MODULE 6
PREPARING THE RESEARCH REPORT
Learning Objectives:
 Discuss the components of a formal research report
 Identify the general guidelines or rules for report preparation.
 Determine the use of graphics to show the structure of data.
Whatever is to be included in the report—the study’s purpose, methodology, results, conclusions,
or recommendations for management—should be presented clearly, accurately, and honestly. The
key attributes of a report are completeness and conciseness. We can go further and state that, when
managing a research project by objectives, the researcher should focus on the last step— the
research report and the information needs of the user or client (Semon, 1998). The report should
be designed and outlined in detail at the outset. Since the report needs to focus on information
needs, this outline can be an invaluable aid in planning the other stages, such as the plans for
analysis, measurement, and so forth.
This chapter provides information and guidelines that may be invaluable in preparing and
presenting reports, both written and oral. All too often the research report is the only aspect of the
project that others will ever see. Consequently, if the project is not effectively presented,
everything done up to that point will be wasted. A research report must be read (or heard), and its
results, conclusions, and recommendations evaluated, if the resources devoted to the project are to
have been well spent.
COMMUNICATION
The importance of the research report derives from its purpose of communicating to others
the objectives, processes and results of the research. It is important to realize that the research
report and presentation may be the only measure of the quality of the research efforts.
A poor quality presentation of excellent research leaves the impression of poor quality research.
Effective communication has certain characteristics (Rockey, 1984; Vardaman, 1981). First,
the communication is has an objective and a purpose. Second, it is an interchange of symbols—
verbal and graphic representations of a sender’s ideas—between people. Third, it seeks workable
understanding and agreement between the parties. This means that the sender of a report (the
researcher) and the receiver (the client and stakeholders) have enough common understanding
about, and willingness to accept or at least evaluate, the ideas presented in the report to use them
in whatever manner is best. Finally, there is implicit recognition of the need for feedback. In order
to realize satisfaction, there needs to be an opportunity to respond to a draft report. In short,
communication is like playing catch with a baseball: it’s not how many times the ball is thrown,
but how many times it is caught. To be effective, communication must ultimately be two-way.
One view of the communication process involved in presenting a research report to
management or an outside client is illustrated in Figure 15.1, where five basic steps of the
communication process are identified to include context, formality, organization, message, and
feedback.
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Following this process will help you to communicate effectively and avoid a minefield of
obstacles like multiple objectives, political agendas, and special interests. Further, reports are
presented to groups with unique dynamics and individuals with personalities that guide, direct, and
even dominate the project, process, or presentation. Each of these factors must be considered when
determining how to best communicate the results of your research. Without considering these
factors, your research report’s effectiveness will be limited.
Figure 15.1
Preparing to Communicate the Research Process
5. Feedback for Continued Success
1. Define the Context
A. Give, solicit, receive feedback
B. Evaluate credibility of feedback
1. Goodwill, focus, concurrence
2. Expertise: education, knowledge,
experience
3. Power, status, success
4. Confidence: presence at presentation
A. Define the research problem
1. Limit the problem
2. Evaluate the problem within the external
environment
3. Evaluate the problem within the corporate
culture
B. Define the audience
1. Decision makers
2. Presentation audience
C. Define the research objectives
2. Consider Formality
of the Report
A. Media options
B. Detail required
C. Timing (length, scheduling)
4. Develop Your Message
A. Work with your key contact on draft
versions
B. Develop the presentation
C. Prepare through rehearsal and editing
D. Present with confidence and knowledge
E. Be yourself, adapted for your audience
and situation
3. Select and Organize Your Information
A. Audience, objectives, political climate
B. Select most effective points
C. Limit major points
D. Enhance message with support materials
(PowerPoint, visual aids, numbers, examples)
SOURCE: From Bienvenu, S., & Timm, P. R., Business Communications: Discovering Strategy, Developing Skills, 1st edition, copyright
© 2002. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
THE RESEARCH REPORT
Written and oral reports can come in all sizes, shapes, and lengths. The nature of the
problem studied, how it was studied, and the client’s identity will influence the type of report to
be prepared. The length of a report on qualitative research, for example, which can run from as
short as eight pages to more than 100 pages, will be influenced by learning garnered, client
requirements, writing style, and formatting (Greenberg, 1999). Also, it is important to remember
that for many projects two reports are prepared. There is always need for a report to management.
This so-called popular report minimizes technical details and emphasizes simplicity. Frequently,
the simpler reports written in the marketer’s language are most understood, read, and, thus, acted
upon. However, there also may be need for a more detailed technical report. Such a report
emphasizes the methods used and underlying assumptions, and presents findings in a detailed
manner. This type of report can be a valuable resource for researchers, as well as managers, for
future studies.
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There are two key dimensions to the report-writing process: (a) analysis of the data; and
(b) the actual writing. Analysis is the interpretation of the data obtained to provide useful and
meaningful insights into the problem at hand. Writing takes the learning and expresses it in a
coherent, logical, and succinct way (Greenberg, 1999). For both analysis and writing there are
many ways in which data can be presented visually. According to Jacoby (1997, pp. 2–4), graphical
statistical methods can be used to:
x Explore the contents of a data set x Find
structure in data x Check assumptions in
statistical models x Communicate the
results of an analysis
The requirements to both effectively analyze data and write a report may be beyond the abilities
of a one person. Thus, someone other than the analyst often does the report writing.
Criteria for a Good Report
Before turning to what should be included in the report and what the format for presentation
should be, we turn to a brief discussion of the criteria for a good report. The most basic criterion
is how well the report communicates with the reader. Was the communication effective, in the way
defined previously? Practitioners believe that reports written with clarity, brevity, and concreteness
get action and commitment. The major concerns are that a research report be complete, accurate,
concise, and clear in what is being said. All these are a reflection of writing style. These topics are
discussed in more detail in Rehart (1994), Fink (2003), and Bailey (1990).
Completeness
A report is complete when it gives all the needed information in a language understood by
the intended audience. The writing must be done on the level of the reader’s understanding; this is
fundamental! A report may be incomplete because it is too long or too short. Not all information
obtained is significant or relevant enough to be reported. In the end, completeness is always
defined by the person(s) who will be reading the report and asked to act upon it.
Accuracy
Obviously, accuracy is related to completeness. But it goes further. A report may not be
completely accurate because the data (or the information in general) upon which it is based are not
accurate. There may have been flaws in research design, measurement and scaling, sampling, and
analysis that led to inaccurate results being presented. In addition, carelessness in handling data,
interpretation of analyses, or writing style may also lead to inaccuracy. The preparation of a
research report calls for attention to detail, including attention to the meaning of every word used,
punctuation, and so forth.
Conciseness
Being concise means being selective. Thus, as we said above, not all information obtained
needs to be reported. When writing a report, one should write not only so the reader can understand,
but can also do so as quickly and easily as possible. Conciseness refers to what is included and
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how it is included. Sentences should be kept as short as possible. A concise report is not the same
as a brief report. A brief report usually contains only the highlights or base essentials of what the
researcher has to report. In contrast, a concise report may contain any amount of detail and be very
long. A concise report may be very complete. But it is efficient; that is, it conveys all the researcher
wants to present in the shortest, most direct way.
Clarity
Clarity may be the most misunderstood criterion for evaluating a research report. Clarity
derives from clear and logical thinking and organization. Clarity involves connections between
words, sentences, paragraphs, topics, or ideas. There is always some logical connection between,
say, a topic or idea and the one that preceded it. For example, there are different structural ways to
organize material in a logical framework, as illustrated in the list below:
1. Time order. Ideas are presented in chronological time, either forward or backward.
2. Space order. The relationship among places and locations determines organization.
3. Cause and effect. Cause may precede effect or the opposite may hold. A report may stress one or
the other.
4. Increasing difficulty. Structure involves going from the simple to the complex or from the familiar
to the unfamiliar, useful when the audience lacks expertise in the topic.
5. Established category. When a basic framework is understood, content can be organized in
recognized categories. In a market segmentation report, using accepted categories for any of the
demographic bases is useful.
6. Comparison or contrast. Readers grasp differences or similarities more easily when this structural
organization is used.
7. Pro and con order. Presenting arguments for and against something, usually without favoring one
or the other is another common structure.
A most important rule is that the report be well organized. At the same time, it must be
written clearly. This means that researchers who prepare reports should develop a writing style
conducive to clarity in presentation. Many different sets of rules for clear writing are available.
Most say the same things, but perhaps in different ways. One such set is shown in Exhibit 15.1.
EXHIBIT 15.1 Some Rules for Developing a Writing Style
1. Use concrete words. Such words are clear and specific. Be willing to specify, itemize, give details
or examples, define, and illustrate.
2. Keep sentences short. Shorter sentences usually are more readable, all other things being
equal. Lengthy sentences are more likely to cause confusion or complexity.
3. Vary sentence types and structures. Use declarative (assertion), interrogative (question),
imperative (command), and exclamatory sentences. Do not limit a report, but use all types
where appropriate. Also, vary structure among simple, compound, complex, and compoundcomplex sentences. Varying sentence types and structure increases interest and reduces
monotony.
4. Maintain unity. Try to build each paragraph around one idea or topic.
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5. Use active verbs. Active sentences tend to be more forceful and more direct. This does not
mean that the passive voice should never be used. Use it sparingly, however.
6. Avoid wordiness. Say what is to be said in as few words as possible.
7. Use varying means of emphasis. There are different ways to emphasize certain points made in
the report: space, repetition, position, and mechanical means (e.g., arrows, color, or
underscoring).
8. Write and speak naturally. Often it is difficult to identify what is natural. A helpful guide is to
use conversational language, but this is only a guide.
9. Write on the level of reader’s understanding. Do not overestimate the reader’s understanding
and confuse him or her with highly specialized technical jargon. Also, do not underestimate the
reader by using overly simplistic and childish terms.
10. Watch the pace. Avoid trying to say too much in too few words. In the same light, it is bad to
stretch out an idea by using too many words.
11. Keep the tone appropriate. The way in which words are put together says a great deal about
the writer. Thus, tone of writing implies something about the personality of the writer and of
the writer’s organization or company. While it is rare for a person to have complete control of
the tone of his or her writing, it is important to acknowledge that it has many shades: positive
or negative, helpful or indifferent, courteous or impertinent, humble or arrogant, and so forth.
SOURCE: Rockey, 1984, pp. 101–106.
Practitioners’ Views
Many of the ideas presented in the last few pages are widely shared by research practitioners. Four
perspectives of report preparation are presented in Exhibit 15.2.
EXHIBIT 15.2 What the Research Practitioner Has to Say
Different researchers have different philosophies regarding what is important in report
preparation. All agree that poorly communicated research is useless. All too often, the written report ends
up as a second-class citizen to the demonstration of a new or repositioned statistical technique.
Perspective #1: Strengthen Your Communications
In order to strengthen written communication, Teresa Wrobel (1990), Vice-President of Research
100 in Princeton, New Jersey, suggests six things:
1.
2.
Do the readers’ work for them. Presume that a reader feels uncomfortable manipulating or
interpreting numbers. The text relates the major issues, while the numerical data serve as supporting
information. Numbers should not interrupt the flow of the text, and the reader should not be forced to
perform mental calculations in mid-sentence. Calculations should already be completed and presented
in an easily to understand form.
You don’t have to analyze everything. Not every attitude or behavior that has been quantified is
worthy of discussion. Even statistically significant results do not always merit discussion. Select only
those findings that illustrate the main issues.
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Write in plain English (or whatever language is being used). Avoid industry jargon. Jargon tends to
conceal the main ideas being conveyed and may be incomprehensible to the intended readers, who
are often not researchers. The use of jargon can alienate or confuse the reader.
Convey the main ideas quickly. Most decision-makers don’t have time to plow through pages of text
to unearth the main findings. The front section of a research document should reduce the findings to
their skeletal elements, and include the conclusions and recommendations supported by key findings.
Did you answer the question at hand? Conclusions should address the initial objectives with clarity
and precision.
Keep the report interesting. Take advantage of the richness and breadth of language available. Keep
searching for new ways of expressing points that convey ideas most effectively. While it is easiest to
rely on language that is familiar and tested, expanding one’s use of language can encourage idea
generation and provide a more enjoyable document for the reader.
Some format limitations must be followed. In addition, using esoteric language for its own sake may
lose the reader’s attention. However, such limitations should not stifle creativity. Diversity in
communication styles should be accepted and encouraged.
Perspective #2 Make It Readable
A slightly different view is that of Howard Gordon (1998), a principal of George R. Frerichs &
Associates of Chicago. Mr. Gordon feels the following seven points can contribute to preparing
more readable, usable, and action-oriented reports:
1.
Present tense works better. Use present tense. Results and observations expressed in “now“ terms
sound better and are easier to read. Don’t say: “The test panel liked the taste of the juice.” Say: “People
like the taste of the juice.” We do studies for clients to help them make decisions today and tomorrow—
not yesterday. Clients want to know what people think now.
2. Use active voice. Use active voice where possible, which is in most cases. There is nothing wrong with
saying: “We believe . . .” rather than: “It is believed that . . . .” Passive voice is stilted. Use first person
plural, not third person singular. Present tense and active voice make reports sound action oriented
and businesslike. And active is easy to read. Passive voice makes the reader work harder.
3. Findings—don’t use the word findings. This word makes your report sound as if some archaeologist
just came across some old bones from the Paleolithic age. Marketers should use results, conclusions,
or observations—not findings. Conclusions is the take-away section. What is it you want the reader to
take away from your report? If somebody could spend only five minutes with your report, what should
that person know?
4. Use informative headlines, not label headlines. Your reader will welcome this headline:
“Convenience is the packaging’s major benefit.” Your reader will not generally welcome this headline:
“Analysis of packaging.” Nor this: “How people feel about packaging.”
5. Let your tables and charts work. Help them with words when needed. Don’t take a paragraph or a page
to describe what a table already says. If there is nothing to say about a table or a chart, don’t say it. The
purpose of a table or a chart is to simplify. Use your words to point out significant items in the table—
something that is not readily clear. Or use your words to offer interpretive comments. Use verbatims
from sample respondents to support a point.
6. Use the double-sided presentation whenever possible. This format will reduce the verbiage in your
report. It simply presents the table on the left side of the open report. Your informative headline and
interpretive comments are on the right-hand page. The double-sided presentation is one of the most
readable report formats. And it is much easier to write a report that uses it. The double-sided system
also allows you to use white space effectively. White space helps readers get through your report—
especially those readers in executive suites.
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7.
Make liberal use of verbatims. Great nuggets of marketing wisdom have come from people’s
comments. Use verbatims if you have them. Sprinkle the verbatims throughout your report in
appropriate places as they make research reports interesting and readable
Perspective #3 Make Your Results Talk
Yet another approach views things differently. James Nelems (1997), President of The Marketing
Workshop in Norcross, Georgia, cautioned us more than 20 years ago on what should be avoided.
He believed that research reports have more faults beyond improper analysis!
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The longer the report, the better. Research isn’t bought or sold by the pound. Any research report—
regardless of sample size, multivariate techniques, or number of questions— should be reducible to a
one-page executive overview. The report itself also should be clearly written and easy to read, including
marketing conclusions and implications—the indications for future action—drawn from the data.
Management has both the time and desire to read such reports—and the confidence to accept.
Indiscriminate use of fancy tools. Some, particularly the multivariate ones, may confuse rather than
enlighten.
Letting questions do all the work. Research is more than asking questions. How simple it is in a package
test to ask if people like the package. Or if someone doesn’t use a product, just ask him why he doesn’t
use it. Even though these are the wrong questions, they are often asked, and, of course, when questions
are asked, answers are received. But wrong answers to wrong questions hardly constitute analysis.
Reporting what happened, rather than what it means. Too much research text simply repeats
numbers in the accompanying table. What is the significance of the numbers? How are we better off
by knowing the answers?
The fallacy of “single-number research.” This refers to any kind of research, the outcome of which is a
“single number” that purports to provide an easy decision, such as an on-air recall score, a positive
buying intention, or the overall preference in a product test.
Failure to relate findings to objectives or reality. Low brand awareness should be improved, of course,
but what is unaided brand awareness per $1,000 of advertising spent vs. competition? In a product
test, preferences can vary between current users and nonusers. Yet the brand objectives— gain new
users or hold current ones—can produce opposite results with the exact same preference data.
Spurious accuracy. This includes summary statistics to one decimal place. More than likely, they’re only
accurate within 10 percentage points. Yet we’ve actually seen in print a comment on “20% of the
sample of five respondents . . . .”
Perspective #4 Write With Style
A final example of the thinking of practitioners is provided by Lynn Greenberg (1999, pp. 39–41),
a principal of Lynn Greenberg Associates, a Scarsdale, New York, research consulting company.
She suggests the following 11 tips for qualitative research reports, particularly focus groups:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Capture your initial thoughts in a research journal as you work. Some of your best insights may come
at this time.
Have a flexible plan, one that initially has been developed before starting the writing.
Break the task into small pieces and start with the easiest ones. Once the basic sections have been
written, it is easier to deal with the more challenging areas.
Be succinct. The reader should be able to clearly and quickly come away with two or three key points
after reading the report.
Provide overviews to promote understanding of the learning. The first statement of a section should
be an interpretation of what was learned, followed by more details.
Turns negatives into constructive learning and be clear about their meaning.
Integrate information from other sources where appropriate to provide more relevant meaning.
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8.
Feature action-oriented conclusions and implications that address all of the study’s objectives, plus
any important ancillary issues.
9. Use a visually appealing format that allows the readers to skim relevant issues. Use italics, boldface,
underlining, bullet points, and so forth, wherever possible.
10. Edit, edit, and re-edit with independent proofing for clarity, grammar, and typos.
11. Do it your way! Write with your natural style
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