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Title: The Origins of Gender Roles
RQ: To what extent are gender roles in children acquired from culture?
Session: May 2019
Word count: 4960
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Table of Contents
Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 3
Analysis of Evidence ...................................................................................................................... 5
Sociocultural argument:......................................................................................................................... 5
Counterargument - Biological Argument: ......................................................................................... 11
Interplay Argument – Biological and Environmental ....................................................................... 13
References ............................................................................................................................................. 18
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Introduction
Three decades passed since American Psychologist stressed how important it is to have
diversity in the workplace (Ayman &Korabik, 2010). However, till this day professions related to
‘engineering and technology’ are 80% male and ‘caring and leisure’ professions are 82% female
(Barford, 2019). This problem stems from childhood as culture distributes males and females into
gender stereotypes (Eagly& Steffen, 1984). According to Becky Francis "boys toys tend to contain
didactic information, with technical instructions and fitting things together with Lego, whereas
girls' toys tend to be around imaginative and creative play, which develop different skills". Play
influences a range of experiences; and whether males and females view themselves as capable of
working in various enterprises (Barford, 2019). In most cultures, males are stereotyped as
“independent, agentic and goal oriented” and women as “interdependent, communal and oriented
towards others”. These stereotypes result in distinct consequences on their respective futures,
academic performance and later on in finding jobs, and getting promoted (Cuddy, Crotty, Chong
& Norton, 2010).They also lead to gaps between women and men’s development, such as the glass
ceiling or the gender pay gap (Taylor, 2003; Ayman &Korabik, 2010).
According to social psychologists’ gender stereotypes are a by-product of culture we are
not born into them. “Culture is an acquired and transmitted pattern of shared meaning, feeling, and
behavior that constitutes a distinctive human group” (Ayman &Korabik, 2010) The research
question of this paper is to what extent are gender roles in children acquired from culture?
Gender is an intricate multidimensional phenomenon (Korabik, 1999). It includes intrinsic
facets including gender schemas, gender stereotypes and gender identity (Bem, 1993).Gender
stereotypes are ideas by which females and males are autocratically assigned with gender roles
(Europe, 2019). “Gender role is a set of expectations held by society about the ways in which men
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and women are supposed to behave based on their gender”(Kruger & Dunning, 1999). It also
includes the conducts of interactions between men and women (Deaux & Major, 1987) in addition
to the roles they’re anticipated to conform to. (Eagly, 1987) Moreover, gender is an ascribed status
characteristic. Men’s social status conveys having more access to power than women (Ridgeway,
1992). Hence, gender is “a hierarchical structure of opportunity and oppression as well as an
affective structure of identity and cohesion” (Ferree, 1995, p. 125).
Gender socialization is the process in which individuals acquire the gender roles of their
society accordingly developing a gender identity (Mischel, 1970). The social cognitive theory
demonstrates how these gender behaviours, identities and roles are transmitted to children. People
can learn through watching and imitating models’ behaviors. Children are surrounded by effective
models; parents, TV characters, and fictional stories’ characters. These models provide behaviors
to be observed and imitated, for example being masculine and feminine. Learning involves four
factors; attention, retention, vicarious reinforcement and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). There are
also several factors that might affect whether the observer decides to imitate the model or not.
Including; consistency of the behavior, identification with the model and whether the leaner likes
the model or not (Vinney, 2019). This concept is applied to children when learning gender roles
as they first observe the behavior and then imitate it; thus, developing their gender identity.
Learning plays a crucial role in shaping gender roles and schemas. “Schemas are mental
representations that are derived from prior experience and knowledge” (Cherry, 2019).
Conversely, some psychologists speculate that gender role is completely controlled by biological
factors such as genetic set-up or hormones.
Research gathered from peer reviewed journals by Fagot (1978), Sroufe, Bennett, Englund, Urban
& Shulman, (1993),De Silva, Stiles & Gibbon, (1992), Williams (1986), and McGhee &Frueh
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(1980) argue that gender roles are shaped and acquired from the culture. Adversely; research by
Quadango et al. (1977) argue that gender roles are formed solely due to biological factors while
Brook & Conway (2004) and Money et al. (1972) support that there are many postnatal factors
that influence gender roles in addition to biological influence.
While it’s argued that biological factors are responsible for gender role formation, culture plays a
significant role in forming gender roles as to a great extent child learn through observations.
Analysis of Evidence
Sociocultural argument:
Fagot (1978) investigated the parental reactions when the behaviour of the child wasn’t
deemed “gender appropriate” through naturalistic observations of parent and child interactions in
their homes. Fagot recorded the interactions using a checklist concerning child behaviours and
parents reactions. The parents’ reactions were categorized as positive, negative, or neutral. They
were investigated to determine whether the actual behavior or merely the sex of the child
influenced the reactions of the parents. Results indicated that parents gave positive reactions to the
toddler when they were engaged in a gender-conforming behavior and were apt to give negative
reactions to non-gender conforming behaviors. There was no correlation between the observations
of parents' reactions towards their toddlers and their self-reported data possibly indicating that the
parents’ behaviors aren’t conscious; introducing implicit stereotypes which refer to the
stereotypes that affect behaviors and decisions in an unconscious manner (University, 2015).Thus,
this study demonstrates that parents directly teach and instruct their children about what is and
isn’t appropriate behaviour according to their culture’s gender norms. Parents were reinforcing
culturally appropriate behaviours by influencing such things as choice of toys or ways of playing
for their children. Parents further supported these norms by encouraging boys to be independent
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and active while girls were encouraged to be dependent and passive. These types of experiences
and direct instruction shape and affect the children’s ways of thinking, schemas concerning their
gender identity. Nevertheless, this research is only correlational as it doesn’t explain why
individual boys and girls conform to the gender role; there’s no cause and effect relationship. This
is one of the problems encountered by naturalistic observations as there’s no manipulation of the
independent variable and consequently there’s no measured dependent variable. One advantage is
the high ecological validity as the natural environment invites natural behaviours. However; the
observation was overt which presents demand characteristics such as social desirability or
reactivity which result in changes in the parents’ behaviours; thus, lowering the internal validity
of the study. Demand characteristics can be another interpretation of the lack of correlation
between observations of parents' reactions and their self-reported data. Another issue is that the
study’s prone to researcher bias such as conformation bias; in which the researcher could’ve
ignored all behaviors that tend to defy his hypothesis and favor behaviors that are consistent with
his hypothesis lowering the internal validity of the study. This study lacks temporal validity as it’s
rather outdated, yet it can’t be replicated to check for reliability since no standardized procedure
was followed. Nevertheless, this study had a number of strengths; one strength is that it included
both sexes of toddlers to ensure that the sex of the child influenced the type of parental reaction
rather than the actual behavior. Moreover, the researcher followed method triangulation which
lead to a higher level of internal validity.
Sroufe et al. (1993) explored the importance of gender boundaries amongst 10-11-year-old
children. They created ratings of gender boundary violation and maintenance. The ratings were
supported by videotape-based behavior and by live observations of interactions with individuals
of the opposite gender. Children low on gender boundary violation and children high on gender
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boundary maintenance were assessed to be socially adept. Contrariwise, those who violated
boundaries were notably unpopular established upon child interview. This study indicates that peer
socialization is an important factor in gender role development in children. This is due to social
pressure regarding cultural expectations which include gender roles; thus, children acquire gender
roles simply because they’re expected to conform to gender roles and abide by them. As
conformity is changing or forming beliefs and behaviors in order to fit in a social group. (McLeod,
1970) A limitation of his study is the population as it’s not representative and so the results of the
study can’t be generalized, as the standards to popularity differ from one culture to another.
Moreover, the results are correlational; there’s no cause and effect relationship; it only suggests
that gender is more or less passively acquired rather than being actively acquired.
De Silva, et al., (1992)studied adolescent females from various social backgrounds in SriLanka at which they depicted their vision of women. The conventional role of the Sri-Lankan
woman is housewifing, yet nearly all females investigated described the woman working away
from home. Still, adolescent females accentuated traditional qualities of women as self-sacrificing
and altruistic both at work and at home. This demonstrates that there may be other interconnected
factors that influence gender such as the media that may even have a stronger influence on gender
roles than the culture itself. A possible limitation of this study could be the presence of demand
characteristics such as social desirability effect or expectancy effects; which resulted in
unauthentic responses thus decreasing the internal validity of the study. The internal validity
could’ve been improved by carrying out method triangulation to authenticate the validity of the
results. The study was also retrospective meaning that there’s a possibility that these adolescents
had different and possibly stereotypical beliefs about the women’s gender roles when they’re
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younger as a result of acquiring these beliefs from parents, further decreasing the validity of the
results.
A study by Williams (1986) found in Sammons Aiden; demonstrated that the introduction of TVs
into a society unexposed to TVs increased sex stereotyping among children. Williams studied the
role of TV on children’s gender roles development through a natural experiment. He did this by
assessing children’s gender stereotyping in towns where TV had been recently introduced and then
two years later. He found that children had significantly more gender stereotypes after two years
of exposure to television. This supports the assertion that the media plays a role in shaping a child’s
gender identity. Currently children are prone to more media therefore nowadays the media plays
an even greater role in shaping gender identity than it did at the time of Williams study. Yet, this
study is a naturalistic study implying that it has a very high ecological validity but low internal
validity thus there was no control over extraneous variables and so casual interferences are
speculative; accordingly decreasing the validity of the results. Moreover, there were measurement
problems; as there was no control over what’s being watched on TV. Thus it is not guaranteed that
the increased gender stereotyping is due to what’s being watched on TV as this study was a
prospective study since the children were re-assessed 2 years later and this alone could’ve played
a role in shaping their gender stereotypes due to the ceaseless process of gender socialization.
Hence, the study is reductionist and thus has low validity; for that reason, the theory behind this
study is descriptive rather than explanatory in nature. Furthermore, the study has low temporal
validity and so we can’t know the extent to which the content of what was watched could’ve
influenced the children’s perceptions on gender roles; lowering the internal validity of the study.
Besides, it can’t be replicated since it’s a naturalistic study consequently it’s difficult to establish
reliability. Lastly; the study is correlational in nature therefore a cause and effect relationship aren’t
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determined. One strength of the study is that gender stereotypes were measured before and after
the introduction of TV; this is a form of control as to ensure that there’s a significant difference
before and after the study is done. However; this can introduce demand characteristics to arise
such as social desirability and reactivity. Or even the observer’s ratings can be very subjective,
and thus will lack inter-rater consistency decreasing the reliability of results or can be open to bias
such as confirmation bias which also decreases the validity of the results. Despite the limitations
of this study; it’s supported by the cultivation theory by Gerbner and Gross (1986) which states
that “the more time people spend 'living' in the television world, the more likely they are to believe
social reality aligns with reality portrayed on television” (Dove, 2017).
A study by McGhee &Frueh (1980) aimed to investigate the relationship between the amount of
time children spend watching television and their perceptions of gender-role stereotypes. Females
and males (in grades 1,3,5,7) were categorized as heavy television viewers (25 or more hours per
week) or light viewers (10 or less hours per week). Participants were administered the Sex
Stereotype Measure which intend to determine children's perceptions of gender-role stereotypes,
at the time of the study and 1 year after. Heavy viewers demonstrated more stereotyped perceptions
than light viewers. The perception of male stereotypes steadily declines with increasing age,
among low viewers. However; the perceptions of male stereotypes are maintained with increasing
age among heavy viewers. No comparable effects were obtained for perception of female
stereotypes. This is in congruence with Hefzallah (1987) as according to him the extent of children
learning gender roles from the media and conforming to them is affected by whether children are
able to interpret and differentiate between what is real and what’s not on the media, specifically
on television. He says; children do “confuse fantasy with real life situations”. The problem with
kids in perceiving reality is due to contemporary shows drifting away from reality or edited in an
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artificial way (Hefzallah, 1987). Thus, as they grow; they become able to differentiate between
what’s real and what’s fantasy and therefore the stereotypical gender images diminish. A limitation
with this study is its temporal validity as the shows being presented nowadays are different from
those presented back then thus decreasing the internal validity of the study. Moreover; media is
difficult to evaluate because children tend to watch gender-based shows. They are not watching
the same shows. Overall, content analysis of what is on television does not necessarily correlate
with what boys or girls are watching. Another limitation is that the study suffers from bidirectional
ambiguity. Perhaps children that have distinct stereotypical gender beliefs watched more
television. One strength of the study is that it has good construct validity which increases the
internal validity.
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Counterargument - Biological Argument:
Conforming to the psychosexual differentiation theory, gender roles are formed because
humans are born with inborn predisposition to act and feel like males or females (Gooren, 2006).
The biological perspective proposes that there is no difference between sex and gender, simply
biological sex creates the gender identity, if no disruption occurs. This is vastly due to sex
determining hormones which are produced prenatally, as they affect how the hypothalamus will
control and regulate hormonal secretion throughout the lifespan. If hormone secretion is disrupted
it can alter hormonal regulation permanently, consequently the hypothalamus maybe unable to
predispose to the same gender as the one imposed by the child’s sexual organs. Testosterone is one
of the sex determining hormones and is present more in males than in females; moreover it
influences the brain development, resulting in some stereotypical male characteristics such as
competitiveness and aggressiveness (Popov, Parker &Seath, 2018).
To support this, Quadango et al. (1977) (Popov et al., 2018) carried out an experiment and
deduced that female monkeys who were intentionally exposed to testosterone during prenatal
development “later engaged in rougher and tumble play than other females” (Popov et al., 2018).
This research is done on animals because of the ethical implication interfering with human
biology for experiment purposes. Now, humans and some animals are identical in terms of brain
structure and genetically however psychologically they’re very diverse. Thus, even if the results
of this research are very successful it still needs to be replicated on humans for reliability; in
order for it to generalizable for humans. Animal research have high internal validity; and so all
confounding extraneous variables are isolated in order to study the effect of induced testosterone
on the behavior of female monkeys. The high control may produce unnatural behaviors that
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don’t reflect real life, giving low ecological validity. In other words, results might not necessarily
reflect what happens in real life decreasing the validity of the results and the validity of the
experiment. There’s a contemporaneous advantage of having high internal validity which is that
the experiment is replicable to establish reliability. The results of this experiment were
qualitative in nature and so were collected based on observation; this introduces a number of
limitations. First the experiment didn’t follow a single blind procedure meaning that the
researcher knew which female monkeys received testosterone and which didn’t. Since the
researcher came up with an aim and possibly a hypothesis; researcher bias such as conformation
bias might’ve affected the results of the experiment, decreasing their validity.
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Interplay Argument – Biological and Environmental
Money et al. (1972)developed a theory stating that children are gender neutral at birth thus
indicating that development of gender identity and adherence to gender role is solely a
consequence of socialization. Money hypothesized that it’s attainable to reassign sex during the
first two years of life as he claims that humans aren’t born with a gender identity. To support his
theory he studied a case of identical twins; Bruce and Brian. At the age of 7 months Bruce and
Brian were taken for circumcision. An accident occurred during the surgery which resulted in
Bruce’s penis being burnt off so that it wasn’t perceptible. Money advised the parents saying it’s
still possible to raise Bruce as a girl. Consequently; the parents raised Bruce to become Brenda.
Accordingly; Brenda was not only dressed in female clothing and encouraged to play with ‘girls’
toys but was also told that she was a girl. They followed Brenda’s development over the years by
asking her and Brian questions about their preferences and behaviors; annually. Money reported
that Brenda had effectively adapted to the role of female stating that her case was conforming to
his theory. They believed that comparisons between boys and girls characteristics showed that
Brenda knew her gender was female and had helped her to adapt. However; aside from Money et
al.’s (1972) reports Brenda was considered by everyone else to be tomboy. Brenda disclosed
feeling ‘different’ and even her teachers reported that she was more masculine than feminine.
Demonstrating that regardless of gender roles being learned from the culture; biological factors
also influence them. Indicating that the conclusions from the original study were false and did
not represent the true findings; this is likely to be due to researcher conformation bias which
decreases the validity of the results. This case study didn’t comprise a representative sample as it
followed only one child; due to it being a rare case thus the results can’t be generalizable as for
the variability of the individuals. For example; David had an identical twin brother which
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might’ve played a role in influencing his gender roles. This study was a real-life situation thus
had high ecological validity because the events were not manipulated; thus, the research is only
correlational in nature implying low internal validity(Reimer, 2019).
Hines, Brook & Conway (2004)conducted an experiment to investigate the influence of
biological factors; chromosomes on gender identity. The effect of chromosomes on gender
identity is evident in people with atypical chromosomes (abnormal number of sex determining
chromosomes), as they display behaviors that contradict their biological sex. Hence they
investigated core gender identity in women and men that are affected with congenial adrenal
hyperplasia (CAH) and others that are unaffected. CAH is a genetic disease that causes an
elevated level of testosterone beginning prenatally. Their procedure revolved around assessing
core gender identity, sexual orientation, and recalled childhood gender role behavior in women
and men with CAH and in unaffected females and unaffected males. They did that by the aid
questionnaires. Questions asked whether the participant was satisfied being of their own sex,
wished to be of the other sex, or thought that they were psychologically of the other sex. The
participants answered following a scale, ranging from 1 (always) to 7 (never). Other questions
targeted sexual orientation and asked about sexual behavior and desires, and each was answered
on a scale ranging from 1 (exclusively heterosexual) to 5 (exclusively homosexual). Thus, scores
for gender identity and sexual orientation were obtained for lifetime and past 12-months and for
each participant. Higher scores for both gender identity and sexual orientation reflect less
identification with the assigned sex. Participants were also assessed in interests in genderconforming toys and activities by recalling childhood gender role behaviors by listing 24 items.
The results are that women with CAH recalled significantly more male-typical play behavior as
children than did unaffected women, whereas men with and without CAH did not differ. Women
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with CAH reported less satisfaction with the female sex of assignment and less heterosexual
interest than did unaffected women. However, men with CAH did not differ significantly from
unaffected men in these respects. The results demonstrated that females with CAH exhibited
increased male stereotypical behaviours; however, the changeover wasn’t complete(Popov et al.,
2018).
This confirms that aside from the biological prenatal influence on a child’s gender role, there are
plentiful other postnatal factors that influence it. One limitation in this study is that it wasn’t
longitudinal; but rather retrospective in nature and thus relied on their memories of participants.
The problem with this is that memory isn’t reliable; as human are prone to memory distortions and
biases that could potentially result in distorted memories such as conformation bias. Secondly, the
study was done through questionnaires this means that the questions are standardized; all
participants are asked the exact same questions in the same order. Thus, this study could be easily
replicated to check for reliability. However, this could introduce demand characteristics such as
reactivity which would be a confounding variable that decrease the validity of the results collected.
Due to CAH being a rare endocrine disorder; the small size of the sample isn’t unusual however it
does pose a question regarding reliability of the results. Another issue is that this study is
correlational in nature and thus no cause and effect relationship is determined. However; one
strength of this study would be the presence of a control group (unaffected males and females) in
which allowed the determination of the presence of the correlation between females affected by
CAH and exhibiting male stereotypical behaviors.
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Discussion:
Psychological studies conducted with an aim of finding the origins of gender roles suggest that
gender roles are either shaped by the culture or that they’re biological while others suggest that
it’s a combination of both. The studies that support the standpoint of gender roles being solely due
to socialization provide no biological evidence; thus take a very reductionist approach to studying
the complex phenomenon of gender roles, questioning their validity. Moreover; all the studies have
shown high ecological validities. Although those tend to have high tendencies to reflect the real
world; they contribute to low internal validities; as they imply on having low control over the
assessed conditions and the extraneous variables. Another common limitation is that most studies
were correlational in nature involving no manipulations of the independent variables hence no
cause and effect relationships are determined resulting in a low internal validity. A lot of studies
have low temporal validities which also decrease the internal validities.
Diversely; the studies that support the standpoint of gender roles being due to biological factors
involve a more holistic approach of analysis providing biological and cognitive evidence.
However; Quadango et al.’s (1977) study was carried out on animals. Thus this study needs to be
replicated on humans for reliability; in order for it to generalizable for humans. Yet both studies
concerning the biological perspective were lab experiments thus followed standardized procedures
consequently are replicable to check for reliability.
Gender stereotyping contributes to sex discrimination as males are repeatedly shown as more
superior, and stronger than females. These ideologies in addition to the different skills proclaimed
in and restrained from males and females, create stereotype threats. These result in gender pay
gaps in which women are paid less than men. In spite of them having the same educational
background and performing the same job.
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Conclusion:
In conclusion, proof bolstered by consolidating results to different psychological studies proposes
that although there are studies that support that gender roles are merely cultural or merely
biological; they are subject to limitations questioning their reliability and validity. Hence to a large
extent this paper supports the argument that genetic factors give us the baseline limits of gender
roles; genetics give theoretical boundaries of development that is acquired and enhanced by the
various socializing agents in culture. Thus it is imperative to understand it is impossible to assume
that gender roles are determined solely by one factor. Instead the interaction of the two by geneenvironment relationship has more face validity and is supported by many studies, including
Money et al.’s study and Hines, et al.(2004) study.
Word Count: 4030 words.
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