
Treatment
Control
2g
Mycorrhizal
3g
Mycorrhizal
4g
Mycorrhizal
5g
Mycorrhizal
Before
treatment
9.58 ± 0.94
9.39 ± 1.03
5days After
treatment
9.48 ± 1.17
8.64 ± 1.04
10day After
treatment
9.47 ± 1.03
8.73 ± 1.08
15days After
treatment
8.02 ± 1.08
8.01 ± 1.10
20days After
treatment
8.82 ± 1.09
8.21 ± 0.95
8.80 ± 0.86
8.87 ± 0.96
8.45 ± 1.01
8.23 ± 1.05
7.97 ± 0.91
8.25 ± 1.05
8.87 ± 0.84
8.19 ± 1.03
8.51 ± 1.11
8.47 ± 0.93
10.19 ± 0.98
8.63 ± 0.87
8.13 ± 1.05
8.48 ± 1.00
6.79 ± 0.71
34