HVAC SYSTEMS
TESTING, ADJUSTING
& BALANCING
SHEET METAL AND AIR CONDITIONING CONTRACTORS’
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION, INC.
HVAC SYSTEMS
TESTING, ADJUSTING
& BALANCING
THIRD EDITION — AUGUST, 2002
SHEET METAL AND AIR CONDITIONING CONTRACTORS’
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION, INC.
4201 Lafayette Center Drive
Chantilly, VA 20151-1209
HVAC SYSTEMS
TESTING, ADJUSTING & BALANCING
COPYRIGHT2002
All Rights Reserved
by
SHEET METAL AND AIR CONDITIONING CONTRACTORS’
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION, INC.
4201 Lafayette Center Drive
Chantilly, VA 20151
Printed in the U.S.A.
FIRST EDITION - 1983
SECOND EDITION - JULY, 1993
THIRD EDITION - AUGUST, 2002
Except as allowed in the Notice to Users and in certain licensing contracts, no part of this book may be
reproduced, stored in a retrievable system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
FOREWORD
This handbook has been extensively updated for 2002 from the original 1983 publication and includes all of the many
changes that have takes place in the industry since the 1990’s. We have added many new sections covering variable
frequency drives (VFD), direct digital control (DDC) systems, lab hood exhaust balancing, and the latest changes in
the balancing equipment and procedures.
All of the system testing, adjusting, and balancing fundamentals that make up the original text has been updated, and
all helpful reference tables and charts in the Appendix have been extensively updated.
This handbook will provide any SMACNA contractor already familiar with mechanical system operation basics, with
the information necessary to balance most heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Chapters on
both air and water side HVAC system adjusting and balancing are included, and the chapters on system controls have
been totally rewritten to reflect the trend away from pneumatic controls and towards programmable micro−processor
controls.
Most of today’s HVAC systems are being designed with many more individually controlled temperature zones to im−
prove occupant comfort, and variable speed fans and pumps are now commonplace to provide the exact amount of
heating and cooling system capacity necessary to minimize energy usage. New occupant air ventilation codes are
much more restrictive, at the same time building envelopes are becoming much tighter. The combination of constantly
changing HVAC flows and increased demand for fresh and filtered ventilation air for all occupants is placing much
more emphasis on proper HVAC system operation and balancing.
Any SMACNA contractor wanting to become part of this rapidly growing field is strongly encouraged to read other
related SMACNA publications available, and take part in the many training courses offered to become a certified TAB
Contractor. The International Training Institute provides a Certified Technician program for journeyman sheet metal
workers who already have a basic understanding of system testing and balancing, and many of these courses are avail−
able in versions for home study.
The building construction industry is experiencing a major growth in demand for trained and experienced contractors
who can balance today’s much more complex HVAC systems.
SHEET METAL AND AIR CONDITIONING CONTRACTORS’
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION, INC.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
iii
TASK FORCE
Bill Freese, Chairman
International Testing & Balancing, Ltd.
Seaford, New York
Ray Coleman
Certified Testing & Balancing, Inc.
Riverton, Utah
David Aldag
Aldag−Honold Mechanical, Inc.
Sheboygan, Wisconsin
Ben Dutton
SMACNA, Inc.
Chantilly, Virginia
John Brue
Balancing Precision, Inc.
Bloomington, Illinois
Eli P. Howard, III
SMACNA, Inc.
Chantilly, Virginia
OTHER CONTRIBUTORS
J. R. Yago & Associates
Consulting Engineers
Manakin−Sabot, Virginia
iv
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
NOTICE TO USERS
OF THIS PUBLICATION
1.
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES
a) The Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association (“SMACNA”) provides its product for informational
purposes.
b) The product contains “Data” which is believed by SMACNA to be accurate and correct but the data, including all information,
ideas and expressions therein, is provided strictly “AS IS”, with all faults. SMACNA makes no warranty either express or implied
regarding the Data and SMACNA EXPRESSLY DISCLAIMS ANY IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR
FITNESS FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
c) By using the data contained in the product user accepts the Data “AS IS” and assumes all risk of loss, harm or injury that may result
from its use. User acknowledges that the Data is complex, subject to faults and requires verification by competent professionals, and
that modification of parts of the Data by user may impact the results or other parts of the Data.
d) IN NO EVENT SHALL SMACNA BE LIABLE TO USER, OR ANY OTHER PERSON, FOR ANY INDIRECT, SPECIAL OR
CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING, DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY, OUT OF OR RELATED TO USER’S USE OF
SMACNA’S PRODUCT OR MODIFICATION OF DATA THEREIN. This limitation of liability applies even if SMACNA has been
advised of the possibility of such damages. IN NO EVENT SHALL SMACNA’S LIABILITY EXCEED THE AMOUNT PAID BY
USER FOR ACCESS TO SMACNA’S PRODUCT OR $1,000.00, WHICHEVER IS GREATER, REGARDLESS OF LEGAL
THEORY.
e) User by its use of SMACNA’s product acknowledges and accepts the foregoing limitation of liability and disclaimer of warranty
and agrees to indemnify and hold harmless SMACNA from and against all injuries, claims, loss or damage arising, directly or indirectly, out of user’s access to or use of SMACNA’s product or the Data contained therein.
2.
ACCEPTANCE
This document or publication is prepared for voluntary acceptance and use within the limitations of application defined herein, and
otherwise as those adopting it or applying it deem appropriate. It is not a safety standard. Its application for a specific project is contingent on a designer or other authority defining a specific use. SMACNA has no power or authority to police or enforce compliance with
the contents of this document or publication and it has no role in any representations by other parties that specific components are, in
fact, in compliance with it.
3.
AMENDMENTS
The Association may, from time to time, issue formal interpretations or interim amendments, which can be of significance between
successive editions.
4.
PROPRIETARY PRODUCTS
SMACNA encourages technological development in the interest of improving the industry for the public benefit. SMACNA does not,
however, endorse individual manufacturers or products.
5.
FORMAL INTERPRETATION
a) A formal interpretation of the literal text herein or the intent of the technical committee or task force associated with the document
or publication is obtainable only on the basis of written petition, addressed to the Technical Resources Department and sent to the
Association’s national office in Chantilly, Virginia. In the event that the petitioner has a substantive disagreement with the interpretation, an appeal may be filed with the Technical Resources Committee, which has technical oversight responsibility. The request must
pertain to a specifically identified portion of the document that does not involve published text which provides the requested information. In considering such requests, the Association will not review or judge products or components as being in compliance with the
document or publication. Oral and written interpretations otherwise obtained from anyone affiliated with the Association are unofficial. This procedure does not prevent any committee or task force chairman, member of the committee or task force, or staff liaison
from expressing an opinion on a provision within the document, provided that such person clearly states that the opinion is personal
and does not represent an official act of the Association in any way, and it should not be relied on as such. The Board of Directors of
SMACNA shall have final authority for interpretation of this standard with such rules or procedures as they may adopt for processing
same.
b) SMACNA disclaims any liability for any personal injury, property damage, or other damage of any nature whatsoever, whether
special, indirect, consequential or compensatory, direct or indirectly resulting from the publication, use of, or reliance upon this document. SMACNA makes no guaranty or warranty as to the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein.
6.
APPLICATION
a) Any standards contained in this publication were developed using reliable engineering principles and research plus consultation
with, and information obtained from, manufacturers, users, testing laboratories, and others having specialized experience. They are
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
v
subject to revision as further experience and investigation may show is necessary or desirable. Construction and products which comply with these Standards will not necessarily be acceptable if, when examined and tested, they are found to have other features which
impair the result contemplated by these requirements. The Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association and
other contributors assume no responsibility and accept no liability for the application of the principles or techniques contained in this
publication. Authorities considering adoption of any standards contained herein should review all federal, state, local, and contract
regulations applicable to specific installations.
b) In issuing and making this document available, SMACNA is not undertaking to render professional or other services for or on
behalf of any person or entity. SMACNA is not undertaking to perform any duty owed to any person or entity to someone else. Any
person or organization using this document should rely on his, her or its own judgement or, as appropriate, seek the advice of a competent professional in determining the exercise of reasonable care in any given circumstance.
7.
REPRINT PERMISSION
Non-exclusive, royalty-free permission is granted to government and private sector specifying authorities to reproduce only any
construction details found herein in their specifications and contract drawings prepared for receipt of bids on new construction and
renovation work within the United States and its territories, provided that the material copied is unaltered in substance and that the
reproducer assumes all liability for the specific application, including errors in reproduction.
8.
THE SMACNA LOGO
The SMACNA logo is registered as a membership identification mark. The Association prescribes acceptable use of the logo and
expressly forbids the use of it to represent anything other than possession of membership. Possession of membership and use of the
logo in no way constitutes or reflects SMACNA approval of any product, method, or component. Furthermore, compliance of any
such item with standards published or recognized by SMACNA is not indicated by presence of the logo.
vi
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
TASK FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iv
NOTICE TO USERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii
CHAPTER 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION TO TAB WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE TAB TECHNICIAN/TEAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1
1.1
1.2
CHAPTER 2 HVAC FUNDAMENTALS
2.1
2.2
2.3
CHAPTER 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
CHAPTER 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
CHAPTER 5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
CHAPTER 6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
HEAT FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PSYCHROMETRICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLUID MECHANICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
2.6
2.19
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT AND CONTROLS
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ELECTRICAL SERVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TRANSFORMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MOTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MOTOR CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1
3.1
3.5
3.5
3.8
3.9
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
AUTOMATIC TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTROL LOOPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTROL DIAGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTROL RELATIONSHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ATC SYSTEM ADJUSTMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TAB/ATC RELATIONSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CENTRALIZED CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1
4.2
4.5
4.5
4.6
4.6
4.7
FANS
FAN CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FAN CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FAN AIRFLOW AND PRESSURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FAN/SYSTEM CURVE RELATIONSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FAN CAPACITY RATINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1
5.4
5.10
5.13
5.17
AIR DISTRIBUTION AND DEVICES
AIR TERMINAL BOXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VARIABLE AIR VOLUME (VAV) TERMINAL BOXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OTHER AIRFLOW DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AIR DISTRIBUTION BASICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ROOM AIR DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
6.1
6.3
6.3
6.6
6.9
vii
CHAPTER 7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
CHAPTER 8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
CHAPTER 9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
AIR SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TYPES OF AIR SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AIR SYSTEM DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DUCT SIZING EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1
7.2
7.9
7.11
7.14
HYDRONIC EQUIPMENT
PUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PUMP / SYSTEM CURVE RELATIONSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PUMP INSTALLATION CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HYDRONIC HEATING AND COOLING SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TERMINAL HEATING AND COOLING UNITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1
8.7
8.11
8.13
8.14
HYDRONIC SYSTEMS
HYDRONIC SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HYDRONIC SYSTEM DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HYDRONIC DESIGN PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
STEAM SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1
9.8
9.13
9.14
CHAPTER 10 REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
CHAPTER 11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REFRIGERATION TERMS AND COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SAFETY CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OPERATING CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REFRIGERANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THERMAL BULBS AND SUPERHEAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COMPRESSOR SHORT CYCLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1
10.2
10.4
10.4
10.4
10.4
10.6
TAB INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AIRFLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PRESSURE GAGE, CALIBRATED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ROTATION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TEMPERATURE FUNCTION TACHOMETER MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COMMUNICATION DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HYDRONIC FLOW MEASURING DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1
11.1
11.9
11.12
11.16
11.22
11.23
11.24
CHAPTER 12 PRELIMINARY TAB PROCEDURES
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
INITIAL PLANNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTRACT DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SYSTEM REVIEW AND ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE AGENDA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PLANNING FIELD TAB PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PRELIMINARY FIELD PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1
12.1
12.2
12.4
12.5
12.6
CHAPTER 13 GENERAL AIR SYSTEM TAB PROCEDURES
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
viii
BASIC FAN TESTING PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SYSTEM STARTUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FAN TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DEFICIENCY REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RETURN AND OUTSIDE AIR SETTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RECORDING DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
13.1
13.1
13.1
13.2
13.2
13.3
13.3
13.8
13.9
13.10
13.11
13.12
13.13
13.14
13.15
13.16
13.17
13.18
13.19
13.20
13.21
13.22
13.23
13.24
13.25
PROPORTIONAL BALANCING (RATIO) METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3
PERCENTAGE OF DESIGN AIRFLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3
SYSTEM AIRFLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5
BASIC OUTLET BALANCING PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5
STEPWISE METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5
FAN ADJUSTMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6
WET COIL CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6
AIRFLOW TOTALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6
EXHAUST FANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6
FAN DRIVE ADJUSTMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6
DAMPER ADJUSTMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7
DUCT TRAVERSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7
SYSTEM DEFICIENCIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7
FUME HOOD EXHAUST BALANCING PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7
DUST COLLECTION AND EXHAUST BALANCING PROCEDURES . . . . . . . 13.8
AIR FLOW MEASUREMENTS ON DISCHARGE STACKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.11
INDUSTRIAL VENTILATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.12
SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.12
CHAPTER 14 TAB PROCEDURES FOR SPECIFIC AIR SYSTEMS
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VARIABLE AIR VOLUME (VAV) SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MULTI-ZONE SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INDUCTION UNIT SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DUAL DUCT SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SPECIAL EXHAUST AIR SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PROCESS EXHAUST AIR SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1
14.1
14.13
14.14
14.14
14.16
14.17
CHAPTER 15 HYDRONIC SYSTEM TAB PROCEDURES
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
HYDRONIC SYSTEM MEASUREMENT METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1
BASIC HYDRONIC SYSTEM PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3
PIPING SYSTEM BALANCING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4
BALANCING SPECIFIC SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5
VARIABLE VOLUME FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.9
PRIMARY-SECONDAR Y SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.11
SUMMER-WINTER SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.11
CHAPTER 16 TAB REPORT FORMS
16.1
16.2
PREPARING TAB REPORT FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DESCRIPTION OF USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX A
16.1
16.1
DUCT DESIGN TABLES & CHARTS
DUCT DESIGN TABLES AND CHARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HVAC EQUATIONS - (I-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HVAC EQUATIONS - (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SI UNITS AND EQUIVALENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SOUND DESIGN EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FITTING EQUIVALENTS (WATER) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PROPERTIES OF STEAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
STEAM PIPING (I-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
STEAM PIPING (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.1
A.31
A.35
A.39
A.41
A.43
A.44
A.45
A.49
A.54
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G.1
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I.1
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
ix
TABLES
5-1
6-1
Typical Fan Rating Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7
Typical Ratios of Damper to System Resistance for Flow
Characteristic Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6
6-2 Guide to Use of Various Outlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.12
6-3 Recommended Return Air Inlet Face Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.14
6-4 Air Outlets and Diffusers Total Pressure Loss Average—in. wg (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . 6.15
6-5 Supply Registers Total Pressure Loss Average—in. wg (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.15
6-6 Return Registers Total Pressure Loss Average—in. wg (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.15
8-1 Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3
8-2 Characteristics of Common Types of Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3
8-3 Flow vs Total Head (Cooling Tower Application) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.11
9-1 Hydronic Trouble Analysis Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.8
11-1 Airflow Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.9
11-2 Instruments for Hydronic Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11
11-3 Hydronic Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11
11-4 Rotation Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.13
11-5 Instrumentation for Air & Hydronic Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.16
11-6 Instruments for Air Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.17
11-7 Temperature Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.21
15-1 Load-Flow Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.10
A-1 Duct Material Roughness Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.3
A-2 Circulation Equivalents of Rectangular Ducts for Equal Friction and Capacity
(I-P) (2) Dimensions in Inches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.5
A-2 Circulation Equivalents of Rectangular Ducts for Equal Friction and Capacity
(I-P) (2) Dimensions in Inches (continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.6
A-3 Circular Equivalents of Rectangular Ducts for Equal Friction and Capacity
(SI) (2) Dimensions in mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.7
A-3 Circular Equivalents of Rectangular Ducts for Equal Friction and Capacity
(SI) (2) Dimensions in mm (continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.8
A-4 Velocities/Velocity Pressures (I-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.9
A-5 Velocities/Velocity Pressures (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.10
A-6 Angular Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.10
A-7 Loss Coefficients for Straight-Through Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.11
A-8 Recommended Criteria for Louver Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.12
A-9 Typical Design Velocities for Duct Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.13
A-10 Elbow Loss Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.14
A-1 1 Transition Loss Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.17
A-12 Rectangular Branch Connection Loss Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.19
A-13 Round Branch Connection Loss Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.23
A-14 Miscellaneous Fitting Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.27
HVAC Equations (I-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.31
A-15 Converting Pressure In Inches of Mercury to Feet of Water
at Various Water Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.33
A-16 Air Density Correction Factors (I-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.34
HVAC Equations (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.35
A-17 Air Density Correction Factors (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.38
A-18 SI Units And Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.39
A-19 SI Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.40
A-20 Sound Design Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.41
A-21 Equivalent Length in Feet of Pipe for 90 Elbows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.43
A-22 Equivalent Length in Meters of Pipe for 90 Elbows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.43
A-23 Iron and Copper Elbow Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.43
A-24 Properties of Saturated Steam (I-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.44
A-25 Properties of Saturated Steam (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.44
A-26 Steam Piping (I-P) Flow Rate of Steam in Schedule 40 Pipe
at Initial Saturation Pressure of 3.5 and 12 psig
(Flow Rate expressed in Pounds per Hour) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.45
x
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
TABLES (continued)
A-27 Comparative Capacity of Steam Lines at Various Pitches for Steam
and Condensate Flowing in Opposite Directions
(Pitch of Pipe in Inches per 10 Feet – Velocity in Feet per Second) . . . . . . . . . A.45
A-28 Pressure Drops In Common Use for Sizing Steam Pipe
(For Corresponding Initial Steam Pressure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.46
A-29 Length in Feet of Pipe to be Added to Actual Length of
Run — Owing to Fittings — to Obtain Equivalent Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.46
A-30 Steam Pipe Capacities for Low Pressure Systems (For Use on One-Pipe Systems
or Two-Pipe Systems in which Condensate Flows Against the Steam Flow) . A.47
A-31 Return Main and Riser Capacities for Low-Pressure Systems—Pounds per Hour
(Reference to this table will be made by column letter G through V) . . . . . . . . . A.48
A-32 Flow Rate in kg/h of Steam in Schedule 40 Pipe at Initial Saturation Pressure
of 15 and 85 kPa Above Atmospheric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.49
A-33 Comparative Capacity of Steam Lines at Various Pitches for Steam
and Condensate Flowing in Opposite Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.49
A-34 Equivalent Length of Fittings to be Added to Pipe Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.50
A-35 Steam Pipe Capacities for Low-Pressure Systems (For Use on One-Pipe Systems
or Two-Pipe Systems in which Condensate Flows Against the Steam Flow) . A.51
A-36 Return Main and Riser Capacities for Low-Pressure Systems — kg/h . . . . . . . . A.52
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
xi
FIGURES
2-1 Heat Transfer by Conduction and Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2 Convection Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3 Counterflow Airstreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-4 Parallel Flow Airstreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-5 Cross-flow Airstreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-6 Parallel and Counterflow Heat Transfer Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-7 Psychrometric Chart (I-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-8 Psychrometric Chart - Typical Condition Points (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-9 Psychrometric Chart - Typical Condition Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-10 Sensible Heating and Cooling (I-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1 1 Humidification and Dehumidification (I-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-12 Psychrometric Chart - Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-13 Cooling and Dehumidifying (I-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-14 Heating and Humidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-15 Mixing of Two Airstreams (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-16 Tank Static Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-17 Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-18 Pressure Changes During Flow in Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-19 Sample Fitting Loss Coefficient Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-20 Pump with Static Head and Suction Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-21 Pump with Suction Lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1 Series-Parallel Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-2 Single-Phase AC Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-3 Current And Voltage-T ime Curves and Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-4 220-Volt Three-Wire Delta Three-Phase Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-5 220-Volt Delta Three-Phase Circuit with 110-V olt Single-Phase Supply . . . . . . .
3-6 120/208-Volt Four-Wire Wye Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-7 Transformer with TaPped Secondary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-8 Typical Performance of Standard Squirrel Cage Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-9 Interlocked Starters with Control Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-10 VFD Added to Existing Air Handling Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1 Valve Throttling Characteristic Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2 ATC Valve Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3 Typical Multiblade Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4 Desktop Computer Displaying Status of Building HVAC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-5 Functional Block Diagram A Centralized Computer Control System . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6 HVAC Controls Panel with Original Pneumatic Controls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-7 The Same HVAC Control Panel After Upgrading to Direct Digital Control (DDC).
4-8 Portable Computer Plugged Into Electronic Wall Thermostat During
System Balancing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1 Centrifugal Fan Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-2 Characteristic Curves for FC Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-3 Characteristic Curves for BI Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4 Characteristic Curves for Air Foil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5 Axial Fan Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-6 Characteristic Curves for Propeller Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-7 Characteristic Curves for Vaneaxial Fans (High Performance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-8 Tubular Centrifugal Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-9 Characteristic Curves for Tubular Centrifugal Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-10 Fan Class Standards (I-P) (SW BI Fans) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1 1 Fan Class Standards (SI) (SW BI Fans) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-12 Drive Arrangements For Centrifugal Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-13 Arrangement 1 In-Line Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-14 Arrangement 4 in-line fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-15 Arrangement 9 in-Line fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-16 Centrifugal Fan Motor Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-17 Direction of Rotation And Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xii
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.2
2.2
2.3
2.3
2.4
2.4
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.15
2.17
2.20
2.21
2.22
2.24
2.28
2.29
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.5
3.7
3.9
3.10
4.3
4.4
4.4
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.10
5.1
5.1
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.4
5.4
5.4
5.5
5.8
5.9
5.9
5.10
5.11
FIGURES (continued)
5-18 Fan Total Pressure (TP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-19 Fan Static Pressure (SP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-20 Fan Velocity Pressure (VP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-21 Tip Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-22 System Resistance Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-23 Operating Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-24 Variations from Design Air Shortage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-25 Fan Law - RPM Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-26 Effect of Density Change (Constant Volume) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-27 Effect of Density Change (Constant Static Pressure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-28 AMCA Fan Test - Pitot Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-29 Effect of Density Change (Constant Mass Flow) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-30 Effects of System Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-31 Fan Outlet Effective Duct Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-32 Non-Uniform Flow Conditions Into Fan Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-1 Constant Volume Fan-Powered Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2 Bypass-Type Fan-Powered Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-3 Multiblade Volume Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-4 Flow Characteristics for a Parallel Operating Damper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-5 Flow Characteristics for an Opposed Operating Damper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-6 Volume Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-7 Surface (Coanda) Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-8 Some Elements Affecting Body Heat Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-9 Four Zones in Jet Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-10 Typical Supply Outlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1 Single Duct System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-2 Typical Equipment for Single Zone Duct System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-3 Variable Air Volume (VAV) System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-4 Terminal Reheat System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5 Induction Reheat System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-6 Dual Duct High Velocity System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-7 Multi-Zone System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-8 System Layout (I-P Units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-9 System Layout (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-10 Fan Duct Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1 Typical Centrifugal Pump Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-2 Descriptions of Centrifugal Pumps Used in Hydronic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-3 Coupling Alignment with Straight Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-4 Typical Required NPSH Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-5 Pump Curve for 1750 rpm Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-6 Typical Design Pump Selection Point (from Abbreviated Curve) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-7 System Curve Plotted on Pump Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-8 Typical Open Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-9 Typical Cooling Tower Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-10 System Curve for Open Circuit False Operating Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1 1 System Curve for Open Circuit True Operating Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-12 Pump Operating Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-13 Multiple Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-14 Pump and System Curves for Parallel Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-15 Pump and System Curves for Series Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-16 Gage Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-17 Relative Gage Elevations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-18 Effect of Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-1 A Series Loop System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-2 A One-Pipe System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-3 Direct Return Two-Pipe System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-4 Reverse Return Two-Pipe System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-5 Example of Primary and Secondary Pumping Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-6 Return Mix System Room Unit Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
5.12
5.12
5.13
5.13
5.14
5.14
5.15
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.18
5.19
5.20
5.20
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.10
6.11
6.12
7.3
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.11
7.12
7.14
8.1
8.2
8.4
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.8
8.9
8.9
8.9
8.10
8.10
8.11
8.11
8.12
8.12
8.12
8.13
9.2
9.2
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.5
xiii
FIGURES (continued)
9-7 Four Pipe System Room Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-8 Boiler Piping for a Multiple-Zone, Multiple-Purpose Heating System . . . . . . . . . .
9-9 Water Cooled Condenser Connections for City Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-10 Cooling Tower Piping System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-1 1 Basic Piping Circuits for Gravity Flow of Condensate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-12 Basic Piping Circuits for Mechanical Return Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-13 Typical Two-Pipe Vacuum Steam System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-14 Thermostatic Trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-15 Inverter Bucket Trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-16 Float and Thermostatic Trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-17 Typical Connections to Finned Tube Heating Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-1 Refrigerant Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-2 Locations of Thermal Bulbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-1 U-T ube Manometer Equipped with Over-Pressure Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-2 Inclined-V ertical Manometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-3 Electronic/Multi-meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-4 Pitot Tube Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-5 Pitot Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-6 Magnehelic Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-7 Rotating Vane Anemometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-8 Electronic Analog Rotating Vane Anemometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-9 Deflecting Vane Anemometer Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-10 Thermal Anemometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-1 1 Flow Measuring Hood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-12 Calibrated Pressure Gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-13 Single Gage Being Used to Measure a Differential Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-14 Single Gage Being Used to Measure a Differential Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-15 Differential Pressure Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-16 Chronometric Tachometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-17 Digital Optical Tachometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-18 Digital Contact Tachometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-19 Stroboscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-20 Multi-range, Dual Function (Optical/Contact Tachometer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-21 Glass Tube Thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-22 Dial Thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-23 Thermocouple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-24 Thermistor Thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-24 Infrared Digital Thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-26 Resistance Temperature Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-27 Electronic Thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-28 Sling Psychrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-29 Digital Psychrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-30 Thermohygrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-31 Clamp-on Volt Ammeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-32 Accessing Automation System with Laptop Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-33 Orifice as a Measuring Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-34 Flow Meter Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-35 Annular Flow Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11-36 Calibrated Balancing Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12-1 Schematic Duct System Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12-2 Instruments Selected for a Specific Job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13-1 Sample Supply Air Duct (Part) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13-2 Typical Air Diffuser CFM Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13-3 Measuring Exhaust Air Velocity on Lab Exhaust Hood with Sash Height . . . . . .
13-4 Example of Exhaust Hood Air Balance Label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13-5 Sample Dust Collection Exhaust System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xiv
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
9.5
9.7
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.16
9.16
9.17
9.17
9.18
9.18
10.2
10.5
11.1
11.2
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.6
11.7
11.7
11.8
11.10
11.12
11.12
11.13
11.14
11.14
11.15
11.15
11.15
11.18
11.18
11.19
11.19
11.19
11.20
11.20
11.22
11.22
11.23
11.23
11.24
11.25
11.26
11.26
11.26
12.3
12.5
13.4
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
FIGURES (continued)
14-1 Typical Variable Air Volume (VAV) System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14-2 Open Loop Fan Volume Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14-3 Closed Loop Fan Volume Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14-4 Fan and System Curves, Constant Speed Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14-5 Fan and System Curves, Variable Speed Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14-6 Series Fan Powered VAV Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14-7 Parallel Fan Powered VAV Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14-8 Paper Strip at VAV Box Return Before Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14-9 Paper Strip at VAV Box After Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14-10 Constant Fan VAV Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14-1 1 Intermittent Fan VAV Box (Parallel) Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14-12 Multi-zone System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14-13 Dual Duct System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14-14 Induction Unit System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-1 Hydronic Flow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-2 External Ultrasonic Flow Sensor on Pipe with Insulation Removed . . . . . . . . . . .
15-3 Ultrasonic Flow Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-4 Effects of Flow Variation on Heat Transfer 20F (11C) ∆t at 200F (93C) . . .
15-5 Percent Variation to Maintain 90% Terminal Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-6 Chilled Water Terminal Flow Versus Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-7 Pump With Variable Speed Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-8 Example of Primary and Secondary Pumping Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15-9 Summer-Winter Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A-1 Duct Friction Loss Chart (I-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A-2 Duct Friction Loss Chart (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A-3 Duct Friction Loss Correction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A-4 Velocities/Velocity Pressures (I-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A-5 Air Density Friction Chart Correction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A-6 Louver Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A-7 Elbow Equivalents of Tees at Various Flow Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.4
14.9
14.9
14.9
14.10
14.12
14.13
14.14
14.15
14.16
15.1
15.2
15.2
15.9
15.9
15.10
15.11
15.12
15.13
A.1
A.2
A.4
A.9
A.11
A.12
A.43
xv
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
xvi
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
1.1
INTRODUCTION TO TAB WORK
1.1.1
New Buildings
Testing, adjusting and balancing (TAB) of all HVAC
systems in a new building is needed to complete the
installation and to make the systems perform as the de−
signer intended.
Assuming that the system design and installation
meets the comfort needs of the building occupants,
good testing, adjusting and balancing of the HVAC
system provides occupant comfort with minimum en−
ergy input. This is extremely important in this era of
rising energy costs.
It is also important to make sure all factory equipment
startup service has been completed before beginning
any TAB work. Most specifications on new building
construction usually require a factory representative to
be present during the initial startup and adjustment of
central boilers, chillers, large variable speed motor
drives, and cooling towers. This initial equipment
checkout is also usually required to activate the factory
warranties and are not be part of the TAB contractor’s
responsibility. After this initial startup service has
been completed, the TAB contractor should be in−
formed that the systems are operating properly, that all
safety interlocks and protective devices are function−
ing, and the systems are ready to be balanced.
The Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing or TAB phase
of any building construction or renovation is intended
to verify that all HVAC water and air flows and pres−
sures meet the design intent and equipment manufac−
turer’s operating requirements. It is rare to find an
HVAC system of any size that will perform completely
satisfactorily without the benefit of TAB work. This is
why it is necessary for the designer to specify that TAB
work be part of the HVAC system installation. A sam−
ple TAB specification can be found in the Appendix.
Commissioning services for any new building
construction or renovation are intended to verify all
HVAC, lighting, plumbing, electrical, and security
systems operate properly and meet performance crite−
ria.
INTRODUCTION
It should be made clear that the Testing, Adjusting, and
Balancing (TAB) services may be the only HVAC sys−
tem testing services contracted on most projects, but
TAB work is not intended to be ?commissioning."
Most commissioning services are completed by firms
having technicians experienced with each of the indi−
vidual building systems mentioned above.
These firms will usually subcontract the services of an
independent TAB contractor to verify HVAC system
balancing as part of their more inclusive commission−
ing contract.
1.1.2
There are few buildings in existence that have not ex−
perienced changes in internal loads and wall reloca−
tions since they were designed and built. These build−
ings should have their HVAC systems rebalanced to
achieve maximum operating efficiency and comfort.
Many buildings require rebalancing twice each year
with the seasonal change from heating to cooling or the
reverse.
Firms with a good TAB team have had a natural lead−in
to service contracts and retrofit work because the TAB
work identifies system operating deficiencies.
1.2
THE TAB TECHNICIAN/TEAM
1.2.1
The Technician
Throughout this publication, TAB technician will be
used to designate the person in charge of the TAB work
being done on the HVAC system discussed.
It will be apparent after reading this publication and
observing TAB procedures on a complicated HVAC
system that the TAB technician must be a highly
skilled and knowledgeable individual. This person
must know the fundamentals of airflow, hydronic flow,
refrigeration and electricity and be familiar with all
types of HVAC temperature control and refrigeration
systems. They must also know how to take pressure,
temperature and flow measurements; and be able to
perform effective trouble−shooting. The days of bal−
ancing using a wet finger and cigarette smoke are long
gone!
1.2.2
Commissioning also includes the testing of all build−
ing controls for each mode of operation to verify all
systems are being sequenced correctly with each other,
and that all interlocks are functioning. The commis−
sioning agent must document the results of each equip−
ment test performed as it is completed.
Existing Buildings
The Team
There are TAB jobs that can be done by one person.
However, many HVAC systems need a TAB team to
complete the TAB work in a reasonable time period.
It is equally important that the other members of the
TAB team be trained and become knowledgeable in
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
1.1
the basic fundamentals and procedures of TAB work.
Many of the local Joint Apprentice Training Programs
have TAB courses, and the International Training In−
stitute (ITI) has a Testing Adjusting and Balancing Bu−
reau (TABB) training program.
1.3
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
In addition to having the training to meet the demand−
ing requirements of a TAB technician, a complete cali−
brated set of balancing instruments is necessary to do
TAB work on any commercial or institutional project.
1.2
The required instruments are detailed in Chapter
11CTAB Instruments.
Sample test report forms may be found in Chapter
16CTAB Report Forms. These TAB report forms may
be copied and used by SMACNA Contractors who fol−
low the procedures and methods outlined in this manu−
al. The forms are preceded by a description of their
use.
A sample outline specification has been included in
the Appendix that can be used by the HVAC system de−
signer to obtain a good, accurate TAB report based on
the methods and procedures found in this manual.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 2
HVAC FUNDAMENTALS
CHAPTER 2
2.1
HEAT FLOW
2.1.1
Introduction
Large HVAC systems must be designed by profession−
al engineers who have received a high degree of educa−
tion and practical experience in the fundamentals of
heating, ventilating, and air conditioning. The TAB
technician does not have to be an expert in the funda−
mentals of HVAC systems, but must have had experi−
ence in these systems and a basic knowledge of these
fundamentals in order to perform a good balancing job
and to understand what is happening.
This chapter on HVAC fundamentals will include ba−
sic thermodynamic and fluidic fundamentals that in−
clude heat transfer, psychometrics, and fluid mechan−
ics.
2.1.2
There are two fundamental laws of thermodynamics
which can be stated in different, but equivalent ways:
First Law
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed (the net
increase in the energy content of a particular system in
a given period is equal to the energy content of the ma−
terial leaving the system, plus the work done on the
system, plus the heat added to the system).
2.1.2.2
Second Law
It is impossible for a self−acting machine, unaided by
any external agency, to convey heat from a body of
lower temperature to one of higher temperature (heat
flow always occurs from the higher temperature level
to the lower temperature level).
2.1.3
scale of a thermometer, but the Celsius scale is used in
the rest of the world. A typical temperature spectrum
for the HVAC industry is where water freezes at 32F
(0C) and boils at 212F (100C).
The temperature at which a substance has no molecu−
lar action is called absolute zero, which is −460F
(−273C). The absolute temperature used in tempera−
ture/pressure/volume calculations can be obtained by
using the following equations:
Equation 2-1 (I-P)
R °F 460°F
Where:
R Absolutetemperature(Rankine)
°F Fahrenheittemperature
Thermodynamics
Heat is one of the several forms of energy which can
be converted by various methods to, or from, energy
in mechanical, chemical, electrical, and nuclear
forms. Thermodynamics is the science of heat energy
and its transformations to and from these other forms
of energy.
2.1.2.1
HVAC FUNDAMENTALS
Units of Measurement
The intensity of heat of a substance traditionally has
been measured in the United States on the Fahrenheit
Equation 2-1 (SI)
K °C 273°C
Where:
K Absolutetemperature(Kelvin)
°C Celsiustemperature
The quantity or amount of heat in a substance is mea−
sured in British Thermal Units (Btu) which is the heat
required to heat one pound of water one degree Fah−
renheit. It is easy to realize that a swimming pool full
of water at 95F, needs substantially more heat than a
cup of water at 95F to increase each of them to 96F.
In the metric system, the amount of heat required to
heat one kilogram of water one degree Celsius is 4.18
kilojoules (kJ).
2.1.4
Heat Transfer
Heat flow is adding or removing heat at a given rate,
which is measured in Btu per hour (Btuh) in the U.S.
system and is measured in joules per second (J/s) or
watts (W) in the metric system (1 J/s = 1 W).
Figures 2−1 and 2−2 give examples of heat conduction,
convection, and radiation, which are the three methods
of heat transfer in environmental systems.
Equation 2−2 may be used for heat flow through a ma−
terial(s) that separates different air temperatures.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.1
Radiant
heat
Heat Flow
Heat flows from
warmer body to cooler
body by conduction
from flame
Rod heated by flame becomes hot as heat flows
by conduction from one
end to the other.
FIGURE 2-1 HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION AND RADIATION
Q A U Dt
Equation 2-2
Where:
Q Rateofheattransfer Btuh(W)
A Areaofsurface sq.ft.(m2)
U Coefficientofheattransfer
Dt Temperaturedifference °F(°C)
?Delta" ( ), as used above, usually indicates a small
change or difference; in this case, Dt is the tempera−
ture difference.
In Equation 2−2, neither Dt or Q represent heat. In the
past, heat was thought to be a tangible quantity like a
gallon of water, a pint of milk, or a bushel of wheat.
Despite this carryover from the past, one cannot feel
?hot," as heat is not a tangible quantity. What one does
feel is temperature. Temperature can be ?hot" when
compared to some other reference point such as
98.6F (37C) body temperature, but one cannot feel
how much heat is in an object. The amount of heat con−
tained within the object varies with the object. The
amount of heat contained within the object varies with
the object’s temperature, mass, and substance. The
amount of heat in any given object at any given tem−
perature can be calculated, but the HVAC industry
does not find that a particularly useful function. What
is useful is to know how fast heat is given up from that
object, or the rate of heat transfer (Q) expressed in Btu
per hour or watts. There also are other equations for
calculating ?Q".
Figures 2−3, 2−4, and 2−5 show the difference between
counterflow, parallel flow, and cross−flow airstreams
in coils or heat exchangers. The importance of the il−
lustration in Figure 2−6 is that the final temperature at−
tained by both of the mediums is affected by the direc−
tion of the flow of the two different mediums at the
heat transfer points.
Example 2.1 (I−P)
A room (70F) has two separate walls which have an
unheated space on the other side. The wall exposed to
outdoors (30F) is 20’ × 8’ and has a ?U" factor of
0.12. The 24’ 8’ wall exposed to the unoccupied
space (55F) has a ?U" factor of 0.30. Which wall has
the greatest heat loss?
Heating Coil
Steam
or
Hot Water
in Pipes
Airflow
(A) Heat Flow by
Natural Convection
(B) Heat Flow by
Forced Convection
FIGURE 2-2 CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
2.2
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
B
A
B
A
B
A
A
B
A
B
A
B
B
FIGURE 2-3 COUNTER FLOW AIRSTREAMS
Solution
Outside wall:
Q A U Dt
20 8 0.12 (70°F 30°F)
160 0.12 40°F 768Btuh
Inside wall:
Q A U Dt
24 8 0.30 (70°F 55°F)
192 0.30 15°F 864Btuh
(or the higher loss wall)
Example 2.1 (SI)
A room (21C) has two separate walls which have an
unheated space on the other side. The wall exposed to
outdoors (0C) is 6 m 2.5 m and has a ?U" factor of
1.2. The 7 m 2.5 m wall exposed to the unoccupied
space (12C) has a ?U" factor of 3.0. Which wall has
the greatest heat loss?
Solution
Outside wall:
Q =MA U nt
= 6 2.5 1.2 (21_C 0C)
=M15 1.2 21C = 378 watts
Inside wall:
Q =MA × U × nt
= 7 × 2.5 × 3.0 × (21_C − 12C)
=M17.5 × 3 × 9_C = 473 watts
FIGURE 2-4 PARALLEL FLOW AIRSTREAMS
(or the higher loss wall)
To illustrate the difference between temperature and
the heat flow rate, and to show that a system can be bal−
anced to either, assume that the airflow being supplied
to different rooms is to be balanced so that each room
has the same temperature reading. This procedure can
be used in existing buildings when original engineer−
ing calculations are not available and when the build−
ing is experiencing large differences in temperatures
between rooms. The TAB technician would then at−
tempt to balance the system by adjusting the airflow so
that each room had the designed space temperature.
The other balancing procedure usually is required in
new buildings where the designer has calculated the
airflow rates that normally establish equal tempera−
tures for each of the various room spaces. The TAB
technician then balances the airstream flow rate to that
scheduled for each room. The rooms should achieve
the desired temperatures if the design calculations
were correct. If a change in temperatures is required
after occupancy, the additional balancing should not
be done at no cost unless there was a provision for this
extra work included in the TAB contract. In any event,
the TAB technician balances to the flow rate of the me−
dium, which actually is balancing to the heat flow rate
that is being transferred by the medium. Balancing by
heat flow and temperature are therefore not the same.
In Equation 2−2 (Q = A U nt), ?U" is the variable
affected by building insulation materials. Insulation
?values" can become quite confusing. They can be
given per inch of thickness of material or for the actual
thickness of the material, such as a ?six inch thick
batt." Values can be given as conductance or resistan−
ce. Chapter 25 of the 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.3
A1
A2
”C”
AIRSTREAM
each component of the wall is the only way the total
resistance (RT) can be obtained for a particular wall
construction. Other building enclosure surfaces are
treated in a similar manner (windows, floors, ceilings,
etc.). ?R" values of air surface films must be used as
indicated
After the total resistance is obtained by adding the in−
dividual resistances, the ?U" value is obtained by tak−
ing its reciprocal as shown in Equation 2−4. Insulating
materials play a large role in reducing the heat flow
rate into or from buildings, ducts, pipes, etc. Obvious−
ly, exterior surfaces having high resistances or low ?U"
values will have less heat transfer between the outside
environment and the interior of the structure, duct, or
pipe.
EXCHANGER
C2
“A” AIRSTREAM
Equation 2-3
RT =R1 +R2 +R3 +. . . +Rn
FIGURE 2-5 CROSS-FLOW AIRSTREAMS
Equation 2-4
Handbook entitled Thermal and Water Vapor Trans−
mission Data contains thermal resistance values for
different materials.
Conductivity (k) indicates how much heat will pass
through an inch of a material. Conductance (C) is a
somewhat similar value, but is for a given thickness of
material. Resistances (R), which are the reciprocals of
?k" or ?C", can be added sequentially for the heat flow
through combinations of different materials. Conduc−
tivity (k) and conductance (C) values can not be added
in this manner. Therefore, addition of the resistance of
U 1
RT
Where:
U = Coefficient of heat transfer C Btuh/
ft2N⋅N°F (W/m2N⋅N°C)
RT = Total of the resistances
The values of U for the SI system are about 17.6 per−
cent of the values in I−P Units, i.e., a ?U" of 1.0 in I−P
Units is 0.176 in SI units.
TB (WARM)
TA (HOT)
TA (WARM)
TB (COLD)
Distance Through Exchanger
TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE
TA (HOT)
TA (WARM)
TB (WARM)
TB (COLD)
Distance Through Exchanger
FIGURE 2-6 PARALLEL AND COUNTERFLOW HEAT TRANSFER CURVES
2.4
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Example 2.2
An outside wall of a building has the following resist−
ances:
Outside surface film
— 0.17
Masonry
— 1.60
Furring (air space)
— 0.94
Drywall
— 0.45
Inside surface film
— 0.68
Find the coefficient of heat transfer U for this wall.
Solution
R T R1 R2 R3 R n
R T 0.17 1.6 0.94 0.45 0.68
R T 3.84
U 1 1 0.26
RT
3.84
2.1.5
EQUIPMENT HEAT FLOW
Heat flow in HVAC equipment is normally from a fluid
(or gas) through a thin wall into another fluid (or gas);
or it is into a transfer substance which moves into or to
another cooler fluid (or gas) to deposit its energy.
Major factors in the transfer of heat by conduction are:
a.
temperature difference
b.
size and shape of the transfer surface
c.
type of fluid (or gas) and flow velocity
d.
conductivity of heat transfer material
e.
conductivity of the boundary layer
There also are many other factors to consider such as
film coefficients, fouling, corrosion, condensables,
frost or freezing, and poor maintenance.
Going back to the ?laws of thermodynamics" stated
earlier in this chapter, the concept can be restated that
the same amount of heat that is given up by one me−
dium is gained by the other, and that all heat can be ac−
counted for (energy can neither be created nor de−
stroyed). This is not quite true in this atomic era, but
it can be used as a basic principle for this TAB work.
Equation 2-5 (I-P)
Hydronic systems:
Q 500 gpm Dt
Where:
Q Heatflow(Btuh)
gpm Gallonsperminute(water)
Dt Temperaturedifference(°F)
Equation 2-5 (SI)
Q 4190 m3s Dt
or
Q 4.19 Ls Dt
Where:
Q Heatflow(kW)
m 3s Cubicmeterspersecond(water)
Ls Literspersecond(water)
Dt Temperaturedifference(°C)
Note that in Equation 2−5 the 500 (4190 or 4.19) is a
?constant" that is used specifically for water. This
constant will change when the system medium is other
than water, such as a glycol mixture, steam, refriger−
ant, or air. In fact, the comparable equation for sensible
heat flow of air is shown below.
Equation 2-6 (I-P)
Air systems:
Q 1.08 cfm Dt
Where:
Q Sensibleheatflow(Btuh)
cfm Cubicfeetperminute(air)
Dt Temperaturedifference(°F)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.5
Equation 2-6 (SI)
Q 1.23 Ls Dt
Where:
Q Sensibleheatflow(watts)
Ls Literspersecond(air)
Dt Temperaturedifference(°C)
Sensible heat is defined as the heat associated with
temperature differences only as measured by a ther−
mometer. This is not affected by the method of heat
transfer, such as radiation, convection, and conduc−
tion. Transmission heat gains are those which occur
through conduction of the heat through a surface as a
wall. Convection has been taken into account by film
coefficients on each side of the wallCwhether inside
or outside.
Example 2.3 (I−P)
30 gpm of water at 200F circulates through a heating
coil. If 4000 cfm of air increases in temperature from
50F to 120F, determine the leaving temperature of
the water.
Solution
Q 1.08 cfm Dt
1.08 4000 (120°F 50°F)
302, 400Btuh
500 gpm Dt
Q
302, 400
Dt 500 gpm
500 30
20.16°F (T1 T2)
T2% T1MM∆tNN200F ON20.16F N179.84F
Water with a temperature of 180F is leaving the coil.
Example 2.3 (SI)
2 L/s of 93F water circulates through a heating coil.
If 2000 L/s of air increases in temperature from 10F
to 50C, determine the leaving temperature of the wa−
ter.
Solution
Q 1.23 Ls Dt
1.23 2000 (50°C 10°C)
98, 400watts(98.4kW)
4.19 Ls Dt
Q
98.4kW
4.19 Ls
4.19 2Ls
∆tPM11.74CMM(T1 M–MT2 )
2.6
T2 PMT1M – ∆tMM93CM–M11.74CM=M81.26C
Water with a temperature of 81.3C is leaving the coil.
2.2
PSYCHROMETRICS
2.2.1
Introduction
Psychrometrics is a study of the thermodynamic prop−
erties of moist air and the application of these proper−
ties to the environment and environmental systems.
Thermodynamics previously has been defined as the
science of heat energy and its transformation, or
change, from one form of energy to another.
Since air is the final environment and one of the major
fluids of the systems, whatever affects air affects the
systems and the environment. Whatever happens to
the air and the moisture it contains, under both natural
circumstances and artificial conditions imposed by the
systems and the environment, is of concern to the TAB
technician. The language of psychrometrics, and to be
able to use psychrometric charts and tables as tools to
change existing conditions to those desired or re−
quired, is a requirement for a good TAB technician.
2.2.2
Properties of Air
Dry air is an unequal mixture of gases consisting prin−
cipally of nitrogen, oxygen, and small amounts of
neon, helium, and argon. The percentage of each gas
normally will be the same from sample to sample, al−
though carbon dioxide and pollutants might be present
in varying quantities.
Air in our atmosphere, however, is not dry but contains
small amounts of moisture in the form of water vapor,
and the percentage may vary from sample to sample.
This air−water mixture is the moist air referred to in the
subject of psychrometrics. The amount of water vapor
in atmospheric air normally represents less than 1 per−
cent of the weight of the moist air mixture. If the aver−
age weight of air is approximately 0.075 pounds per
cubic foot (1.204 kg/m3), the moisture contained
therein will weight less than 0.00075 pounds per cubic
foot (0.012 kg/m3).
This would seem to be an insignificant amount to
cause so much concern. Normally, atmospheric air
contains only a portion of the water it is able to absorb
(partially saturated). If the proper conditions occur, air
will absorb additional moisture until it can absorb no
more, and it is then saturated. Air and water vapor be−
have as though the other were not present. Each will
act as an independent gas and exert the same pressure
as if it were alone. The barometric pressure is the sum
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
of the two pressuresCthe partial pressure of the air,
plus the partial pressure of the water vapor.
The dry air component of the moist air exists only as
a gas under all environmental conditions. it cannot be
liquified by pressure alone, and therefore acts as a per−
fect gas. However, water vapor does coexist with water
as a liquid at all environmental temperatures, and it
can be liquified by pressure. As it is not a perfect gas,
the properties of water vapor are determined experi−
mentally.
2.2.3
Air-V apor Relationship
Throughout the normal ranges of atmospheric pres−
sures and temperatures, the air and water vapor mix−
ture behaves as a perfect gas provided no condensation
or evaporation takes place. A perfect gas is one where
the relationship of pressure, temperature, and volume
may be defined and predicted by Equation 2−7.
Equation 2-7
PV R
T
T 70°F(21°C)
P 14.696psi(101.325kPa)]
V 13.33ft 3lb(0.831m3kg)
d 0.075lbft 3(1.204kgm3)
Example 2.4 (I−P)
Using Equation 2−9, any condition other than standard
may be calculated if one of the final conditions is
known. For example, if one pound of standard air was
heated to 700F, as in a process application, find the
new volume of air per pound.
Solution
VT
V 2 1 2 13.33 460 700
T1
460 70
1160
13.33 29.2ft 3lb
530
Similar calculations may be made for any value of
temperature so long as the pressure remains constant.
Example 2.4 (SI)
If one kilogram of standard air is heated to 370C, find
the new volume of air per kilogram.
Where:
P'=MAbsoluteM pressureMMlb/Mft 2M(kPa)
V'=MVolumeMMft3M(m3)
T'=MAbsoluteMtemperature 460M
+ FM(273M+MC)
R'=MGas constant
The actual value of R has little meaning here, but the
fact that R remains constant for any given perfect gas
is extremely important. It is possible to equate the P,
V, T values for two different conditions for the same
gas:
Equation 2-8
P 1V 1
PV
2 2
T1
T2
Solution
0.831 (273°C 370°C)
V 1T 2
T1
(273°C 21°C)
8 0.831 643° 1.817m 3kg
294°
V2 Example 2.5 (I−P Units)
It is possible to make similar calculations which in−
clude pressure variations. An example might be to find
the correct volume for an altitude of 5000 feet. Assume
that the temperature is the same at both points for con−
venience.
If it is assumed that atmospheric pressure remains es−
sentially constant at a given elevation on earth, then:
Equation 2-9
VT
V2 1 2
T1
Using Standard Air, which is the fixed reference for air
conditioning calculations, the following properties oc−
cur:
Solution
P 1V 1
PV
2 2 , T 1 T 2 and P1V 1 P 2V2
T1
T2
P
orV 2 V1 1
P2
The standard atmospheric pressure at 5000 feet is
24.90 inches of mercury (see Table A−16).
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.7
V 2 V 1
P1
13.33 29.92 16.02ft 3lb
P2
24.90
Referring to the sample charts in Figures 2−7 and 2−8,
note that the groups or families of curves have been la−
beled to indicate which part or parts of the graph are
for the different properties of most air. Definitions of
the properties may be found in the Glossary.
Example 2.5 (SI)
2.2.4.1
Find the correct volume for an altitude of 1500 meters
(T1 = T2 ) at standard conditions.
Solution
V P
0.831 101.3
V2 1 1 P2
95.1(fromTableA 17)
0.989m3kg
The conclusion to be reached from these examples is
that large deviations from standard air temperature and
pressure values require corrections to the calculations,
while relatively small variations may be ignored. In
the case of pressure, a correction normally is not used
in applications below 2000 feet (600 m) above sea le−
vel. Above 2000 feet (600 m) it becomes necessary to
make the correction, since air has a significant reduc−
tion in its ability to carry heat. By a series of calcula−
tions and laboratory measurements, a long list of val−
ues are obtained and are listed in Air Density and
Correction Factor Tables in Appendix ACEngineer−
ing Data, Tables and Charts. To be meaningful, these
values must have a reference, which has been stated to
be standard atmospheric pressure at sea level: 29.92
inches of mercury (101.325 kPa). Since the variations
caused by pressure are not serious below an altitude of
2000 feet (600 m), the values obtained by maintaining
the 29.92 inches of mercury (101.325 kPa) are ade−
quate for use with HVAC systems.
However, as seen in Example 2−4, temperature varia−
tions in process systems can cause wide variations in
air density: density = 1/29.2 = 0.034 lb/ft3, or a reduc−
tion of 54 percent. For this reason, many engineering
catalogs use standard cfm (scfm) which is ?cfm" cor−
rected to ?standard air" conditions. Similar conditions
apply to the SI system.
2.2.4
Using the Psychrometric Chart
A psychrometric chart is a series of graphs or curves
arranged in such a way that, by knowing a specific val−
ue of each of two different properties, a point can be
obtained that will determine the values for all other
properties under the same conditions. Charts are avail−
able for different elevations above sea level, higher or
lower temperatures, and many other variations.
2.8
Basic Grid, Humidity Ratio
(Specify humidity)
The horizontal parallel and equidistant grid lines (with
the scale displayed along the right side of the chart) in−
dicate the grains of moisture per pound of dry air or
pounds of moisture per pound of dry air. The bottom
line of the chart is zero humidity and represents totally
dry air. The chemical industry prefers to use mol−ra−
tios, and grams of moisture per kilogram of dry air is
used in the SI system.
2.2.4.2
Enthalpy (Total Heat)
Enthalpy lines are slanted from the top−left to the bot−
tom−right. Enthalpy is designated by the letter ?h" and,
as all values on the chart, is referred to a pound (kilo−
gram) of dry air. This is the only value which does not
change through various processes, such as heating−
cooling, compression−expansion, and humidification−
dehumidification. Other constant value lines are su−
perimposed upon this basic grid by plotting and are
neither equidistant nor parallel, although they may ap−
pear to be so.
2.2.4.3
Dry Bulb Temperature
Constant dry bulb temperature lines on the chart are
nearly vertical. They diverge slightly towards the top
of the chart. The scale is at the bottom, along the dry
air line (zero humidity ratio) from left to right, and val−
ues are given in F in Inch−Pound units, English or cus−
tomary, and in C in SI Units, the International System
of Units, Metric.
2.2.4.4
Saturation Line, Dew Point and
Wet Bulb
The curved upper borderline of the chart, which runs
from the bottom left to the mid−top, is an experimen−
tally plotted saturation line. It shows the maximum
amount of water vapor (in pounds or kilograms) which
can be associated with a pound (kilogram) of dry air at
a given dry bulb temperature. Air is said to be saturated
with moisture at this point. The temperature at this
point is known as the saturation temperature.
It can be seen from the saturation line that at higher
temperatures air can hold more moisture than at lower
temperatures. Conversely, the capacity to hold mois−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Pounds of moisture
per pound of dry air
Enthalpy at saturation Btu per pound of dry air
Grains of moisture
per pound of dry air
85
90
95
100
105
.35
180
.025
170
.024
160
150
.023
.021
140
130
.45
.020
.019
.018
120
.40
.022
.50
.55
.017
.60
110
.016
.65
.015
100
.014
90
80
.013
.012
.70
.75
.80
.85
.90
.95
.011
70
60
.010
Sensible
heat
factor
.009
.008
50
.007
40
.006
.005
30
.004
20
80%
60%
10
40%
0
25
30
.002
.001
20%
20
.003
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
0
110
Wet-Bulb,
Dewpoint or
Saturation
Temperature F
FIGURE 2-7 PSYCHROMETRIC CHART (I-P)
ture is less at lower temperatures. Therefore, if the al−
ready saturated moist air is being cooled, the excess
moisture instantly begins to separate from the moist air
by condensation either in the form of fog (the left side
of the saturation curve is the fog area) or as dew if it
condenses on a cold surface.
The point of saturation (saturation temperature) is also
called the dew point. At this point the saturation tem−
perature, the dry bulb temperature and the wet bulb
temperature are all the same value. The saturation
temperature values (also dew point or wet bulb tem−
peratures) are shown in F (C) along the saturation
line where it is crossed by the same value dry bulb
lines.
2.2.4.5
Specific Volume
Specific volume lines run at a steep angle from top left
to bottom right. The numerical values, along the bot−
tom of the chart at the end of these lines, are given in
cubic feet per pound of dry air in I−P Units (and in cu−
bic meters per kilogram in the SI System).
The slant and spacing of the specific volume lines
show that moist air becomes lighter (by expansion)
with an increase in temperature and with an increase
in moisture content (moist air is lighter than dry air at
the same temperature). The specific volume of dry air
can be found at the intersection with the bottom, zero
humidity ratio line. The volume of the water vapor can
be found by subtracting the volume of the dry air from
the volume of the moist air.
2.2.4.6
Relative Humidity
The curves of constant relative humidity (RH) lie be−
tween the zero humidity ratio line at the bottom and the
curved saturation line above. The curvature decreases
as curves approach the dry air line.
Relative humidity expresses the proximity of the sub−
ject moist air to that of saturated air at the same tem−
perature. The saturation line represents 100 percent
RH and the bottom line of the chart is 0 percent RH.
Another term used to define proximity of the moist air
to saturation is the degree of saturation which is the ra−
tio of the humidity ratio of the moist air to that of the
saturated moist air at the same temperature and pres−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.9
30
28
30
26
H
H
24
SENSIBLE HEAT
TOTAL HEAT
25
=
22
HUMIDITY RATIO (w) GRAMS MOISTURE PER KILOGRAM DRY AIR
20
20
15
18
16
14
12
0.85
0.90
10
0.95
1.0
8
10
6
5
4
2
0
20
30
40
50
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE C
FIGURE 2-8 PSYCHROMETRIC CHART - TYPICAL CONDITION POINTS (SI)
sure. The difference between both meanings is small
but still noticeable within the comfort conditions.
While the degree of saturation of 50 percent lies on the
dry bulb temperature line directly in the middle be−
tween 0 percent and 100 percent, the 50 percent RH
point is slightly below the mid point.
Measurement of relative humidity depends on changes
in humidity responsive materials. While low cost and
quite accurate, these instruments require frequent cal−
ibration.
2.2.4.7
Wet Bulb Temperature
The wet bulb method was developed to obtain a more
practical way to measure relative humidity and de−
pends on the evaporation of water around the bulb of
a mercury thermometer. Since evaporation and the de−
pression of the wet bulb temperature depends on the
relative humidity of the moist air, it can be used to
measure relative humidity by use of conversion tables.
bulb temperatures are equal at this point and are also
equal to the dew point temperature (saturation temper−
ature). As the wet bulb lines run so close to the enthal−
py lines, most psychrometric charts use the same lines
for both wet bulb temperatures and enthalpy and show
correction of either enthalpy values or wet bulb values
by another family of curves.
2.2.4.8
Plotting Conditions
Consider point A, in Figure 2−9, representing summer
outdoor design conditions. By finding the point which
represents 95F DB and 78F WB, the values for the
other properties are:
Dew point temperature = 71.98F
Relative humidity = 48%
Enthalpy (total heat) = 41.6 Btu/lb dry air
Moisture content = 118 grains/lb dry air
At the saturation point, there is no evaporation. Since
the wet bulb depression is zero, the wet bulb and dry
2.10
or 0.0169 lb moisture/lb dry air.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Enthalpy at saturation
Btu per pound of dry air
85
90
Grains of moisture
per pound of dry air
95
100
Pounds of moisture
per pound of dry air
105
.35
180
.025
170
.024
.023
160
.40
.022
150
41.6 BTU/Lb
78F WB
.021
POINT
“A”
.45
140
.020
.019
.50
130
.018
.55
120
.017
.60
.016
110
118 GR/Lb
.65
.015
71.9F DP
.70
100
.014
.75
48% RH
62.7F WB
.0169 Lb/Lb
.013
90
.80
.85
.012
.90
.95
80
28.3 BTU/Lb
.011
70
.010
.009
Sensible
heat
factor
60
POINT
“B”
65 GR/Lb
.008
50
.007
50% RH
55F DP
.006
40
.0093 Lb/Lb
.005
30
.004
.003
20
80%
Wet-Bulb
Dewpoint or
Saturation
Temperature F
60%
.
40%
95F DB
75F DB
.002
10
.001
20%
0
Dry-Bulb F
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
0
110
FIGURE 2-9 PSYCHROMETRIC CHART - TYPICAL CONDITION POINTS
Now consider point B in Figure 2−9 representing sum−
mer indoor design conditions. By finding the point
which represents 75F DB and 50 percent RH, the val−
ues for the other properties are:
Dew point temperature = 55F
Wet bulb temperature = 62.7F
Enthalpy (total heat) = 28.3 Btu/lb dry air
Moisture content = 65 grains/lb dry air
or 0.0093 lb moisture/lb dry air.
a change are the environmental systems. The designer,
by knowing what design conditions must be satisfied,
but without knowing the airflow rate, is able to plot the
various changes in different portions of the system and
the environment. The designer then is able to deter−
mine what systems are capable of accomplishing the
necessary results. In addition, the heat values are used
in the design calculations to see immediately if the de−
sign conditions are practical or impossible.
But first, the various condition changes must be illus−
trated and understood. For this purpose, skeleton
psychrometric charts have been used in the related dia−
grams, alternating between I−P Units and SI units.
2.2.5.1
In this way, any condition may be plotted on the chart
for normal environmental systems. Other charts are
available for plotting from tabular data for conditions
not found here, but the need for such variations is not
common.
2.2.5
Condition Changes on
Psychrometric Charts
Using the chart, simple logic leads to the conclusion
that there must be some way to change the properties
of the air, initially at the condition of point A, to the
conditions of point B. The means to accomplish such
Sensible Changes
Sensible heat, by definition, indicates only dry bulb
temperatures changes. Therefore, any heating system
not including humidification is a sensible heat process
or system and is represented on the chart as a horizon−
tal straight line. Conversely, any cooling system utiliz−
ing a dry coil which does not dehumidify or where the
surface of the coil does not fall to or below the air dew
point is also a horizontal straight line.
a.
Heating
Assume that air which is at 70F and 20 percent RH is
heated to 105F. This process is indicated in Figure
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.11
2−10. Conditions other than those mentioned here have
been determined from the psychrometric chart.
a change in latent heat. This process is indicated on the
sample metric chart in Figure 2−11.
Humidification and dehumidification are defined as
the addition or subtraction of moisture from air. Since
each is a change of state from liquid to gas and gas to
liquid, each occurs at a constant dry bulb temperature,
but a varying wet bulb temperature. Note that this is
the same process as the addition or subtraction of latent
heat and is also the same vertical line on the chart in
Figure 2−11 at a constant dry bulb temperature. Hu−
midification and dehumidification are both latent heat
processes, and both are shown on the same chart.
105F DB
8% RH
20F DP
64F WB
70F DB
20% RH
28F DP
50F WB
HEATING
COOLING
FIGURE 2-10 SENSIBLE HEATING AND
COOLING (I-P)
In this example, the only constant value is the dry bulb
temperature; all other properties increase for humidifi−
cation and decrease for dehumidification. Note that
this process is essentially an illustration and cannot
normally be reproduced in environmental systems.
2.2.5.3
By considering the values, it may be seen that the dew
point has not changed and the total moisture content in
grains/lb has not changed. The dry bulb temperature
has gone up, the heat content has gone up, the wet bulb
temperature has gone up, and the ability of the air to
absorb moisture has gone up as indicated by the de−
crease in relative humidity. The example is theoretical
because moisture from people, cooking, infiltration,
etc., will make some contribution to the moisture in the
air. However, this is the design diagram for heating
without deliberate humidification.
b.
Cooling
Now consider the process and ignore the extraneous
moisture sources noted above. In ideal conditions, air
gives up its heat along the same line to maintain the oc−
cupied spaces at the given 70F DB and 20 percent
RH. A cooling coil, selected to cool air from 105F DB
and 20F DP to 70F DB would also produce condi−
tions along the same line as long as the coil surface
temperature was above 20F. In most systems, this
would be impractical if not impossible, since the coil
would immediately clog with frost.
2.2.5.2
Latent Changes
Latent heat, by definition, involves a change of state
to or from a fluid; and in the case of air, this means the
addition or removal of moisture. It must be remem−
bered that the dry bulb temperature does not change
during this addition or removal of moisture. Therefore,
a vertical line on the psychrometric chart between any
two points at constant dry bulb temperature represents
2.12
Combination Changes
Combination sensible−latent heat processes are the
rule in most systems. The addition or subtraction of la−
tent and sensible heat appears as a combination pro−
cess with all changes occurring simultaneously. The
result is neither a horizontal nor vertical line but a
slanted one tilted in the direction dictated by process.
Referring to Figure 2−12, consider the general rules be−
low based on the two endpoints of the process; the first
being the initial condition of the air; and the second be−
ing the final condition after the process or a portion of
the air treatment has been completed. On the chart, all
processes have the same initial point, and the arrow
point indicates each arbitrary final point:
Sensible heating is a horizontal line from left to right.
Sensible cooling is a horizontal line from right to left.
Humidification is a vertical line upward.
Dehumidification is a vertical line downward.
Heating and humidification is a line sloping upward to
the right.
Cooling and dehumidification is a line sloping down−
ward to the left.
Evaporative cooling is a line sloping upward to the
left.
Chemical dehydration or dehumidification is a line
sloping downward to the right.
Now consider the specific cooling−dehumidifying ex−
ample which might represent the conditions obtained
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Humidification—Addition
of Moisture and Latent
Heat by Evaporation of
Steam Injection
Dehumidification—
Removal of Moisture
and Latent Heat by
Condensation
41C DB
28.2C WB
24C DP
38% RH
90 kJ/kg
18.9 g/kg
41C DB
20.1C WB
6.8C DP
13% RH
58.9 kJ/kg
6.2 g/kg
FIGURE 2-11 HUMIDIFICATION AND
DEHUMIDIFICATION (I-P)
from a cooling coil using 100 percent recirculated air.
Assume that the entering air and room conditions are
80F DB and 50 percent RH. Also assume that the
cooling coil can produce leaving conditions of the air
at 55F DB and 54F WB. The illustration of the pro−
cess is shown in Figure 2−13.
The line drawn between the initial and final conditions
represents the change of air properties produced by the
cooling coil and is conveniently drawn straight. In ac−
tual fact, the process follows a curve, but the deviation
is not usually important to the system analysis. To the
coil designer, however, the curvature is critical, since
it indicates the heat transfer conditions from point−to−
point through the coil depth. The amount of moisture
that was removed from the air (condensed on the coil)
was 16 grains/lb of dry air (77T–T61T=T16).
The reverse operation, heating and humidifying, could
be explained by working the cooling−dehumidifying
diagram backwards. However, a more practical ap−
plication may be obtained by using a new diagram. As−
suming that 21C DB, 40 percent RH air returns to a
heating coil and that a humidifier has been added, the
combination process, assuming the required leaving
conditions to be 41C DB and 38 percent RH, is illus−
trated in Figure 2−14. 12.7 grams of moisture per kilo−
gram of dry air was added in the process
(18.9T–T6.2T=T 12.7)
Equation 2−10 is used for the change in the total heat
content of the air, including the moisture content.
Equation 2-10 (I-P)
Q(Total) 4.5 cfm Dh
Where:
Q Totalheatflow(Btuh)
cfm Airflow
Dh Enthalpydifference(Btuhlbdryair)
Equation 2-10 (SI)
Q(Total) 1.2 Ls Dh
Where:
Q Totalheatflow
Ls Airflow
Dh Enthalpydifference(kJkgdryair)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.13
49
Pounds of moisture
per pound of dry air
Grains of moisture
per pound of dry air
48
Enthalpt at saturation Btu per pound of dry air
90
100
95
105
47
85
.35
46
180
45
.025
170
43
44
.024
.023
.40
42
80
160
41
.022
150
.45
39
40
.021
.020
.019
75
37
38
-0.1 Btu
140
.50
130
-0.2 Btu
.018
.55
120
Heating &
Humidification
Evaporative Cooling
.017
.60
.016
-0.3 Btu
70
33
34
90% Relative Humidity
35
36
Humidification
110
.65
.015
.70
80%
30
100
65
28
27
26
25
55
50%
-.06 Btu
23
22
Sensible Cooling
.80
.85
.012
.90
.010
Sensible
heat
factor
.95
80
70
.009
-.08 Btu
21
.75
90
Sensible Heating
-.02 Btu
24
60%
60
20
18
Common Initial Reference
70%
Enthalpy deviation Btu per pound of dry air
29
.014
60
40%
18
17
.008
50
16
50
.007
11
13
40
20%
35
9
12
10
Chemical Dehydration
or Dehumidification
Cooling &
Dehumidification
Dehumidification
14
12
15
30%
45
30
.006
40
.005
30
.004
40.1 Btu
.003
8
20
40.2 Btu
.002
60%
Saturation
Temperature F
40.3 Btu
40%
10
40.4 Btu
.001
20%
40.5 Btu
0
60
55
65
70
80
75
85
90
100
95
105
0
110
14.0 cu ft
50
13.5 cu ft
45
13.0 cu ft
40
35
30
12.5 cu ft
20
25
14.5 cu ft per pound of dry air
Wet-Bulb,
Dewpoint or
10%
80%
7
25
FIGURE 2-12 PSYCHROMETRIC CHART - PROCESSES
Psychrometric charts base all the information given in
content per pound (kilogram) of dry air. The standard
equations are derived from these values and give a
very close approximation of the actual calculation if
all the conditions would have been worked out using
the basic figures on the psychrometric chart. From any
two given points on a psychrometric chart, the Btuh
(watts) obtained for enthalpy is always equal to or
greater than the Btuh obtained for sensible heat only.
The reason for this is that the moisture contained in the
air has heat content.
b. Locate the final condition on the chart as Point
?B". The wet bulb temperature is 62.7F and the en−
thalpy is approximately 28.3 Btu per pound of dry air.
c.
The decrease in enthalpy is:
h = 41.6 − 28.3 = 13.3 Btu per pound
d.
Q (Total)
= 4.5 10,000 13.3
Q (Total)
e.
Solution
a. Locate the initial condition on the psychrometric
chart, as Point ?A" in Figure 2−9. The corresponding
wet bulb temperature is 78F, and the enthalpy is
approximately 41.6 Btu per pound of dry air.
2.14
= 598,500 Btuh
Tonsofrefrigeration Btuh Btuhton
12, 000
Example 2.6 (I−P)
Air at 95F DB and 48 percent RH enters a cooling coil
at a rate of 10,000 cfm. If the air is cooled to a condi−
tion of 75F DB and 50 percent RH, find the cooling
load in Btuh, and in tons of refrigeration.
= 4.5 cfm h
598, 500
49.9tons
12, 000
Example 2.6 (SI)
Air at 36C DB and 50 percent RH enters a coil at a
rate of 5000 L/s. If the air is cooled to a condition of
24C and 50 percent RH, find the cooling load in watts
and kilowatts (use Figure 2−8).
Solution
a. The enthalpy for 36C DB and 50 percent RH is
approximately 85.3 kJ/kg.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
AIR ENTERING
80F DB
67F WB
50% RH
AIR LEAVING
55F DB
54F WB
94% RH
FIGURE 2-13 COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING (I-P)
AIR LEAVING
AIR ENTERING
21C DB
40% RH
6.8C DP
13.1C WB
37.1 kJ/kg
6.2 g/kg
41C DB
38% RH
28.2C WB
24C DP
90 kJ/kg
18.9 g/kg
FIGURE 2-14 HEATING AND HUMIDIFICATION
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.15
b. The enthalpy for 24C and 50 percent RH is
approximately 48.0 kJ/kg.
c.
The decrease in enthalpy is:
∆h = 85.3 − 48.0 = 37.3 kJ/kg
d.
Q (Total) = 1.2 x L/s × h = 1.2 × 5000 × 37.3
Q (Total) = 223,800 (223.8 kW)
It is sometimes necessary to calculate the weight of the
air. This is shown in the solution to Example 2.7 (I−P).
The average person is not used to thinking of air as
having weight. Air is a fluid and has weight just as wa−
ter is a fluid and has weight. As a reminder, ?Standard
air," at 0.075 pounds per cubic foot (1.204 kg/m3) is
very much lighter than water at 62.4 pounds per cubic
foot (1000 kg/m3). The specific volume of standard air
is the reciprocal: 1 0.075 13.33 cubic feet per
pound 1/0.075 = 13.33 cubic feet per pound (1/1.204
= 0.8305 m3/kg).
Solution
10, 000cuftmin
750.2poundsperminute
13.33cuftlb
750.2 60 minutes = 45,012 pounds per hour
45,012 13.3 (∆h) = 598,660 Btuh
598,660/12,000 = 49.9 tons
The total heat content of air also can be taken from
tables when the wet bulb temperature is known.
Example 2.7 (SI)
Obtain the solution to Example 2.6 (SI) using the
weight of the airflow volume.
Solution
5.0m 3s
6.02kgs
0.83m 3kg
6.02kgs 37.3kJkg 224.5kJs
Example 2.7 (I−P)
1W 1Js, so
Obtain the solution to Example 2.6 (I−P) using the
weight of the airflow volume.
2.16
224.5kJs 224.5kW
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
85.3
MIXED AIR
_ _
Q 3=10,000 l/s
t 3=DB = ?3
WB3 = ?
C
_
Point B
_
_
56.3
49
_
Condition
of mixture
(Point C)
35_C DB
_
Point A
FIGURE 2-- 15 MIXING OF TWO AIRSTREAMS (SI)
2.2.5.4
Airstream Mixtures
Mixtures of two or more airstreams are a common requirement of the environmental system. The mixing of
outside and return air on the entering side of the air
cooling and heating equipment is the common method
of introducing the outside ventilation air to the system.
Outside air can be one of the greatest heating and cooling loads in more extreme climates.
 Assume that the airstreams are being mixed in a
50 percent ratio which causes the mixed point to be directly between points “A” and “B”.
 Then assume that the damper moves to a position
to take in less hot outside air (“B”). This will cause
point “C” to move away from “B” (the line “B” to “C”
gets longer when less air is taken in). If point “C” coincides with point “A,” 100 percent return air “A” will
be used.
Figure 2-15 illustrates the mixing of an outside airstream and a return airstream, which usually is found
in most air handling unit system applications.
 The mixed air temperature will be closest to the
air temperature of the largest airstream.
When two airstreams are mixed and are plotted in
graph form, the following steps should be used:
 Only the dry bulb air temperature can be obtained
by using this method or by using Equation 2-11.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing  Third Edition
2.17
Equation 2--11
Xo T o + X r T r
Tm =
100
b) From Figure 2-15:
Where:
27_C WB = 85.3 kJ/kg
Tm = Temperature of mixed air — _F (_C)
Xo = Percentage of outdoor air — %
Using Equation 2-12:
To = Temperature of outdoor air—_F (_C)
X oH o + X rH r
100
20%
× 85.3 + 80% × 49.0
Hm =
100
1706
+
3920
Hm =
= 56.26 kJ∕kg
100
On a psychrometric chart, 56.26 kJ/kg = approximately 19.7_C wet bulb temperature.
Xr = Percentage of return air — %
To = Temperature of return air—_F (_C)
The wet bulb of the mixed airstream can be obtained
by substituting the enthalpies of the two airstreams in
Figure 2-15 in Equation 2-12 and calculating the enthalpy of the mixed airstream. From this value, the
mixed airstream wet bulb temperature can be obtained
from the psychrometric chart.
Equation 2--12
X oH o + X rT r
Hm =
100
Where:
Hm = Mixed air enthalpy — Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
Xo = Percentage of outdoor air — %
Ho = Outdoor air enthalpy — Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
Xr = Percentage of return air — %
Ho = Return air enthalpy — Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
Example 2.8 (SI)
Calculate the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures of
the mixed airstream of Figure 2-15 using equations
and by plotting in graph form on a psychrometric
chart.
Solution
a)
Using Equation 2-11 for the dry bulb temperature:
X oT o + X rT r
100
20% × 35˚C + 80% × 24˚C
Tm =
100
700
+
1920
Tm =
= 2620 = 26.2˚C (DB)
100
100
Tm =
2.18
17_C WB = 49.0 kJ/kg
Hm =
The psychrometric chart provides a quick method for
calculating the mixed airstream conditions using only
a scale as is shown in Figure 2-15.
First, plot the two conditions (“A” and “B”) on the
chart and draw a straight line between the two. Divide
this distance in proportion to the mixed air quantities,
and to scale, plot the mixed air point “C” so that it is
closest to the conditions of the largest original quantity
in the mixture. This is usually closest to the lowest dry
bulb point since outside air quantities are usually less
than 50 percent. (If they are 100 percent, no mixture
determination is required.) The point “C” represents
what mixture conditions should be if the air quantity
proportions are correct. All of the properties of the
mixture at point “C” are immediately available from
the psychrometric chart (26.2_C DB and 19.7_C WB
are two of them).
One common error made by many novices, is the improper location of the mixed air point on the charts.
Some reverse the ratio of the mixing streams, causing
the mixed point shown in Figure 2-15 to occur near the
top right hand point “B”. When two airstreams are
mixed and are plotted in graph form, the following
steps should be remembered:
Assume that the air streams are being mixed a 50 percent ratio which causes the mixed point to be directly
between points “A” and “B”.
Then assume that a damper moves to a position to take
in less hot outside air (at “B”). This will cause the point
to move away from “B” (as the line “B” to “C” gets
longer when less air is taken in). By the time it reaches
“A”, 100 percent of the air of quality “A” will be used.
It should be noted that the use of the psychrometric
chart in the design to determine the properties of the
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing  Third Edition
mixture does not establish the airflow quantity. This
determination must be made independently. The de−
signer must establish the total air quantity required
from the sensible heat load and the outside air quantity
from the design ventilation requirements.
2.2.5.5
Related Tables and Equations
Air (standard) density = 0.075 lb/ft3 (1.204 kg/m3 )
Water (standard) density = 62.4 lb/ft3 (1000 kg/m3)
Specific volume is the reciprocal of density and is used
to determine cubic feet of volume if the pounds of
weight are known:
Chapter 6, Psychrometrics of the 2001 ASHRAE Fun−
damentals Handbook has more detailed theory and
data on this subject along with the necessary equations
and psychrometric tables. Chapter 8, Thermal Comfort
includes the comfort zone and effective temperature
scale superimposed on a standard psychrometric chart.
2.3
FLUID MECHANICS
When the word fluid is mentioned, the average person
thinks in terms of water. However, the full definition
of fluid in the Glossary is ?gas, vapor, or liquid." In
TAB work, the word fluid normally means air (from
the atmosphere), water (or a heat transfer fluid), steam,
refrigerants, and occasionally, a few other gases.
This section will contain a detailed description of the
behavior of air and water, as the properties of these two
fluids affect most TAB work. Air and water generally
have similar fluid properties except that the numerical
values assigned to each property vary considerably.
2.3.1
Compressibility
For TAB purposes, water cannot be compressed. Air
can be compressed and the volume of air can be pre−
dicted by using Equations 2−7 to 2−9.
2.3.1.2
Water (Standard) specific volume = 0.016
ft3/lb(0.001 m3/kg)
Standard Conditions for air as used above correspond
to dry air to 70F (21C) and at an atmospheric pres−
sure of 29.92 in. Hg. (101.325 kPa). For water, stan−
dard conditions are 68F (20C) at the same baromet−
ric pressure.
2.3.1.3
Weight, Density and Specific
Volume Relationships
In TAB work, weight is measured in pounds (kilo−
grams) and density in pounds per cubic foot (kg/m3);
therefore, for standard conditions:
Specific Heat
The following specific heat values at standard condi−
tions were used to develop Equations 2−5 (for water)
and 2−6 (for air).
Water:
Specific Heat (Cp )
= 1.00 Btu/lbF (4190 J/kg C)
Fluid Properties
The basic categories of fluid properties are state, com−
pressibility, viscosity, weight or density, volume or
specific volume, volatility, specific heat and heat con−
tent; but only those important to TAB technicians will
be discussed.
2.3.1.1
Air (Standard) specific volume = 13.33 ft3/lb
(0.831 m3/kg)
Air:
Specific heat (Cp )
= 0.24 Btu/lbF (1000 J/kg C)
Air Equation 2−6 only applies to sensible heat transfer
(that which affects the dry bulb thermometer).
2.3.2
Fluid Statics
Static head is the pressure developed by the weight of
the fluid at rest (not moving) in a system. The static
head of air is insignificant and is ignored in TAB cal−
culations, but not the static head of water. As Standard
Atmospheric Pressure is measured at 14.696 psi
(101.325 kPa), then Absolute Pressure is obtained by
adding the 14.696 psi (101.325 kPa), atmospheric
pressure to the gage pressure of the system static head.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.19
To obtain the weight of one foot of water in psi and also
absolute pressure:
62.4lbsqft
1footofwater 144sqinsqft
= 0.433 psi gage pressure (psig)
or
1 ft of water= 0.433 + 14.696
=15.129 psia (absolute pressure)
Other I−P Unit pressure/weight/height relations are:
1 inch of mercury (Hg) = 13.6 inches of water
gage (in.wg)
1 foot of mercury (Hg) = 5.89 psi
1 psi = 2.31 ft wg = 2.04 in.Hg
14.696 psi = 29.92 in.Hg
= 33.9 feet of water gage (ft wg)
In the SI system:
1 meter (water) = 9.807 kPa
1 millimeter (mercury) = 133.32 kPa
From the above relationships, it can be seen that using
water instead of mercury in a U−tube manometer for a
pressure of 15 psi (103.4 kPa) would be quite cumber−
some. However, it would be feasible to use when mea−
suring the pressure of HVAC duct systems.
Figure 2−16 shows the relationship between height and
pressure of an open tank of water. The hydrostatic head
at point B is 30 feet (9 m) and the fluid head at point
B is 30 feet of water (9 m) which is equal to 13.0 psi
gage (90 kPa) and to 27.7 psia (191.3 kPa a).
2.3.3
2.3.3.1
Fluid Dynamics
Velocity
The term ?dynamics" is used to describe the condi−
tions of motion of a fluid or gas in a system. The ?ve−
locity" of the fluid is based on the cross−sectional area
of the conduit (pipe or duct) through which it is flow−
ing and the volume of fluid within the conduit.
When there is no turbulence, the velocity varies within
the conduit as shown in the diagram in Figure 2−17,
?Velocity Profile."
This phenomenon, known as the velocity profile, is
caused by the friction between the conduit walls and
the fluid.
OPEN TANK MAINTAINS
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
CONSTANT WATER LEVEL
14.7 psi (101.3 kPa)
GAGE
10ft(3m)
HYDROSTATIC HEADS
30ft(9m)
50ft(15m)
PRESSURES
ABSOLUTE
PRESSURES
4.3 psi
(29.7 kPa)
19.0 psi
(131.1 kPa a)
13.0 psi
(89.7 kPa)
27.7 psia
(191.1 kPa a)
21.7 psi
(149.7 kPa)
36.4 psia
(251.2 kPa a)
30.3 psi
(209.1 kPa)
45.0 psia
(310.5 kPa a)
70ft(21m)
FIGURE 2-16 TANK STATIC HEAD
2.20
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
V min (Zero at Wall)
V avg
V max
FIGURE 2-17 VELOCITY PROFILE
The only purpose of this device is to produce a pressure
sufficient to overcome the resistance of the system to
the flow of the fluid. The pressure produced is indi−
cated by the pressure difference from the pump or fan
inlet to the pump or fan discharge. This is exactly equal
to the system resistance to flow and, in the case of wa−
ter, the elevation differences for the amount of fluid
being pumped. A measurement of the difference be−
tween the inlet and discharge pressures of a pressure
device of any kind is then a measurement of the system
resistance at a particular flow rate.
2.3.4
When the flow is ?turbulent," the friction rate in−
creases, heat transfer through the walls of an exchang−
er increases, and usually, so does the system noise that
is created by the fluid flow.
Q AV
Equation 2-13
Where:
Q = Fluid flow
A = Area
Air
Water
cfm (L/s)
gpm (L/s)
ft2 (m2)
ft2 (m2)
V = Velocity
fpm (m/s) fpm (m/s)
*Correction constants are needed so that the units in
the equation are compatible.
2.3.3.2
Friction
It has been indicated that the flow of the fluid is re−
sisted by a well known paradox of nature called fric−
tion. Friction is the natural resistance caused by a sub−
stance with which it is in contact. One substance may
be stationary and the other moving or both may be
moving at different velocities.
If it were possible to start the fluids flowing in a system
and then eliminate friction losses of the conduit and
the dynamic losses of the fittings, it would be possible
to eliminate all power consuming pumping equipment
in closed systems. The only purpose of the pumps is to
overcome these losses which result from the flow they
produce.
2.3.3.3
Pressure
Pressure is the force required to overcome the friction
and dynamic losses of a system. This pressure is pro−
duced by a pumping device which in HVAC systems
may be a circulating pump, fan, or a gaseous refriger−
ant compressor.
2.3.4.1
Air System Basics
Duct Pressure Changes
The pressures in air systems are simpler than those in
hydronic systems because the weight of air in the sys−
tems is ignored in most calculations. The resistance to
airflow, imposed by a duct system, is overcome by the
fan, which supplies the energy (in the form of total
pressure) to overcome this resistance and maintain the
necessary airflow. Figure 2−18 illustrates an example
of the typical pressure changes in a duct system with
the total pressure and static pressure grade lines in ref−
erence to the atmospheric pressure datum line.
In air conditioning and ventilating work, the pressure
differences are ordinarily so small that incompressible
flow is assumed. Relationships are expressed for air at
a standard density of 0.075 lb/ft3 (1.204 kg/m3) and
corrections are necessary for significant differences in
density due to altitude or temperature. Static pressure
and velocity pressure are mutually convertible and can
either increase or decrease in the direction of flow. To−
tal pressure, however, always decreases in the direc−
tion of airflow.
At any cross−section, the total pressure (TP) is the sum
of the static pressure (SP) and the velocity pressure
(Vp ):
TP SP Vp
Equation 2-14
For all constant−area straight duct sections, the change
in static pressure losses are equivalent to the total pres−
sure losses because the change in velocity pressure
(Vp ) equals zero, as the velocity is constant. These
pressure losses in straight duct sections are termed
friction losses. Where the straight duct sections have
smaller cross−sectional areas, such as duct sections BC
and FG in Figure 2−18, the pressure lines fall more rap−
idly than those of the larger area ducts (pressure losses
increase as the square of the velocity).
When the duct cross−sectional areas are reduced, such
as at converging sections B (abrupt) and F (gradual),
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.21
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
AIR
FLOW
ENTRY
H
EXIT
Diffuser
TP
SP
TP
Vp
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
SP
TOTAL
PRESSURE (TP)
VELOCITY
PRESSURE (V ) p
STATIC PRESSURE (SP)
FIGURE 2-18 PRESSURE CHANGES DURING FLOW IN DUCTS
both the velocity and velocity pressure increase in the
direction of airflow and the absolute value of both the
total pressure and static pressure decreases. The pres−
sure losses at points B and F are dynamic losses.
Dynamic losses are due to changes in direction or ve−
locity of the air and occur at transitions, elbows, and
duct obstructions, such as dampers, etc. Dynamic
losses can be expressed as a loss coefficient (the
constant which produces the dynamic pressure losses
when multiplied by the velocity pressure) or by the
equivalent length of straight duct which has the same
loss magnitude.
Increases in duct cross−sectional areas, such as at di−
verging sections C (gradual) and G (abrupt), cause a
decrease in velocity and velocity pressure, a continu−
ing decrease in total pressure and an increase in static
pressure caused by the conversion of velocity pressure
to static pressure. This increase in static pressure is
commonly known as static regain and is expressed in
terms of either the upstream or downstream velocity
pressure.
2.22
At the exit fitting, section H, the total pressure loss co−
efficient may be greater than one upstream velocity
pressure, equal to one velocity pressure, or less than
one velocity pressure.
The static pressure just upstream of the discharge fit−
ting can be calculated by subtracting the upstream ve−
locity pressure from the total pressure upstream.
The entrance fitting at section A in Figure 2−18 also
may have total pressure loss coefficients less than 1.0
or greater than 1.0. These coefficients are references
to the downstream velocity pressure. Immediately
downstream of the entrance, the total pressure is sim−
ply the sum of the static pressure and velocity pressure.
Note that on the suction side of the fan, the static pres−
sure is negative with respect to the atmospheric pres−
sure. However, velocity pressure is always a positive
value.
It is important to distinguish between static and total
pressure. Static pressure is the blow−up pressure (like
a balloon) which commonly has been used as the basis
for duct system design. Total pressure determines how
much energy must be supplied to the system to main−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
tain airflow. Total pressure always decreases in the di−
rection of airflow. But static pressure may decrease,
then increase in the direction of airflow (as it does in
Figure 2−18) and may go through several more in−
creases and decreases in the course of the system. It
can become negative (below atmospheric) on the dis−
charge side of the fan, as demonstrated by points G and
H. The distinction must be made between static pres−
sure loss (sections BC or FG) and static pressure
change as a result of conversion of velocity pressure
(section C or G).
The total resistance to airflow is noted by nTPsys in
Figure 2−18. Since the prime mover is a vaneaxial fan,
the inlet and outlet velocity pressures are equivalent;
i.e. nTPsys = nSPsys . When the prime mover is a cen−
trifugal fan, the inlet and outlet areas usually are not
equal, thus the suction and discharge velocity pres−
sures are not equal, and obviously nTPsys nSPsys . If
one needs to know the static pressure requirements of
a centrifugal fan, knowing the total pressure require−
ments, the following relationship may be used:
Equation 2-15
FanSP TP d TP s Vp d
(orasSP TP Vp)
FanSP SP d TP s
where the subscripts d and s refer to the discharge and
suction sections respectively of the fan.
Above 2000 feet (600 m) altitude, below 50F (10C),
or above 90F (32C) temperature, the friction loss
obtained from Tables A−1 and A−2 must be corrected
for the air density. Table A−12 presents the correction
factors for temperature and altitude. The actual air vol−
ume is used to find the friction loss from Table A−1 and
A−2 and this loss is multiplied by the correction factor
or factors from Tables A−3 and A−4 to obtain the actual
friction loss.
2.3.4.3
HVAC duct systems usually are sized first as round
ductwork. Then, if rectangular ducts are desired, duct
sizes are selected to provide flow rates equivalent to
those of the round ducts originally selected. Tables
A−5 and A−6 give the circular equivalents of rectangu−
lar ducts for equal friction and flow rate. Note that the
mean velocity in a rectangular duct will be less than in
its circular equivalent.
Rectangular duct sizes should not be calculated direct−
ly from the actual duct cross−sectional area. Tables A−5
and A−6 should be used. If this is not done, the resulting
duct sizes will be smaller, with a greater velocity and
friction loss for the given airflow.
2.3.4.4
2.3.4.2
Circular Equivalent for
Rectangular Ducts
Dynamic Losses
Friction Losses
Pressure drop in a straight duct is caused by surface
friction, and varies with the air velocity, the duct size
and length, and the interior surface roughness. Friction
loss is most readily determined from Air Friction
Charts, Tables A−1 and A−2 in the Appendix. They are
based on standard air with a density of 0.075 lb/ft3
(1.204 kg/m3 ) flowing through average, clean, round,
galvanized metal ducts (with an absolute roughness
factor of 0.0003 ft. The values may be used without
correction for temperatures between 50F (10C) and
90F (32C) and for altitudes up to 2000 feet (600 m)
and for any relative humidity. Beyond those limits,
corrections should be made for other than standard air
densities, and when using other duct materials or flex−
ible duct.
Tables A−3 and A−4 are new tables and charts that pro−
vide correction factors for ducts of materials other than
hot−dipped galvanized sheet metal construction. The
correction factor is multiplied by the friction loss ob−
tained from Table A−1 and A−2 for each straight duct
section.
Where turbulent flow is present, brought about by sud−
den changes in the direction or magnitude of the veloc−
ity of the air flowing, a greater loss in total pressures
takes place than would occur in a steady flow through
a similar length of straight duct having a uniform
cross−section. The amount of this loss in excess of
straight−duct friction is termed dynamic loss.
2.3.4.5
Duct Fitting Loss Coefficients
The duct fitting loss coefficient ?C" is dimensionless
and represents the number of velocity heads lost at the
duct transition or bend. Values of the loss coefficient
for elbows and other duct elements have been deter−
mined experimentally or computed and can be found
in tables in the SMACNA HVAC Systems 9 Duct De−
sign manual or the ASHRAE Fundamentals Hand−
book.
Tables A−4 and A−5 which show the relation of veloc−
ity to velocity pressure for standard air, can be used to
find the dynamic pressure loss for any duct element
whose loss coefficient ?C" is known.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.23
Fitting loss coefficient
Velocity pressure—in.wg
Tee, 45 Entry, Rectangular Main and Branch
Use the Vp of the upstream section
Ac
Branch, Coefficient C
Qc
Vc
V / V
b c
Qs
Ab
Qb
Vs
Ac = A s
As
Qb/ Qc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.2
0.91
0.4
0.81
0.6
0.77
0.72
0.70
0.8
0.78
0.73
0.69
0.66
1.0
0.78
0.98
0.85
0.79
0.74
1.2
0.90
1.11
1.16
1.23
1.03
0.86
1.4
1.19
1.22
1.26
1.29
1.54
1.25
0.92
1.6
1.35
1.42
1.55
1.59
1.63
1.50
1.31
1.8
1.44
1.50
1.75
1.74
1.72
2.24
1.63
0.79
FIGURE 2-19 SAMPLE FITTING LOSS COEFFICIENT TABLE
TP C Vp
Equation 2-16
Equation 2-17 (SI)
Q
V
1000A
Where:
Where:
V = Velocity (m/s)
TP = Total pressure loss C in. wg (Pa)
Q = Duct airflow (L/s)
C = Fitting loss coefficient
Vp = Velocity pressure C in. wg (Pa)
The velocity pressure (Vp) used for rectangular duct
fittings must be obtained from the velocity (V) ob−
tained by using the following equation:
A = Duct cross−sectional area (m2)
Where different areas are involved, letters with or
without subscripts are used to denote the area at which
the mean velocity is to be calculated, such as A for in−
let area, A1, for outlet area and Ao for orifice area, etc.
The equation for obtaining the velocity pressure (Vp)
from the velocity is:
Equation 2-17 (IP)
Equation 2-18 (I-P)
Q
V
A
Vp V
4005
2
Equation 2-18 (SI)
V p 0.602V 2
Where:
V = Velocity (fpm)
Q = Duct airflow (cfm)
Where:
Vp = Velocity pressure C in. wg (Pa)
V = Velocity C fpm (m/s)
A = Duct cross−sectional area (sq ft)
2.24
Commonly used fitting loss coefficient tables ex−
tracted from the SMACNA HVAC Systems9Duct De−
sign manual can be found in Tables A−17 and A−20.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Equation 2-19
Example 2.8 (I−P)
Q2
rpm
rpm2
1
Q1
A main duct has an airflow of 10,000 cfm at 2000 fpm.
A 45 entry tap is used for the branch duct that requires
3,000 cfm at 1,600 fpm. Find the pressure loss to the
branch of the fitting.
Equation 2-20
2
P2
rpm
rpm2
P1
1
Equation 2-21
3
bp 2
rpm
rpm2
1
bp 1
Solution
Equation 2-22
Using the data from Figure 2−19:
Qb
3, 000
0.3
Qc
10, 000
Vb
1, 600
0.8
Vc
2, 000
Branch loss coefficient C = 0.69
2
2, 000
Vp (0.5) 2 0.25
4, 005
TP C Vp 0.69 0.25
TP 0.1725in. wg
Example 2.8 (SI)
A main duct has an airflow of 5,000 L/s at 10 m/s. A
45 entry tap is used for the branch duct that requires
1500 L/s at 8 m/s. Find the pressure loss to the branch
of the fitting.
Solution
Using the data from Figure 2−19:
Qb
1500 0.3
Qc
5000
Vb
8 0.8
Vc
10
BranchlosscoefficientC 0.69
V p 0.602 (10) 2 60.2Pa
TP C Vp 0.69 60.2Pa 41.5Pa
2.3.4.6
Fan Laws
The TAB technician can use fan curves or tables pub−
lished by the fan manufacturer to determine the output
of a fan under certain conditions. The following fan
law equations also allow the TAB technician to calcu−
late the necessary changes to be made to a system or
a system component prior to the actual work.
2
d2
rpm
rpm2
1
d1
Where:
QPP=MAirflow C cfm(L/s)
rpmP=Fan revolutions per minute
P'P=Static or total pressure – in. wg (Pa)
bpPM=Fan brake power – HP (W)
dPP=Density C lb/ft3 (kg/m 3)
The relationship between the fan laws, fan curves, and
system curves will be discussed in Chapter 5 Fans.
One of the most important things to remember is that
the fan brake power increases as the cube of the fan
rpm increase (or of the airflow increase by combining
Equations 2−17 and 2−19).
So when the TAB technician attempts to increase the
airflow in a system without making other changes, the
fan brake power (and the fan energy consumption) in−
creases dramatically.
2.3.4.7
System Pressure
The total system pressure that the system fan must han−
dle then is the sum of the friction losses of each straight
duct section, the dynamic losses of each duct fitting or
obstruction, and the pressure loss of each duct compo−
nent such as coils, filters, dampers, etc. Examples can
be found in Chapter 7 Air Systems.
In a given duct system with a known airflow rate, and
when the position of all dampers is stable, a specific
total pressure can be measured. If the airflow is in−
creased without any other changes, then Equation 2−21
can be used (this equation was derived from fan law
Equations 2−17 and 2−18);
Equation 2-23
P2
Q2
P1
Q1
2
Where:
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.25
P Systempressure in.wg(Pa)
Q SystemAirflow cfm(Ls)
Obviously, the 5 HP motor would be inadequate and a
10 HP motor would be marginal.
Example 2.9 (I−P Units)
Example 2.10 (SI)
A duct system is operating at 2.0 in.wg with an airflow
of 10,000 cfm. If the airflow is increased to 13,000 cfm
without any other change, determine the new duct sys−
tem pressure.
The same system used in Example 2.9 has a 3.8 kilo−
watt motor operating at 3.6 kilowatts. Find the fan
brake power and standard motor size that would be re−
quired if the airflow was increased to 6500 L/s.
Solution
P 2 P 1
Q2
Q1
2
2.0
13, 000
10, 000
2
Solution
2.0(1.3)2 3.38in.wg
Q
bp 2 bp1 2
Q1
Example 2.9 (SI)
A duct system is operating at 500 Pa with an airflow
of 5000 L/s. If the airflow is increased to 6500 L/s
without any other change, determine the new duct sys−
tem pressure.
Q
P 2 P 1 2
Q1
2
500 6500
5000
2
Solution
3
4.82
4.82(1.3)3 10.59
2.26
3
7.91kilowatts
The 3.8 kW motor is inadequate and a 7.5 kW motor
would be marginal.
2.3.5
2.3.5.1
The same system used in Example 2.9 has a 5 HP mo−
tor operating at 4.82 bhp. Find the bhp and standard
motor size that would be required if the airflow was in−
creased to 13,000 cfm.
Q2
Q1
3.6 6500
5000
Hydronic System Basics
845Pa
Example 2.10 (I−P Units)
bp 2 bp1
3
13, 000
10, 000
3
Hydronic Pressure Losses
In air systems, the weight of air in the system is ignored
by system designers and TAB technicians. In hydronic
systems, it is the velocity head that is ignored because
the values usually are insignificant. Otherwise, hy−
dronic systems are subject to similar friction losses in
the straight runs and dynamic losses in the fittings.
Manufacturers normally supply pressure loss data for
equipment used in piping systems. Pressure losses for
hydronic systems are given in terms of equivalent feet
of pipe, in pounds per square inch (psi), or in feet of
water (ft wg) in I−P Units. In SI units, meters of water
and Pascals or kilopascals are used.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Equation 2−22 is the hydronic equivalent of air systems
Equation 2−21:
Equation 2-24
P2
Q2
P1
Q1
2
towers, are subject to greater corrosion and therefore
have higher pressure losses per 100 feet of pipe. Prop−
erly sized pumps used with these systems generally
will deliver a higher flow rate than required by a newly
installed system because the anticipated corrosion has
not occurred. However, after a few years, a partially
closed balancing cock at the pump will have to be
opened.
Where:
2.3.5.3
PP= Pressure difference C psi(Pa or kPa)
QP= Flow rate C gpm(L/s)
Example 2−11 (I−P)
A piping system has a flow rate of 100 gpm at a 20 ft
wg head. Calculate the flow rate if the flow resistance
is reduced to a 10 ft wg head.
Solution
2
P2
Q2
; Q2 Q1
P1
Q1
P2
P1
10 71gpm
20
Q 2 100
Example 2−11 (SI)
A piping system has a flow rate of 6.3 L/s at a 6 meter
head. Calculate the flow rate if the flow resistance is
reduced to a 3 meter head.
Solution
2
P2
Q2
; Q2 Q1
P1
Q1
Q 2 6.3
P2
P2
3 4.45Ls
6
Heads
Static head, discussed earlier, is the pressure due to the
weight of the fluid above the point of measurement. In
a closed system, the selection of the pump capacity is
not affected as the static head is equal on both sides of
the pump. However, the pump casing must be designed
to handle the highest static head.
Suction head is the height of fluid from the centerline
of the pump on the suction side to the level of the fluid
surface as is shown in Figure 2−20. The actual static
head pressure loss that is added to the piping and sys−
tem pressure loss in order to size the pump is the differ−
ence between A minus B.
Suction lift is the height of fluid that a pump must lift
on the suction side of the pump from the level of the
fluid surface to the pump centerline as shown in Figure
2−20. This pressure loss value is added to any other sys−
tem or pump pressure losses if additional piping or
equipment is involved.
2.3.5.4
Pump Laws
The following equations are similar to (or the same as)
the fan law equations. Again, they allow the TAB tech−
nician to calculate changes that could occur in a given
hydronic system when one or more of the conditions
is altered. Most equations required for TAB work also
can be found in the Appendix along with the SI equiva−
lents.
Equation 2-25
2.3.5.2
Friction Losses
Friction loss tables for hydronic systems vary in value
depending on the condition of the piping system and
the type of pipe or tubing used. Closed systems, where
the fluid continuously recirculates, such as hot and
chilled water systems for HVAC work, stay relatively
clean and free from deposits that could roughen the in−
terior surfaces.
Open systems, such as domestic hot water systems and
condenser water systems with normally open cooling
Q2
rpm
rpm2
1
Q1
Equation 2-26
Q2
D
2
D1
Q1
Equation 2-27
2
H2
rpm
rpm2
H1
1
Equation 2-28
H2
D2
H1
D1
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2
2.27
STATIC
PRESSURE
STATIC HEAD
(DIFFERENCE = A - B)
TO BE ADDED TO
PUMP HEAD
A
SUCTION
HEAD
B
CLOF PUMP
TANK
PUMP
FIGURE 2-20 PUMP WITH STATIC HEAD AND SUCTION HEAD
Equation 2-29
3
bp 2
rpm
rpm2
1
bp 1
Equation 2-30
bp 2
D2
D1
bp 1
2.28
3
Where:
Q
rpm
D
H
bp
= Fluid flowCgpm (L/s)
= Revolutions per minute
= Impeller diameterCinches (mm)
= HeadCfeet (meters)
= Brake powerCHP (kW)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CLOF PUMP
PUMP
L
SUCTION LIFT
TANK
FIGURE 2-21 PUMP WITH SUCTION LIFT
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2.29
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
2.30
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 3
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
AND CONTROLS
CHAPTER 3
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT AND CONTROLS
3.1
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
3.1.1
Basic Electricity
Equation 3-3
1R t 1R1 1R2 1R3 1R n
(Parallel Circuits)
The electrical industry concerns itself with a broad
range of subjects, many of which are not necessarily
directly related to the HVAC industry. However, it is
necessary to know basic electricity as it applies to that
part of building construction which is related to me−
chanical and electrical systems.
Electric motors drive or power almost all HVAC
equipment, including fans and pumps. Understanding
the operation of, and the differences between, the
many types of motors, the related controls, and the
control circuits, is a necessity for the TAB technician.
The TAB technician must be able to determine the
brake horsepower that is being applied to air handling
equipment and ensure that the motor is properly con−
nected and protected.
A few simple equations should be kept in mind when
dealing with electricity. The first is a derivative of
Ohm’s law: The current in a circuit is equal to the elec−
tromotive−force activity in the circuit divided by the
resistance in the circuit.
Where:
R t TotalSystemResistance
R n IndividualResistances
Equation 3−3 states mathematically that the parallel
current flow will work similarly to hydronic flow, with
the circuit with the highest resistance receiving the
lowest flow.
3.1.2.2
Series Circuits
Resistances are added together for electrical circuits in
series as in hydronic circuits. As more resistances are
added, the flow becomes less and less.
Equation 3-4
R t R1 R2 R3 R n
(Series Circuits)
Where:
R t TotalResistance
R n IndividualResistances
Equation 3-1
I E (or)E IR
R
P IE
Equation 3-2
Where:
I Amps(A)
E Volts(V)
R Ohms(W)
P Watts(W)
3.1.2
Electrical Resistances
3.1.2.1
Parallel Circuits
Parallel electrical circuits resemble HVAC terminal
units piped in parallel circuits. Using a simple circuit
with two units and one pump, it is known that the water
flow will split in accordance with the resistance across
each unit. If both resistances are the same, the flow will
split 50−50.
The electrical diagram in Figure 3−1 is similar to a pip−
ing circuit with a pump at ?E", two chillers in series at
?R1" and ?R2", seven terminal units piped in parallel,
and a strainer, valve, etc., piped in series in the pump
suction piping. This shows the similarity of electrical
calculations to those for hydronic and air, where resist−
ances in series are added, and those in parallel are com−
bined.
3.2
ELECTRICAL SERVICES
3.2.1
Single Phase Circuit Voltages
A measured voltage may not be exactly one of the val−
ues of voltages indicated in Figure 3−2. Voltages can
vary, and in normal situations a variation of ±10 per−
cent will not adversely affect equipment operation.
The basic 115 volt two−wire circuit shown in part ?A"
of Figure 3−2 is very common. There is a potential or
pressure of 115 volts between the hot wire and the neu−
tral or ground. Normal household use, such as a lamp,
is representative of such a circuit. The 115 volt poten−
tial in the hot wire will exist between the hot wire and
the neutral, or between the hot wire and any other
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
3.1
Parallel
IT
R1
R2
(Etc.)
Series
E
Series
Series-Parallel
FIGURE 3-1 SERIES-P ARALLEL CIRCUIT
FUSE
MAIN SWITCH
TO LOAD
115 V
GROUND
TO
EQUIPMENT
GROUND LINE
GROUNDS
A. TWO-WIRE CIRCUIT
GROUND LINE
GROUND TO
EQUIPMENT
MAIN
FUSE
HOT
MAIN SWITCH
115 V
115 V
LOAD
115 V
115 V
LOAD
NEUTRAL
MAIN
FUSE
HOT
CIRCUIT
FUSES
GROUND LINE
B. THREE-WIRE CIRCUIT
FIGURE 3-2 SINGLE-PHASE AC SERVICE
3.2
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
230
VOLT
LOAD
+
Time
+
Time
+
Time
Current I
Voltage E
Voltage E
Voltage E
Current I
Current I
--
-Difference in Peaks
Causing Power
Loss
Inductance Load
Current Voltage
-Difference in Peaks
Causing Power
Loss
Capacitance
Load
Current Voltage
Peaks Concurrent
Providing Maximum
Useful Power
Inductance -- Capacitance
Current Voltage
(Power Factor Corrected)
FIGURE 3--3 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE-- TIME CURVES
AND POWER FACTOR
ground, such as a pipe or a person which might contact
the wire.
The neutral or ground wire is another matter. The neutral normally has no voltage potential. Theoretically,
if the neutral contacts a pipe or a person, nothing will
happen. The neutral is connected to the ground. The
term theoretically is used, because in actual field conditions, stray currents can find their way into the neutral and it then can be dangerous. A neutral should be
treated with the same respect as a known hot wire.
Part “B” of Figure 3-2 shows another common single
phase circuit. It is also a household circuit which
serves items requiring greater power such as ranges,
clothes driers and air conditioners. This circuit represents the type of three-wire service normally entering
residences. Two of the three wires are hot wires and
one is neutral. The voltage potential between either of
the hot wires and the neutral is 115 volts. There are actually three circuits; two separate 115 volt circuits
(from each of the hot wires to the neutral) and a 230
volt circuit (between the two hot wires). The neutral in
a 230 volt circuit found in some appliance connections
serves as a ground for safety, but it is not used as part
of the power circuit. It is connected to the frame of the
machine to carry off any stray currents or any short circuits resulting from failures. Ground or neutral wires
are never switched or fused. The main advantage of the
230 volt, two hot wire circuit is that it allows each of
the hot wires to carry half of the current flow. Therefore, twice the current will be handled by the same size
wires.
3.2.2
Three Phase Circuit Voltages
The three-phase (3∞) concept is somewhat more difficult to understand. Figure 3-3 shows alternating current pulses of voltage and current changing with time.
In the case of the single-phase, three-wire circuit, two
different pulses are being sent down two different hot
wires. After one starts, the second starts 1/120th of a
second later.
These pulses continue indefinitely at the same frequency and have the same phase relationship between
the 2 wires. This can be thought of as +115 volts and
-115 volts between the hot wires and the neutral wire.
The pulses would average 115 volts between the hot
wire and the neutral wire, would change to -115 volts
and back to +115 volts and so on 120 times per second.
The pulses going down the other wire would do the
same, but because their timing is out of phase, an
instantaneous look at the two 115 volt wires would
show that the voltage in one wire would be +115 volts,
and the other wire (because of its delay in phase) would
be -115 volts.
When voltage readings are taken with a voltmeter,
there is no apparent way to tell the difference between
220 volt single phase circuits and 220 volt three-phase
circuits. When measurements are taken, it is found that
voltages do vary somewhat; that three-phase circuits
are usually 220 volt, and that single-phase circuits are
usually 230 volt. However, phasing cannot be determined by just voltage readings. Four-wire, three-phase
circuits, as illustrated in Figure 3-6, produce 208 volts
between phase wires. This arrangement is commonly
used in commercial buildings, as the 120 volt loads can
be divided equal between the three hot (phase) wires.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing  Third Edition
3.3
Three-Phase
Motor
(220 V)
L1
Main Switch
Fuse
220 V
220 V
L2
220 V
L3
FIGURE 3-4 220-VOL T THREE-WIRE DELTA THREE-PHASE CIRCUIT
Center Tap
Approx. 177 V
Fuse
Three-Phase
Motor
(220 V)
L1
Transformer
Main Switch
L2
110 V
220 V
L2
Fuses
Single-Phase Loads (110 V)
Neutral
FIGURE 3-5 220-VOL T DELTA THREE-PHASE CIRCUIT WITH
110-VOL T SINGLE-PHASE SUPPLY
Fuse
Three-Phase Motor
(208 V)
L1
Main Switch
208 V
208 V
L2
208 V
L2
Fuses
Single-Phase Loads (120 V)
Neutral
FIGURE 3-6 120/208-VOL T FOUR-WIRE WYE CIRCUIT
3.4
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
3.3
TRANSFORMERS
For the voltage reduction indicated for the transformer
illustrated in Figure 3−7, the number of turns shown on
the primary side should be twice the number of turns
shown on the secondary side. Voltage is transformed
by the transformer stepping down the voltage to one
half the original voltage. By swapping the primary and
secondary connections, this same transformer could
step up the voltage from 440 volts to 880 volts. The
ballasts in fluorescent lights in buildings step up the
voltages from 115, 220, or 227 volts to voltages near
2500 volts, the required voltage to produce light in the
tubes.
The function of the center tap of a transformer also is
illustrated in Figure 3−7. If a 220 volt difference exists
between the legs of the secondary side, it is logical that
a 110 volt difference would exist between one leg and
a center tap. Most single−phase residential transform−
ers have high voltages on the primary side, but the sec−
ondary voltages use a ?center tap" (the ground) to fur−
nish two 110 volt circuits along with the 220 volt
power (Figure 3−2). This size transformer, which looks
like a large can, usually is attached to a pole near the
residence. It can supply power to several residences or
buildings, or just to a single building.
Larger transformers are ground mounted, and if out−
side, are usually in a metal housing. These transform−
ers can be either single−phase or three−phase. The
?tap" (or neutral) cannot be used with hot line ?L2" for
110 volt single−phase loads (Figure 3−5) from a three−
wire, 220 volt circuit. However, all three hot line or
phase wires may be used for 120 volt loads in four−
wire, 208 volt circuits (Figure 3−6).
110 V Secondary
440 V
Primary
(Center Tap) 220 V
Secondary
110 V Secondary
FIGURE 3-7 TRANSFORMER WITH
TAPPED SECONDARY
3.4
MOTORS
3.4.1
Types of Motors
Most motors used on HVAC system equipment are de−
signed for alternating current. Small motors will use
single−phase current, while the larger motors will use
three−phase current. However, some rural areas must
use larger motors on single−phase current, as three−
phase current is not available. There are many differ−
ent motor speeds, but 1800 rpm and 3600 rpm are the
most common. The actual speed of the motor will vary
with the load imposed. Split phase, capacitor start,
synchronous, induction, shaded poleCall are part of
the many different types of motors that the TAB team
will need to recognize. The characteristics of each is
important for troubleshooting, as the wrong type of
motor may be used.
3.4.2
Rotation
Motors rotating in the wrong direction are a common
occurrence when a new system is started. The normal
TAB procedures deal with this situation, as correct
motor rotation is vital to the performance of the unit.
The direction of the motor usually is changed in three−
phase motors by switching any two of the three−phase
power wires. In single−phase motors, the change of di−
rection is accomplished by switching two of the inter−
nal motor leads that connect to the motor line terminal
lugs.
CAUTION: Certain fans and most pumps will develop
measurable pressures and some fluid flow when the
rotation is incorrect. Rotation arrows can be found on
many types of equipment. Correct rotation is obvious
on some units. Flow and amperage readings also can
be used to determine whether something is amiss.
Whenever a piece of equipment does not perform as
specified and the current flow is much lower than de−
sign, rotation is one item to be checked.
3.4.3
Nameplate Data
Except for some small motors, an attached nameplate
will supply the basic information that the TAB techni−
cians needs: full load amps, rpm, horsepower or watts
capacity, voltages, line phase, and cycles. Many motor
nameplates contain starting load amps that are quite
large compared to full load amps. Although starting
load amps are not as important (and are not recorded),
the amperage value must be used by the system design−
er for electrical circuits, circuit breaker panels, and
motor starting equipment.
Information on special motors might have to be ob−
tained from specification sheets or from the HVAC
unit nameplate. Since voltage and amperage measure−
ments are seldom the same as the nameplate values,
the actual motor horsepower being produced can be es−
timated. However, the no load amps reading is difficult
to obtain from close−coupled equipment where the
load cannot easily be detached from the motor. The
motor must be running with all drives disconnected for
this no load amps reading.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
3.5
3.4.4
Operating Temperatures
Every electric motor generates heat as well as power.
The more inefficient the motor, the greater the amount
of heat produced. Unless this heat is dissipated, the
temperature within the motor will rise until the insula−
tion is destroyed.
The amount of heat produced in the motor also de−
pends upon the load. Therefore, most motors are rated
on the basis of a certain temperature rise when running
fully loaded. Open motors are generally designed to
run at a temperature rise of 72F (40C) above the sur−
rounding (ambient) air temperature. In other words, an
open motor when running at full nameplate condi−
tions, could be running at a temperature of 142F
(61C) if the surrounding air is 70F (21C). Totally
enclosed motors generally are rated at a 99F (55C)
temperature rise. Under the latter conditions, a totally
enclosed motor would run at 169F (76C).
3.4.5
Motor Performance
Figure 3−8 indicates ways in which various motor fac−
tors are interrelated. The point at which the speed and
the amperes cross corresponds to 55 percent of the
maximum amps and over 60 percent of the maximum
horsepower. At this point, the speed is between 97 and
98 percent of the maximum synchronous speed (which
is not a great change) and the efficiency curve stays
fairly flat close to 90 percent. The power factor also
stays between 80 and 90 percent.
Single−Phase Circuits:
Equation 3-5 (I-P)
I E P.F. Eff.
bhp 746
Equation 3-5 (SI)
I E P.F. Eff.
kW 1000
Three−Phase Circuits:
Equation 3-6 (I-P)
I E P.F. Eff. 1.73
bhp 746
3.6
Equation 3-6 (SI)
kW I E P.F. Eff. 1.73
1000
Where:
bhp'= Brake horsepower (I−P)
kW' = Kilowatts (brake power) (SI)
I' = Amps
E' = Volts
P.F.'= Power factor
Eff.'= Efficiency
In Equation 3−5 and 3−6, the power factor and efficien−
cy values must be used to obtain the actual motor brake
power. As these values usually are difficult to obtain,
a reasonable estimate can be used. Referring to Figure
3−8, the normal range of both curves is between 80 and
90 percent. Therefore, 80 percent might be used for
one value and 90 percent for the other value to obtain
a brake power estimate.
Brake power is calculated to verify that the proper size
motor has been installed, i.e., that the installed motor
is not overloaded and is operating within its service
factor. It also is used to determine that the pump or fan
is operating with the required efficiencies. The system
designer usually has specified the total amount of pow−
er or energy that may be consumed to perform a specif−
ic function.
For example, a pump is selected to circulate 120 gpm
(7.6 L/s) of water at a 40 foot (12 m) head and consume
not more than two horsepower (1.5 kW). Designers in
the past may have used a three horsepower (2.3 kW)
motor on the pump in order to have a safety factor, or
to have extra capacity for future loads that may be
planned for the system. With energy conservation con−
siderations, the installation of a three horsepower (2.3
kW) motor just to have a safety factor should not be
used unless a future load is planned. When the designer
does not want to use more than the rated two horse−
power (1.5 kW), it is essential to calculate the actual
power consumption unless the amperage reading is
well within the full load amperage rating of the motor.
There are two equations that must give a less theoreti−
cal, but more practical approach to the calculation of
motor full load (F.L.) amperage and brake horsepower
(kW).
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Equation 3-7
ActualF.L.amps Solution
F.L.amps * voltage *
Actualvoltage
a.
Using Equation 3−7:
8.16 220V
210V
8.55amps
ActualF.L.amps Equation 3-8
bhp(kW) HP * (kW *) (Motoroperatingamps) (Noloadamps 0.5)
b.
Using Equation 3−8:
(ActualF.L.amps) (Noloadamps 0.5)
bph (kW)'= 3 HP (2.3 kW)
Use Equations 3−7 and 3−8 to obtain an accurate (but
not exact) brake power by measuring motor amper−
ages and voltages under no load and full load condi−
tions.
(6.2) (4.7 0.5)
(8.55) (4.7 0.5)
bph(kW) 3HP(2.3kW) *Nameplate ratings that supply the basic information.
(6.2) (2.35)
(8.55) 2.35)
bph(kW) approx.1.86HP(1.43kW)
Example 3.1
Example 3.2
A fan has a 3 HP (2.3 kW), 220 volt, 3 phase motor that
actually draws 6.2 amps at 210 volts. The full load am−
perage shown on the nameplate is 8.16 amps and the
?no load" measurement is 4.7 amps. Determine the
approximate fan brake power.
The following loads are paralleled across a 220 volt,
single−phase, 60 Hz (hertz) source:
a.
A 10,000 watt electric heater
90
100
80
Efficiency
90
% Power
Factor
100
70
100
100
60
99
50
98
40
97
30
96
20
75
50
25
% Current (Amperes)
70
% Synchronous Speed
% Efficiency
80
95
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
% Motor Horsepower
FIGURE 3-8 TYPICAL PERFORMANCE OF STANDARD
SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTORS
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
3.7
b.
A 5 horsepower (3.8 kW) electric motor oper−
ating at a P.F. of one, with a 90 percent effi−
ciency and pulling full load
The reason for the variance in answers between the I−P
and SI examples is that the 3.8 kW motor size is a nom−
inal size, but 3.73 kW is the exact equivalent.
c.
A 220 to 110 volt transformer (assume 100
percent efficient) with fifty 100 watt incan−
descent light bulbs in parallel with the secon−
dary.
3.5
MOTOR CONTROLS
3.5.1
Safety Switches
Heater
Transformer
110 V
220 V
10,000
Watt
1&
Motor
5HP
50 @ 100 watts each
Determine the total current requirements on the 220
volt source.
Solution
a.
b.
P
= EI, I = P/E = 10,000 W/220 V
I
= 45.5 amps
Using Equation 3−5 (I−P):
I E P.F. Eff.
746
P P.F. Eff.
bhp 746
bhp 746
5
746 4144watts
P
P.F. Eff.
1 0.9
bhp Using Equation 3 − 5 (SI):
I E P.F. Eff.
1000
P P.F. Eff.
kW 1000
kW
1000
3.8
1000 4222watts
P
P.F. Eff.
1 0.9
I P 4144 18.8amps)
E
220
I 4222
220
= 18.8 amps (I−P)
kW c.
For transformers with 100 percent efficiency,
P(in) = P(out)
P 50 100watts 5000watts
I P 5000 22.7amps
E
220
I (Total) = 45.5 + 18.8 + 22.7 = 87.0 amps (I−P)
I (Total) = 45.5 + 19.2 + 22.7 = 87.4 amps (SI)
3.8
A simple on−off toggle switch, a safety switch, or an
individual circuit breaker in an electrical power panel
is not an overload protection device for a motor. Many
ordinary looking toggle switches do contain overload
protection for smaller single−phase motors.
Many small motors do have built−in overload protec−
tion, and do not need additional protection. The circuit
breaker only provides overload protection for the wir−
ing circuit, but not any connected motor(s).
The electric current to a motor must be switched off
and on to stop and start the motor (manually or auto−
matically). The switching device is commonly called
a motor starter. This is not to be confused with a safety
switch, which is a device that must be placed in the off
position before any work is done on a motor or electri−
cal equipment. This prevents the motor from acciden−
tally starting from remote control devices.
3.5.2
Motor Starters
There are a large number of different types of starters,
each with various advantages and limitations. In most
cases a specific type of starter is required by a particu−
lar type of motor. For example, a full voltage magnetic
starter usually is used with an induction motor. Re−
duced voltage or reduced current starters, while more
expensive than a magnetic starter, often must be used
with larger horsepower motors to prevent disruption
(by producing large drops in line voltage) of marginal−
ly adequate power services. Many electrical utility
companies have mandatory requirements for these
starters above a certain horsepower (this varies with
the type of equipment and voltage).
The motor starter or the safety switch is the main
source of access to motor terminal leads for measure−
ment of voltage and amperage. The starter also can
contain holding coils, auxiliary contacts, control trans−
formers, and a push−button station or a hand−off−auto−
matic selector switch. This last item is useful in trou−
bleshooting. If the switch is turned to the hand
position, the motor should run if each phase line is hot,
unless there is trouble in the motor. This is because the
hand portion of the switch bypasses the various con−
trols in the circuit. The automatic portion of the switch
is connected to the circuit containing auxiliary devices
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
such as thermostats, safety lockouts and other external
switches used to control or turn off the motor. If the
motor runs on hand, but not on automatic, contacts in
one of the control or safety interlocks should be open.
The TAB technician can find many different voltages
around starters and starter combinations (see Figure
3−9). If a remote room thermostat is added in series
with the push button station of the ?A" unit, the 110
volt control circuit then may be required to be 24 volts.
It is not good practice to use line voltages (110 volt or
higher) for control circuits, but to reduce costs, 240
volt control circuits are not uncommon.
The motor starter overload protection devices or heat−
er coils should be sized from the actual motor name−
plate data rather than from data from motor or starter
manufacturer’s catalogs. Heater coils never should be
oversized under any condition.
3.5.3
Push Button Stations
There are two basic types of push button stationsCthe
maintained contact station and the momentary contact
station. The important point to remember is that after
an interruption of the current with the momentary con−
tact station, the motor will not restart until the start but−
ton is pushed.
3.6
VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES
Variable speed or variable frequency drives (VFD) are
becoming commonplace in new commercial and insti−
tutional construction. On renovation projects, this
electrical component is ?spliced" into the existing wir−
ing between the electrical source and the fan or pump
motor disconnect. Figure 3–10 shows an existing H &
V unit that was retrofitted with a VFD wired into the
motor disconnect.
Drive manufacturers achieve variable motor speed op−
eration by modulating the frequency of the electrical
power being supplied to the motor during normal op−
erations, as well as voltage adjustment during startup
440/3/60
MAINTAINED
CONTACT
PUSH BUTTON
STATION
220/3/60
MAIN
CONTACTS
L1
L2
L3
L1
L2
L3
T1
T2
T3
STOP
AUXILIARY
CONTACT
START
T1
T2
HOLDING
COILS
T3
HEATER
COILS
110 V
440/110 V
CONTROL
TRANSFORMER
M
A. CONTROLLING STARTER-MOT OR
110 V
220/110 V
CONTROL
TRANSFORMER
M
B. CONTROLLED STARTER-MOT OR
FIGURE 3-9 INTERLOCKED STARTERS WITH CONTROL TRANSFORMERS
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
3.9
to approximately 40% of their full design speed with
no noticeable effect on motor performance or life.
However, unless specifically designed for variable fre−
quency operation, most motors will develop a notice−
able increase in noise level and temperature below this
point. Continuous operation below 25 percent of full
load speed is not recommended and this lower range
should only be used to reduce high current surges and
belt stress during fan startup or shutdown.
Just as lowering the frequency below 60 cycles per sec−
ond will lower the motor speed below nameplate
RPM, you can also increase motor speed above name−
plate rating by increasing the frequency above 60
cycles per second. All initial air balancing should be
carried out with the VFD set for approximately 55
cycles per second (Hz), even if drive pulleys and belts
must be changed to achieve the design peak air flow.
This will provide added ?headroom" for fan capacity
when the system experiences duct and coil static pres−
sure loses from dirt buildup.
3.6.1
FIGURE 3-10 VFD ADDED TO EXISTING AIR HANDLING UNIT
and shutdown. Although most 3−phase motors will op−
erate satisfactorily on a VFD, low cost motors and
some energy efficient motors may experience higher
noise or heat levels, especially at very low speed op−
eration. Many manufacturers now offer modified mo−
tor designs specifically for VFD operation.
Varying the speed of an AC motor is much more com−
plex than DC motor speed control. Most traditional
DC motors have a commutator and brushes to provide
electrical power to the rotating armature coil. Varying
the voltage to this coil using a resistor or a rheostat
changes the motor’s speed fairly effectively.
AC motors do not have a commutator or brushes since
the constantly alternating electricity induces an oppos−
ing electrical field in the armature coil much like the
primary coil of a transformer inducing a voltage in the
secondary coil. Each AC motor is designed for a spe−
cific voltage and reducing the supply voltage below
this value will cause the motor to quickly lose its load
capacity and stall, causing overheating and eventual
motor burnout.
Keeping the supply voltage to an AC motor at its de−
sign point while varying the frequency of this voltage
results in a corresponding change of motor speed.
Most AC motors can be operated continuously down
3.10
VFD Operation During TAB Work
Most VFD devices can be programmed with a maxi−
mum and minimum motor speed, and ?ramp up" and
?ramp down" rates to reduce wear on drive belts and
bearings. The days of a TAB technician replacing mo−
tor pulleys to adjust fan speed is drawing to a close, and
today’s TAB technician needs to become familiar with
variable frequency motor drives and their setpoint pro−
gramming.
In most cases, drive and motor manufacturers do not
recommend operating these systems for extended peri−
ods of time below 40 percent motor speed, and all VFD
programmed setpoints should be verified and recorded
during the balancing process.
3.6.2
VFD Bypass
Almost all VFD devices include a hand−off−auto
switch and a manual speed control dial that can be used
in manual operation. If the VFD device is placed in
manual mode during TAB work, be sure it is returned
to the auto mode before completing this work.
Also note that in manual mode it is possible to operate
the fan or pump at full speed. Since a remote duct or
piping pressure sensor may be connected to the VFD
device to allow maintaining a fixed duct or water sup−
ply pressure, manually operating the fan or pump
while down stream dampers or valves may be closed
could cause very high pressures to develop in ducts or
piping.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 4
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
CHAPTER 4
4.1
AUTOMATIC TEMPERATURE
CONTROL SYSTEMS
4.1.1
Introduction
Automatic temperature control of HVAC includes the
control of temperature, humidity, and sometimes sys−
tem or building pressures. The automatic temperature
control (ATC) system constantly adjusts the HVAC
systems to maintain design conditions within the occu−
pied space.
Because TAB work is concerned with the operation of
the HVAC system, and because the control system
constantly adjusts the HVAC system, it is imperative
that the TAB technician understands the function and
use of automatic temperature control systems.
It must be remembered that motor controls covered in
Chapter 3, are not automatic temperature controls, but
the automatic temperature control system may moni−
tor or operate motors and motor controllers. The use of
the word control for both systems and devices some−
times causes this basic difference to be overlooked re−
lated to responsibility.
4.1.2
Types of ATC Systems
There are four basic types of controls for HVAC or en−
vironmental systems:
electric
pneumatic
electronic
self−contained
There are also combinations of the above types.
4.1.2.1
Electric Controls
Electric controls are those which are line voltage or
less (generally 110 volts maximum). Reduced volt−
ages are obtained from transformers, either locally or
centrally situated. Many of these controls are simply
on−off devices such as a high limit thermostat control−
ling an exhaust fan. Generally, complex systems re−
quire more sophistication than these controls can pro−
duce.
4.1.2.2
Pneumatic Controls
Until the advent of micro−electronics, all HVAC con−
trols of air handling systems, chillers, and boilers were
pneumatic controls. These systems used compressed
air to operate diaphragms and mechanical relays to
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
position dampers and valves. Although fairly easy to
visually observe the operation of each control device,
changing the sequence of operation for any HVAC sys−
tem was in many cases a plumbing ?nightmare," since
everything was interconnected by air tubes. At the
close of the 1990’s, most pneumatic logic controls
have been replaced by direct digital controls (DDC),
with the exception of very large dampers and valves
which may still utilize pneumatic damper motors as
large electronic motors are still relatively expensive.
On most of today’s commercial and institutional pro−
jects, the TAB technician may find that all HVAC con−
trols are now based on micro−electronics. However,
we are still including a review of pneumatic control
basics in this chapter as these systems still exist and
may be encountered during HVAC system renovation
and expansion.
4.1.2.3
Electronic Controls
The term ?electronic controls" was first used to de−
scribe newer control technology being installed to re−
place some of the functions of the older pneumatic
control devices. Most of these first generation elec−
tronic controls did little more than monitor HVAC sys−
tem operation and provide on/off control of fans,
valves, and dampers. The control ?logic" was special−
ized software operating on a large main frame central
computer, communicating with field interface panels
connected to temperature sensors and relays. Any
pneumatic controlled dampers or valves were still op−
erated by their original pneumatic controls, with E/P
relays switched between fixed setpoints. These earlier
electronic control systems were of little interest to the
TAB technician other than requesting an unseen con−
trol operator to start or stop a fan.
During the 1990’s this older technology was replaced
by DDC which no longer required the pneumatic con−
trol devices to carry out the positioning of dampers,
valves, and setpoint controllers. In addition, with the
advent of micro−electronics, the operating program
software is now contained within the remote field pan−
els and the large central computer is no longer re−
quired.
Unlike the earlier electronic control systems, this new
DDC technology does have a significant impact on the
balancing contractor on all but the smallest projects.
HVAC system manufacturers are finding that it is less
expensive to use these easily programmed ?black box"
control devices. There are no longer pneumatic control
devices that must be constantly calibrated and ad−
justed to maintain system reliability.
The days of a TAB technician adjusting a pneumatic
controller to reposition the damper on a VAV box may
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
4.1
be coming to an end, and today’s TAB technician may
find a hand held computer indispensable on a balanc−
ing job.
What may have required above ceiling linkage adjust−
ments while standing on a shaky ladder, can now be ac−
complished by plugging a hand held device into the
nearest electronic wall thermostat. The TAB techni−
cian can instantly verify high and low air flows, adjust
operating setpoints, and monitor room conditions as
the HVAC system responds to these control input
changes.
It is very important for any SMACNA contractor en−
tering today’s TAB field to have a good understanding
of DDC basics.
4.1.2.4
Self-Contained Controls
Self−contained controls differ from the above types in
that they do not use an external source of power, but
develop their own power. Often used in automatic
valves, a bellows or other sensing element has enough
strength to move the valve. Because of strength and
large mass involved in its construction, it is not capa−
ble of providing as close control as other types of sys−
tems. Applications include:
condenser water regulating valves on refrig−
eration compressor units (city water).
thermostatic expansion valves.
steam control valves for heating domestic hot
water.
self−contained radiator control valves.
Other combinations are electro−hydraulic, commonly
applied to valve operators, and electro−pneumatic sys−
tems using electronic devices to sense temperature and
pressure, and pneumatic devices to operate valves and
dampers. This dual system combines advantages of
electronic systems (sensitivity, wide range of adjust−
ability) with simplicity of pneumatic operators.
4.1.3
Control Categories
Control systems also are divided into two categories:
operating controls and safety or limit controls.
4.1.3.1
Operating Controls
Operating controls are used for the control of room
conditions and system setpoints. The most common
example of an operating control is a room thermostat.
4.2
4.1.3.2
Safety Controls
Safety or limit controls are used to provide safe equip−
ment operation. Safety or limit controls must be set
properly to avoid unsafe conditions such as pressures
or temperatures that are too high or too low, and imple−
ment emergency equipment shut off.
Safety or limit controls may interrupt the operating
controls at any given time to ensure safe system opera−
tion. Examples of safety controls are freeze stats, fire
stats, flow switches, smoke detectors, and refrigera−
tion high−low pressure cutouts.
4.2
CONTROL LOOPS
No matter which type of control system is used, all
control applications must involve a fundamental con−
trol loop. A control loop consists of three components:
a controller (thermostat)
a controlled device (valve, damper)
a sensing device (transmitter, bi−metal strip)
For example, a sensing device (remote bulb) monitors
the temperature of a supply air duct and sends a signal
to the controller.
The controller monitors the signal as sent by the sens−
ing device, and reacts by either opening or closing a
controlled device (valve or damper). As a result of the
resulting change in system output, (such as hot water
in a heating coil), the action of the controlled device
creates a change in the sensing device which provide
feedback to the controller that the system change took
place.
The operation of any control loop is continuous during
normal operation of the HVAC system.
4.2.1
Controllers
Controllers (such as thermostats and humidistats) have
two possible sets of control actions:
4.2.1.1
Modulating or two position
Direct or reverse acting
Modulating/Two Position
Modulating control (also called proportional control)
is obtained when the control signal sent by the control−
ler to the controlled device is constantly changing in
small increments to gradually increase or decrease the
capacity of a system component to suit the load condi−
tions. Two position control, which also can be on−off,
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
only assumes two positions; fully open or fully closed.
Two position controllers are normally used with equip−
ment that only operates in an on−off application.
Equipment such as gas valves or small air conditioning
compressors would fall under this category.
4.2.1.2
Two−way valves are normally used for water or steam
service. Three−way mixing and diverting valves are
used only in hydronic piping (Figure 4−2). The valve
constant or flow coefficient is used to calculate the
flow and pressure drop of ATC valves in the wide open
position.
Direct/Reverse Acting
Equation 4-1 (I-P)
Modulating system control devices may increase or
decrease the output (branch) control signal with
changes in space conditions monitored by the sensing
element. A direct acting controller will increase the
output (branch) control signal as the controlled vari−
able (temperature, humidity, pressure) increases. A re−
verse acting controller increases the control signal as
the controlled variable decreases. The action of the
controller must be properly matched with the control
device or the control loop will produce unexpected re−
sults or those opposite of that desired.
DP Q
Cv
2
Where:
DP Pressuredifferential(psi)
Q Flowthroughvalve(gpm)
C v FlowCoefficient
Equation 4-1 (SI)
DP Q
Kv
2
The position of a controlled device when de−energized
is considered the normal position. Control devices
such as valves or dampers are either normally open
(N.O.) or normally closed (N.C.). Some electric de−
vices also contain switches that are normally open or
normally closed until moved to the opposite position
by a controller.
Where:
DP Pressuredifferential(kPa)
Q Flowthroughvalve(Ls)
K v FlowCoefficient
4.2.2
A control valve must be selected to control a flow of
20 gpm at a maximum 4 psi pressure drop. Calculate
the Cv of the valve.
Controlled Devices
Controlled devices that affect the TAB technician the
most are automatic control dampers and automatic
control valves. Both affect flow and both can be two
position or modulating.
Example 4−1 (I−P)
Solution
4.2.2.1
2
ATC Valves
Figure 4−1 illustrates the throttling characteristics of
the different types of modulating ATC valves. Two
position valves such as those used for automatic shut−
off in seasonal change−over piping need no specific
throttling characteristic, the major concern being tight
shutoff.
Gate
Q
Q
; DP Cv
Cv
Q
C v 20 10
DP
4
DP Butterfly
100%
Example 4.1 (SI)
A control valve must be selected to control a flow of
1.3 L/s at a maximum 28 kPa pressure drop. Calculate
the Kv of the valve.
Ideal Straight Line
Characteristic Throttling Plug
Travel 50%
Globe
Solution
2
50%
100%
% Flow
FIGURE 4-1 VALVE THROTTLING
CHARACTERISTIC COMPARISON
Q
Q
; DP Kv
Kv
Q
K v 1.3 0.25
DP
28
DP HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
4.3
IN
OUT
OUT
IN
OUT
IN
3 Way Mixing
3 Way Diverting
FIGURE 4-2 ATC VALVE ARRANGEMENTS
For proper control action, it is desirable for an ATC
valve to be sized so the pressure drop cross the wide
open valve at design flow rate will give an appreciable
pressure drop. For example, in the case of a steam
valve, it is considered good practice for the pressure
drop at design flow to be approximately 50 percent of
the absolute steam pressure available at the valve.
4.2.2.2
closed, produces a control characteristic that is unsat−
isfactory.
Opposed blade dampers do not eliminate the above
problems, but they improve the control ability by clos−
ing blades toward each other so that throttling begins
sooner. Close and accurate control is improved but still
limited. The linear operating characteristic is not as
ATC Dampers
Dampers used for automatic temperature control have
either parallel or opposed blades as shown in Figure
4−3. Quality, tight fitting dampers with long lasting
blade edge seals or the equivalent are necessary for
ATC work.
Parallel blade dampers are almost always used for two
position or open−closed control. Opposed blade damp−
ers are used for modulating control of airflow. Damp−
ers present throttling problems similar to valves which
is difficult to correct. Parallel blade dampers often
have a throttling characteristic which is worse than
gate valves. This deficiency is complicated by the pro−
cedure of selecting damper sizes based on low air ve−
locities across the dampers. The play in the dampers
and damper linkages caused by flexibility and distor−
tion, and the difficulty of seating the blades when
4.4
PARALLEL
OPERATION
OPPOSED
OPERATION
FIGURE 4-3 TYPICAL MULTIBLADE
DAMPERS
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
nearly achieved as in the case of valves, but may be
more closely approximated by sizing the dampers on
higher velocities and by providing more sections and
more rigidly constructed.
the sequence of control and the ATC diagrams would
indicate which devices to inspect.
4.2.2.3
Most control system sensors and controllers are linear
(which means straight line). Figure 4−1 indicates the
error induced by non−linear control devices such as
dampers and valves. Linear control in pneumatic sys−
tems may translate to one degree of temperature
change from one psi of air pressure change. One psi
(kPa) or fluid pressure change on the discharge side of
a pump also could result in a two or three psi (kPa) of
control pressure change. These systems are linear as
long as each increment of controlled variable produces
the same increment of signal. The system would be
non−linear if different amounts of signals emanate
from a fixed increment of the controlled variable. For
example, a system is non−linear if at 70F (21C), a
one degree change produces a one psi (kPa) control
signal; but at 90F (32C), a one degree change pro−
duces a two psi (kPa) control signal.
Valve and Damper Linkages
The operation of automatic valves can often be re−
versed in the field to suit the action of the controllers,
although in some cases it may be necessary to change
the operator. The action of automatic dampers can usu−
ally be reversed by resetting the damper arm or other
parts of the linkage. Sometimes it is necessary to limit
the travel of dampers or valves in order to provide
proper control. Most pneumatic and electric devices
have operator stops that can be adjusted so that the
valve or damper operator is permitted to complete a
portion of its stroke. Electric operators have limit
switches which can be positioned to electrically stop
the operator at a desired position. The correct setting
of stops and/or limit switches is important for the suc−
cessful operation of a system, and personnel must un−
derstand such adjustments, or equipment could be
damaged.
Although adjustments of ATC valves and dampers on
larger systems are normally made by the Temperature
Control Contractor, the TAB technician needs to un−
derstand the factors required for proper valve and
damper adjustment.
4.3
4.4
CONTROL RELATIONSHIPS
An actuator is considered linear if it has a signal range
of ten psi (kPa) from fully open to fully closed. So a
five volt or five psi (kPa) signal will cause a 50 percent
travel. However, if the actuator device is used on a
valve or damper, an actuator change of 50 percent will
seldom change the fluid flow by the same 50 percent.
From Figure 4−1, one can see that a 50 percent stem
travel of a gate valve from wide open will have little
effect on the fluid flow.
CONTROL DIAGRAMS
Equation 4-2 (I-P)
In a typical job specification, there are general descrip−
tions of various types of control applications , called
the sequence of controls, which the automatic Temper−
ature Control Contractor must translate into a set of
drawings called control diagrams. These control dia−
grams and related written sequence of controls for
each HVAC system, are used by the ATC contractor for
control system installation in coordination with the
HVAC system contractor. The data found in these dia−
grams is extremely important to the TAB technician
and these diagrams frequently are the only description
of how a complicated HVAC system will operate.
Control system diagrams also can be used to assist the
TAB technician in troubleshooting. For example,
when the hand−off−automatic switch of a fan motor
starter is in the automatic position, it is found that the
fan will not run. But the fan will run when the switch
is in the hand position. This indicates that some type
of automatic temperature control device or safety
switch is preventing the fan from running. A review of
C v Q
(2.3)½
Q
(H)½
2.3
H
Equation 4-2 (SI)
K v Q
DP
Equation 4-3
Q21
H1
DP 1
2 H2
Q2
DP 2
Where:
Cv
Kv
Q
P
H
=
=
=
=
=
Flow coefficient or valve constant (I−P)
Flow coefficient or valve constant (SI)
Fluid flow rateCgpm (L/s)
Pressure differenceCpsi (kPa)
Head loss or pressure dropCfeet (meters)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
4.5
Equations 4−2 and 4−3 indicate that the pressure drop
across the valve is proportional to the square of the
fluid flow rate. This relationship is indicated by the
general curve shown in Figure 4−1, which can apply to
most systems, although the numbers may vary. The
non−linearity of the controlling device is apparent with
this curve. In order to minimize the resulting control
inaccuracies, the controller and the controlled device
must be carefully matched so that an average linearity
is achieved. This cannot be done across the entire
range of the device, therefore, the devices are matched
for a normal operating range, which is a matter of judg−
ment of the system designer or the ATC Contractor.
trol system is required. Outside air and exhaust air
dampers usually are interlocked with the supply fan to
open to a fixed minimum outside air position when the
fan is started. A mixed air temperature sensor could
then control the outside air, return air, and exhaust air
dampers to maintain a set mixed air temperature. At a
pre−set temperature or a high outside air humidity, the
outside air damper often will be returned to a mini−
mum position to decrease the cooling load of the out−
side air. In a case of power or control system failure,
the outside air damper usually closes automatically. A
freeze stat also can stop the fan and close the outside
air dampers.
4.5
4.6.2
ATC SYSTEM ADJUSTMENT
After completion of the physical installation, the ATC
system components must be adjusted and calibrated so
that they may operate individually and collectively to
provide the specified environmental system control.
The amount of adjustment and calibration will depend
on the complexities of the ATC system.
All calibration of ATC system instruments should have
been done by the ATC installer prior to system balan−
cing. However, there are some specific adjustments
which should be done in conjunction with TAB per−
sonnel during system adjustment and balancing. Fail−
ure to provide this coordination may lead to the inabil−
ity of the HVAC system to perform satisfactorily under
load.
Setting automatic dampers for proper air quantities,
positioning hot and cold deck dampers, and maintain−
ing valves open or closed to maintain design operating
conditions are among the multitude of factors which
affect systems operation and TAB work.
After the installation has been completed, accepted,
and the building occupied, problems can arise which
may or may not be attributable to the TAB work. It is
not unusual for accidental maladjustment of controls
to produce symptoms which seem to point to improper
HVAC system balancing. Outside air dampers that
have slipped, or a reheat coil thermostat that malfunc−
tions, are excellent examples. The ability to recognize
the real source of the problem not only saves time but
vindicates the TAB work.
4.6
TAB/ATC RELATIONSHIP
4.6.1
Related Problems
To properly balance and adjust any HVAC system, a
thorough knowledge of the installed temperature con−
4.6
Controllers
A thermostat in the duct system often will control a
heating or cooling coil valve, face and by−pass damp−
ers or mixing dampers. A room thermostat can control
a hot water, steam, chilled water or electric booster
coil, and/or hot and cold mixing dampers. A humidis−
tat can control a humidifier or a cooling coil for dehu−
midification. Controls can be direct acting, reverse
acting, modulating or two position, stepped, master,
sub−master, series, or parallel. Controls can actuate
dampers, valves, and relays; start, modulate or stop
motors, fans, and other equipment; and be controlled
by time clocks, time delay relays, static pressure con−
trollers, air switches, flow switches, level controllers,
fire and smoke detectors. They can be connected to
alarm systems, and be controlled, readjusted, and be
indicated from or at remote control panels. Finally,
controls can be very simple or very complex.
4.6.3
Ventilation Air
Probably the most important effect on TAB work is the
setting of the outside air, return air, and exhaust air
dampers. After the fan speed (rpm) and airflow capac−
ity have been checked out, set the outside air dampers
for minimum outside air. Use thermometers or a ther−
mocouple to measure outside air, return air and mixed
air temperatures. Use the mixed air temperature Equa−
tion 4−4 to determine the amount of outside air. Work−
ing with the temperature control contractor, set the
minimum outside air conditions. Mark the dampers for
the minimum position and recheck the air flows.
If an economizer cycle is used, next check using 100
percent outside air and again check air flows. Follow
the procedure for 25, 50, 75 percent outside air. The
mixing of the return air with outside air to give a
known mixed air temperature can be determined by
the following:
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
X oT o X rT r
T m 100
Equation 4-4
Tm = Temperature of the mixture of return air−
and outdoor air
Xo = Percentage of outdoor air
Xr = Percentage of return air
To = Temperature of outdoor air, F (C)
Tr = Temperature of return air, F (C)
Being familiar with the interactions and functions of
these control systems will go a long way in reducing
on site system balancing time.
The following equations are used for determining per−
centages of outside air. For this work, more convenient
forms of expressing Equation 4−4 are given in Equa−
tion 4−5 and 4−6.
(Tr Tm)
X o 100
(T r T o)
(Tm To)
X r 100
(Tr To)
Equation 4-5
Example 4.2 (SI)
24C return air is mixed with −4 outside air and the
mixed air temperature is 13C. Find the percentage of
outside air.
Solution
(Tr Tm)
(T r T o)
(24°C 13°C)
100
[24°C ( 4°C)]
100 11°C 39.3%
28°C
X o 100
4.7
CENTRALIZED CONTROL
SYSTEMS
The concept of centralized controls or energy manage−
ment systems (EMCS) briefly addressed in the begin−
ning of this Chapter is applied to many buildings being
constructed or modernized today.
Equation 4-6
Example 4−2 (I−P)
75F return air is mixed with 25F outside air and the
mixed air temperature is 55F. Find the percentage of
outside air.
Solution
(Tr Tm)
(T r T o)
(75° 55°)
100
(75° 25°)
100 20° 40%
50°
X o 100
FIGURE 4-4 DESKTOP COMPUTER
DISPLAYING STATUS OF BUILDING
HVAC SYSTEMS
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
4.7
Figure 4−4 shows a standard desktop computer being
used to monitor and control all HVAC systems in a hos−
pital. These software programs are becoming very
easy to use and can display photos and diagrams of a
given system, with all ?live" temperature and setpoint
data displayed next to each system component.
Almost all new buildings will utilize a computerized
HVAC control system. Even the most basic dial time
clock for start/stop control have been replaced by less
expensive electronic time clocks that can adjust for
seasonal length of daylight and changing outdoor tem−
peratures. Large HVAC systems now have one or more
field control panels that include programmable com−
puterized memories containing all of the sequence of
control logics and control algorithms for the systems
and devices being controlled.
These field panels include four types of control inputs
and outputs, plus the ability to communicate local con−
ditions and setpoints to other field panels or remote
monitoring locations.
Digital Input
Digital Output
Analog Input
Analog Output
4.7.1
4.7.2
In addition to these input and output field devices, a
typical centralized computer control system consists
of one or more field interface devices, and one or more
programmable stand alone controllers as shown in Fig−
ure 4−5.
Each programmable stand alone controller contains a
microcomputer and battery backed up memory con−
taining all of the programming for all field devices and
SENSORS
Many field interface panels include a manual/auto
switch for each control output. This allows local by−
pass of the control system during system testing and
balancing, but bypassing any controls should be autho−
rized by the system operator and all switches returned
to ?auto" mode when the TAB work is complete.
Digital Input
A digital input is an on/off, open/closed, hi/low, or oth−
er two position feedback signal input to the computer−
ized control system from the HVAC equipment being
monitored.
Four basic EMCS signals:
HVAC systems it controls. After this software has been
created on a desktop computer, it is ?downloaded" to
each field controller. Since the actual sequence of con−
trols and operating schedules reside in the field stand
alone controller, the central control computer is only
needed when operating schedules or system setpoints
need to be changed by the operator, or to display sys−
tem alarms sent from the field controllers. Since the
programmable stand alone controllers are a micro−
computer device, a field interface device provides re−
lays and analog to digital transducers which allows the
tiny electronic circuits to control larger current field
devices like motor starters and damper operators.
Digital Output
A digital output is an on/off, open/close, hi/low, or oth−
er two position control signal command output from
the computerized control system to the HVAC system
being controlled.
4.7.3
Analog Input
An analog input is a variable feedback signal to the
computerized control system from the HVAC system
being monitored. It could indicate the position of a
DESKTOP
COMPUTER
FIELD
INTERFACE
DEVICES
& RELAYS
PROGRAMMABLE
STAND ALONE
CONTROLLER(S)
ACTUATORS
FIGURE 4-5 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM A CENTRALIZED COMPUTER
CONTROL SYSTEM
4.8
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
valve or damper, speed of a fan or pump, or a room
temperature or humidity.
4.7.4
Analog Output
An analog output is a variable command signal output
from the computerized control system to the HVAC
system being controlled. This signal could be adjust−
ing a 0 to 20 psi pressure to a valve or damper motor,
or a 0 to 10 volt signal to a variable speed fan motor
drive, or other variable signal to match the device be−
ing controlled.
4.7.5
EMCS Communications
In addition to the above control inputs and outputs, al−
most all computerized building control systems have
the ability to communicate with other field panels or
central monitoring displays and alarm printers.
vision of the Centralized Control installer or ATC con−
tractor. Also, readings obtained from centralized sys−
tems can be used by the TAB technician to balance the
HVAC system being controlled.
4.7.7
How an EMCS Helps TAB Work
A person entering the TAB field may be wondering
what all this has to do with the testing and balancing
field.
Prior to micro−electronics and DDC, all HVAC sys−
tems were controlled by pneumatic devices. Figure
4−6 shows a typical pneumatic control cabinet for a
large air handling unit. Notice the high concentration
of ?spaghetti" tubing which are used to interconnect
all of the pneumatic control devices including pneu−
matic relays, receiver/controllers, and various pneu−
matic logic controls.
Originally, this communication was by direct hard
wire or dial up phone connection, but the trend today
is towards less manufacturer specific and more open
communication ?protocols," allowing any computer
on the same computer ?network" having the proper
software and access codes to view and/or change any
HVAC system on the same network. This system of in−
terconnect also reduces the need for multiple sensors.
For example, one outside air sensor can now have its
present temperature reading accessed by all air han−
dling units and their controls for outside temperature
reset instead of a separate sensor for each.
4.7.6
EMCS Points List
In addition to the control contractor providing a writ−
ten sequence of controls and related control diagrams,
the control documentation for a computerized automa−
tion control system should also include a ?points list."
This list is actually a table or chart, which at a glance
indicates each physical piece of equipment being con−
trolled down the ?y" axis, and the different types of
software programs utilized across the top ?x" axis. The
type of points, analog input (AI) analog output (AO),
digital input (DI), and digital output (DO) is also indi−
cated.
By placing an ?x" or ?dot" where each column and row
intersect, it is easy to see the interaction of the physical
world with the software programming. Reviewing this
points list is helpful to the TAB technician to under−
stand how a system is being operated.
The TAB technicians should not attempt to adjust or
change control settings except when under the super−
FIGURE 4-6 HVAC CONTROLS PANEL
WITH ORIGINAL PNEUMATIC
CONTROLS.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
4.9
Unfortunately, many times this calibration has not
been completed prior to the TAB work. For this reason,
if you have access to the automation system display
during the balancing work, be sure to record air and
water flows being displayed at the time of your own
measurements and advise the automation system con−
troller.
This is especially critical on variable air volume sys−
tems since out of calibration automation flow stations
can cause an air handling unit that was just balanced
to produce much higher or lower flow rates than in−
tended.
Figure 4−8 shows a TAB technician using a small por−
table laptop computer to adjust the minimum and max−
imum air flows on an above ceiling VAV box. Note
how the computer is ?plugged" directly into a jack that
is provided under each electronic wall thermostat con−
nected to a DDC system.
The computer screen is displaying actual VAV box dis−
charge air cfm, discharge air temperature, percent
damper position, reheat coil discharge temperature,
branch duct supply temperature, duct static pressure,
maximum discharge cfm setpoint, and minimum dis−
charge cfm setpoint. All of these values can be easily
read and adjusted if necessary during system testing
FIGURE 4-7 THE SAME HVAC
CONTROL PANEL AFTER UPGRADING
TO DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL (DDC).
Figure 4−7 shows the same control cabinet after all of
the pneumatic controls and control tubing were re−
placed with a DDC system. Now changing discharge
air temperature from the unit or adjusting the outside
air damper is as simple as moving the ?mouse" across
the control screen in the building manager’s office.
Many building automation systems include air flow
and water flow measuring stations in addition to the
many temperature and humidity sensors. Before being
tempted to use these easy to read values, keep in mind
that these control input devices require calibration in
the software program which may not have been com−
pleted. On new construction projects, many control
contractors will install all of these field devices using
factory ?default" settings. This allows faster system
startup and the default valves are acceptable for initial
startup operation.
4.10
FIGURE 4-8 PORTABLE COMPUTER
PLUGGED INTO ELECTRONIC WALL
THERMOSTAT DURING SYSTEM
BALANCING.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
and balancing without the need to climb a ladder or re−
move ceiling tiles and access covers.
Since each control manufacturer may have their own
custom software and plug−in thermostat to computer
cables, most TAB technicians have developed a good
working relationship with the control system installers
who may be able to provide these programs and cables
at little or no cost. The ability of a TAB technician to
use these portable control devices can reduce the time
the control contractor needs to be on site during the
TAB work, and in return, the TAB technician does not
need to schedule his site times to meet the availability
of the control contractor.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
4.11
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
4.12
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 5
FANS
CHAPTER 5
5.1
FAN CHARACTERISTICS
5.1.1
Introduction
This chapter will apply the basic airflow fundamentals
discussed in Chapter 2 HVAC Fundamentals to fans.
As stated earlier, each type of system needs a pump to
overcome the friction and dynamic losses of the sys−
tem. This device can be either a centrifugal pump, a
fan, a compressor, a turbine, or some other sophisti−
cated device. Therefore, each device must be studied
by the TAB technician so that not only all of its unique
characteristics are known, but that the device has been
applied properly within the system, and that the system
has been designed to circulate fluid in the most eco−
nomical manner and to provide maximum comfort.
With an in−depth understanding of HVAC fans and
their relationship to HVAC systems, it becomes easy
for the TAB technician to apply proper balancing pro−
cedures in the correct sequence when on the job.
Centrifugal Fans
Three basic types of fans are used in HVAC systems,
the centrifugal fan or blower, the axial flow fan, and
special designs using fans or blowers in different hou−
sings. The airflow within the centrifugal fan is sub−
stantially radial through the wheel, while the airflow
through the axial flow fan is parallel to the fan shaft.
The components of centrifugal fans are identified in
Figure 5−1. The three variations of the centrifugal fan
used in HVAC work are forward curved, backward in−
clined, and airfoil.
5.1.2.1
*SCROLL SIDE
SCROLL PIECE
SIDE SHEET
SIDE PLATE
*OUTLET
DISCHARGE
*BACKPLATE
HUB DISK
HUBPLATE
*BLADES
FINS
INLET CONE
INLET RING
INLET BELL
INLET FLARE
INLET NOZZLE
VENTURI
*SCROLL
CASING
HOUSING
*IMPELLER
WHEEL
SCROLL HOUSING
*RIM
VOLUTE
MOTOR
SHROUD
WHEEL RING
WHEEL CONE
*SUPPORTS
RETAINING RING
STIFFENERS
INLET RIM
*INLET COLLARWHEEL RIM
INLET SLEEVEFLANGE
INLET BAND INLET PLATE
* PREFERRED NOMENCLATURE
PEDESTAL
FIGURE 5-1 CENTRIFUGAL FAN
COMPONENTS
shape of its performance curve, which allows the pos−
sibility of overloading the motor, if system static pres−
sure decreases. It also is not suitable for material han−
dling because it has an inherently weak structure.
Therefore, FC fans are generally not capable of the
high speeds necessary for developing higher static
pressures.
STATIC PRESSURE CURVE
STATIC EFFICIENCY CURVE
BHP CURVE
100
Forward Curved (FC) Fans
The FC centrifugal fan turns at a relatively slow speed
and generally is used for producing high airflow vol−
umes at low static pressures. The FC fan will surge, but
the magnitude is less than for other types. The static
pressure proportion of the total pressure discharge is
20 percent while the velocity pressure is 80 percent.
Typical operating range of this type of fan is from 30
percent to 80 percent wide open volume (see Figure
5−2). The maximum static efficiency of 60−80 percent
generally occurs slightly to the right of peak static
pressure. The horsepower curve has an increasing
slope and therefore is referred to as an overloading
type fan.
70
SE. SP AND BHP
5.1.2
FANS
0
30
80
100
FIGURE 5-2 CHARACTERISTIC
CURVES FOR FC FANS
5.1.2.2
Advantages of the FC fan are its low cost, and the slow
speed which minimizes shaft and bearing size, and its
wide operating range. Disadvantages include the
0
Backward Inclined (BI) Fans
Backward inclined fans travel at about twice the speed
of the FC fan. The normal selection range of the BI fan
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
5.1
is approximately 40−85 percent of wide open airflow
volume (see Figure 5−3). Maximum static efficiency of
about 80 percent generally occurs close to the edge of
its normal operating range. Generally, using a larger
fan will allow greater efficiency for a given selection.
The magnitude of surge for a BI fan is greater than for
the FC fan.
STATIC PRESSURE CURVE
STATIC EFFICIENCY CURVE
BHP CURVE
100
STATIC PRESSURE CURVE
STATIC EFFICIENCY CURVE
BHP CURVE
SE. SP AND BHP
86
SE., SP AND BHP
100
80
0
50
CFM
85
100
FIGURE 5-4 CHARACTERISTIC
CURVES FOR AIR FOIL
are shown in Figure 5−4. For a specific application, the
airfoil fan has the highest rpm of the three centrifugal
fans.
5.1.3
0
0
40
CFM
85
100
FIGURE 5-3 CHARACTERISTIC
CURVES FOR BI FANS
Advantages of the BI fan include its higher efficiency
and non−overloading horsepower curve. The horse−
power curve generally reaches a maximum in the
middle of the normal operating range, thus overload−
ing is normally not a problem. Inherently stronger de−
sign makes it suitable for the higher static pressure op−
eration of 70 percent of the total pressure measured at
the fan discharge. This leaves the measured velocity
pressure at only 30 percent.
Disadvantages include the higher speed, which re−
quires larger shaft and bearing sizes and places more
importance on proper wheel balance; and unstable op−
eration, which occurs as block−tight static pressure is
approached.
5.1.2.3
Airfoil Fans
A refinement of the flat bladed BI fan is a fan that uses
airfoil shaped blades. This improves the static effi−
ciency to about 86 percent and reduces noise level
slightly. The magnitude of surge also increases with
the airfoil blades. Characteristic curves for airfoil fans
5.2
0
Axial Fans
Components of axial fans are illustrated in Figure 5−5.
HVAC axial fans may be divided into three groups,
propeller, tubeaxial, and vaneaxial.
GUIDE VANE
INLET CONE OR
INLET BELL
WHEEL
ROTOR
IMPELLER
MOTOR
BLADE
HOUSING
CASING
HUB
NOSE
COVER PLATE
SPINNER
FIGURE 5-5 AXIAL FAN COMPONENTS
5.1.3.1
Propeller Fans
HVAC propeller fans normally are not connected to
duct systems. They are well suited for handling high
volumes of air at very low or no static pressures and
low efficiencies (see Figure 5−6).
5.1.3.2
Tubeaxial and Vaneaxial Fans
Tubeaxial and vaneaxial fans are simply propeller fans
mounted in a cylinder and are similar except for vane−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
STATIC PRESSURE CURVE
STATIC EFFICIENCY CURVE
BHP CURVE
STATIC PRESSURE CURVE
STATIC EFFICIENCY CURVE
BHP CURVE
100
SE.SP ANDBHP
SE. SP AND BHP
100
50
80
0
0
0
CFM
65
0
FIGURE 5-6 CHARACTERISTIC
CURVES FOR PROPELLER FANS
type straighteners on the vaneaxial. These vanes re−
move much of the swirl from the air and improve the
efficiency. A vaneaxial fan is more efficient than a tu−
beaxial fan and can reach higher pressures. Note that
with axial fans the brake horsepower (BHP) is maxi−
mum at the blocktight static pressure (see Figure 5−7).
Tubeaxial fans and vaneaxial fans generally are used
for handling large volumes of air at low static pres−
sures.
Advantages of tubeaxial fans and vaneaxial fans in−
clude the reduced size and weight, and the straight−
through airflow which frequently eliminates elbows in
the ductwork. The maximum static efficiency of an in−
dustrial vaneaxial fan is approximately 65 percent.
The operating range for axial fans is from 65 percent
to 90 percent.
Disadvantages of axial fans include high noise levels
and efficiencies lower than those of centrifugal fans.
Special Designs
There are variations of both centrifugal and axial fans
that are designated special design fans. These include
tubular centrifugal fans and power roof ventilators.
65
90 100
FIGURE 5-7 CHARACTERISTIC
CURVES FOR VANEAXIAL FANS
(HIGH PERFORMANCE)
5.1.4.1
5.1.4
CFM
100
Tubular Centrifugal Fans
Tubular centrifugal fans, illustrated in Figure 5−8, gen−
erally consist of a single width airfoil wheel arranged
in a cylinder to discharge air radially against the inside
of the cylinder. Air is then deflected parallel with the
fan shaft to provide straight−through flow. Vanes are
used to recover static pressure and to straighten air
flow.
SW CENTRIFUGAL
FAN WHEEL
STREAMLINE
INLET
AIR OUT
AIR IN
STRAIGHTENING
VANES
FIGURE 5-8 TUBULAR
CENTRIFUGAL FAN
Characteristic curves are shown in Figure 5−9. The
selection range is generally about the same as the
scroll type BI or airfoil bladed wheelC50 to 85 per−
cent of wide open volume. However, because there is
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
5.3
limitations of the wheels, bearings, and housing of
fans. Under the most recent class standards, there are
three classifications, as shown in Figures 5−10 and
5−11.
STATIC PRESSURE CURVE
STATIC EFFICIENCY CURVE
BHP CURVE
Note the line of demarcation between Class I and Class
II construction.
100
SE. SP AND BHP
Example 5.1 (I−P)
A fan operates at 9056 cfm, 1478 rpm, requiring 5.08
BHP at 1.0 in. wg SP. The airflow must be increased
to 10,188 cfm to handle an additional load. Find the
new SP and BHP.
70
15
14
13 1/2” @ 3780
13
RATINGS MAY BE
PUBLISHED IN THIS
UPPER RANGE
12
0
50
85
100
CFM
FIGURE 5-9 CHARACTERISTIC
CURVES FOR TUBULAR
CENTRIFUGAL FANS
no housing of the turbulent air flow path through the
fan, static efficiency is reduced to a maximum of about
72 percent and noise level is increased.
(SP)INCHES OF WATER
0
10
STATIC PRESSURE
11
6
MINIMUM
PERFORMANCE
CLASS III
9
8 1/2” @ 3000
8
CLASS III
SELECTION ZONE
7
6 3/4” @ 5260
5” @ 2300
4
2 1/2” @ 3200
1000
2000
Fan Classes
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
OUTLET VELOCITY (OV) FEET PER MINUTE
FIGURE 5-10 FAN CLASS STANDARDS (I-P) (SW BI FANS)
3750
3500
3375 Pa @ 18.9
3250
RATINGS MAY BE
PUBLISHED IN THIS
UPPER RANGE
3000
2750
STATIC PRESSURE (SP)-P ASCALS (Pa)
5.2.1
RATINGS MAY BE PUBLISHED
IN THIS LOWER RANGE
1
TYPICAL CLASS II
CHARACTERISTIC
CURVE
2500
FAN CONSTRUCTION
4 1/2” @ 4175
CLASS I
SELECTION ZONE
2
Power roof ventilators allow the air to discharge in a
full circle from the impeller, which may be either cen−
trifugal or axial with similar characteristics. A large
advantage is that they provide positive exhaust ven−
tilation over gravity ventilators.
5.2
CLASS II
SELECTION
ZONE
MINIMUM
PERFORMANCE
CLASS I
Power Roof Ventilators
Disadvantages include lower available static pressures
than centrifugal fans and loss of the discharge velocity
pressure component that is recovered.
MINIMUM
PERFORMANCE
CLASS II
5
3
Frequently, the straight−through flow results in signifi−
cant space savings. This is the main advantage of tubu−
lar centrifugal fans.
5.1.4.2
TYPICAL CLASS II
CHARACTERISTIC
CURVE
MINIMUM
PERFORMANCE
CLASS III
2250
2125 Pa @ 15.0
2000
CLASS III
SELECTION ZONE
1750
1563 Pa @ 26.3
1500
MINIMUM
PERFORMANCE
CLASS II
1250 Pa @ 11.5
1250
1000
MINIMUM
PERFORMANCE
CLASS I
750
1063 Pa @ 20.9
CLASS II
SELECTION
ZONE
625 Pa @ 16.0
When using a fan rating table published by the fan
manufacturer, if fan speeds and static pressures in−
crease above certain given conditions, the class of the
fan changes. Class again refers to an Air Movement
and Control Association, Inc. (AMCA) standard
which has been developed to regulate actual structural
5.4
500
CLASS I
SELECTION ZONE
RATINGS MAY BE PUBLISHED
IN THIS LOWER RANGE
250
5
10
15
20
25
30
OUTLET VELOCITY-METRES PER SECOND (m/s)
FIGURE 5-11 FAN CLASS STANDARDS (SI) (SW BI FANS)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
35
SW—Single Width
SI—Single Inlet
DW—Double Width
DI—Double Inlet
Arrangements 1, 3, 7 and 8 are also available with bearings
mounted on pedestals or base set independent of the fan housing.
For designation of rotation and discharge (see Figure 5–17)
For motor position, belt or chain drive (see Figure 5–16)
ARR. 2 SWSI For belt drive or direct connection. Impeller overhung
Bearings in bracket supported by
fan housing.
ARR. 3 SWSI For belt drive or direct connection. One bearing on
each side and supported by fan
housing.
ARR. 1 SWSI For belt drive or direct connection. Impeller overhung.
Two bearings on base.
ARR. 3 DWDI For belt drive or direct connection. One bearing on
each side and supported by fan
housing.
ARR. 4 SWSI For belt drive. Impeller overhung on prime mover
shaft. No bearings on fan. Prime
mover base mounted or integrally
directly connected.
ARR. 7 SWSI For belt drive or direct connection. Arrangement 3
plus base for prime mover.
ARR. 7 DWDI For belt drive or direct connection. Arrangement 3
plus base for prime mover.
ARR. 8 SWSI For belt drive or direct connection. Arrangement 1
plus extended base for prime
mover.
ARR. 9 SWSI For belt drive. Impeller overhung, two bearings with
prime mover outside base.
ARR. 10 SWSI For belt drive. Impeller overhung, two bearings with
prime mover inside base.
FIGURE 5-12 DRIVE ARRANGEMENTS FOR CENTRIFUGAL FANS
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
5.5
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
5.6
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
VEL
OUT
VEL
Press
CFM
FPM
H20
2264
2547
800
900
2830
3113
VOL
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
0.125
SP
0.250
SP
0.375
SP
0.500
SP
0.625
SP
0.750
SP
0.875
SP
1.000
SP
1.250
SP
1.500
SP
1.750
SP
2.000
SP
RPM
BHP
RPM
BHP
RPM
BHP
RPM
RPM
RPM
BHP
RPM
BHP
RPM
BHP
RPM
BHP
RPM
BHP
BHP
BHP
RPM
BHP
RPM
BHP
0.04
0.05
398
434
0.10
0.13
456
487
0.15
0.19
507
536
0.21
0.25
567
578
0.26
0.30
608
624
0.32
0.37
656
669
0.40
0.44
703
712
0.47
0.51
747
755
0.55
0.60
835
0.78
1000
1100
0.06
0.08
472
510
0.17
0.21
519
552
0.23
0.27
565
595
0.29
0.34
608
636
0.36
0.42
645
675
0.42
0.49
686
708
0.49
0.56
727
745
0.57
0.63
767
782
0.65
0.71
843
855
0.83
0.89
916
924
1.03
1.10
991
1.31
3396
1200
0.09
549
0.26
587
0.33
627
0.40
666
0.48
702
0.56
738
0.64
768
0.71
802
0.79
870
0.97
936
1.17
999
1.39
1062
1.63
3679
1300
0.11
589
0.32
624
0.39
661
0.47
697
0.55
731
0.64
765
0.73
798
0.81
825
0.89
888
1.07
950
1.26
1012
1.48
1070
1.71
3962
1400
0.12
629
0.39
662
0.46
695
0.54
729
0.63
762
0.72
794
0.81
826
0.91
856
1.01
909
1.17
967
1.37
1026
1.58
1083
1.82
4245
1500
0.14
668
0.46
700
0.54
730
0.62
762
0.72
794
0.81
825
0.91
854
1.01
884
1.12
936
1.30
989
1.50
1043
1.71
1097
1.94
4528
1600
0.16
709
0.55
739
0.63
767
0.72
796
0.81
827
0.91
856
1.02
884
1.13
912
1.23
967
1.46
1013
1.64
1063
1.86
1114
2.09
4811
1700
0.18
749
0.65
778
0.74
805
0.83
832
0.92
860
1.03
888
1.14
915
1.25
942
1.36
994
1.59
1044
1.82
1087
2.01
1134
2.25
5094
1800
0.20
790
0.75
818
0.85
843
0.95
868
1.05
894
1.15
921
1.26
948
1.38
973
1.50
1023
1.74
1073
1.99
1115
2.21
1157
2.43
5377
1900
0.23
830
0.88
857
0.98
882
1.08
906
1.19
930
1.29
955
1.40
980
1.53
1005
1.65
1053
1.90
1100
2.16
1146
2.42
1185
2.64
5660
2000
0.25
872
1.01
897
1.12
921
1.23
944
1.33
966
1.44
989
1.56
1014
1.68
1038
1.81
1084
2.08
1129
2.34
1173
2.61
1217
2.89
5943
2100
0.27
913
1.16
937
1.27
960
1.39
982
1.50
1004
1.61
1025
1.73
1048
1.85
1071
1.99
1116
2.26
1160
2.54
1202
2.82
1245
3.12
6226
2200
0.30
954
1.32
977
1.44
999
1.56
1021
1.68
1042
1.80
1062
1.91
1083
2.04
1104
2.17
1148
2.46
1191
2.75
1231
3.04
1272
3.34
6509
2300
0.33
995
1.50
1017
1.62
1039
1.75
1059
1.87
1080
1.99
1100
2.12
1119
2.24
1139
2.38
1181
2.57
1222
2.97
1262
3.28
1301
3.58
6792
2400
0.36
1037
1.70
1067
1.82
1079
1.95
1099
2.08
1118
2.21
1137
2.34
1156
2.47
1175
2.60
1215
2.90
1255
3.20
1293
3.52
1331
3.84
7358
2600
0.42
1120
2.13
1139
2.26
1159
2.40
1178
2.55
1196
2.68
1214
2.82
1231
2.97
1248
3.10
1284
3.40
1321
3.72
1358
4.06
1393
4.40
7924
8490
2800
3000
0.49
0.56
1204
1287
2.64
3.23
1221
1303
2.78
3.38
1239
1320
2.93
3.53
1257
1337
3.08
3.70
1274
1353
3.23
3.86
1291
1370
3.38
4.02
1308
1385
3.53
4.18
1324
1401
3.69
4.34
1356
1431
3.99
4.67
1389
1461
4.32
5.00
1424
1492
4.67
5.35
1458
1525
5.03
5.73
9056
9622
10754
3200
3400
3600
3800
0.64
0.72
0.81
0.90
1371
1455
1539
1623
3.90
4.66
5.51
6.46
1386
1469
1552
1636
4.05
4.82
5.68
6.64
1401
1483
1566
1648
4.21
4.99
5.86
6.82
1417
1498
1579
1661
4.39
5.16
6.04
7.01
1433
1513
1594
1674
4.56
5.35
6.24
7.21
1448
1528
1608
1688
4.74
5.54
6.43
7.42
1464
1542
1621
1701
4.91
5.72
6.63
7.63
1478
1556
1636
1714
5.08
5.91
6.82
7.84
1507
1583
1661
1740
5.43
6.27
7.20
8.25
1535
1611
1687
1764
5.77
6.64
7.59
8.65
1663
1637
1713
1768
6.13
7.00
7.99
9.06
1593
1664
1737
1813
6.51
7.39
8.37
9.48
11320
4000
1.00
1707
7.52
1719
7.70
1731
7.89
1743
8.09
1755
8.29
1769
8.52
1781
8.74
1794
8.95
1818
9.39
1841
9.80
1865
10.24
1888
10.68
10188
IN
Pressure class limits:
Class
I
II
Maximum RPM
1550
2140
Table 5-1 Typical Fan Rating Table
5.7
MOTOR
LEFT
VIEW FACING DISCHARGE
FIGURE 5-13 ARRANGEMENT 1 IN-LINE FANS
for motors too large for fan casing. Arrangement 4
(Figure 5−14)Cdirect drive with wheel overhung on
motor shaft.
Solution
New static pressure
cfm2
P 2 P1 cfm1
2
1.0 10188
9056
2
1.27in.8 8 wgSP
New brake horsepower:
BP 2 BP1 cfm2
cfm1
3
5.08 10188
9056
3
BP 2 7.23BHP
A review of Table 5−1 not only confirms the calcula−
tions, but also indicates that the change in capacity
moved the fan into a different pressure classification
which could result in a failure of the fan wheel and/or
bearings.
CAUTION)Always check with the published rat−
ings of fan equipment to make sure that revised op−
erating conditions do not require a different class
fan. Often this type of change also could change the
pressure classification of part or all of a duct system
to higher duct construction and sealing require−
ments.
5.2.2
Fan Nomenclature
5.2.2.1
Drive Arrangements
AMCA has developed standard fan drive arrange−
ments (shown in Figure 5−12) for various bearing and
drive locations. Axial or in−line fans are designated in
much the same way as standard centrifugal fans. Stan−
dard arrangements for in−line are:
Arrangement 1 (Figure 5−13)Cbelt drive with motor
mounted independent of fan casingCtypically used
5.8
Arrangement 9 (Figure 5−15)Cbelt drive with motor
located on periphery of casing in one of eight standard
locations designated by the letters beginning with A at
the top and proceeding clockwise at eight equal inter−
vals through the letter H when viewing the fan from the
discharge.
Vertical units are designated as either upblast or down−
blast and generally are available only in Arrangements
4 and 9.
5.2.2.2
Motor Arrangement Locations
Motor location is specified at W, X, Y, and Z as shown
in Figure 5−16. This motor location always is deter−
mined by facing the fan drive sheave. It is independent
of the discharge or rotation.
5.2.2.3
Rotation
Rotation is determined by the direction the fan wheel
will be turning for proper operation as viewed from the
drive side of the fan. Rotation is designated as clock−
wise (CW) or counter clockwise (CCW).
5.2.2.4
Non-Sparking Construction
For applications where sparks generated in the air
stream could be dangerous, AMCA provides three
non−sparking construction classifications based on the
degree of assurance desired. For all classes, bearings
must be out of the air stream, the fan must be grounded,
and non−sparking belts are required. The three classes
are:
1.
AMCA A. Requires all components in the
airstream be made of nonferrous material.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
VIEW FACING DISCHARGE
FIGURE 5-14 ARRANGEMENT 4 IN-LINE FANS
A
B
H
G
C
D
F
MOTOR SHOWN IN POSITION A
E
VIEW FACING DISCHARGE
FIGURE 5-15 ARRANGEMENT 9 IN-LINE FANS
2.
AMCA B. This requires all components in
the airstream be made of nonferrous material.
Housing can be steel.
3.
AMCA C. Nonferrous wear ring is required
on the inlet cone so that, if the impeller shifts,
it will rub the nonferrous material.
Generally, AMCA A is the most expensive and AMCA
C is the least expensive.
5.2.3
Fan Motors and Drives
5.2.3.1
General
Most fans are driven at constant speed by constant
speed motors, and they generally deliver a constant air
quantity. The motors range from small single phase
fractional horsepower motors to large polyphase mo−
tors. Motors generally are connected to the driven fan
by means of a V belt drive which not only transmits
power but allows the synchronous speed of the motor
such as 1200, 1800, 3600 rpm, to be converted to the
lower fan speed.
Some small fans have motors directly connected.
Some V belt drives have an adjustable speed range by
providing a variable drive sheave on which the pitch
diameter can be manually adjusted to allow for minor
speed variations. Variable air volume (VAV) systems
are now commonly used, and some reduce system air−
flow by using variable speed motors or drives.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
5.9
d.
Ratios should not exceed 8:1.
e.
Belt speed, preferably should not exceed
5,000 fpm (25 m/s), or be less than 1,000 fpm
(5 m/s). Best practice is about 4,000 fpm (20
m/s).
f.
Sheaves should be dynamically balanced
when used for speeds in excess of 5,000 fpm
(25 m/s) rim speed.
FAN
MOTOR
Z
W
Y
X
DRIVE
Equation 5-1
rpm(fan)
Pitchdiam.motorpulley
rpm(motor)
Pitchdiam.fanpulley
FIGURE 5-16 CENTRIFUGAL FAN
MOTOR LOCATIONS
5.2.3.3
Drive Installations
When installing or reviewing fan drives, these points
should be particularly watched:
Of major importance to the TAB technician, is that the
V belt drives must be properly aligned before testing,
and the belt tension adjusted properly. Too little belt
tension results in belt slippage and excessive belt wear.
Too much belt tension can cause excessive bearing
loading, causing motor bearing or fan bearing failure.
One further caution to the TAB technician is that the
motor must have sufficient starting torque to over−
come the inertia of the fan wheel and drive package.
Most HVAC supply air systems do not have this pro−
blem. However, in return air or exhaust air systems
where design airflow volumes may be high and fan to−
tal pressures low, check to assure that the installed mo−
tor has sufficient starting torque to accelerate the fan
to its design speed.
5.2.3.2
b.
c.
5.10
Be sure that shafts are parallel and sheaves
are in proper alignment. Check again after a
few hours of operation.
b.
Do not drive sheaves on or off shafts. Wipe
shaft, key, and bore clean with oil. Tighten
screws carefully. Recheck and retighten after
a few hours of operation.
c.
Belts should never be forced over sheaves.
d.
In mounting belts be sure the slack in each
belt is on the same side of the drive. This
should be the slack side of the drive.
e.
Belt tension should be reasonable. When in
operation, the tight side of the belts should be
in a straight line from sheave to sheave and
with a slight bow on the slack side. All drives
should be inspected periodically to be sure
belts are under proper tension and are not
slipping.
f.
When making replacements of multiple belts
on a drive, be sure to replace the entire set
with a new set of matched belts.
Drive Design
Regardless of whether drives consist of stock or spe−
cial items, there are certain primary conditions to con−
sider with respect to the design of satisfactory drives.
The conditions most commonly encountered are:
a.
a.
Drives should be installed with provisions for
center distance adjustment. This is essential,
as all belts stretch.
5.3
FAN AIRFLOW AND PRESSURES
5.3.1
Fan Air Volume
Centers should not exceed 2½ to 3 times the
sum of the sheave diameters nor be less than
the diameter of the larger sheave.
The airflow volume (cfm or L/s) produced by a fan in
a given system is independent of the air density.
Arc of contact on the smaller sheave should
not be less than 120.
cfm (L/s)Ccubic feet per minute (liters per second) of
air handled by a fan at any air density.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Counter Clockwise
Top Horizontal
Clockwise
Top Horizontal
Clockwise
Bottom Horizontal
Counter Clockwise
Bottom Horizontal
Clockwise
Counter Clockwise
Counter Clockwise
Clockwise
Up Blast
Up Blast
Down Blast
Down Blast
Counter Clockwise
Clockwise
Clockwise
Counter Clockwise
Top Angular Down
Top Angular Down
Bottom Angular Up
Bottom Angular Up
Clockwise
Counter Clockwise
Counter Clockwise
Clockwise
Bottom Angular Down
Bottom Angular Down
Top Angular Up
Top Angular Up
FIGURE 5-17 DIRECTION OF ROTATION AND DISCHARGE
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
5.11
scfm (sL/s)Ccubic feet per minute (liters per second)
of standard air (0.075 lb/ft3 or 1.2041 kg/m3 density)
handled by a fan.
5.3.2
Where it is possible to take field measurements, care
must be taken to measure fan total pressure at the fan
inlet duct rather than fan static pressure.
Fan Total Pressure (TP)
Fan total pressure is the difference between the total
pressure at the fan outlet and the total pressure at the
fan inlet. The fan total pressure is a measure of the total
mechanical energy added to the air or gas by the fan.
This generally can be measured accurately only (as il−
lustrated in Figure 5−18) in a test laboratory.
IMPACT TUBE
FAN
FAN
STATIC TUBE
IMPACT
TUBE
AIR
FLOW
AIR
FLOW
SP
FIGURE 5-19 FAN STATIC PRESSURE (SP)
5.3.4
IMPACT
TUBE
TP
Fan velocity pressure (Figure 5−20) is the pressure cor−
responding to the fan outlet velocity pressure. It is the
kinetic energy per unit volume of flowing air.
FIGURE 5-18 FAN TOTAL PRESSURE
(TP)
5.3.3
Fan Static Pressure (SP)
Fan static pressure (Figure 5−19) is the fan total pres−
sure less the fan velocity pressure. It can be calculated
by subtracting the total pressure at the fan inlet from
the static pressure at the fan outlet. This is a source of
some confusion within the industry, but, by definition:
Fan SP = Fan TP (outlet) TP (inlet) Vp (out−
let)
Also,
TP (outlet) SP (outlet) = Vp (outlet)
5.3.5
Fan SP = SP (outlet) TP (inlet)
Fan Outlet Velocity
Fan outlet velocity is the theoretical velocity of the air
as it leaves the fan outlet, and is calculated by dividing
the air volume in cfm (L/s) by the fan outlet area in
square feet (m2). However, all fans have a non−uni−
form outlet velocity; that is, the velocity varies over
the cross−section of the fan outlet. Therefore fan outlet
velocity as calculated above is only a theoretical value
that could occur at a point downstream from the fan.
All velocity (velocity pressure) readings, including to−
tal pressure and static pressure should be taken down−
stream in a straight duct connected to the fan discharge
where the flow is more uniform.
A large portion of the discharge airflow occurs at the
side of the fan outlet farthest from the fan shaft. Veloc−
ity readings taken at the side of the duct nearest the
shaft, may indicate air appearing to flow from the duct
back into the fan.
5.3.6
and substituting:
5.12
Fan Velocity Pressure (Vp)
Fan Brake Power
Fan brake power is the actual power required to drive
the fan. It is greater than a theoretical air power be−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Example 5.2 (I−P)
Find the tip speed of a 30 inch diameter fan wheel ro−
tating at 954 rpm.
PITOT TUBE
TOTAL PRESSURE
VELOCITY
PRESSURE
Solution
TipSpeed p D RPM p 30 954
12
12
Tip Speed = 7493 (fpm)
STATIC
PRESSURE
Example 5.2 (SI)
VELOCITY PRESSURE TOTAL
PRESSURE = STATIC PRESSURE
Find the tip speed of a 750 mm diameter fan wheel ro−
tating at 954 rpm.
FIGURE 5-20 FAN VELOCITY
PRESSURE (VP)
Solution
cause it includes loss due to turbulence and other inef−
ficiencies in the fan, plus bearing losses. Fan brake
power is an important value to the TAB technician be−
cause it is the power furnished by the fan motor.
5.3.7
Tip8 8 Speed p D RPM p 0.75 954
60
60
Tip Speed = 37.46 (m/s)
TIP SPEED
Also called peripheral velocity, tip speed equals the
circumference of the fan wheel times the rpm of the fan
and is expressed in feet per minute (meters per second)
(Figure 5−21)
RPM
D
Equation 5-2 (I-P)
TipSpeed p d RPM
12in.ft.
Where:
TipSpeed Feetperminute
D Wheeldiameter inches
RPM Revolutionsperminute
Equation 5-2 (SI)
p
d
RPM
TipSpeed 60secmin
Where:
TipSpeed Metersperminute
D Wheeldiameter meters
RPM Revolutionsperminute
FIGURE 5-21 TIP SPEED
5.4
FAN/SYSTEM CURVE
RELATIONSHIP
5.4.1
System Curve
Duct system resistance is the sum of all pressure losses
through filters, coils, dampers, and ductwork. The sys−
tem curve or system resistance curve (Figure 5−22) is
a plot of the pressure that is required to move air
through the system. For fixed systems, that is, with no
changes in damper settings, etc., system resistance
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
5.13
varies as the square of the airflow. The system curve for
any system is represented by a single curve. For exam−
ple, consider a system handling 1,000 cfm (500 L/s)
with a static pressure (SP) resistance of 1 in. wg (250
Pa).
System Curve
BHP Curve (W)
Fan Curve
Operating Point
3
(750)
AND
(1000)
SP
4
(500)
BHP
Static Pressure - In wg (Pa)
5
2
1
(250)
0
1000
(500)
AIRFLOW - CFM (l/s)
2000
(1000)
CFM (L/S)
FIGURE 5-22 SYSTEM RESISTANCE CURVE
FIGURE 5-23 OPERATING POINT
If the airflow is doubled, the SP resistance will in−
crease by that ratio squared (4) to 4 in. wg (1000 Pa).
This system curve changes, however, as filters load
with dirt, coils start condensing moisture, or when bal−
ancing dampers are moved to a new position.
reading across the fan and concluding that if it is at or
above design requirements, the airflow is also at or
above design requirements.
5.4.3
5.4.2
The system operating point (Figure 5−23), a point at
which the fan and system will simultaneously perform,
is determined by the intersection of the system curve
with the fan performance curve for each designated
speed (rpm). Every fan operates only along its perfor−
mance curve. If the designed system SP resistance is
not the same as the SP resistance in the installed sys−
tem, the operating point will move along the fan curve
and the SP and volume delivered will not be as calcu−
lated.
In Figure 5−24 the actual duct system has more pres−
sure drop then predicted by the system designer. Thus,
airflow is reduced because the SP increased. The shape
of the horsepower curve typically would result in a re−
duction in fan power. Typically, the fan rpm would
then be increased, and more fan power would be need−
ed to achieve the desired airflow. In many cases, when
there is a difference between actual and calculated fan
output, the difference is due to a change in system re−
sistance rather than to any shortcomings of the fan or
motor. Frequently, the mistake is made of taking the SP
5.14
Fan Law Relationships
System Operating Point
Fan law equations 2−17 and 2−18 from Chapter 2 ap−
plying a change only in fan rpm (with the system re−
maining unchanged), are graphically shown in Figure
5−25. Use Equation 2−17 to obtain rpm 2:
rpm 2 rpm1 Q2
Q1
Then use Equation 2−18 to obtain the new static pres−
sure:
rpm
P 2 P1 rpm 2
1
2
5.4.4
Density
5.4.4.1
When Volume is Constant
The resistance of an HVAC duct system is dependent
on the density of the air flowing through the system.
Air density at standard conditions of 0.075 pounds per
cubic feet (1.2041 kilograms per cubic meter) is used
for rating fans in the HVAC industry. A fan is a
constant volume machine and will produce the same
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
volume of airflow regardless of the air density being
handled (see Figure 5−26). The fan SP and fan power,
however, will vary directly as the air density increases
or decreases.
SP. The fan is drawing 9.22 Bhp from a 10 HP motor.
If the fan is run with the oven off (70F ambient), cal−
culate the new SP and Bhp. (Air density at 250F =
0.0563 lb/ft3 ).
Equation 5-3
SP 2
d
2
SP 1
d1
Solution
Equation 5-4
FP 2
d
2
FP 1
d1
Using Equations 5−3 and 5−4:
d2
2.6 0.075
d1
0.0563
SP 2 3.46in.w.g.
d
FP 2 FP1 2 9.22 0.075
0.0563
d1
FP 2 12.28Bhp
With only a 10 HP motor, a 23 percent motor overload
occurs.
SP 2 SP1 Where (airflow1 = airflow2 ):
SP Staticpressure in.wg(Pa)
d Density lbft 3(kgm3)
FP Fanpower Bhp(W)
In other words, the heavier or more dense the air, the
greater the fan power or SP will be.
SP @ RPM
2
System
Curve
Fan Curve
Actual System Curve
Design System Curve
SP
2
New
Operation
Point
Change
SP
SP Increase
SP @ RPM 1
SP
1
AIirflow Reduction
CFM (L/S)
FIGURE 5-24 VARIATIONS FROM
DESIGN AIR SHORTAGE
Example 5.3 (I−P)
A 15,000 cfm fan is delivering 250F air from an oven
through an air−to−air heat exchanger against 2.6 in. wg
Airflow 1
Airflow 2
FIGURE 5-25 FAN LAW - RPM
CHANGE
Example 5.3 (SI)
A 7500 L/s fan is delivering 125C air from an oven
through an air−to−air heat exchanger against 650 Pa SP.
The fan is drawing 6.88 kW from a 7.5 kW motor. If
the fan is run with the oven off (20C ambient) calcu−
late the new SP and kW. (Air density at 125C = 0.891
kg/m 3).
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
5.15
Where: (SP1 = SP2 ):
Solution
Q
Airflow cfm(Ls)
d
Density lbft3(kgm3)
RPM FanSpeed
FP Fanpower Bhp(W)
Using Equations 6−2 and 6−3:
d
SP 2 SP1 2 650 1.2041
0.891
d1
SP 2 878Pa
d
FP 2 FP1 2 6.88 1.2041
d1
0.891
FP 2 9.30kW
With only a 7.5 kW motor, a 24 percent motor overload
occurs.
5.4.4.2
When Static Pressure is Constant
SP @ d 1
SP1
If the system SP remains constant, the airflow volume,
fan speed and fan power will vary inversely as the
square root of the density (see Figure 5−27).
SP @ d
Chg.
2
Equation 5-5
Q1
Q2
SP 2
d2
d1
SYSTEM d 1
Equation 5-6
RPM 1
RPM 2
SYSTEM d 2
d2
d1
Airflow1= Airflow 2
FIGURE 5-26 EFFECT OF DENSITY
CHANGE (CONSTANT VOLUME)
Equation 5-7
FP 1
FP 2
d2
d1
5.4.4.3
Constant Mass Flow
With a constant mass flow rate in a system that remains
constant without any changes and using the same fan
with a variable drive, the airflow rate, RPM and SP
will vary inversely with the air density. The fan brake
power will vary inversely with the square of the densi−
ty (see Figure 5−28).
Equation 5-8
Q1
d
2
Q2
d1
Equation 5-9
RPM 1
d
2
RPM 2
d1
Equation 5-10
SP 1
d
2
SP 2
d1
Equation 5-11
FP 1
d
2
FP 2
d1
5.16
2
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Static Pressure
Example 5−4 SI
SP@d1
SP@d 2
A fan is required to handle 7500 L/s at 500 Pa, 75C,
950 rpm, 750 meters altitude and 4.2 kW. Find the fan
airflow, SP, RPM and fan brake power that must be se−
lected from the fan table.
Solution
Chg.
SP1 -SP2
Using an air density correction factor table found in
Appendix A, the correction factor to standard condi−
tions is 0.78 or:
d 2(Actual)
0.78
d 1(Standard)
Airflow (d1< d 2)
Using Equations 5−8 to 5−11:
FIGURE 5-27 EFFECT OF DENSITY
CHANGE (CONSTANT STATIC
PRESSURE)
d2
d1
Q 1 7500 0.78 5850Ls
SP 1(Std) 500 0.78 390Pa
RPM 1(Std.)
RPM 2(Act.) d 2d 1
RPM 2 9500.78 1218rpm
FP1(Std.)
FP 2(Act.) (d2d 1)2
FP 2 4.2(0.78)2 6.90kW
FAN CAPACITY RATINGS
Q 1(Std) Q2(Act.)
Where:
Airflow cfm(Ls)
Q
d
Density lbft 3(kgm3)
RPM Fanspeed
SP Staticpressure in.w.g.(Pa)
FP Fanpower Bhp(W)
5.5
Example 5.4 (I−P)
5.5.1
A fan is required to handle 15,000 cfm at 2 in. wg,
150F, 950 RPM, 2000 feet altitude and 5.6 Bhp. Find
the fan cfm, SP, Bhp and RPM that must be selected
from the fan table.
Solution
Using an air density correction factor table found in
Appendix A, the correction factor to Standard condi−
tions is 0.81 or:
d 2(Actual)
0.81
d 1(Standard)
Using Equations 5−8 to 5−11:
Fan Testing
Most fan manufacturers rate the performance of their
products from tests made in accordance with ANSI/
AMCA Standard 210, Laboratory Methods of Testing
Fans for Rating. The purpose of Standard 210 is to es−
tablish uniform methods for laboratory testing of fans
and other air moving devices to determine perfor−
mance in terms of flow rate, pressure, power, air densi−
ty, speed of rotation and efficiency, for rating or guar−
antee purposes. Two basic methods of measuring
airflow are included, the Pitot tube and the long radius
flow nozzle. These are incorporated into a number of
different setups or figures. In general, a fan is tested on
the setup which most closely simulates the way in
which it will be installed in an HVAC system. Centrif−
ugal, tubeaxial and vaneaxial fans are usually tested
with only an outlet duct.
Figure 5−29 is a reproduction of a test setup from
AMCA Standard 210. Note that this particular setup
includes a long straight duct connected to the outlet of
the fan. A straightener is located upstream of the Pitot
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
5.17
PL.1
PL.2
PL.3
L 2,3
10 D3 MIN.
+0.25
8.5 D 3
-0.00
D3 MIN.
D3
5 D3
+0.25
-0.00
D3
t d3
D3
FAN
PITOT TUBE
STRAIGHTENER
TRAVERSE
TRANSFORMATION PIECE
THROTTLING DEVICE
FIGURE 5-28 AMCA FAN TEST - PITOT TUBE
tube traverse to remove swirl and rotational compo−
nents from the airflow and to ensure that the flow at the
plane of measurement is as near to uniform as possible.
A manufacturer may test a fan with or without an outlet
duct or inlet duct. Catalog ratings should state whether
ducts were used during the rating tests. If the fans are
not to be applied with similar duct configurations as
used in the test setup, an allowance should be made for
the difference in the resulting performance.
Static Pressure
SYSTEM @ d 1
SP2 @ d AND RPM 2
5.5.2
SP2
SP @ d 1
AND RPM 1
Chg.
Airflow1
System Effect
For years, many HVAC system designers, system in−
stallers, fan company sales engineers and testing, ad−
justing, and balancing (TAB) contractors have found
that system total pressure measurements and airflow
capacities were considerably less than the fan horse−
power and rpm curves indicated.
SP1
Airflow2
FIGURE 5-29 EFFECT OF DENSITY CHANGE (CONSTANT
MASS FLOW)
The angle of the transition between the test duct and
the fan outlet is limited to ensure that uniform flow will
be maintained. A steep transition, or abrupt change of
cross−section would cause turbulence and eddies, and
lead to non−uniform flow.
5.18
Uniform flow conditions ensure consistency and re−
producibility of test results and permits the fan to de−
velop its maximum performance. In any installation
where uniform flow conditions do not exist, the fan’s
performance will be reduced.
This derating of duct system fans is called system ef−
fect, and it is very important that this phenomenon be
taken into account by all concerned with HVAC sys−
tems if they are to operate as designed.
System effect diminishes a fan’s performance because
of the interaction of the fan and the connected duct sys−
tem; and system effect factors are used to compensate
for the fan’s decreased performance. In general, sys−
tem effect factors are approximations obtained from
many research studies. Some studies have been pub−
lished previously by individual fan manufacturers, and
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
many represent the consensus of engineers with con−
siderable experience in fan applications.
Fans of different types (and even fans of the same type
from different manufacturers) will not necessarily
react with a duct system in exactly the same way.
Therefore, it is necessary to use judgment, based on ac−
tual experience, in applying the system effect factors.
5.5.2.1
Fan Selection
Figure 5−30 illustrates deficient fan/system perfor−
mance caused by system effect. HVAC system pres−
sure losses have been determined and the fan selected
to operate at Point 1 (system curve A). However, no al−
lowance has been made for the effect of poor duct con−
nections to the fan. To compensate, a system effect fac−
tor must be added to the calculated system pressure
losses to determine a new system curve that is then
used to select the fan.
The point of intersection between the fan performance
curve and this new ?phantom" system curve B is Point
4. Therefore, the actual system flow volume is defi−
cient by the difference from Point 1 to Point 4.
To achieve the design airflow volume, a system effect
factor equal to the pressure difference between Point
1 and Point 2 should be added to the calculated system
pressure losses. The fan should be selected to operate
at Point 2 where the new corrected rpm curve crosses
phantom system curve B. A higher fan brake horse−
power will also be required.
corrected fan, the airflow volume and static pressure
will be established as point 1, because that is where the
system actually is operating. The system is not operat−
ing on the phantom system curve, which was used only
to select the derated capacity fan. System effect cannot
be measured in the field, but only calculated after a
visual inspection is made of the fan/duct system con−
nections.
Because system effect is velocity related, the differ−
ence between Points 1 and 2 is greater than the differ−
ence between Points 3 and 4. The system effect factor
includes only the effect of the system configuration on
the fan’s performance. All duct fitting pressure losses
are calculated as part of the HVAC system pressure
losses and are part of system curve A.
5.5.2.2
Figure 5−31 shows the changes in velocity profiles
from the fan outlet to where a uniform velocity profile
has developed in the duct. The distance of this point
from the fan is called the effective duct length. To ob−
tain 100 percent of the energy recovery or static regain,
duct fittings or abrupt changes in duct configuration
should not be used within that space.
In other words, any changes to the discharge duct con−
figuration within the effective duct length (which dif−
fers from the duct configuration used when the fan was
tested and rated) may cause the fan to perform less effi−
ciently.
5.5.2.3
However, when a testing and balancing technician
measures the actual HVAC system conditions with the
PHANTOM
CURVE B
WITH SYSTEM EFFECT
CURVE A
CALCULATED DUCT SYSTEM
WITH NO ALLOWANCE
FOR SYSTEM EFFECT
2
SYSTEM EFFECT LOSS
AT DESIGN VOLUME
4
DESIGN PRESSURE
1
3
SYSTEM
EFFECT AT
ACTUAL FLOW
VOLUME
SELECTED
FAN CURVE
FAN CATALOG
PRESSURE-VOLUME
CURVE
DEFICIENT
PERFORMANCE
DESIGN VOLUME
FIGURE 5-30 EFFECTS OF
SYSTEM EFFECT
Fan Outlets
Fan Inlets
Power roof exhausters are tested and rated when
mounted on a roof curb through which the exhaust air
duct passes, so system effect is not a problem. The
problem occurs with HVAC centrifugal and axial flow
fans that are tested without any inlet obstructions or in−
let duct connections.
For rated performance, the air must enter the fan uni−
formly over the inlet area in an axial direction without
pre−rotation. Non−uniform flow into the inlet is the
most common cause of reduced fan performance.
Such inlet conditions are not equivalent to a simple in−
crease in the system resistance, so they cannot be
treated as a percentage decrease in the fan airflow and
pressure output. A poor inlet condition results in an en−
tirely new fan performance.
Many system effect curves for various round and rec−
tangular elbows may be found in AMCA Publication
201−90, Fans and Systems or the SMACNA HVAC
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
5.19
BLAST AREA
CENTRIFUGAL CUTOFF
FAN
OUTLET AREA
DISCHARGE DUCT
LENGTH
OF DUCT
R
100% EFFECTIVE DUCT LENGTH
a.
Round Elbow
FIGURE 5-31 FAN OUTLET
EFFECTIVE DUCT LENGTH
System9Duct Design manual. When a suitable (often
sizeable) length of duct is used between the fan inlet
and return air duct elbow, system effect may be avoi−
ded. These improvements help maintain uniform flow
into the fan inlet and thereby approach the flow condi−
tions of the laboratory test setup.
Most often where space is at a premium, the inlet duct
will be mounted directly to the fan inlet, as shown in
Figure 5−32 b. The reduction in capacity and pressure
for this type of inlet condition is impossible to tabulate.
The many possible variations in width and depth of the
duct influence the reduction in performance to varying
degrees. Therefore, this inlet should be avoided.
Fans and Systems and the HVAC Systems9Duct De−
sign manual states that capacity losses as high as 45
percent have been observed in poorly designed inlets,
such as those shown in Figure 5−32 b. Field fabricated
or factory designed inlet boxes (see Figure 5−32 c) may
often eliminate or substantially reduce system effect at
fan inlets.
Inlet elbows at axial fans may cause an instability in
fan operation in addition to system effect that could re−
sult in serious damage to the fan. It is strongly advised
that inlet elbows be installed at least three duct diame−
ters away from any axial fan inlet.
5.20
b.
Rectangular Duct
c.
Inlet Box
FIGURE 5-32 NON-UNIFORM
FLOW CONDITIONS INTO FAN
INLET
5.5.2.4
Field Measurements
Recent research has determined that accurate duct ve−
locity measurements cannot be made until a near uni−
form velocity profile has developed. This point may
vary from 3 to 20 duct diameters downstream from the
object causing the turbulence. So, any accurate mea−
surements on the discharge side of a fan must be well
away from the point where system effect occurs.
On the fan inlet, non−uniform airflow, spin in the air−
flow or a duct condition that produces a vortex create
the problem. When one observes the various poor duct
fan inlet conditions normally installed, accurate mea−
surements are impossible. However, on the fan inlet
side, the system effect loss usually occurs within the
entry to the fan wheel, so it is not field−measurable.
Finally, system effect is a real and often occurring pro−
blem. It may be avoided by using better fan/system
duct connections where space permits. it also may be
avoided if the installing contractor would order HVAC
fans and equipment with the proper inlet and discharge
connection configurations so that elbows would not
have to immediately change airflow direction. Just re−
member that: fan capacity reductions due to system ef−
fect cannot be measured in the field by TAB techni−
cians, system effect losses are approximate, and that
system effect factors must not be confused with duct
fitting loss coefficients.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 6
AIR DISTRIBUTION
AND DEVICES
CHAPTER 6
AIR DISTRIBUTION AND DEVICES
6.1
AIR TERMINAL BOXES
6.1.2.1
6.1.1
Introduction
Constant flow rate controllers may be of the pneumatic
or electric volume regulator type. They typically re−
quire internal differential pressure sensing, selector
devices, and pneumatic or electric motors for opera−
tion.
An air terminal box or terminal unit is a device that
controls the volume of conditioned air introduced into
a space or zone from the HVAC air duct system. The
air terminal box manually or automatically fulfills one
or more of the following functions.
6.1.1.1
Pressure
The air terminal box may control the pressure of the
discharge airflow.
6.1.1.2
Airflow Rate
The air terminal box may control the rate and velocity
of the discharge airflow.
6.1.1.3
Temperature
The air terminal box may mix airstreams of different
temperatures or humidities, or include a coil to add
additional heating or cooling capacity.
6.1.1.4
Air Blending
6.1.2.2
Constant Airflow
Variable Air Volume
Variable air volume (VAV) controllers incorporate a
means to reset the constant volume regulation auto−
matically to a different control point within the range
of the control device in response to an outside signal,
such as from a thermostat. Boxes with this feature are
pressure independent and may be used with reheat
components. Variable flow rate may also be obtained
by using a modulating damper ahead of a constant vol−
ume regulator. This arrangement typically allows for
variations in flow between high and low limits or be−
tween a high limit and shutoff. These boxes are pres−
sure dependent and volume limiting in function. Pneu−
matic variable volume may be either pressure
independent, volume limiting, or pressure dependent,
according to the equipment selected.
6.1.3
Box Power Sources
A terminal box commonly integrates a sound chamber
to reduce noise generated by the manual damper or
flow controller reducing the inlet air velocity or pres−
sure. The sound attenuation chamber is typically lined
with thermal and sound insulating material and is
equipped with baffles. Special sound attenuation in the
air discharge ducts usually is not required in smaller
boxes.
Terminal boxes can be further categorized as being
system powered, wherein the assembly derives all of
the energy necessary for its operation from the supply
air within the distribution system, or as externally
powered, wherein the assembly derives part or all of
the energy necessary for its operation from a pneumat−
ic or electric outside source. In addition, assemblies
are self−contained (when they are furnished with all
necessary controls for their operation, including actua−
tors, regulators, motors, and thermostats), as opposed
to non−self−contained assemblies (where part or all of
the necessary controls for operation are furnished by
someone other than the terminal box manufacturer). In
this latter case, the controls may be mounted on the as−
sembly by the assembly manufacturer or may be
mounted by others after delivery of the equipment.
6.1.2
6.1.4
Types of Air Terminal Boxes
6.1.4.1
Reheat Terminal Boxes
The air terminal box may mix primary air at high ve−
locity and/or secondary air from the conditioned
space.
6.1.1.5
Sound Attenuation
Categories
Terminal boxes are typically categorized according to
the function of their airflow volume controllers, which
are generally either constant or variable air volume
(VAV) devices. They are further categorized as being
pressure dependent, where the airflow rate through the
assembly varies in response to changes in system pres−
sure, or as pressure independent where the airflow rate
through the device does not vary in response to
changes in system pressure.
Reheat terminal boxes add sensible heat to the supply
air. They cannot be used in many applications unless
the added heat is recovered heat due to energy con−
servation codes. Water or steam coils or electric resist−
ance heaters can be located within or attached directly
to the air discharge end of the box. These boxes typi−
cally are single duct, and operation can be either
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
6.1
constant or variable volume. However, if they are
VAV, they must maintain some minimum airflow to
accomplish the reheat function.
6.1.4.2
Dual Duct Terminal Boxes
Duct terminal boxes receive warm and cold air from
separate air supply ducts in accordance with space re−
quirements. Pneumatic and electric volume regulated
boxes often have individual modulating dampers and
operators to regulate the amount of warm and cool air.
When a single modulating damper operator regulates
the amount of both warm and cold air, a separate pres−
sure reducing damper or volume controller (either
pneumatic or mechanical) is needed in the box to re−
duce pressure and limit airflow. Specially designed
baffles may be required within the unit or at the box
discharge to mix varying amounts of warm and cold air
and/or to provide uniform flow downstream. Dual duct
boxes can be equipped with constant flow rate or vari−
able flow rate devices to be either pressure indepen−
dent or pressure dependent to provide a number of vol−
ume and temperature control functions.
6.1.4.3
Ceiling Induction Boxes
The ceiling induction box provides either primary air
or a mixture of primary air and relatively warm air to
the conditioned space. It accomplishes this function by
permitting the primary air to induce air from the ceil−
ing plenum or via inducted return air from conditioned
space. A single duct supplies primary air at a tempera−
ture cool enough to satisfy all zone cooling loads. The
ceiling return air inducted into the primary air is at a
higher temperature than the room because heat from
recessed lighting fixtures enters the plenum directly.
The induction box contains damper assemblies con−
trolled by an actuator in response to a thermostat to
control the amount of cool primary air and warm in−
duced air. As reduction in cooling is required, the pri−
mary air flow rate is gradually reduced and the induced
air rate is generally increased. Reheat coils can be used
in the primary air supply and/or in the induction open−
ing to meet occasional interior and perimeter load re−
quirements.
6.1.4.4
Fan Powered Boxes
Fan powered boxes differ from the above induction
boxes in that they are equipped with a blower. This
blower, generally driven by a fractional horsepower
motor, draws air from the conditioned space (secon−
dary air) to be mixed with the cool primary air. The ad−
vantage of fan assisted boxes over basic VAV boxes is
6.2
that for a small energy expenditure to the terminal fan,
constant air circulation can be maintained in the space.
Fan assisted boxes operate at a lower primary air static
pressure than air induction boxes, and perimeter zones
can be heated without operating the primary fan during
unoccupied periods. Warm air from the ceiling return
can be used for low to medium heating loads depend−
ing on construction of the building envelope. As the
load increases, heating coils in the perimeter boxes can
be activated to heat the recirculated plenum air to the
necessary level. Fan assisted boxes can be divided into
two categories: constant volume and bypass−type
units.
Constant volume, fan assisted boxes (Figure 6−1) are
used when constant air circulation is desired in the
space. The unit has two inletsCone for cool primary
air from the central fan system and one for the secon−
dary air. All air delivered to the space passes through
the blower. The blower operates continuously when−
ever the primary air fan is on and can be cycled to de−
liver heat, as required, when the primary fan is off. As
the cooling load decreases, a damper throttles the
amount of primary air delivered to the blower. The
blower makes up for this reduction of primary air by
drawing air in the space or ceiling plenum through the
return air opening.
DISCHARGE AIR
FAN
(CONSTANT VOLUME)
PRIMARY AIR
DAMPER
RETURN AIR
(PLENUM)
FIGURE 6-1 CONSTANT VOLUME
FAN-POWERED BOX
In the bypass−type fan assisted box (Figure 6−2), the
cool primary air bypasses the blower portion of the
unit and is delivered directly to the space. The blower
section draws in plenum air only and is mounted in par−
allel with the primary air damper. A back draft damper
prevents primary air from flowing in to the blower sec−
tion when the blower is not energized. The blower in
these units generally is energized after the damper in
the primary air is partially or completely throttled.
Some electronically controlled units gradually in−
crease the fan speed as the primary air damper is
throttled to maintain constant airflow, while permit−
ting the fan to shut off when it is in the full cooling
mode.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
6.2
VARIABLE AIR VOLUME (VAV)
TERMINAL BOXES
6.2.1
Introduction
A VAV system controls the dry bulb temperature with−
in a space by varying the volume of supply air rather
than the supply air temperature. VAV systems can be
applied to interior or perimeter zones, with common or
separate fan systems, common or separate air tempera−
ture control, and with or without auxiliary heating de−
vices. As the VAV boxes on a given supply duct system
begin to reduce their air flow, duct pressure controls
sense this duct pressure increase and the supply fan air
flow is reduced accordingly.
PRIMARY AIR
DAMPER
DISCHARGE AIR
6.2.3
Combination Pressure
Dependent-Independent Boxes
These combination boxes regulate maximum volume,
but the airflow volume below the maximum flow rate
varies with the inlet pressure variation. Generally, air−
flow will oscillate when pressure varies. They are less
expensive than pressure independent units and can be
used where pressure independence is required only at
maximum volume, where system pressure variations
are relatively minor, and where some degree of hunt−
ing is tolerable.
6.2.4
Pressure Dependent Boxes
Pressure dependent boxes do not regulate the airflow
volume, but position the volume regulating device in
response to the thermostat. They are the least expen−
sive and should only be used where there is no need for
limit control and the system pressure is stable.
6.2.5
Bypass (Dumping) Boxes
(VARIABLE VOLUME)
RETURN AIR
(PLENUM)
FAN
FIGURE 6-2 BYPASS-TYPE FANPOWERED BOX
A space thermostat can control flow by varying a
damper, or a volume regulating device in the duct, or
a pressure reducing terminal box. Depending on the
complexity of the air distribution system, and consid−
erations, VAV may or may not be combined with fan
or system static pressure controls.
The fan system is designed to handle the largest simul−
taneous block load, not the sum of the individual
peaks. As each zone peaks at a different time of day,
it borrows the extra air from off−peak zones. This
transfer of air from low−load to high−load zones occurs
only in a true VAV system.
6.2.2
Pressure Independent Boxes
Pressure independent boxes regulate the airflow vol−
ume in response to the thermostat’s call for heating or
cooling. The required airflow is maintained regardless
of fluctuation of the VAV unit inlet or system pressure.
These units can be field or factory adjusted for maxi−
mum and minimum cfm (L/s) settings. They will oper−
ate at inlet static pressures as low as 0.2 in. of water (50
Pa) at maximum system design volumes.
VAV room supply is accomplished in constant volume
systems by returning excess supply air into the return
ceiling plenum or return air duct, thus bypassing the
room. However, this reduction of system volume is not
energy efficient. Use generally is restricted to small
systems where a simple method of temperature control
is desired, initial cost is modest, and energy conserva−
tion is deemed unimportant.
6.3
OTHER AIRFLOW DEVICES
6.3.1
Pressure Reducing Valves
Pressure reducing valves or air valves each consist of
a series of gang operated vane sections mounted within
a rigid casing and gasketed to reduce as much air leak−
age as possible between the valve and duct. They usu−
ally are installed between a high pressure trunk duct
and a lower pressure branch duct.
Pressure is reduced by partially closing the valve,
which results in a high pressure drop through the valve.
This action generates noise, which must be attenuated
in the low pressure discharge duct. The length and type
of duct lining depend on the amount and frequency of
noise to be attenuated.
Volume control is obtained by adjustment of the valve
manually, mechanically, or automatically. Automatic
adjustment is achieved by a pneumatic or electric con−
trol motor actuated by a pressure regulator or a thermo−
stat.
Pressure reducing valves are generally equal in size to
the low pressure branch duct connected to the valve
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
6.3
discharge. This arrangement provides minimum pressure drop with valves opened fully.
6.3.2
thermostatically controlled. The opening varies in
approximate proportion to the air volume to maintain
discharge throw pattern stability, even with low air
quantities. Since these units are pressure dependent,
constant pressure regulators are usually required in the
duct system. Noise is a particular concern when selecting outlets.
Supply Outlet Throttling Units
The area of the throat or the discharge opening of these
supply outlets, which are usually linear diffusers, is
FRAME: 2’ or 1 1_w" ¢ 1 1_w" ¢ 1_i" STRUCTURAL OR FORMED CHANNEL
FRAME
3_i" OR
1_w" DIA.
SHAFTS
18 GA MIN.
BLADES
ANGLE
STOP
1_w" ¢ 1_w" BAR
OPTIONAL
SHAFT EXTENSION
SECTION
FIG. A
OPPOSED ACTION
CHANNEL FRAME
PIN & BRONZE
BUSHING
CONNECTING BAR
FRAME
NOTICE
48" MAX.
WIDTH
FRAME
STOP
SHAFT EXTENSION
FIG. B
PARALLEL ACTION
SEE TEXT
ON VOLUME
DAMPERS
SECTION
FIG. C
FIGURE 6--3 MULTIBLADE VOLUME DAMPERS
6.4
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing  Third Edition
Volume Dampers
6.3.3.1
Introduction
Volume dampers are primary elements in the duct sys−
tem. They are used for controlling airflow rates by
introducing a resistance to airflow in the system. In
higher pressure systems, the damper is referred to as a
pressure reducing valve.
Volume control or balancing dampers should be
installed in each branch of zone duct. Single leaf
dampers which are part of a manufactured air grille are
not acceptable for system balancing. Opposed blade
dampers which are part of a manufactured air grille
can be used if there is not enough room for a regular
damper and if sufficient space is provided behind the
grille face for proper operation of the damper. Other−
wise, a balancing damper should be installed in the
branch register termination at a location where it is ac−
cessible from the grille or diffuser opening, or a quad−
rant damper should be used.
Volume dampers installed in branch ducts where the
total estimated static pressure is less than 0.5 in. wg
(125 Pa) can be single leaf type. Volume dampers
installed in ductwork where the total estimated system
static pressure exceeds 0.5 in. wg (125 Pa) should be
manufactured in accordance with Figure 6−3.
6.3.3.2
Multiblade Dampers
Figure 6−3 shows two types of multiple blade dampers:
parallel blade and opposed blade. The terms parallel
and opposed refer to the movement of the adjacent bla−
des. In the parallel blade damper, all of the blades
move in parallel. The opposed blade damper has a
linkage which causes the adjacent blades to move in
opposite directions.
Partial closing of a damper increases the resistance of
the duct system to airflow. The reduction in airflow
with closure of the damper may or may not be propor−
tional to the amount of adjustment of the damper. That
is, closing the damper half way does not necessarily
mean that the air volume will be reduced to fifty per−
cent of that volume which flows through the damper
when it is wide open. The relation between the position
of the damper and the percent of air that flows through
the damper with respect to the airflow through the
wide open damper is termed the flow characteristic.
Typical flow characteristic curves for parallel blade
and opposed blade dampers are shown in Figures 6−4
and 6−5. In Figure 6−4 the flow characteristic curves for
the parallel blade damper show that as the damper is
closing, the flow reduction may be proportional to the
closing of the damper as is shown by curve J, or partial
closure of the damper may have little effect on the flow
as is shown by curve A.
100
90
PERCENT OF MAXIMUM FLOW
6.3.3
80
A
B
70
C
D
60
E
F
G
50
H
J
40
K
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
DAMPER POSITION, DEGREES OPEN
80
90
FIGURE 6-4 FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
FOR A PARALLEL OPERATING
DAMPER
The manner in which the damper performs in any duct
system is determined by how complicated the system
is. If the system is very simple and the damper makes
up a major part of the resistance, then any movement
of the damper will change the resistance of the entire
system and good control of the airflow will result. If
the damper resistance is very small in relation to that
of the entire system, a poor flow characteristic such as
curve ?A" in Figures 6−4 and 6−5 will result. Typical
ratios of damper to system resistance are shown in
Table 6−1 for each flow characteristic curve.
The set of curves for the opposed blade damper (Figure
6−5) shows that for a given ratio of damper to system
resistance, a better flow characteristic usually results
than with the parallel blade damper (Figure 6−4). As
the opposed blade damper is closed, it introduces more
resistance to airflow for a given position than a parallel
blade damper.
When balancing systems, it should be realized that the
flow characteristics of a damper are not constant and
will vary from one system to another. The actual effect
of closing the damper can only be determined by mea−
surements in the particular system unless the system
designer has taken into account the damper flow char−
acteristics in his system design.
It is important that the TAB technician understand the
airflow patterns of multiblade dampers. The parallel
blade damper has a tendency to throw the air toward
one side of the duct. This uneven pattern may adverse−
ly affect coil or fan performance, or airflow into
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
6.5
branch ducts if the damper is located just upstream of
any system component.
100
PERCENT OF MAXIMUM FLOW
90
80
70
Where dampers should have tight shutoff when closed,
the linkage between blades must be properly adjusted.
Damper motor linkage also must be properly adjusted.
Cold deck and hot deck dampers, as used in multi−zone
units, must close tightly, as must face and by−pass
dampers used in some air handling units.
A
60
B
C
50
D
E
F
40
G
H
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
DAMPER POSITION, DEGREES OPEN
80
90
FIGURE 6-5 FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
FOR AN OPPOSED OPERATING
DAMPER
These flow patterns should be noted when it is neces−
sary to measure airflow in a duct near a damper. Where
possible, make any measurements upstream rather
than downstream of a damper.
6.3.3.3
Quadrants and Linkages
When dampers are located within ducts and are manu−
ally controlled, they are usually secured in place with
locking linkage or quadrant such as those shown in
Figure 6−6. Varying in strength and locking ability,
they should be of suitable size for the damper with
which they are used. When adjusting a damper, the
regulator or quadrant must be tightened securely to en−
sure that the damper remains as set.
Parallel−leaf dampers
Open
damper
resistance,
percent of
system
resistance
0.5− 1.0
1.0− 1.5
1.5− 2.5
2.5− 3.5
3.5− 5.5
5.5− 9.0
9.0−15.0
15.0−20.0
Do not always accept the position of the regulator
pointer as indicating the actual position of the damper
blade. When in doubt, inspect the end of the damper
rod at the face of the regulator. A groove, usually cut
by a hacksaw, will indicate that the damper blade runs
in the same direction as the cut.
Opposed−leaf dampers
Flow
character−
istic
curve
Open
damper
resistance,
percent of
system
resistance
Flow
character−
istic
curve
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
0.3− 0.5
0.5− 0.8
0.8− 1.5
1.5− 2.5
2.5− 5.5
5.5−13.5
13.5−25.5
25.5−37.5
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
6.4
AIR DISTRIBUTION BASICS
6.4.1
Introduction
Air distribution criteria will vary considerably in com−
mercial and institutional buildings as well as zone tem−
perature and humidity levels. People sitting with little
activity require closer tolerances than those actively
moving about. Spillover from open refrigerated dis−
play equipment in super markets causes frequent com−
plaints from customers. An understanding of the prin−
ciples of room air distribution helps in the selection,
design, control, and operation of HVAC duct systems.
The real evaluation of air distribution in a space, how−
ever, is if most occupants are comfortable.
The object of good air distribution in HVAC systems
is to create the proper combination of temperature, hu−
midity, and air motion, in the occupied zone of the con−
ditioned room from the floor to 6 feet (2 m) above floor
level. To obtain comfort conditions within this zone,
standard limits have been established as acceptable ef−
fective draft temperature. This term includes air tem−
perature, air motion, relative humidity, and the physio−
logical effects on the human body. Any variation from
accepted standards of one of these elements causes dis−
comfort to occupants. Lack of uniform conditions
within the space or excessive fluctuation of conditions
in the same part of the space may produce less than ac−
ceptable conditions.
Although the percentage of room occupants who ob−
ject to certain conditions may change over the years,
more recent research has shown that a person tolerates
higher air flow velocities and lower temperatures at
ankle level than at neck level. Because of this, condi−
tions in the zone extending from approximately 30 to
60 inches (0.75 to 1.5 m) above the floor are more criti−
cal than conditions nearer the floor.
6.4.2
Table 6-1 Typical Ratios of Damper
to System Resistance for Flow
Characteristic Curve
6.6
Air Velocity And Air Entrainment
For comfortable air distribution, room air velocities
within the occupied zone (floor to 6 feet [2 m] above
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
ROD. WASHER,
LOCK NUT
OR HINGE
MIN.-12 "
FLOW
SET SCREW
1 ROD TO 24" DEPTH
2 RODS 25" TO 60"
3 RODS 61" & OVER
SPLITTER DAMPER
BEARING OPTION
ROD CONTINUOUS
ON 2" WG CLASS
AND ON ALL
DAMPERS OVER
12" DIA.
NUT
ARM
FIG D
ELEVATION
TWO BLADE ARRANGEMENT
FIG C
ROUND DAMPER
DUCT
CIRCULAR DUCTS
3
8
DUCT
" QUADRANT
DUCT
QUADRANT
1"
2
" PIN
ROD-PIN
12" MAX
3
8
1"
2
22 Ga. BLADE.
1"
8
16 Ga. BLADE
1"
8
CLEARANCE ALL
AROUND
UP TO 18"
FIG A
CLEARANCE ALL
AROUND
19" TO 48"
FIG B
NOTE: OVER 12" HIGH USE MULTIPLE
BLADES. SEE FIG 14-3
D
DUCT DEPTH
STIFFEN AS
REQUIRED
D
1"
2
FIG A OR B
SIDE ELEVATION
RECTANGULAR DUCTS
FIGURE 6-6 VOLUME DAMPERS
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
6.7
floor level) should be in a range of 20 fpm to 70 fpm
(0.1 to 0.35 m/s) with 50 fpm (0.25 m/s) normally be−
ing used. Stagnant air areas should be avoided as tem−
perature in these areas may not be acceptable to the oc−
cupants.
Room air velocities less than 50 fpm (0.25 m/s) are ac−
ceptable; however, even higher velocities may be ac−
ceptable to some occupants. ASHRAE Standard
55−1981 recommends elevated air speeds at elevated
air temperatures. No minimum air speeds are recom−
mended for comfort, although air speeds below 20 fpm
(0.1 m/s) are usually imperceptible.
The velocity of the air (primary air) emerging from the
supply outlet induces air movement within the room
area (secondary air). This process of entrainment or
capturing of secondary air into the primary air is an es−
sential part of air distribution to create total air move−
ment within the room, thereby eliminating stagnant air
areas and reducing temperature differences to accept−
able levels before the air enters the occupied zone. Air
entrainment will also tend to overcome natural con−
vection and radiation effects within the room.
6.4.3
Surface Effect
Air entrainment takes place only along one surface of
the outlet discharge jet when the outlet discharges air
directly parallel and adjacent to a wall or ceiling. The
surface effect (Coanda effect) is illustrated in Figure
6−7. Since turbulent jet airflow from a grille or diffuser
is dynamically unstable, it may veer rapidly back and
forth. When the jet airflow veers close to a parallel and
adjacent wall or ceiling, the surface interrupts the flow
path on that side as shown in Figure 6−7B. The result
is that no more secondary air is flowing on that side to
replace the air being entrained with the jet airflow.
This causes a lowering of the pressure on that side of
the outlet device, creating a low pressure bubble that
causes the jet airflow to become stable and remain at−
tached to the adjacent surface throughout the length of
the throw. The surface effect counteracts the drop of
horizontally projected cool airstreams.
Ceiling diffusers exhibit surface effect to a high degree
because a circular air pattern blankets the entire ceil−
ing area surrounding each outlet. Slot diffusers, which
discharge the airstream across the ceiling, exhibit sur−
face effect only if they are long enough to blanket the
ceiling area. Grilles exhibit varying degrees of surface
effect, depending on the spread of the particular air
pattern.
In many installations, the outlets must be mounted on
an exposed duct and discharge the airstream into free
space. In this type of installation, the airstream en−
trains air on both its upper and lower surfaces; as a re−
sult, a higher rate of entrainment is obtained and the
throw is shortened by approximately 33 percent. Air−
flow per unit area for these types of outlets can, there−
SEPARATION BUBBLE
CEILING
CEILING
JET FLOW
WALL
JET FLOW
ENTRAINED AIRFLOW
(SECONDARY AIR)
FLOOR
(A)
ENTRAINED AIRFLOW
(SECONDARY AIR)
FLOOR
(B)
FIGURE 6-7 SURFACE (COANDA) EFFECT
6.8
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
fore, be increased. Because there is no surface effect
from ceiling diffusers installed on the bottom of ex−
posed ducts, the air drops rapidly to the floor. There−
fore, temperature differentials in air conditioning sys−
tems must be restricted to a range of 15F to 20F
(8C to 1C). Airstreams from slot diffusers and
grilles show a marked tendency to drop because of the
lack of surface effect.
6.4.4
Smudging
Smudging may be a problem with ceiling and slot dif−
fusers. Dirt particles held in suspension in the secon−
dary (room) air are subjected to turbulence at the outlet
face. This turbulence, along with surface effect, is pri−
marily responsible for smudging. Smudging can be ex−
pected in areas of high pedestrian traffic (lobbies,
stores, etc.) When ceiling diffusers are installed on
smooth ceilings (such as plaster or metal pan), smudg−
ing is usually in the form of a narrow band of discolor−
ation around the diffuser. Anti−smudge rings may re−
duce this type of smudging. On highly textured ceiling
surfaces (such as rough plaster and sprayed−on com−
position), smudging often occurs over a more exten−
sive area.
6.4.5
Sound Levels
The sound level of an outlet is a function of the air dis−
charge velocity and the transmission of HVAC equip−
ment noise, which is a function of the size of the outlet.
Higher frequency sounds can be the result of excessive
outlet velocity, but may also be generated in the duct
by the moving airstream. Lower pitched sounds are
generally the result of mechanical equipment noise
transmitted through the duct system and outlet.
The cause of higher frequency sounds can be pin−
pointed as outlet or equipment sounds by removing the
outlet during operation. A reduction in sound level in−
dicates that the outlet is causing noise. If the sound lev−
el remains essentially unchanged, the system is at
fault. Chapter 46 Sound and Vibration Control in the
1999 ASHRAE HVAC Applications Handbook has
more information on design criteria, acoustic treat−
ment, and selection procedures.
6.4.6
Effect Of Blades
Blades affect grille performance if their depth is at
least equal to the distance between the blades. If the
blade ratio is less than one, effective control of the air−
stream discharged from the grille by means of the
blades is impossible. Increasing the blade ratio above
two has little or no effect, so blade ratios should be be−
tween one and two.
A grille discharging air uniformly forward (blades in
straight position) has a spread of 14 to 24, depend−
ing on the type of outlet, duct approach, and discharge
velocity. Turning the blades influences the direction
and throw of the discharged airstream.
A grille with diverging blades (vertical blades with
uniformly increasing angular deflection from the cent−
erline to a maximum at each end of 45) has a spread
of about 60, and reduces the throw considerably.
With increasing divergence, the quantity of air dis−
charged by a grille for a given upstream total pressure
decreases.
A grille with converging blades (vertical blades with
uniformly decreasing angular deflection from the
centerline) has a slightly higher throw than a grille
with straight blades, but the spread is approximately
the same for both settings. The airstream converges
slightly for a short distance in front of the outlet and
then spreads more rapidly than air discharged from a
grille with straight blades.
In addition to vertical blades that normally spread the
air horizontally, horizontal blades may spread the air
vertically. However, spreading the air vertically risks
hitting beams or other obstructions or blowing primary
air at excessive velocities into the occupied zone. On
the other hand, vertical deflection may increase adher−
ence to the ceiling and reduce the drop.
In spaces with exposed beams, the outlets should be lo−
cated below the bottom of the lowest beam level, pre−
ferably low enough to employ an upward or arched air
path. The air path should be arched sufficiently to miss
the beams and prevent the primary or induced air−
stream from striking furniture and obstacles and pro−
ducing objectionable drafts.
6.5
ROOM AIR DISTRIBUTION
6.5.1
Natural Airflow
The natural air convection currents flowing down the
glass during heating, and up the glass during cooling
as shown in Figure 6−8, are a major influence on the air
distribution in the perimeter zones of a building.
During heating, these currents carry cool air down to
the floor level causing a stratification of air in layers
of increasing temperatures from the floor to the cei−
ling. The severity of the temperature gradient depends
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
6.9
0
75F
95F
75F
80F
HEATING
COOLING
FIGURE 6-8 SOME ELEMENTS AFFECTING BODY HEAT LOSS
on outdoor temperature, construction, and air distribu−
tion. It is easily understood that warm supply air
introduced at the base of the wall would tend to coun−
teract these currents and reduce or eliminate stratifica−
tion. Optimum air distribution in perimeter zones re−
quires perimeter introduction of air or supplementary
radiation at the perimeter.
During cooling, currents carry warm air up the wall to
ceiling level. Stratification then forms from the ceiling
down. To eliminate stratification, cool air should be
projected into this region near the ceiling. To do this
most effectively, supply air outlets should be located
high in the wall or in the ceiling.
6.5.2
Supply Air Outlet Performance
6.5.2.1
Outlet Throw
Extensive studies of supply outlet performance have
shown that air discharge throw from free round open−
ings, grilles, perforated panels and ceiling diffusers are
related to the average velocity at the face of the supply
outlet or opening.
An air jet discharged from a free opening has four
zones of expansion and the centerline velocity of the
jet in any zone is related to the initial velocity as shown
in Figure 6−9. Regardless of the type of outlet, the air
stream will tend to assume a circular shape in free
space. The important point is that the performance of
any supply outlet is related to the initial velocity and
initial area as shown in Figure 6−9.
the initial volume of the jet at any distance from the
point of origin depends mainly on the ratio of the initial
velocity (Vo) to the terminal velocity (Vx). For exam−
ple, doubling the initial velocity for the same terminal
velocity doubles the induction ratio and also the throw.
In zone 4 where the terminal velocity is relatively low
and specifically for terminal velocities of 50 fpm (0.25
m/s), the throw should be reduced 20 percent.
The buoyant forces with non−isothermal jets cause the
air jet to rise during heating and drop during cooling.
These conditions result in shorter throws when the
throw is reduced to a terminal velocity less than 150
fpm (0.75 m/s)
The discussion of throw and drop has been limited to
free space applications. If the air discharge jet is pro−
jected parallel to and within a few inches of a surface,
the jet performance will be affected by the surface,
which limits the induction on the surface side of the jet.
This creates a low pressure region between the jet and
the surface which draws the jet toward the surface. In
fact, this effect will prevail if the angle of discharge be−
tween the jet and the surface is less than 40.
Surface effect will draw the jet from a sidewall outlet
to the ceiling if the outlet is within one foot (0.3 m) of
the ceiling. The jet from a floor outlet will be drawn to
the wall and the jet from a ceiling outlet will be drawn
to the ceiling. Surface effect increases the throw for all
types of outlets and decreases the drop for horizontally
projected air streams.
6.5.2.2
Beyond the second zone, the jet is a mixture of supply
and room air. The air jet expands because of induction
of room air. The ratio of the total volume of the jet, to
6.10
VAV Applications
Air distribution is very important in VAV applications.
Consideration must be given to distribution and to
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
1
3
2
4
X
PRIMARY
HIGH VELOCITY
USUALLY ON OR NEAR
ROOM SURFACES
PRIMARY AND
INDUCED ROOM AIR
AIR
HIGH TEMP-HEATING
LOW TEMP-COOLING
ROOM AIR
GENTLE MOVEMENT
GREATEST POSSIBLE
SOURCE OF DRAFTS
FREE JET—ROOM AIR INDUCED ON ALL SIDES
JET NEAR A SURFACE—HIGH VELOCITY AIR HUGS SURFACE AND
INDUCES AIR ON ONLY ROOM SIDE OF JET
ZONE
SUPPLY VELOCITY,VO
JET CENTERLINE VELOCITY,VX
1
V
2
V
3
V
4
V
X
X
=
V
X
»
V
O
X
»
V
O
O
/
X
/
X
APPROACHES ROOM VELOCITY
FIGURE 6-9 FOUR ZONES IN JET EXPANSION
sound levels at maximum and minimum airflow. If the
combined sound level of the terminal unit and diffuser
at maximum flow is at least 3 dB below the room ambi−
ent sound level, variations will not be noticed. In gen−
eral, several important considerations are listed for
variable volume system air distribution using outlets
for horizontal discharge patterns as follows:
a.
b.
An outlet with a low throw coefficient should
be used. A small throw coefficient gives a
smaller absolute change in the throw values
with variation in volume and thus tends to
minimize the change in air motion within the
occupied space due to change in airstream
pattern.
Outlets should be chosen for small quantities
of air. In this manner, absolute values of
throw will vary a minimum with the variation
in flow rate for the outlet. If the system ap−
plication requires modular outlet arrange−
ments for occupancy flexibility, as with dif−
fusers in combination with light troffers or
with ceiling suspensions, no increase in the
number of outlets is necessary to satisfy this
requirement.
For under window air distribution, vertical throw out−
lets with nonspreading pattern should be used. To pre−
vent cool air dropping back into the occupied space at
minimum flow conditions, the outlet discharge veloc−
ity should be 500 fpm (2.5 m/s) minimum. The throw
coefficient should be higher to project air up to the cei−
ling. With these exceptions, the preceding items also
apply to under window distribution.
6.5.3
Supply Outlets
Outlets are selected for each specific room, based on
air quantity required, distance available for throw or
radius of diffusion, structural characteristics and ar−
chitectural concepts being considered. Table 6−2 is
based on experience and typical ratings of various out−
lets. It may be used as a guide to the outlets applicable
for use with various room air loadings. Special condi−
tions, such as ceiling heights greater than the normal
8 to 12 feet (2.4 to 3.5 m) and exposed duct mounting,
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
6.11
FIGURE 6-10 TYPICAL SUPPLY OUTLETS
as well as product modifications and unusual condi−
tions of room occupancy, can modify this table.
6.5.3.1
The adjustable blade grille is the most common type
of grille used as a supply outlet. The single deflection
blades install behind and at right angles to the face bla−
des. This grille controls the airstream in both the hori−
zontal and vertical planes.
Grille
Slot
Perforated Panel
Ceiling Diffuser
Perforated Ceiling
Air Loading,
cfm/ft2
(L/s per m2)
of Floor Space
Approx. Max.
Air Changes
@Hour for 10’
(3 m) Ceiling
0.6 to 1.2 (3 to 6)
0.8 to 2.0 (4 to 10)
0.9 to 3.0 (5 to 15)
0.9 to 5.0 (5 to 25)
1.0 to 10.0 (5 to 50)
7
12
18
30
60
Table 6-2 Guide to Use of Various
Outlets
6.12
Fixed Blade Grilles
The fixed blade grille is similar to the single deflection
grille, except that the blades are not adjustable; the
blades may be straight or set at an angle. The angle at
which the air is discharged from this grille depends on
the type of deflection blades.
Adjustable Blade Grilles
Type of
Outlet
6.5.3.2
6.5.3.3
Stamped Grilles
The stamped grille is stamped from a single sheet of
metal to form a pattern of small openings through
which air can pass. Various designs are used, varying
from square or rectangular holes to intricate ornamen−
tal designs.
6.5.3.4
Variable Area Grilles
The variable area grille is similar to the adjustable
double deflection grille but can vary the discharge area
to achieve an air volume change (variable air volume
outlet) at constant pressure, so that the variation in
throw is minimized for a given change in supply air
volume.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
6.5.3.5
Slot Diffusers
6.5.3.9
Perforated Face Ceiling Diffusers
A slot diffuser is an elongated outlet consisting of a
single or multiple number of slots. It is usually
installed in long continuous lengths. Outlets with di−
mensional aspect ratios of 25 to 1 or greater and a max−
imum height of approximately 3 inches (75 mm) gen−
erally meet the performance criteria for slot diffusers.
Perforated metal diffusers meet architectural demands
for air outlets that blend into perforated ceilings. Each
has a perforated metal face with an open area of 10 to
50 percent which determines its capacity. Units are
usually equipped with a deflection device to attain
multi−pattern horizontal air discharge.
6.5.3.6
6.5.3.10 Variable Area Ceiling Diffusers
Air-Light Diffusers
Air−light slot diffusers have a single slot discharge in
nominal 2, 3, and 4 foot (0.6, 0.9, and 1.2 m) lengths
and are available for use in conjunction with recessed
fluorescent light troffers. A diffuser mates with a light
fixture and is entirely concealed from the room. It dis−
charges air through suitable openings in the fixture and
is available with fixed or adjustable air discharge pat−
terns, air distribution plenum, inlet dampers for bal−
ancing, and inlet collars suitable for flexible duct con−
nections. Light fixtures adapted for slot diffusers are
available in styles to fit common ceiling constructions.
Various slot diffuser and light fixture manufacturers
may furnish products compatible with one another’s
equipment.
6.5.3.7
Multi-Passage Ceiling Diffusers
Multi−passage ceiling diffusers consist of a series of
flaring rings or louvers, which form a series of concen−
tric air passages. They may be round, square, or rectan−
gular. For easy installation, these diffusers are usually
made in two parts; an outer shell with duct collar and
an easily removable inner assembly.
6.5.3.8
Flush And Stepped-Down Diffusers
Flush and stepped−down diffusers also are available. In
the flush unit, all rings or louvers project a plane sur−
face, whereas in the stepped−down unit, they project
beyond the surface of the outer shell.
Common variations of this diffuser type are the adjust−
able pattern diffuser and the multi−pattern diffuser. In
the adjustable pattern diffuser, the air discharge pat−
tern may be changed from a horizontal to a vertical or
downblow pattern. Special construction of the diffuser
or separate deflection devices allow adjustment. Mul−
tipattern diffusers are square or rectangular and have
special louvers to discharge the air in one or more di−
rections.
Other outlets available as standard equipment are half
round diffusers, supply and return diffusers, and light
fixture air diffuser combinations.
Variable area ceiling diffusers may be round, square,
or linear and have parallel or concentric passages or a
perforated face. In addition, they feature a means of ef−
fectively varying the discharge area to achieve an air
volume change (VAV outlet) at constant pressure, so
that the variation in throw is minimized for a given
change in supply air volume.
6.5.4
Under Floor Distribution
Raised floor plenums for air distribution are primarily
used in computer rooms or research facilities having
high concentrations of heat generating electronic
equipment requiring very clean and cool supply air.
Distributing conditioned air under a raised floor al−
lows supply diffusers to be located directly under elec−
tronic equipment cabinets having high sensible heat
generation. To meet these high equipment cooling
needs with ceiling supply diffusers would require dis−
charge air flows that would be very uncomfortable for
most room occupants, and may still not provide ade−
quate cooling air flow into these equipment cabinets.
In most applications, these spaces are served by a dedi−
cated packaged air conditioning unit also located in
the space, which discharges supply air directly down
and into the under floor cable access plenum.
Since the primary purpose of this system is to provide
adequate cooling of very expensive electronic equip−
ment, it is important for the TAB technician to obtain
direction from those responsible for this equipment
before balancing these floor registers. In some cases,
equipment nameplate data may indicate a design air
flow temperature and flow rate, if this information is
not provided by the design drawings.
It should also be understood that most raised floors are
constructed of manufactured removable metal panel
sections to allow easy access to the high concentration
of wiring and easy addition or removal of equipment.
For this reason, the air distribution must remain flex−
ible and easy to modify.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
6.13
6.5.5
Return Air Inlet Performance
6.5.5.1
Location
Return air and exhaust air inlets should be located to
suit architectural design requirements including ap−
pearance and compatibility with supply outlets and
ductwork. Generally, inlets are installed to return room
air of the greatest temperature differential that collects
in the stagnant areas. The location of return and ex−
haust inlets does not significantly affect air motion.
The location of return and exhaust inlets will not com−
pensate for ineffective supply air distribution.
A return air inlet should not be located directly in the
primary airstream from supply outlets. To do so will
short circuit the supply air back into the return air sys−
tem without allowing it to mix with the room air.
The TAB technician should remember that the supply
air maintains the conditions within a space by mixing
and dilution. Any removal of excess warm or cold air
which is allowed to stratify before mixing within the
space will permit lower temperature differentials or
lower airflow rates. Removal of excess warm or cold
air is accomplished with hoods in certain industrial
processes. It can also be done by selecting the supply
outlet performance to promote the formation of the
stagnant zone directly from the local heat gain or loss.
The return intake or exhaust would then be located in
the stagnant zone.
6.5.5.2
Noise
In addition to the location of the return intake as dis−
cussed above, the intake should be sized to return the
proper amount of air to the HVAC unit with minimum
static pressure requirements and noise levels. In gener−
al, most commercial return grilles have a free area of
between 45 and 55 percent, because they are designed
so that one cannot see through them. With this type of
grille, the velocity should not exceed approximately
500 fpm (2.5 m/s) to have reasonable pressure drop re−
quirements and a reasonable sound level (see Table
6−3). In general, return air inlets should be sized on
available pressure requirements and sound data, rather
than relying on indicated free area values.
The problem of return inlet noise is the same as that for
supply outlets. In computing resultant room noise lev−
els from operation of an air conditioning system, the
return inlet must be included as a part of the total grille
area. The major difference between supply outlets and
return inlets is the frequent installation of the later at
ear level. When they are so located, the return inlet ve−
6.14
locity should not exceed 75 percent of maximum per−
missible outlet velocity.
Inlet Location
Above occupied zone
Within occupied zone
Not near seats
Within occupied zone
Near seats
Door or wall louvers
Undercut doors
Velocity Over Gross
Inlet Area−fpm (m/s)
800 Up (4.0 Up)
600−800 (3.0−4.0)
400−600 (2.0−3.0)
200−300 (1.0−1.5)
200−300 (1.0−1.5)
Table 6-3 Recommended Return Air
Inlet Face Velocities
6.5.6
Return Air Inlets
6.5.6.1
Adjustable Blade Grilles
The same adjustable blade grilles used for air supply
are used to match the deflection setting of the blades
with that of the supply outlets.
6.5.6.2
Fixed Blade Grilles
The same fixed blade grilles described in the supply air
section are used. This grille is the most common return
air inlet. Blades are straight or set at a certain angle, the
latter being preferred when appearance is important.
6.5.6.3
V-Blade Grille
The V−blade grille is made with blades in the shape of
inverted v’s stacked within the grille frame, this grille
has the advantage of being sight proof; it can be
viewed from any angle without detracting from appea−
rance. Door grilles are usually v−blade grilles. The air−
flow capacity of the grille decreases as visibility
through the grille decreases.
6.5.6.4
Light Proof Grille
The light proof grille is used to transfer air to or from
darkrooms. The blades of this type of grille form a lab−
yrinth and are painted black. The blades may take the
form of several sets of v−blades or be of some special
interlocking louver design to provide the required lab−
yrinth.
6.5.6.5
Stamped Grilles
Stamped grilles frequently are used as return air and
exhaust air inlets, particularly in more demanding
areas like rest rooms and utility areas.
6.5.6.6
Ceiling And Slot Diffusers
Supply air ceiling diffusers also may be used as return
air and exhaust air inlets.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Neck VelocityCfpm (m/s)
400 (2.0)
500 (2.5)
600 (3.0)
700 (3.5)
800 (4.0)
1000 (5.0)
Round Diffuser
Half Round Diffuser
Half Round Diffuser, Flush
Square Diffuser
Square Diffuser, Adjustable
Rectangular Diffuser
Curved Blade Diffuser
Perforated Diffuser
High Capacity Diffuser
Slimline Diffuser, 2 Way*
Extruded Fineline Diffuser
0.25 in.(6.4 mm) Bar Spacing*
Linear Slot Diffuser*
0.024 (6.0)
0.035 (8.7)
0.046 (11.5)
0.021 (5.2)
0.036 (9.0)
0.043 (10.7)
0.056 (13.9)
0.037 (9.2)
—
0.010 (2.5)
0.039 (9.7)
0.054 (13.4)
0.074 (18.4)
0.033 (8.2)
0.057 (14.2)
0.066 (16.4)
0.090 (22.4)
0.058 (14.4)
C
0.015 (3.7)
0.056 (13.9)
0.080 (19.9)
0.106 (26.4)
0.048 (12.0)
0.080 (19.9)
0.096 (23.9)
0.131 (32.6)
0.083 (20.7)
C
0.022 (5.5)
0.075 (18.7)
0.107 (26.6)
0.143 (35.6)
0.064 (15.9)
0.112 (27.9)
0.131 (32.6)
0.175 (43.6)
C
0.050 (12.5)
0.028 (7.0)
0.096 (23.9)
0.141 (35.1)
0.184 (45.8)
0.083 (20.7)
0.144 (35.9)
0.170 (42.3)
0.225 (56.0)
0.148 (36.9)
0.060 (14.9)
0.040 (10.0)
0.152 (37.8)
0.219 (54.5)
0.290 (72.2)
0.130 (32.4)
0.226 (56.3)
C
0.355 (88.4)
0.230 (57.3)
0.100 (24.9)
0.063 (15.7)
0.011 (2.7)
0.051 (12.7)
0.015 (3.7)
0.079 (19.7)
0.024 (6.0)
0.110 (27.4)
0.030 (7.5)
0.150 (37.4)
0.044 (11.0)
0.200 (49.8)
0.069 (17.2)
C
Extractor
0.004 (1.0)
0.006 (1.5)
0.010 (2.5)
0.013 (3.2)
0.017 (4.2)
0.023 (5.7)
*Velocity Through Face Open Area
Table 6-4 Air Outlets and Diffusers
Total Pressure Loss Average—in. wg (Pa)
VelocityCfpm (m/s)
300 (1.5)
400 (2.0)
500 (2.5)
600 (3.0)
800 (4.0)
1000 (5.0)
0 Deflection
0.010 (2.5)
0.017 (4.2)
0.028 (7.0)
0.038 (9.5)
0.069 (17.2)
0.107 (26.6)
22½ Deflection
0.011 (2.7)
0.019 (4.7)
0.031 (7.7)
0.043 (10.7)
0.078 (19.4)
0.120 (29.9)
45 Deflection
0.016 (4.0)
0.029 (7.2)
0.047 (11.7)
0.064 (15.9)
0.117 (29.1)
0.181 (45.1)
Table 6-5 Supply Registers
Total Pressure Loss Average—in. wg (Pa)
Velocity—fpm (m/s)
300 (1.5)
400 (2.0)
500 (3.0)
600 (3.0)
800 (4.0)
900 (4.5)
0.033 (8.2)
0.060 (14.9)
0.092 (22.9)
0.068 (16.9)
0.122 (30.4)
0.187 (46.6)
0.134 (33.4)
0.238 (59.3)
0.302 (75.2)
0.272 (67.7)
0.483 (120.7)
0.055 (13.7)
0.098 (24.4)
0.614 (152.9)
0.152 (37.8)
0.222 (55.3)
0.390 (97.1)
0.496 (123.5)
0.025 (6.2)
0.060 (14.9)
0.080 (19.9)
0.100 (24.9)
0.180 (44.8)
0.230 (52.3)
0.012 (3.0)
0.020 (5.0)
0.032 (8.0)
0.046 (11.5)
0.080 (19.9)
0.102 (25.4)
0.033 (8.2)
0.055 (13.7)
0.088 (21.9)
0.126 (31.4)
0.220 (54.8)
0.275 (68.5)
Register, 0Deflection
0.054 (13.4)
0.090 (22.4)
0.144 (35.9)
0.207 (51.5)
0.360 (89.6)
C
Register, 30 Deflection
0.042 (10.5)
0.070 (17.4)
0.112 (27.9)
0.161 (40.1)
0.280 (69.7)
0.350 (87.2)
Rectangular Diffuser
12 24 in. (300 300 mm)
24 24 in. (600 600 mm)
12 21 in. (300 525 mm)
Perforated Return Diffuser
(Neck Velocity)
Register, 45 Deflection
Register, Perforated Face
Table 6-6 Return Registers
Total Pressure Loss Average—in. wg (Pa)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
6.15
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
6.16
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 7
AIR SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 7
AIR SYSTEMS
7.1
INTRODUCTION
7.1.2
7.1.1
Categories
In general, air systems offer the following advantages:
This chapter covers design and application of air sys−
tems used in single and multiple zoning applications.
An air system is defined as a system that provides total
sensible and latent cooling in the cold air supplied by
the system. No additional cooling is required at the ter−
minal units. Heating may be accomplished by the
same airstream, either from the central system or at the
terminal devices. In some applications, heating is ac−
complished by a separate air, water, steam, or electric
heating system. The term zone implies the provision
or the need for separate thermostatic control, while the
term room implies a partitioned area which may or
may not require separate control.
Air systems may be classified into two basic catego−
ries: single−path systems and dual−path systems.
7.1.1.1
Single-Path Systems
Single−path systems are those which contain the main
heating and cooling coils in a series flow air path, using
common duct distribution system at a common air
temperature to feed all terminal apparatus.
7.1.2.1
a.
single duct, single zone, constant volume,
b.
single duct, variable air volume (VAV),
c.
single duct, VAV induction, and
d.
single duct zoned reheat.
7.1.1.2
Dual-Path Systems
Dual−path systems are those which contain the main
heating and cooling coils in a parallel flow, or series−
parallel flow air path, using either: (1) a separate cold
and warm air duct distribution system, which is
blended at terminal (dual duct systems); or (2) a sepa−
rate supply duct to each zone, with blending of warm
and cold air at the main supply fan.
Dual−path systems may be:
a.
dual duct (including dual duct, VAV), and
b.
multi−zone.
Consolidation
Air systems permit centralized location of major
equipment, they consolidate operation and mainte−
nance in unoccupied areas, and permit maximum
choice of filtration systems, odor and noise control,
and high quality, durable equipment. There is com−
plete absence of drain piping, electrical equipment
power wiring, and filters in the conditioned space.
7.1.2.2
Outdoor Air Cooling
The greatest advantage of air systems is the number of
free cooling season hours that may be had when out−
door air can be used for cooling in lieu of mechanical
refrigeration. Economizer control systems usually are
more trouble−free than enthalpy control systems.
7.1.2.3
Flexibility
Air systems allow a wide choice of zonability, flexibil−
ity, and humidity control under all operating condi−
tions, with simultaneous availability of heating and
cooling during off season periods.
7.1.2.4
Single−path systems may be:
Air System Advantages
Heat Recovery
Air systems are readily adapted to heat recovery de−
vices.
7.1.2.5
Design Freedom
Air systems allow full design freedom for optimum air
distribution in air motion, draft control, and extenuat−
ing local requirements.
7.1.2.6
Makeup Air
Air systems are best suited to applications requiring
abnormal exhaust makeup.
7.1.2.7
Adaptable
Air systems are easily adaptable to automatic seasonal
changeover and winter humidification.
7.1.3
Air System Disadvantages
Air systems have the following disadvantages:
7.1.3.1
Duct Space Requirements
Additional duct clearance requirements can penalize
floor space for duct risers and fan rooms, and building
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
7.1
height for ceiling clearances. (Particularly true of low
velocity systems).
7.1.3.2
Longer Fan Hours
In those systems which use air (not radiation) for pe−
rimeter heating, longer fan−operating hours are re−
quired to take care of unoccupied period heating (in
low temperature locales).
7.1.3.3
System Balancing
In those systems which have no built−in zone self−bal−
ancing devices, air balancing is difficult and may have
to be done several times when a common air system
serves areas which are not rented simultaneously.
7.1.3.4
Temporary Heat
Air heating perimeter systems may not be available for
use during building construction as rapidly as perime−
ter hydronic systems.
7.1.3.5
Terminal Devices
Accessibility to terminal devices demands close coop−
eration between architectural, mechanical, and struc−
tural designers.
ment stores, small individual shops in a shopping cen−
ter, individual classrooms of schools, computer rooms,
etc. A rooftop unit, for example, complete with refrig−
eration system serving an individual space, would be
considered a single zone system. The refrigeration sys−
tem, however, could be remote and serve several
single zone units in a larger installation.
A schematic of a more sophisticated single zone cen−
tral system is shown in Figure 7−2. The return air fan
may be used if 100 percent outdoor air is used for cool−
ing purposes, and may be eliminated if air is relieved
from the space with very little pressure loss through
the relief system. However, objectionable pressuriza−
tion of conditioned spaces should be avoided to allow
entrance doors to open or close normally.
Control of the single zone system can be affected by
varying the quantity of cooling medium, providing re−
heat, face and bypass dampers or a combination of
these. Single duct systems with reheat satisfy varia−
tions in load by providing independent sources of heat−
ing and cooling. When a humidifier is used, humidity
control may be completely responsive to space needs.
Single duct systems without reheat offer cooling flexi−
bility, but cannot control summer humidity indepen−
dent of temperature requirements.
7.2.2
7.1.3.6
Reheat Prohibition
Energy inefficiency of reheat type systems may pro−
hibit use.
7.2
TYPES OF AIR SYSTEMS
7.2.1
Single Zone Systems
The simplest form of the air system is a single condi−
tioner serving a single temperature control zone (see
Figure 7−1). The unit may be installed within or remote
from the space it serves and may operate with, or with−
out distributing ductwork. Ideally, this can provide a
system which is completely responsive to the needs of
the space. Well designed systems can maintain tem−
perature and humidity closely and efficiently. They
can be shut down when desired, without affecting the
operation of adjacent areas.
A single zone system responds to only one set of space
conditions. Its use is limited to situations where varia−
tions occur almost uniformly throughout the zone or
where the load is stable; but when multiple units are
installed, they can handle a variety of conditions effi−
ciently. Single zone systems are used in small depart−
7.2
Variable Air Volume (VAV) Systems
Control of dry bulb temperatures within a space re−
quires that a balance be established between the space
load and the air supplied to offset the load. The design−
er may choose between varying the supply air temper−
ature (constant volume) or varying the airflow volume
(variable air volume) as the space load changes. To
control part load volume reduction, supply air temper−
atures and air volumes may be controlled simulta−
neously.
VAV systems (Figure 7−3), may be applied to interior
or perimeter zones, with common or separate fan sys−
tems, common or separate air temperature control, and
with or without auxiliary heating devices. The VAV
concept may apply to volume variation in the main
system total airstream and to the zones of control.
Variation of flow under control of a space thermostat
may be accomplished by positioning a simple damper
or a volume regulating device in a duct, in a VAV ter−
minal box, or at a diffuser or grille. Depending on the
complexity of the air distribution system, first cost
considerations, the lowest throttling ratio expected at
part load, and the complexibility of the initial and part
load balancing problems, VAV may or may not be
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
POSSIBLE
PREHEAT
COIL
OUTDOOR
AIR INTAKE
FILTERS
OUTDOOR
DAMPER
COOLING
COIL
HEATING
COIL
SUPPLY AIR
FAN
RETURN
AIR DAMPER
RELIEF AIR
LOUVER
USE OF
BAROMETRIC
RELIEF AIR LOUVERS
NOT RECOMMENDED
SUPPLY AIR
SYSTEM
RELIEF
AIR DAMPER
RETURN
AIR SYSTEM
FIGURE 7-1 SINGLE DUCT SYSTEM
EXHAUST AIR OR
RELIEF AIR
LOUVER & DAMPER
RETURN AIR FAN
RETURN AIR DUCT
REHEAT COIL IF
BYPASS IS USED
RETURN AIR
DAMPER
BYPASS DAMPER
SPRAYS
MIN. O.A.
DAMPER
MAX. O.A.
DAMPER
SUPPLY
AIR
DUCT
FACE AND
BYPASS
DAMPER
SUPPLY AIR FAN
OUTDOOR
AIR
LOUVER
MIXED
AIR
PLENUM
FILTERS
PREHEAT COIL
COOLING
COIL
REHEAT COIL IF
BYPASS IS NOT
USED
SPRAY PUMP
FIGURE 7-2 TYPICAL EQUIPMENT FOR SINGLE ZONE DUCT SYSTEM
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
7.3
OUTDOOR
AIR INTAKE
POSSIBLE
PREHEAT
COIL
FILTERS
HEATING COIL
COOLING
COIL
PRIMARY AIR
DUCT
S.P. CONTROLLER
SUPPLY FAN WITH
RETURN
S.P. CONTROL
AIR DAMPER
OUTDOOR
DAMPER
VAV TERMINAL UNITS
EXHAUST AIR
LOUVER
EXHAUST AIR
DAMPER
OPTIONALRETURN
AIR FAN
RETURN
AIR SYSTEM
T
T
FIGURE 7-3 VARIABLE AIR VOLUME (VAV) SYSTEM
combined with fan volume or system static pressure
controls.
It is possible to permit system airflow volume varia−
tions without fan volume variation by using a simple
fan bypass. It is possible to vary zone air volume only,
while keeping fan and system volume substantially
constant, by dumping excess air into a return air ceil−
ing plenum or directly into the return air duct system.
These methods of system control do not provide the
fan horsepower savings usually associated with VAV
systems.
7.2.3
Terminal Reheat Systems
The terminal reheat system (Figure 7−4) is a modifica−
tion of the single zone system. It permits zone or space
control for areas of unequal loading, provides heating
or cooling of perimeter areas with different exposures,
and promotes process or comfort applications where
close control of space conditions is desired.
As the word reheat implies, the application of heat is
a secondary process being applied to either precondi−
tioned primary air or recirculated room air. Under
present energy codes, the use of Na reheat system is dis−
couraged or prohibited unless recovered heat is used.
A single low pressure reheat system is produced when
a heating coil is inserted into the duct system down−
stream of the cooling coil(s). The more sophisticated
7.4
systems use higher pressure duct designs and pressure
reduction devices to permit system balancing at the re−
heat zone. The medium for heating may be hot water,
steam, or electricity. A big advantage of the reheat sys−
tem is that it has the capability of maintaining very
close control of space humidity.
The system is generally applied to hospitals, laborato−
ries, or spaces where wide load variations are expec−
ted. Terminal units are designed to permit heating of
primary air, or secondary air inducted from the condi−
tioned space, located either under the window or in the
duct system overhead. Conditioned air is supplied
from a central unit at a fixed cold air temperature de−
signed to offset the maximum cooling load in the
space(s). The control thermostat simply calls for heat
as the cooling load in the space drops below maxi−
mum.
7.2.4
Induction Reheat Systems
The induction reheat system is shown schematically in
Figure 7−5. Full cooling capacity is provided in the pri−
mary higher pressure airstream and supplied by the
central equipment to the terminal. Zone control is ac−
complished by heating the secondary or induced air−
stream. This type of terminal is used when it is desir−
able to introduce supply air to the space at a higher
temperature, or permit higher space air movement
without increasing the quantity of primary air over the
amount of air required for cooling.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
POSSIBLE
OUTDOOR
PREHEAT
AIR INTAKE COIL
COOLING
COIL
RETURN
AIR DAMPER
EXHAUST AIR
EXHAUST AIR DAMPER
LOUVER
POSSIBLE
RETURN
AIR FAN
SUPPLY AIR
SYSTEM
SUPPLY AIR
FAN REHEAT COIL
NO. 1
RETURN
AIR SYSTEM
REHEAT COIL
NO. 2
T
T
SUPPLY DUCT
TO ZONE 1
SUPPLY DUCT
TO ZONE 2
FIGURE 7-4 TERMINAL REHEAT SYSTEM
The primary airN is discharged from nozzles arranged
to induce room air into the induction unit approximate−
ly four times the volume of the primary air. The in−
duced air is cooled or heated by a secondary water coil.
The water coil may be supplied by a 2−pipe system
where either chilled water or heated water is available,
but not simultaneously; by a 3−pipe system where sep−
arate supplies of hot or chilled water are continuously
available and, after passing through the unit, are mixed
into a common return; or by a 4−pipe system, where a
supply and return of hot water and chilled water are
both continuously available.
Induction units generally are located under the win−
dow to offset winter downdrafts. Overhead installa−
tions are limited, since ductwork connections carrying
induced air have limited static pressure available,
thereby decreasing induction air volume and unit ca−
pacity. When installed under the window, this unit has
the advantage of providing gravity heating during off−
hour operation, permitting shutdown of the air system.
The primary supply air fan operates at high pressures
requiring high horsepower input. When balancing, at−
tempt to reduce the primary air volume and pressure
to the minimum required to operate the induction ter−
minal units under full load conditions.
Induction unit nozzles may be worn through many
years of cleaning and operation, resulting in increased
primary air quantity at lower air velocities with lower
induced air volumes. Check each induction unit and
either repair the nozzles or replace them before at−
tempting any balancing work on the system.
7.2.5
Variable Air Volume (VAV) Reheat
Systems
The VAV concept, when applied to reheat systems,
permits flow reduction as a first step in control, there−
by suspending the application of heat until flow condi−
tions reach a predetermined minimum.
By proper application of VAV, the reheat system may
be designed to permit initial and operating cost sav−
ings. With air volume selected for maximum instanta−
neous peak loads rather than the sum of all peaks, the
total system air volume is reduced. Also, any addition−
al system diversity, such as areas with intermittent
loads (conference rooms, office equipment rooms,
etc.) may be included in the total volume reduction.
When air volume reduction is used as a first step in
control, reheat is not applied until the minimum vol−
ume is reached. This procedure reduces system operat−
ing costs appreciably for summer and intermediate
weather.
7.2.6
Dual Duct Systems
7.2.6.1
Low Velocity Systems
The low velocity dual duct system distributes condi−
tioned air through two parallel ducts. One duct carries
cold air and the other warm air, allowing heating or
cooling at all times. In each conditioned space or zone,
automatic control dampers, responsive to a room ther−
mostat, mix the warm and cold air in proper propor−
tions to satisfy the prevailing heat load of the space.
The return air fan shown in Figure 7−6 may be elimi−
nated on small installations if provisions are made to
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
7.5
OUTDOOR
AIR INTAKE
POSSIBLE
PREHEAT
COIL
FILTERS
HEATING COIL
COOLING
COIL
HIGH VELOCITY
PRIMARY AIR
SYSTEM
T
RETURN
SUPPLY FAN
AIR DAMPER
OUTDOOR AIR
DAMPER
T
INDUCED
AIR
POSSIBLE
EXHAUST AIR EXHAUST
AIR DAMPER RETURN
LOUVER
AIR FAN
SECONDARY
WATER
INDUCTION
FIGURE 7-5 INDUCTION REHEAT SYSTEM
relieve excess outdoor air from the conditioned
spaces. They generally are required for economizer
cooling cycles and in systems with substantial return
air ductwork.
7.2.6.2
High Velocity Systems
High velocity dual duct systems operate in the same
manner as the low velocity systems except that the
supply fan runs at a much higher pressure and each
zone requires a mixing box with sound attenuation.
A large amount of energy is required to operate the fan
at high pressure. When balancing, a close analysis of
the pressure drops within the duct system should be
made and the fan pressure reduced to the minimum re−
quired to operate the mixing boxes.
7.2.6.3
Energy Savings Ideas
In conditions when there is no cooling load, install
controls to close off the cold air duct; de−energize
chillers and cold water pumps and operate as a single
duct system, rescheduling the warmer air duct temper−
ature according to heating loads only.
Under conditions where there is no heating load,
install controls to close off the warm air ducts; shut off
hot water, steam, or electricity to the warm duct and
operate the system with the cold duct air only; resched−
uling supply air temperature according to cooling
loads.
7.6
Replace obsolete or defective mixing boxes to elimi−
nate leakage of hot or cold air when the respective
damper is closed.
Provide volume control for the supply air fan and re−
duce capacity preferably by speed reduction when
both the hot deck and cold deck air quantities can be
reduced to meet peak loads. Reducing the heat loss and
heat gain provides an opportunity to reduce the
amount of air circulated.
When there is more than one air handling unit in a dual
air system, modify duct work, if possible, so that each
unit supplies a separate zone to provide an opportunity
to reduce hot and cold duct temperatures according to
shifting loads.
Change dual duct systems to VAV systems when ener−
gy analysis is favorable and the payback in energy
saved is sufficiently attractive by adding VAV boxes
and fan control.
7.2.7
Multi-Zone Systems
The multi−zone system (Figure 7−7) is applicable for
serving a relatively small number of zones from a
single, central air handling unit. The requirements of
the different zones are met by mixing cold and warm
air through zone dampers at the central air handler in
response to zone thermostats. The mixed conditioned
air is distributed throughout the building by a system
of single zone ducts. Either packaged HVAC units
complete with all components or field fabricated
HVAC components may be used. Return air is usually
handled in a conventional manner.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
EXHAUST AIR
LOUVER
EXHAUST AIR
DAMPER
RETURN AIR
FAN (OPTIONAL)
SUPPLY AIR
RETURN AIR
DAMPER
HEATING COIL
FAN
Ô
Ô
Ô
OUTDOOR AIR
INTAKE
FILTERS
OUTDOOR AIR
DAMPER
COOLING COIL
RETURN AIR SYSTEM
POSSIBLE PREHEAT COIL
T
ZONE 2
T
ZONE 1
MIXING
BOXES
SUPPLY
DUCT
SUPPLY
DUCT
SYSTEM
(COLD)
SYSTEM
(HOT)
FIGURE 7-6 DUAL DUCT HIGH VELOCITY SYSTEM
Multi−zone systems are somewhat similar to dual duct
systems. They can provide a smaller building with
some of the advantages of dual duct systems at a lower
first cost with a wide variety of packaged HVAC units,
but are limited to handling smaller projects by multi−
ple runs of single zone ducts. Most packaged HVAC
units lack the control sophistication for comfort and
operating economy that can be built into dual duct sys−
tems.
Multi−zone systems may handle more than one room
with a single duct. Multizone packaged HVAC equip−
ment is usually limited to about 12 zones, while built−
up systems may have as many as can be physically in−
corporated into the layout.
7.2.7.1
VAV Terminal Devices
VAV may be applied to multi−zone systems with pack−
aged or built−up systems having the necessary zone
volume regulation and fan controls. However, it is sel−
dom applied in this manner for entire distribution sys−
tems except for TV studios and other critical noise lev−
el applications. More often, a few select rooms in a
zone may incorporate VAV terminal devices, when
off−peak requirements permit this approach and air
balancing considerations indicate there will be no
problems from omission of fan control or static pres−
sure regulation.
7.2.7.2
Zone Coils
Some multi−zone units have individual heating and
cooling coils for each zone supply duct. These units
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
7.7
use less energy then units with common coils as the
supply air is heated or cooled only to the degree re−
quired to meet the zone load.
7.2.7.3
Install controls or adjust existing controls to give the
minimum hot deck temperature and maximum cold
deck temperature consistent with the loads of critical
zones.
TAB
Arrange the controls so that when all of the hot duct
dampers are partially closed, the hot deck tempera−
tures will progressively reduce until one or more zone
dampers are partially closed; the cold duct tempera−
ture will progressively increase until one or more of
the zone dampers are fully opened.
Before starting testing and balancing work, analyze
multi−zone systems carefully and treat each zone as a
single zone system. Adjust air volumes and tempera−
ture accordingly.
7.2.7.4
Energy Savings Ideas
Install controls to shut off the fan and all heating con−
trol valves during unoccupied periods in the cooling
season, and shut off the cooling valve during unoccu−
pied periods in the heating season.
Hot and cold deck dampers are often of poor quality
and allow considerable air leakage even where fully
closed. Modify these dampers to avoid leakage.
EXHAUST AIR
LOUVER
EXHAUST AIR
DAMPER
POSSIBLE
RETURN AIR
FAN
RETURN AIR
SYSTEM
ZONE 4
SUPPLY AIR FAN
OUTDOOR AIR
INTAKE
OUTDOOR AIR
DAMPER
FILTERS
COOLING COIL
HEATING COIL
ZONE MIXING
DAMPERS
RETURN AIR
DAMPER
ZONE 3
ZONE 2
ZONE 1
SUPPLY AIR SYSTEMS
POSSIBLE PRE-HEAT COIL
FIGURE 7-7 MULTI-ZONE SYSTEM
7.8
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
7.3
AIR SYSTEM DESIGN
7.3.1
Introduction
Knowing the basics of good air system duct design will
allow the TAB technician to determine if HVAC sys−
tems can be balanced properly, in addition to helping
solve routine problems while balancing. This section
contains highlights only of duct design basics found in
the SMACNA HVAC Systems9Duct Design manual.
The tables and charts found in the Appendix of this
manual are not as extensive as those found in the duct
design manual, but they should be adequate for all
TAB work.
Air systems may be designed at higher or lower pres−
sures. Higher friction rates and system pressures are
required with higher velocity systems to reduce duct
sizes and save space. For some lower velocity systems,
higher pressures may be desirable for ease of balanc−
ing and for flow control regulators that have a substan−
tial pressure drop.
On any of the variable air flow systems, there will be
an infinite set of operating conditions which will
create rates of airflow in the ducts entirely different
from those used in the design. Every effort should be
made when designing the ductwork to reduce the total
fan power needed. This will assure a quieter system,
reduced duct leakages, and in most cases maximum
operating economy for the system owner.
High velocity duct systems have been used mainly be−
cause of space limitations created by architectural and
structural practices. On the other hand where space is
not at a premium, the use of high velocities and pres−
sures are not economical.
Some installations have areas of great space restriction
where duct velocities must be higher. As soon as these
points are passed and space becomes less critical, ve−
locity rates should be sharply dropped, then gradually
reduced toward the end of the duct system.
7.3.2
Equal Friction Design Method
The equal friction method of duct sizing probably has
been the most universally used means of sizing low
pressure supply air, return air and exhaust air duct sys−
tems. It also is being adapted by many HVAC system
designers for use in medium pressure systems. It nor−
mally has not been used for sizing high pressure sys−
tem. This design method automatically reduces air ve−
locities in the direction of the airflow, so that by using
a reasonable initial airflow velocity the chances of
introducing airflow generated noise are reduced or
eliminated.
When noise is an important consideration, the system
velocity may be readily checked at any point during
the design. Then there is the opportunity to reduce ve−
locity created noise by increasing duct size or adding
sound attenuation materials (such as duct lining).
The major disadvantages of the equal friction method
are there are no natural provisions for equalizing pres−
sure drops in the branches (except in the few cases of
a symmetrical layout); and there are no means of pro−
viding the same static pressure behind each supply or
return terminal device. Consequently, balancing can
be difficult, even with a considerable amount of damp−
ering in short duct runs.
However, the equal friction method can be modified
by designing portions of the longest run with different
friction rates from those used for the shorter runs (or
branches from the long run).
Duct static regain (or loss) due to airflow velocity
changes is included in the duct fitting pressure losses
calculated using the duct fitting loss coefficient tables
found in the Appendix. Otherwise, the omission of sys−
tem static regain, when using older tables, could cause
the calculated system fan static pressure to be greater
than actual field conditions, particularly in larger,
more complicated systems. Equal friction does not
mean that total friction remains constant throughout
the system. It means that a specific friction loss or stat−
ic pressure loss per 100 feet (per meter) of duct is se−
lected before the ductwork is laid out, and that this loss
per 100 feet (per meter) is used constantly throughout
the design. The SMACNA Duct Design System Calcu−
lator makes this design method easy to use.
7.3.3
Supply Air Duct Sizing Procedures
To size the main supply air duct leaving the fan, the
usual procedure is to select an initial velocity from
Figures A−1 and A−2 found in the Appendix of this
Manual. This velocity could be selected above the low
velocity shaded section of the Duct Friction Loss Chart
(I−P) A−1, and the Duct Friction Loss Chart (SI) A−2 if
higher sound levels and energy conservation are not
limiting factors. The charts on Appendix A.1 and A.2
are used to determine the friction loss by using the de−
sign air quantity (cfm or L/s) and the selected velocity
(fpm or m/s). A friction loss value commonly used for
low pressure duct sizing is 0.1 in. wg per 100 feet of
ductwork (0.8 Pa/m), although other values found in
the low velocity shaded area, both lower and higher,
are used by some designers as their standard or for spe−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
7.9
cial applications. This same friction loss value gener−
ally is maintained throughout the design, and the re−
spective round duct diameters are obtained from the
charts in Figures A−1 and A−2. The round duct diame−
ters are used to select the equivalent rectangular duct
sizes from chart A−1, unless round ductwork is to be
used. Round ductwork is generally preferred on the
higher pressure duct systems.
The friction losses of each duct section may be cor−
rected for otherN materials and construction methods
by use of Table A−1 and Figure A−3. The correction
factor from the Duct Friction Loss Correction Factors
Figure A−3 is applied to the duct friction loss as only
for the straight sections of the duct. The airflow rate
used in the next section (and subsequent sections) of
the main supply duct after each branch takeoff, is the
original airflow rate (cfm or L/s) of the preceding sec−
tion reduced by the amount of airflow into the branch.
Using charts in Figures A−1 and A−2, the new airflow
rate value (using the recommended friction rate of 0.1
in. wg per 100 ft (or 0.8 Pa/m) will determine the duct
velocity and diameter for that section. The equivalent
rectangular size of that duct section again is obtained
from the Circulation Equivalents of Rectangular
Ducts for Equal Friction and Capacity (I−P) (2) Dimen−
sions in Inches Table A−2 and the (SI) version Table
A−3 (if needed). All additional sections of the main
supply air duct and all branch duct sections can be
sized using charts in Figures A−1 and A−2 and approxi−
mately the same friction loss rates.
The pressure drop at each terminal device or air outlet
(or inlet) of a small duct system, or of branch ducts of
a larger system, should not differ more than 0.05 in. wg
(12 Pa). If the pressure difference between the termi−
nals exceeds that amount, dampering would be re−
quired that could create objectionable air noise levels,
and balancing may become more complicated.
Example 7.1 (IP)
A 70 foot section of N36 × 24 in. galvanized sheetN met−
al duct is handling 10,000 cfm of air. What is the actual
pressure loss and velocity of this duct section, and is
it in the ?low velocity" category?
Solution
Using Table A−2, a 36 × 24 in. duct has a circular
equivalent of 32.0 inches. From Figure A−1, the 32.0
in. equivalent diameter duct has a velocity of 1800 fpm
at a 10,000 cfm airflow rate and a pressure loss rate of
7.10
0.12 in. wg per 100 ft. It is in the low velocity shaded
area. From Table A−1 the duct roughness category is
medium smooth and from Figure A−3, a correction fac−
tor is not needed.
0.12in.wg 70ft.
Sectionpressureloss 100ft.
8 8 0.084in.wg
NOTE: The pressure loss of any duct% fittings or ac−
cessories contained in this 70 foot section of duct
would be added to the above duct friction pressure
loss.
Example 7.1 (SI)
A 21 meter section of 900 × 600 mm galvanized sheet
metal duct is handling 5000 L/s of air. What is the actu−
al pressure loss and velocity of this duct section, and
is it in the ?low velocity" category?
Solution
Using Table A−3, a 900 × 600 mm duct has a circular
equivalent of 799 mm. From Figure A−2, the 799 mm
equivalent diameter duct has a velocity of 10 m/s at a
5000 L/s airflow rate, and a pressure loss rate of 1.1 Pa/
m. It is in the low velocity shaded area. From Table
A−1, the duct roughness category is medium smooth,
and from Figure A−3, a correction factor is not needed.
Section pressure loss = 1.1 Pa/m × 21 m = 23.1 Pa
7.3.4
Modified Design Method
The modified equal friction method is used for sizing
duct systems that are not symmetrical or that have both
long and short runs. Instead of depending upon volume
dampers to artificially increase the pressure drop of
short branch runs, the branch ducts are sized (as nearly
as possible) to dissipate (bleed off) the available pres−
sure by using higher duct friction loss values. Only the
main duct, which is usually the longest run, is sized by
the original duct friction loss rate. Care should be exer−
cised to prevent excessive high velocities in the short
branches (with the higher friction rates). If calculated
velocities are found to be too high, then duct sizes must
be recalculated to yield lower velocities, and opposed
blade volume dampers or static pressure plates must be
installed in the branch duct at or near the main duct to
dissipate the excess pressure. Regardless, it is good de−
sign practice to always include balancing dampers in
HVAC duct systems to balance the airflow to each
branch.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Return Air Duct Systems
× 16"
A
DAMPER
2000
cfm
Terminal Unit Ductwork
7.4
DUCT SIZING EXAMPLES
7.4.1
Sizing In I-P Units
Example 7.2 (I−P Units)
What is the total pressure loss of the portion of the fi−
brous glass HVAC duct system shown in Figure 7−8.
Solution
Using the figures, tables, and charts from the Appen−
dix:
B
× 16"
Low pressure ducts leaving terminal units are sized as
any other conventional low pressure ductwork. Expe−
rience indicates that the least expensive and the safest
way to assure a quiet installation is to have some length
of lined ductwork on the leaving side of terminal units.
Lined ductwork, especially when it contains one or
two elbows, can be a very effective sound attenuator.
Lined ductwork helps if noise regeneration should oc−
cur in the air distributing system because of poorly
constructed ducts, fittings, and taps.
45’
35’
22"
7.3.6
32"
× 16"
Return air ducts should be sized using the equal fric−
tion method at lower velocities. One scheme to simpli−
fy return air systems is to use the space above hung
ceilings or corridors for return air plenums and collect
all return airflows at central points on each floor. In
some localities there are code restrictions to using this
method.
30’
32"
7.3.5
C
2000
cfm
25’
2000
cfm
D
14"
× 16"
×
28"
14" Grille
PD=0.12 in. wg
FIGURE 7-8 SYSTEM LAYOUT
(I-P UNITS)
Figure A−3, Correction factor = 1.43
Table A−14D, Opposed Blade Damper
(set wide open), C = 0.52
Table A−10F , Sq. Elbow, 4.5 in. ?R", single
thickness vanes, C = 0.23
Velocity = 6000 cfm/32 × 16/144
= 1688 fpm
Table A−4, Vp = 0.18 in. wg
Duct AB:
Duct ABC32 × 16 inches, 6000 cfm
Table A−2, Circ. Equiv. = 24.4 in.
diameter
DuctC45 ft + 30 ft = 75 ft/100 ft
× 0.17 × 1.43
= 0.182 in. wg
DamperCVp × C = 0.18 × 0.52
= 0.094 in. wg
Figure A−1, Friction loss
= 0.17 in. wg/100 ft, velocity = 1850 fpm
ElbowCVp × C = 0.18 × 0.23′ = 0.041 in. wg
Table A−1, category = medium rough
Duct Section <AB" Total = 0.317 in. wg
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
7.11
Duct BC:
10 m
Duct BCC22 × 16 in., 4000 cfm
× 400
A
× 400
DAMPER
15 m
550
Table A− 2, Circ. Equiv. = 20.4 inches
diameter
800
Figure A−1, Friction loss = 0.19 in.
wg/100 ft, velocity = 1790 fpm
1000 L/s
B
× 400
Figure A−3, Correction factor for medium rough
= 1.45
550
Table A−11C, 32 × 16 inches to 22 × 16 inches
12 m
60
1000 L/s
C
contraction, A1/A = 1.45
8m
C = 0.06
Velocity = 4000 cfm/22 × 16/144
= 1636 fpm,
1000 L/s
D
350
Table A−4, Vp = 0.17 in. wg
DuctC35 ft/100 ft × 0.1 9 × 1.45 = 0.096 in. wg
× 400
×
700
350 Grille
PD= 30 Pa
FIGURE 7-9 SYSTEM
LAYOUT (SI)
TransitionCVp × C = 0.17 × 0.06 = 0.010 in. wg
TransitionCVp × C = 0.11 × 0.06
= 0.007 in. wg
Duct Section <BC" Total = 0.106 in. wg
Duct CD:
ElbowCVp × C = 0.11 × 1.2 = 0.132 in. wg
Duct CDC14 × 16 inches, 2000 cfm
Grille (given) = 0.120 in. wg
Table A−2, Circ. Equiv. = 16.3 in. diameter
Figure A−1, Friction loss = 0.16 in. wg/100 ft
Duct Section <CD" Total = 0.316 in. wg
Duct−Run ABCD:
Figure A−3, Correction factor for medium rough
= 1.43 (velocity = 1380 fpm)
ABC0.317 in. wg
BCC0.106 in. wg
Table A−11C, 22 × 16 in. to 14 × 16 in. 60
contraction, A1/A = 1.57, C = 0.06
Table A−10D, 90 mitered elbow, H/W =6/14
= 1.14, C = 1.2
CDC0.316 in. wg
Total Pressure Loss)0.739 in. wg
7.4.2
Sizing In SI Units
Velocity = 2000 cfm/14 × 16/144 = 1286 fpm
Table A−4, Vp = 0.11
DuctC25 ft/100 ft × 0.16 × 1.43
= 0.057 in. wg
7.12
Example 7−2 (SI)
Find the total pressure loss of the portion of the fibrous
glass HVAC duct system shown in Figure 7−9.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Solution
Using the figures, tables, and charts from the Appen−
dix:
C = 0.06
Velocity = 2.0 m3/s/(0.55 × 0.4) = 9.1 m/s
Table A−5, Vp = 49.9 Pa
Duct AB:
DuctC12 m × 1.9 Pa/m × 1.46 = 33 Pa
Duct ABC800 × 400 mm, 3000 L/s:
Table A− 3, Circ. Equiv. = 609 mm diameter,
Figure A−2, Friction loss = 1.6 Pa/m,
TransitionCVp × C = 49.9 × 0 .06 = 3 Pa
Duct Section <BC" Total = 36 Pa
Duct CD:
velocity = 10 m/s
Duct CDC350 × 400 mm, 1000 L/s:
Table A−1, category = medium rough,
Table A−3, Circ. Equiv. = 409 mm diameter,
Figure A−3, Correction factor = 1.45,
Figure A−2, Friction loss = 1.5 Pa/m
Table A−14D, Opposed Blade Damper
(set wide open), C = 0.52,
Velocity = 7.7 m/s
Table A−10F, Sq. Elbow, 114 mm ?R", single
thickness vanes, C = 0.23,
Velocity = 3.0 m3/s/0.8 × 0.4 = 9.4 m/s
(1000 L/s = 1.0 m3/s) (1000 mm = 1.0 m)
Figure A−3, Correction factor for medium rough
= 1.46
Table A−11C, 550 × 400 mm to 350 × 400 mm,
60 contraction, A1/A = 1.57,
C = 0.06
Table A−5, Vp = 53.2 Pa
DuctC10m + 15m = 25m × 1.6 Pa/m × 45 =
58 Pa
DamperCV p × C = 53.2 × 0.52 = 28 Pa
ElbowCV p × C = 53.2 × 0.23 = 12 Pa
Duct Section <AB" Total = 98 Pa
Duct BC:
Table A−10D, 90 mitered elbow, H/W = 1.14,
C = 1.2
Velocity = 1.0 m3/s/(0.35 × 0.4) = 7.1 m/s
Table A−5, Vp = 30.3 Pa
DuctC8 m × 1.5 Pa/m × 1.46 = 18 Pa
TransitionCVp × C = 30.3 × 0.06 = 2 Pa
ElbowCVp × C =30.3 × 1.2 = 36 Pa
Duct BCC550 × 400 mm, 2000 L/s:
Table A−3, Circ. Equiv. = 511 mm diameter,
Figure A−2, Friction loss = 1.9 Pa/m,
Grille (given) = 30 Pa
Duct Section <CD" Total = 86 Pa
Duct−Run ABCD:
velocity = 10 m/s
ABC98 Pa
Figure A−3, Correction factor for medium rough
= 1.46
BCC36 Pa
Table A−11C, 800 × 400 mm to 550 × 440mm,
60 contraction, A1/A = 1.45,
CDC86 Pa
Total Pressure LossC220 Pa
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
7.13
7.5
SUMMARY
if it is, and calculations are painstakingly made in ac−
cordance with all tables and charts, the actual total sys−
tem losses can vary from the design losses. Generally,
balancing a system adds additional losses to the system
total or static pressure losses when compared to a sys−
tem with all dampers wide open.
Step by step procedures for sizing a low pressure sup−
ply and return system and a medium pressure system
can be found in the SMACNA HVAC Systems9Duct
Design manual. On new construction work, and with
a good background in duct system design, TAB techni−
cians will be able to recognize where problems exist
and what can be done to correct them before construc−
tion has progressed to the point where changes are dif−
ficult to make.
Testing and balancing personnel also must know about
diffusers and air patterns in order to establish a truly
comfortable system with even temperatures through−
out the entire space. The system designer and the TAB
team have the same objectivesCa properly operating
HVAC system. Understanding system design is the
key to it all.
The TAB technician must know how duct systems are
designed in order to troubleshoot problem jobs. The
ductwork is seldom installed exactly as shown. Even
POOR
POOR
BEST
IMPROVED
POOR
IMPROVED
POOR
IMPROVED
IMPROVED
BEST
POOR
IMPROVED
IMPROVED
IMPROVED
POOR
IMPROVED
POOR
FIGURE 7-10 FAN DUCT CONNECTIONS
7.14
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
IMPROVED
CHAPTER 8
HYDRONIC EQUIPMENT
CHAPTER 8
8.1
PUMPS
8.1.1
Pump Laws
HYDRONIC EQUIPMENT
Centrifugal pumps are used in heating and air condi−
tioning systems to produce fluid flow in piping. This
section provides general information on centrifugal
pumps and their application to heating and air condi−
tioning or hydronic systems. Other pumps, such as re−
ciprocating or rotary pumps, play a minor role in the
HVAC industry.
Pumps interact with a hydronic system in almost the
same manner as fans do in an air system, and pump
laws are similar to fan laws. Pumps usually are direct
driven by being coupled to the shaft of the motor, and
their speed is not changed unless a variable speed drive
or motor is used.
If the pump speed can be changed, the volume of liquid
that is pumped will vary directly as the speed. The
pressure or head imposed within the piping system will
vary as the square of the rpm. The power required to
run the pump will vary as the cube of the rpm.
Cutoff
Discharge Nozzle
Impeller
The pressure or head within the system varies
directly as the square of the diameter of im−
peller,
The horsepower or power required to drive
the pump varies directly as the cube of the di−
ameter of the impeller.
It is more efficient to change the pump impeller than
to throttle a pump (using a discharge valve) to ?short
circuit" part of output flow.
On hydronic systems having larger pumps, or for spe−
cialized systems requiring the ability to adjust water
flow based on system loads, a variable frequency drive
(VFD) may be used.
Although the pump motor ramp up and ramp down set−
points are usually programmed differently than for a
motor driving a fan, the same VFD can be used.
Since motor horsepower input is a cubic function of
pump rpm, even a small 10 percent reduction in pump
flow can reduce motor horsepower and corresponding
electrical consumption over 30 percent.
Most HVAC systems are sized for maximum calcu−
lated loads, which may only occur for several hours
during an entire year. The ability to reduce system wa−
ter flow rates to meet reduced radiation or air handling
unit coil loads for the remainder of the year can result
in a significant utility cost savings.
Casing or Volute
Vanes
Impeller
“Eye”
Shaft
FIGURE 8-1 TYPICAL CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP CROSS SECTION
In small HVAC hydronic systems having pumps under
5 hp, the design flow rate is usually reduced by the
pump supplier by reducing or ?trimming" the diameter
of the pump’s impeller. Changing the diameter of the
impeller has the same affect as changing the pump
speed. Pump laws found in subsection 2.3.5 of Chapter
2 and in the Appendix can be restated in a different
way:
The pump volume (gpm) varies directly with
the impeller diameter,
As recommended in section 3.6 dealing with VFD con−
trol of HVAC fans, understanding how to program
VFD motor controls can be very helpful for any TAB
controller.
8.1.2
Pump Types
Types of centrifugal pumps used in the heating and air
conditioning industry can be defined by the type of im−
peller, number of impellers, type of casing, method of
connection to driver, and mounting position. Two
types of pump impellers are used in these pumps,
single suction and double suction. The single suction
impeller has one suction or intake, while the double
suction impeller has two suctions or intakes. Most cen−
trifugal pumps for heating and air conditioning are
single suction; the significant example of double suc−
tion impeller is the single stage, horizontal split−case
pump. Pumps also may have single or multiple impel−
lers. When they have multiple impellers, they are
called multistage pumps.
As with impellers, there are two basic types of casings
for these pumps, volute and diffuser. The volute types
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
8.1
include all pumps that collect water from the impeller
and discharge it perpendicularly to the pump shaft.
Diffuser−type casings collect water from the impeller
and discharge it parallel to the pump shaft. All pumps
described here are the volute type, except the vertical
turbine pump, which is a diffuser type.
sure and temperature limitations vary depending on
the liquid being pumped and the style of seal. The seal
material and style are supplied by the manufacturer af−
ter being informed of the kind of liquid to be pumped
and the temperature and pressure limitations.
8.1.3.4
Pumps can be classified by their method of connection
to an electric motor, close coupled or flexible coupled.
The close coupled pump has the impeller mounted di−
rectly on a motor shaft extension, while the flexible
coupled pump has an impeller shaft supported by a
frame or bracket, connected to the electric motor
through a flexible coupling. Pumps also are labeled by
their mounting position; either horizontal or vertical.
Seven significant types of pumps are used in heating
and air conditioning or hydronic systems, and are
shown in Figure 8−2. Many variations of these pumps
are offered by manufacturers for particular applica−
tions.
8.1.3
Packing Glands
Pumps with packing glands are extensively used, par−
ticularly where abrasive substances included in the
water are not detrimental to system operation. Some
leakage at the packing gland is needed to lubricate and
cool the area between the packing material and the
shaft.
8.1.3.5
Shaft Sleeves
Shaft sleeves protect the motor or pump shaft, espe−
cially with packing.
Pump Construction Features
FORM
Important construction features of centrifugal pumps
follow.
8.1.3.1
Material Types
Centrifugal pumps are generally offered in bronze
fitted, all bronze, or iron fitted construction. In bronze
fitted construction, the impeller, shaft sleeve (if used),
and wear rings are bronze, and the casing is cast iron.
These construction materials refer to the liquid end of
the pump (those parts of the pump that contact the liq−
uid being pumped).
8.1.3.2
Stuffing Box
The stuffing box is that portion of the pump where the
rotating shaft enters the pump casing. To seal undesir−
able leakage at this point, a mechanical seal or packing
is used in the stuffing box.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Residential Hydronic
System
Domestic Hot Water
Recirculation
Multizone Circulation
CIRCULATOR
CLOSE-COUPLED
END SUCTION
FRAME-MOUNTED
END SUCTION
BASE-MOUNTED
HORIZONTAL SPLIT CASE
SINGLE-ST AGE
DOUBLE-SUCTION
BASE-MOUNTED
MULTISTAGE
HORIZONTAL SPLIT
CASE
Cooling Tower
Condenser Water
Chilled Water
Primary & Secondary
Hot Water
Boiler Feed
Condensate Return
VERTICAL INLINE
VERTICAL TURBINE
SINGLE-ST AGE OR
MULTISTAGE
8.1.3.3
Mechanical Seals
Pumps with mechanical seals are used successfully in
a wide variety of applications. Like pumps, many
styles and types of seals are available. There are unbal−
anced and balanced (for higher pressures) seals. Inside
seals operate inside the stuffing box while outside
seals have their rotating element outside the box. Pres−
8.2
SUMP MOUNTED
CAN PUMP
FIGURE 8-2 DESCRIPTIONS OF
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS USED IN
HYDRONIC SYSTEMS
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Impeller
Type
Type
Number of
Impellers
Motor
Mounting
Position
Motor
Connection
Casing
Circulator
Single suction
One
Volute
Flexible coupled
Horizontal
Close coupled,
end suction
Single suction
One or two
Volute
Close coupled
Horizontal
Frame mounted,
end suction
Single suction
One or two
Volute
Flexible coupled
Horizontal
Double suction,
horizontal
split case
Double suction One
Volute
Flexible
Horizontal
Horizontal split
split case,
multistage
Single suction
Two to five
Volute
Flexible coupled
Horizontal
Vertical inline
Single suction
One
Volute
Flexible or close
Vertical
Vertical turbine
Single Suction
One to twenty Diffuser
Flexible coupled
Vertical
Table 8-1 Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps
Positive Displacement Pumps
Centrifugal Pumps
Characteristics
Rotary
Piston
Radial
Mixed Flow
Axial Flow
Flow
Even
Pulsating
Even
Even
Even
Effect of increasing
head:
on flow
on bhp
Negligible decrease
Increase
Increase
Decrease
Decrease
Decrease
Large increase
Effect of decreasing
head:
on flow
on bhp
Decrease
Small decrease
to large increase
Negligible increase
Decrease
Decrease
Increase
Increase
Increase
Slight increase
to decease
Increase
Decrease
Up to 30%
increase
Decrease
50%-60%
Considerable
increase
10% decrease
to 80% increase
Large
increase
Increase
80%-150%
Effect of closing
discharge valve:
on pressure
Can destruct unless
relief valve is used
Increase to destruction
on bhp
Table 8-2 Characteristics of Common Types of Pumps
8.1.3.6
Bearings
Ball bearings are most frequently used in larger
pumps. Circulators use sleeve type bearings for motor
and pump bearings.
8.1.3.7
Wearing Rings
Wearing rings are for the impeller and/or casing. They
are replaceable and prevent wear to the impeller or
casing.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
8.3
8.1.3.8
Balance Rings
The balance ring is placed on the back side of a single
inlet, enclosed impeller to reduce the axial load.
Double inlet impellers are inherently balanced axially.
Straight Edge
C
L Pump and Water
P
M
Aligned
Gap
8.1.3.9
Rotation of any pump is fixed by the configuration and
type of vanes and the suction and discharge connec−
tions. An arrow to indicate proper direction is often
cast directly into the casing metal. In addition to prop−
er position of the pump in the piping, rotation is also
dependent upon the motor or driven rotation. Rotation
of motor and pump must be tested prior to operation.
However, pumps with mechanical seals must not be
run dry, even for ?bumping," to determine rotation.
C
L Pump
M
A pump may be driven by any appropriate means. For
the most part, environmental system pumps are motor
driven, and the shafts of the motor and pump are con−
nected end to end by some type of coupling. Some
pumps, usually those employed in pumping fuel oil,
are belt driven. In this case the belts may be used as a
protective device, either slipping or breaking before
damage to the pump can occur in the event of overload.
The couplings between motor shaft and pump shaft are
made in two pieces so that the two coupling halves
may be disconnected for removal of the pump without
disturbing the motor, for running the motor indepen−
dently of the pump, or for removal of the motor with−
out disturbing the pump. The coupling also serves as
a means of adjustment of the pump and shaft align−
ment. The ideal alignment condition is that both shafts
are in a straight line and concentric under all condi−
tions of operation and shut down. Because of tempera−
ture changes, an unequal expansion of parts causes a
change of alignment during operation.
Base mounted pumps, especially in larger sizes, re−
quire at least an alignment check in the field. This may
be done in a superficial but often satisfactory way with
a straight edge since the outside perimeters of the cou−
pling halves are machined to the same diameter and
are perpendicular to each shaft. Center lines and cou−
pling faces must be true as shown in Figure 8−3.
8.1.3.11 Operating Speeds
Operating speeds of motors may be selected in the
range between 600 and 3500 rpm, with 1800 rpm being
the most common speed. Pumps operating at higher
speeds are generally less expensive, but for quieter
P
C
L Motor
Coupling (Typ.)
Misaligned
C
L Pump
C
L Motor
M
Gap and Angle
Straight Edge
Misaligned
8.1.3.10 Pump Drives
8.4
Straight Edge
Pump Rotation
FIGURE 8-3 COUPLING ALIGNMENT
WITH STRAIGHT EDGE
performance or lesser NPSH requirements, lower
speeds are preferred.
8.1.4
Pump Pressure or Heads
The purpose of a pump for HVAC work is to establish
fluid flow and produce sufficient pressure to overcome
the resistance of a system and the system components
at the design flow rate.
8.1.4.1
Pump “Head” Definitions
When working with pumps, the word head often will
be used to define pressure. Definition of these and oth−
er common head terms are noted here, even though
some may be defined again under other discussions:
Friction head is the pressure in psi or feet (pascals or
meters) of the liquid pumped which represents system
resistance that must be overcome.
Velocity head is the pressure needed to accelerate the
liquid being pumped. (For practical purposes, the ve−
locity head is insignificant and usually can be ignored
in HVAC system calculations.)
Static suction lift is the distance in feet (meters) be−
tween the pump centerline and the source of liquid be−
low the pump centerline.
Suction lift is the combination of static suction lift and
friction head in the suction piping when the source of
liquid is below the pump centerline.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Suction head is the positive pressure on the pump inlet
when the source of liquid supply is above the pump
centerline.
Static suction head is the positive vertical height in
feet (meters) from the pump centerline to the top of the
level of the liquid source.
Dynamic suction lift is the sum of suction lift and ve−
locity head at the pump suction when the source is be−
low the pump centerline.
Dynamic suction head is positive static suction head
minus friction head and minus velocity head.
Dynamic discharge head is static discharge head plus
friction head plus velocity head.
Total dynamic head is dynamic discharge head (static
discharge head, plus friction head, plus velocity head)
plus dynamic suction lift, or dynamic discharge head
minus dynamic suction head.
8.1.4.2
Pressure Relationships
For the pressure relationship to the inlet and suction
side of the pump, the discharge pressure is higher. In
the process of establishing this head, the impeller pro−
duces a lower or relatively negative pressure on the
suction side.
It is important to note the deliberate use of the term rel−
ative in a discussion of the pressures which pumps pro−
duce. The system elevation static pressure is of major
consequence in the liquid system. During the time
when the pump is running, there is a redistribution of
pressures in the system because of the combination of
the elevation pressures and the pressures produced by
the pump. However, when the pump is shut down, the
system pressures return to the same values of elevation
static as before the pump was started. The pressures
produced by the pump merely add to or subtract from
the initial shutdown pressures.
Since the operating discharge pressure produced by
the pump is an increase, this value is added to the shut−
down pressure in the discharge piping. Since the oper−
ating suction pressure produced by the pump is a de−
crease, this value is subtracted from the shutdown
pressure in the suction piping. Assuming that the sys−
tem piping and equipment losses were properly calcu−
lated and that the pump was properly selected to over−
come those losses and to withstand the system static
and dynamic pressures, it would be expected that the
pump would produce the required fluid flow. Howev−
er, this may not be the case because of the pump’s sen−
sitivity to the pressure conditions on its inlet (the dis−
charge conditions of the pump do not generally present
a problem).
8.1.4.3
Frequent Pumping Problems
The fluid being pumped, usually water, generally con−
tains some entrained air which has been absorbed as a
result of atmospheric pressure when the fluid was ex−
posed to the atmosphere prior to being introduced into
the system. This air is released because of an increase
in fluid temperature, a decrease in fluid pressure, or
because of the fluid vapor pressure.
Air driven out of the water when it is heated must be
vented from the piping, often several times at the be−
ginning of the season, and throughout the heating op−
eration if fresh water must be continuously added to re−
place that amount dripped through pump packing.
Most of the air released in the process of heating of the
water should be removed at or near the heat exchanger
or hot water generator.
Therefore, there may be a point in the environmental
fluid pumping system where air may be released from
the fluid being pumped if the pressure is low enough
and/or the liquid may change to a gas. Should these
conditions occur, the pump, which has been designed
to move liquid, is generally unable to cope, and the
flow of liquid is either greatly reduced or stopped com−
pletely. However, at some point within the pump
where the impeller produces sufficient pressure, the
bubbles of gaseous liquid will be re−liquified and the
bubbles of air will be reabsorbed. This transition oc−
curs suddenly and is accompanied by crackling or ex−
plosive noise. The phenomenon is called cavitation
and may cause destructive pitting and wearing of the
impeller and casing as well as noise and vibration. Any
one or all of these conditions will reduce pump perfor−
mance and life.
8.1.4.4
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
To eliminate the cavitation problem, it is necessary to
maintain a minimum suction pressure at the inlet side
of the pump.
The actual value in psi or ft. wg (pascals or meters) of
internal pump losses depends on the pump size and de−
sign, and the volume of water being pumped. This
must be determined by the pump manufacturer, and is
given by numerical values of NPSH. Required NPSH,
sometimes designed NPSHR, can be considered to be
the amount of pressure, in excess of the vapor pressure,
required to overcome internal pump losses and so keep
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
8.5
water flowing into the pump. For a given pump, the re−
quired NPSH increases as capacity increases. Each
system, as a result of design and physical limitations,
will produce an available NPSH sometimes desig−
nated NPSHA. When the available NPSH is greater
than the required NPSH, the problems of air release,
vaporization, and cavitation will not arise.
The required NPSH for a specific pump is available
from the manufacturer, either in catalogue data or
upon request. Although usually given as a single num−
ber, the value varies with flow and head. For any pump,
the full range of values for each impeller size and oper−
ating speed is expressed as a curve (see Figure 8−4).
The TAB technician must remember, however, that for
satisfactory pump operation, NPSHA must always ex−
ceed the NPSHR; if it does not, bubbles and pockets of
vapor will form in the pump. The results will be reduc−
tion in capacity, loss of efficiency, noise, vibration,
and cavitation.
The available NPSH in a specific system may be ex−
pressed by the following equation:
Equation 8-1
NPSHA P a
Ps V P vp
2g
2
Where:
NPSHA = Net positive suction head available −
ft wg (m wg)
Pa = Atmospheric pressure at elevation of
installationCuse 34 ft wg (10.32 m wg)
at sea level
strainer on the suction side of the pump should become
clogged.
8.1.4.5
Vortex
Vortex is not a pressure, but a term used to describe
whirling or spinning of the liquid in a piping system.
The condition is similar to a weather cyclone or torna−
do and may occur anywhere in the piping system
where conditions cause or allow the vortex to be pro−
duced.
On the discharge or relatively positive pressure side of
a pump the worst effect of a vortex is normally noise,
and the configuration of the piping is usually the cause.
Several elbows, always turning the same way, may
produce a vortex with a low pressure center in the pipe,
and noise bubbles of air can temporarily be released in
the same way as a pump suction with inadequate
NPSH.
On the suction, or relatively negative pressure side of
the pump, the same condition may also occur. Howev−
er, the suction vortex problem is more commonly
caused by placing the suction pipe termination too
close to the surface of the system liquid, as might occur
in a cooling tower pan. The low pressure produced at
the pipe entrance produces a vortex or whirlpool simi−
lar to that produced when a stopper is removed from
a sink full of water. The result of this condition is to
introduce air directly into the eye of the pump impel−
ler, impairing the efficiency of the pump and produc−
ing undesirable noise. This condition may occur even
though calculations indicate adequate NPSH.
Ps = Pressure at pump centerlineCft wg (m.
2
wg) V = Absolute vapor pressure at
2g
pumping temperatureCft wg (m wg)
g = Gravity accelerationC32.2 ft/s2 (9.81 m/s2)
NPSH is normally not a consideration in closed sys−
tems, especially where the pump is at the bottom of a
riser. It is also not ordinarily a factor in most open sys−
tems unless pumping hot water, or if there is a consid−
erable suction lift, or if there is considerable friction in
the pump suction pipe. In unusual considerations of
excessive suction line friction, there could be insuffi−
cient NPSHA. Such a condition could exist because of
an undersized pipe, or too many fittings, or if a valve
in the suction line was throttled, or if a fine mesh
8.6
Total Head - Ft
Pump Performance Curve
Required NPSH
Flow Rate - gpm
FIGURE 8-4 TYPICAL REQUIRED
NPSH CURVE
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Some vortex producing conditions can be eliminated
by proper piping. In cooling tower sumps, a plate often
is installed to prevent a vortex from forming.
8.2
PUMP / SYSTEM CURVE
RELATIONSHIP
8.2.1
Pump Curves
Pump performance characteristics are presented in
graphical curves or tabular form in the same manner
as fans. However, pump curves usually are available,
and performance tables are not; which is contrary to
the situation with fan data. The result is a relatively
quick, visual pump selection to determine the conse−
quences of system pressure changes. Typical pump
selection curves are illustrated in Figure 8−5.
The curves presented might illustrate the ratings of a
single pump of a family similar to the fan curves pre−
viously discussed. In addition, the same pump may
have two sets of curves. The one illustrated represents
operation at 1750 rpm, while another set of conditions
is available for the same pump operating at 3500 rpm
(or 3450 rpm).
The group or sub−family of curves on each graph is
produced by different impeller sizes in the same ca−
sing. Those impeller sizes shown are for standard im−
peller diameters, usually in inch or half inch incre−
ments in U.S. units and similar increments in metric
units. Within the minimum and maximum impeller
sizes indicated, any impeller diameter may be made to
accomplish specific requirements simply by shaving a
standard size on a lathe.
TOTAL HEAD IN FEET
The position of the pump capacity selection point is
best located in or slightly to the left of the highest effi−
45% 55%
60%
60
50
7”
6 1_w”
68%
65%
60%
55%
40
30
5 1_w”
8.2.2
Closed System Curve
The system curve is simply a plot of the change in en−
ergy head resulting from a fluid flow change in a fixed
piping circuit. System curve construction methods dif−
fer between open and closed piping circuits.
From the pipe size and design flow rate, a calculated
energy head pressure drop is determined. It should be
particularly noted that system static height is of no im−
portance in determining energy head pressure drop.
This is because the static heights of the supply and re−
turn legs are in balance; the energy head required to
raise water to the top of the supply riser is balanced by
the energy head regain as water flows down the return
riser.
Example 8.1 (I−P)
45%
5”
3HP
20
10
0
The motor size must be made so that the pump will not
overload at the design conditions and if possible at any
curve condition along the selected impeller curve.
A design flow rate of 200 gpm (12.0 L/s) establishes
30 foot (9 m) pressure drop in a typical system. This
particular point can be plotted on a foot head versus
gpm pump curve as shown in Figure 8−7. What pres−
sure drop would occur if the flow were changed to 163
gpm (9.8 L/s) through the piping circuit?
65%
68%
ciency area. Not only is efficiency high, but should it
be a factor, NPSH is low. Just as important is the matter
of quiet operation. Therefore, the selection is not nor−
mally made at or near either the maximum or mini−
mum impeller sizes. When the impeller diameter is
chosen in the mid−range, it may be replaced in the
field, if required, with either a larger or smaller size.
Furthermore, the slope of the pump curve requires se−
rious consideration. Too flat a curve results in large
changes in flow rate for small changes in system head.
Too steep a curve will often dip at the left, which will
produce surging or unstable operation should the
pump need to operate in this area.
2HP
1 1/2 HP
20
3 HP 1HP
1_w HP
4
40
60
80
100
120 140
160
CAPACITY IN U.S. GALLONS PER MINUTE
180
FIGURE 8-5 PUMP CURVE FOR 1750
RPM OPERATION
Solution
Using Equations 2−24 and 2−26 (combined)
2
Q2
H 2 H 1
Q1
2
H 2 30 163 19.9feet
200
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
8.7
CUT-OFF FOR SELECTED
IMPELLER DIAMETER
PUMP HEAD-CAPACITY CURVE FOR FIXED
IMPELLER SIZE
MOTOR POWER (STANDARD SIZES)
TOTAL HEAD
MOTOR WILL OVERLOAD IF OPERATING POINT SHIFTS TO THE
RIGHT OF THIS INTERSECTION, SELECT MOTOR B FOR NONOVERLOADING
HEAD - CAPACITY CURVE
FOR DESIGN CONDITIONS AND IMPELLER
DIAMETER
DESIGN
HEAD
DESIGN
OPERATING
POINT
MOTOR B
MOTOR A
DESIGN FLOW
FLOW
EFFICIENCY CURVES - SELECTION AT OR TO LEFT OF MAXIMUM
MAINTAINS HIGH EFFICIENCY IF ACTUAL OPERATING POINT
OCCURS TO RIGHT OF DESIGN OPERATING POINT
FIGURE 8-6 TYPICAL DESIGN PUMP SELECTION
POINT (FROM ABBREVIATED CURVE)
The same procedure carried out for a 116 gpm (7.0 L/s)
flow rate would result in a 10.1 (3 m) pressure drop.
These points may be plotted on a foot head versus gpm
chart as shown in Figure 8−7. Connection of these three
points, along with other condition combinations, de−
scribes a system curve. The system curve is a statement
of the change in pipe friction drop with water flow
change for a fixed piping circuit. This is a most impor−
tant working tool for pump application.
Equation 8-2
H2
Q2
H1
Q1
2
Where:
H = HeadCft wg (m wg)
TOTAL HEAD - FEET(m)
Q = Fluid flowCgpm (L/s or m3/s)
50
(15)
40
(12)
30
(9)
20
(6)
10
(3)
0
The operation of the pump in Figure 8−7 installed in the
piping circuit described by the system curve must be
at the intersection of the pump curve with the system
curve because of the First Law of Thermodynamics.
PUMP CURVE
POINT OF OPERATION
8.2.3
SYSTEM CURVE
50
(3)
100
(6)
150
(9)
200
(12)
250
(15)
CAPACITY - US GALLONS PER MINUTE
(LITERS PER SECOND)
FIGURE 8-7 SYSTEM CURVE PLOTTED
ON PUMP CURVE
8.8
Open System Curve
In plotting the system curve for an open system, the
statics of the system must be analyzed in addition to
the friction loss. The different static conditions are il−
lustrated in Figure 8−8.
A typical cooling tower application is illustrated in
Figure 8−9. In this system, the pump is drawing water
from the tower sump and discharging it through the
condenser to the tower nozzles, at a 10 foot (3 m) high−
er elevation than the sump level.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
TOTAL
STATIC
HEAD
TOTAL
STATIC
HEAD
STATIC
SUCTION
HEAD
STATIC
STATIC
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
HEAD
HEAD
TOTAL
STATIC
HEAD
STATIC
SUCTION
HEAD
STATIC
DISCHARGE
HEAD
STATIC
SUCTION
LIFT
STATIC SUCTION HEAD
LESS THAN
STATIC DISCHARGE HEAD
STATIC SUCTION LIFT
PLUS
STATIC DISCHARGE
HEAD
STATIC SUCTION HEAD
GREATER THAN
STATIC DISCHARGE
HEAD
FIGURE 8-8 TYPICAL OPEN SYSTEMS
This system curve cannot be applied directly to the
pump curve and the intersection taken as the accurate
pumping point for the open system. A false evaluation
using this criteria, but without evaluating the static
height of the tower, is shown in Figure 8−10.
The illustration is false because the pump must also
provide the necessary energy to raise water from the
tower sump to the spray nozzles. In this case, the pump
NOZZLES
10 FT(3 m) TOTAL
STATIC
HEAD
COOLING
TOWER
SUMP
must raise each pound of water 10 feet (3 m) in height,
or it must provide 10 feet (3 m) of energy head due to
the static difference in height between the water levels.
The static difference of 10 feet (3 m) must be added to
the piping pressure drop to provide total required head
for each of the gpm points previously noted. The re−
vised fluid flow versus total required head is shown in
Table 8−3.
60
(18)
TOTAL HEAD - FEET(m)
Total friction loss (suction and discharge piping, con−
denser, nozzles, etc.) is 30 foot (9 m) at a design flow
rate of 200 gpm (12 L/s), the change in piping pressure
drop for a change in water flow rates is determined and
plotted to develop a system curve.
PUMP No. 1
PERFORMANCE
CURVE
50
(15)
40
(12)
FALSE OPERATING
POINT
30
(9)
20
(6)
SYSTEM
CURVE
10
(3)
STATIC
DISCHARGE
HEAD
STATIC
SUCTION
HEAD
0
75
(4.5)
150
(9.0)
225
(13.5)
300
(18.0)
375
(22.5)
CAPACITY - US GALLONS PER MINUTE
(LITERS PER SECOND)
CONDENSER
FIGURE 8-9 TYPICAL COOLING
TOWER APPLICATION
FIGURE 8-10 SYSTEM CURVE FOR
OPEN CIRCUIT FALSE OPERATING
POINT
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
8.9
PUMP HEAD CAPACITY CURVE
PUMP NO.2
PERFORMANCE
CURVE
POINT 4
POINT 2
50
(15)
POINT 1
DESIGN HEAD
TRUE OPERATING
POINT PUMP NO.2
40
(12)
DESIGN SYSTEM
HEAD CURVE
PUMP NO.1
PERFORMANCE
CURVE
30
(9)
SYSTEM
CURVE
20
(6)
TRUE OPERATING POINT
PUMP NO.1
10
(3)
10’(3m)
0
75
(4.5)
150
(9.0)
225
(13.5)
300
(18.0)
375
(22.5)
CAPACITY - US GALLONS PER MINUTE
(LITERS PER SECOND)
SYSTEM AND PUMP HEAD
TOTAL HEAD - FEET(m)
60
(18)
OVERPRESSURE WITH
CONSTANT SPEED PUMP
POINT 3
ACTUAL SYSTEM
HEAD CURVE
POINT 5
FIGURE 8-11 SYSTEM CURVE FOR
OPEN CIRCUIT TRUE OPERATING
POINT
50% DESIGN
100% DESIGN
FLOW
FLOW
SYSTEM FLOW
FIGURE 8-12 PUMP OPERATING
POINTS
The correct procedure for plotting a system curve for
the circuit shown in Figure 8−9 is illustrated in Figure
8−11.
8.2.4
Pump Operating Points
In Figure 8−12, if the system is of the free flowing type
without control valves, with an actual system head
curve as shown, the pump will operate at Point 2, not
Point 1; the pump will produce a higher flow rate than
design flow rate. If the system is of the controlled flow
type with two way valves on all heating or cooling
coils, at design flow, the pump will operate at Point 1
and will create an over−pressure on the coils and con−
trol valves equal to the head difference between Points
1 and 3. If the system flow is reduced to 50 percent of
design on such a system, the over pressure will in−
crease to the amount between Points 4 and 5. Pump op−
eration will be as follows.
head and system head being converted into over−pres−
sure, consumed by the control valves.
Recognizing that over−pressure can occur in con−
trolled flow systems where coils are equipped with two
way control valves, the selection of pumps for these
systems must include methods of limiting over−pres−
sure to an economic minimum. These methods in−
clude:
a.
multiple pumps operating in parallel
b.
multiple pumps operating in series
NON-CONTROLLED FLOW
c.
multi−speed pumps
On a system without control valves, the pump will al−
ways operate at the point of intersection of the pump
head capacity curve and the system head curve.
d.
variable speed pumps
8.2.4.1
8.2.4.2
CONTROLLED FLOW
On controlled flow systems, the pump will follow its
head capacity curve, the difference between pump
8.10
The actual method used on a specific hydronic system
depends on the economics of that system. The effects
of these methods on over−pressuring a particular sys−
tem can be determined by developing the system head
curve and plotting pump head capacity curves on the
same graph with the system head curve.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
0
(0)
0 (0)
116
(7.0)
10 (3)
Feet (Meters) of Head
Design
163
185
200
(9.8)
(11.1)
(12.0)
20 (6)
25 (7.5)
30 (9)
Static Head
10 (3)
10 (3)
10 (3)
10 (3)
10 (3)
10 (3)
10 (3)
Total Head
10 (3)
20 (6)
30 (9)
35 (10.5)
40 (12)
45 (13.5)
50 (15)
GPM (L/s)
Piping System
215
(12.9)
35 (10.5)
230
(13.8)
40 (12)
Table 8-3 Flow vs Total Head (Cooling Tower Application)
8.2.5
Multiple Pumps
PUMP HEAD CAPACITY CURVE
ONE-PUMP
OPERATION
SYSTEM DESIGN
HEAD
SYSTEM AND PUMP HEAD
Multiple pumps in parallel is the most common meth−
od of eliminating over−pressure. Figure 8−13A de−
scribes two pumps piped in parallel, while Figure 8−14
includes a system head curve as well as the head capac−
ity curves for single pump and two pump operation. It
is obvious from Figure 8−14 that one pump at 50 per−
cent system flow will reduce the over−pressure caused
by two−pump operation or one pump designed to han−
dle maximum design flow and head.
Figure 8−13B illustrates two pumps piped in series
with bypasses for single pump operation. Figure 8−15
indicates the use of series pumping on a hydronic sys−
tem with a system head curve consisting of a large
amount of system friction. For such systems, series
pumping can greatly reduce the overpressure on a con−
trolled flow system. Series pumping should not be
used on hydronic systems with flat system head curves
similar to the one shown in Figure 8−14.
For such a system, one pump operation with series
connection would result in the pump running at shutoff
head and producing no flow in the system.
CHECK
VALVE
CHECK VALVE
BYPASSES FOR
SINGLE PUMP OPERATION
A. PARALLEL PUMPING
B. SERIES PUMPING
FIGURE 8-13 MULTIPLE PUMPS
TWO-PUMP
OPERATION
TWO PUMPS
ONE PUMP
MAXIMUM POINTS
OF OPERATION
SYSTEM HEAD
CURVE
INDEPENDENT
HEAD
50% DESIGN
FLOW
100% DESIGN
FLOW
SYSTEM FLOW
FIGURE 8-14 PUMP AND SYSTEM
CURVES FOR PARALLEL PUMPING
8.3
PUMP INSTALLATION CRITERIA
8.3.1
Pressure Gage Location
To eliminate the effect of pipe friction, fittings, valves,
and other obstructions, the most desirable gage loca−
tion for accuracy would be at the pump flanges. How−
ever, this is not usually practical. Gages should be lo−
cated as close to the flanges as possible as shown in
Figure 8−16.
To eliminate an elevation static head correction, the
gages on suction and discharges should be at the same
height with respect to the pump centerline. If this pre−
caution is not taken, the difference in gage elevation,
even though usually of small numerical value, must be
accounted for in the gage differential.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
8.11
versed or if one or both gages were located below the
horizontal pipe or pump centerline.
Gate
Valve
Unacceptable
Locations
Gate
Valve
Check
Valve
Strainer
Pump
Preferable
Location on
Each Side
Acceptable
Location
Each Side
FIGURE 8-16 GAGE LOCATION
In Figure 8−17 there is a physical difference in height
of 2 feet (0.6 m). If the gage pressure, when converted,
measured 50 feet (15 m) on the discharge and 30 feet
(9 m) on the suction, subtraction alone would indicate
a differential of 20 feet (6 m). However, with respect
to the discharge gage which is two feet (0.6 m) lower
in the piping, the suction gage reads two feet (0.6 m)
of head too little, and at the same elevation as the dis−
charge gage would read 32 feet (9.6 m). The correct
differential is then 50 − 32 = 18 feet (15 − 9.6 = 5.4 m).
A similar analysis would apply if the positions were re−
TWO-PUMP
OPERATION
Fluid Viscosity
It should be noted that as long as the head − fluid flow
curve is based on feet (meters) of head, no correction
need be made for temperature or density since feet
(meters) of head and gallons per minute (liters per sec−
ond) account for these factors. However, density does
increase the pump power requirements. The pump wa−
ter power curves are developed at near maximum den−
sity at approximately 85F (29C). Since density de−
creases as temperature rises, pump water power will
decrease, but the change usually is ignored. Viscosity
can change the pump impeller head capacity curve
provided the change in viscosity is greater than the
change of water viscosity between 40F and 400F
(4C and 204C). The effect on the curve is illustrated
in Figure 8−18.
2 ft (0.6m)
Pump
PUMP HEAD CAPACITY CURVES
TWO PUMPS
100% DESIGN
HEAD
SYSTEM AND PUMP HEAD
8.3.2
Difference in Gage Readings
is Not Pump Differential
ONE-PUMP
FIGURE 8-17 RELATIVE GAGE
ELEVATIONS
MAXIMUM POINTS
ONE-PUMP
OPERATION
OF OPERATION
8.3.3
Installation Criteria
SYSTEM HEAD CURVE
50% DESIGN
HEAD
Some of the important points for the TAB technician
to consider in installing a pump are:
INDEPENDENT
HEAD
100% DESIGN
FLOW
a.
suction piping should be air tight and free of
air traps
b.
piping should provide a smooth flow into the
suction without unnecessary elbows
c.
suction pipe should be one or two sizes larger
than pump inlet (eccentric reducer or reduc−
ing elbow to connect inlet to piping)
d.
reduce or eliminate restrictions at pump suc−
tion
SYSTEM FLOW
FIGURE 8-15 PUMP AND SYSTEM
CURVES FOR SERIES PUMPING
8.12
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
e.
piping supported independently of pump cas−
ing
f.
use of vertical silent check valve in pump dis−
charge in multi−pump installations
g.
manual air vent in pump casing and piping
h.
pressure gages on suction and discharge at
same elevation
i.
when vibration isolation is used, isolate pip−
ing and pump as a system (preferable), or pro−
vide pump isolators and piping flexible con−
nectors
j.
recheck pump alignment after installation
even if guaranteed by manufacturer
k.
lubricate prior to start up
l.
check rotation, but do not run mechanical
seals dry
Total Head
Water Impeller Curve
Increased Viscosity
Curve for Same
Impeller
Flow
Boiler heating surface is the area of fluid backed sur−
face exposed to the products of combustion, or the fire
side surface. Various codes and standards define al−
lowable heat transfer rates in terms of heating surface.
Boiler design provides for connections to a piping sys−
tem which delivers heated fluid to the place of use and
returns the cooled fluid to the boiler.
8.4.2
Heat exchangers or converters are used as heat sources
for many hot water heating systems. Heat exchangers
may be of three general types: a) steam−to−water, b)
water−to−water, or c) water−to−steam (generators).
Steam−to−water heat exchangers usually take the form
of shell and tube units. Steam is admitted to the shell,
and water is heated as it circulates through the tubes.
Steam−to−water converters are useful where an addi−
tion is to be made to an existing steam system and
where hot water heating is desired. They are also wide−
ly used in areas where district steam is available and
individual buildings are to be heated with a hot water
system. High rise buildings can be zoned vertically by
using steam distribution and installing converters at
various levels to serve several floors, thus limiting
maximum operating pressures in the zone.
Water−to−water heat exchangers (generally shell and
tube units) are used in high temperature water (HTW)
systems to produce lower temperature water for cer−
tain zones or in process water or domestic water ser−
vices.
Water−to−steam heat exchangers generally consist of
U−tube bundle installed in a tank or pressure vessel to
provide space for the release of steam. They are used
in HTW systems to provide process steam where re−
quired.
8.4.3
FIGURE 8-18 EFFECT OF VISCOSITY
Heat Exchangers
Water Chillers
8.4
HYDRONIC HEATING AND
COOLING SOURCES
The source of cooling in a chilled water or a dual tem−
perature system is a water chiller. There are three gen−
eral types of water chillers: (1) reciprocating, (2) cen−
trifugal, and (3) absorption. For further information,
see the 2000 ASHRAE Systems and Equipment Hand−
book.
8.4.1
Boilers
8.4.4
A boiler is a cast iron or steel pressure vessel heat ex−
changer, designed with and for fuel burning devices
and other equipment to burn fossil fuels (or use electric
current) and transfer the released heat to water (in wa−
ter boilers) or to water and steam (in steam boilers).
Heat Pumps
A heat pump may serve as a source for both hot water
and chilled water in a dual temperature system. Heat
pumps are described in the 2000 ASHRAE Systems
and Equipment Handbook. Water temperatures avail−
able are generally low in winter (about 90F to 130F
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
8.13
or 32C to 54C) and terminal heat transfer must be
designed for operation under these conditions. In some
cases, a supplementary heat source is used to raise
temperature levels.
8.5
TERMINAL HEATING AND
COOLING UNITS
8.5.1
General
Many types of terminal units are available for central
water systems. Some are suited to only one type of sys−
tem and others may be used in all types of systems.
Terminal units may be classified in several ways.
8.5.1.1
Natural Convection
Natural convection units include cast iron radiators,
cabinet convectors, baseboard and finned tube radi−
ation are used in heating systems.
8.5.1.2
Forced Convection
Forced convection units include unit heaters, unit ven−
tilators, fan coil units, induction units, air handling
units, heating and cooling coils in central station units,
and most process heat exchangers. Fan coil units, unit
ventilators, and central station units can be used for
heating, ventilating and cooling.
8.5.1.3
Radiation
Radiation units include panel systems, unit radiant
panels, and certain special types of cast iron radiation.
All transfer some heat by convection. Such units are
generally used for heating in low temperature water
(LTW) systems. However, special designs of overhead
radiant surfaces, both tubular and panel, are being used
in medium and high temperature water systems to take
advantage of the lowered surface requirements
achieved through the use of high surface temperatures.
Panel cooling is applied in conjunction with control of
space humidity to maintain the space dew point below
the panel surface temperature.
8.5.1.4
Mixing Different Types Of Units
In any single circuit having similar loads and a single
control point, the terminal units should be of similar
response types. Cast iron radiation should not be
installed in the same controlled circuit as baseboard or
fin tube type units. Caution should be exercised when
including fan operated units with natural convection
units on the same pumping circuit.
8.14
8.5.2
Radiators And Convectors
Cast iron radiation and cabinet convectors have been
widely used in LTW systems. Ceiling hung radiators
frequently were used where floor space was not avail−
able for other types of units. Convectors are used ex−
tensively in areas where high output is needed and lim−
ited space is available, and where linear heat
distribution is not desired. Typical areas heated with
radiators or convectors include corridors, entries, toi−
let rooms, storage areas, work rooms, and kitchens.
8.5.3
Baseboard And Fin Tube Radiation
Baseboard and fin tube radiation permits the blanket−
ing of exposed surfaces for maximum comfort. Base−
board and fin tube elements are generally rated at vari−
ous average water temperatures and at one or more
water velocities. Velocity corrections may be applied.
Many designers feel that these units are thus limited to
systems designed to a 20F (11C) temperature drop.
However, careful selection can result in successful ap−
plication with temperature drops much higher than
20F (11C).
8.5.4
Unit Ventilators
Unit ventilators, originally developed for specific ap−
plication in school classrooms, are being used today in
a much wider range of applications. Unit ventilators
consist of a forced convection heating or cooling unit
with dampers permitting introduction of controlled
amounts of outdoor air to provide a complete cycle of
heating, ventilating, ventilation cooling, or mechani−
cal cooling as required. Condensation may be a prob−
lem during summer operation unless chilled water
flow is stopped when fans are not operating. Conden−
sate drains are necessary. Comparatively low supply
temperature and rise may be required.
8.5.5
Fan Coil And Induction Units
Fan coil units are generally used, with or without out−
door air, in dual temperature water systems. The same
coil is often used for both heating and cooling. Individ−
ual control is usually achieved by the use of valves, or
by using intermittent or multi−speed fan operation. Hot
water ratings are usually based on flow rates or tem−
perature drops at various entering water and air tem−
peratures. Temperature drops of 40F to 60F (22C
to 33C) frequently are used. Induction units are simi−
lar to fan coil units except that air circulation is pro−
vided by a central air system which handles part of the
load, instead of a blower in each cabinet.
8.5.6
Unit Heaters
Unit heaters are available in several types: a) horizon−
tal propeller fan, b) downblow or c) cabinet. They are
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
used where high output in a small space is required,
and where no cooling is to be added. Cabinet units are
frequently applied in corridors and at entrances to
blanket doors which are frequently opened. Normally,
unit heaters do not provide ventilation air.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
8.15
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
8.16
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 9
HYDRONIC SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 9
9.1
HYDRONIC SYSTEMS
9.1.1
General
A hydronic or all water system is one in which hot or
chilled water is used to convey heat to or from a condi−
tioned space or process through piping connecting a
boiler, water heater, or chiller with suitable terminal
heat transfer units located at the space or process.
All water systems may be classified by:
a.
temperature
b.
generation of flow
c.
pressurization
d.
piping arrangement
e.
pumping arrangement
In terms of flow generation, hot water heating systems
are of two types: (1) the gravity system, in which cir−
culation of the water is due to the difference in weight
between the supply and return water columns of any
circuit or system; and (2) the forced system in which
a pump, usually driven by an electric motor, maintains
the necessary flow. Water systems can be either once−
through or recirculating systems.
HYDRONIC SYSTEMS
9.1.2.2
Medium temperature systems are hot water heating
systems that operate at temperatures of 350F (177C)
or less, with pressures not exceeding 150 psi (1035
kPa). The usual design supply temperature is approxi−
mately 250F to 325F (121C to 163C), with a usu−
al pressure rating for boilers and equipment of 150 psi
(1035 kPa).
9.1.2.3
9.1.2.4
9.1.2.1
Low Temperature Water Systems
(LTW)
Low temperature systems are hot water heating sys−
tems that operate within the pressure and temperature
limits of the ASME boiler construction code for low
pressure heating boilers. The maximum allowable
working pressure for low pressure heating boilers is
160 psi (1104 kPa) with a maximum temperature limi−
tation of 250F (121C). The usual maximum work−
ing pressure for boilers for LTW systems is 30 psi (207
kPa), although boilers specifically designed, tested,
and stamped for higher pressures may frequently be
used with working pressures to 160 psi (1104 kPa).
Steam−to−water or water−to−water heat exchangers
also are used.
Chilled Water System (CW)
A chilled water system operates with a normal design
supply water temperature of 40F to 55F (4C to
13C) and a pressure range of 125 psi (62 kPa). Anti−
freeze or brine solutions may be used for systems (usu−
ally process applications) that require temperatures
below 40F (4C). Well water systems may use supply
temperatures of 60F (16C) or higher.
Temperature Classifications
Water systems may be classified according to operat−
ing temperature as follows.
High Temperature Water Systems
(HTW)
High temperature systems are hot water heating sys−
tems that operate at temperatures over 350F (177C)
and pressures of about 300 psi (2070 kPa). The maxi−
mum design supply water temperature is 400F to
450F (204C to 232C), with a pressure rating for
boilers and equipment of about 300 psi (2070 kPa). It
is necessary that the pressure temperature rating of
each component be checked against the design charac−
teristics of the particular system.
9.1.2.5
9.1.2
Medium Temperature Water
Systems (MTW)
Dual Temperature Water System
(DTW)
A dual temperature system is a combination hot water
heating and chilled water cooling system that circu−
lates hot and/or chilled water to provide heating or
cooling using common piping and terminal heat trans−
fer apparatus. They are operated within the pressure
and temperature limits of LTW systems, with winter
design supply water temperatures of 100F to 150F
(3C to 66C) and summer supply water temperatures
of 40F to 55F (4C to 13C).
9.1.3
Piping Classifications
Generally, the most economical hydronic distribution
system layout has pipe mains that are run by the short−
est and most convenient route to the terminal equip−
ment that has the largest flow rate requirements.
Branch or secondary circuits then are connected to
these mains.
Hydronic distribution mains are most frequently lo−
cated in corridor ceilings, above hung ceilings, along
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
9.1
a perimeter wall, in pipe trenches, in crawl spaces and
in basements. System piping need not be run at a defi−
nite level or pitch, but may change up or down as re−
quired by architectural or structural needs. Hydronic
system piping may be divided into two arbitrary size
classificationsCsmall systems and large systems.
9.1.3.1
Small Systems
Piping circuits suitable for complete small systems or
for terminal or branch circuits on large systems consist
of:
a.
series loops
b.
one−pipe systems
c.
two−pipe reverse return systems
d.
two−pipe direct return systems
9.1.3.2
Large Systems
Main distribution piping used to convey water to and
from terminal units or circuits in large systems consist
of:
a.
two−pipe direct return systems
b.
two−pipe reverse return systems
c.
three−pipe systems
d.
four−pipe systems
9.1.3.3
Pump
Series Loop System
A series loop system is a continuous run of pipe or tube
from a supply connection to a return connection. Ter−
minal units are a part of the loop. Figure 9−1 shows a
system of two series loops on a supply and return main
(split series loop). One or more series loops may be
used in a complete system. Loops may connect to
mains, or all loops may run directly to and from the
boiler.
The water temperature drops progressively as each ra−
diator transfers heat to the air, the amount of drop de−
pending on radiator output and the water flow rate.
Boiler
Adjusting Cock
FIGURE 9-1 A SERIES LOOP SYSTEM
considered one radiator, and all units can be sized at
the AWT of the loop. One floor of a small dwelling
with open interior doorways is such an interconnecting
space. If individual units on a loop are in separate en−
closed spaces, each unit must be sized at the actual
AWT at that point.
A decrease in loop water flow rate increases the tem−
perature drop in each unit and in the entire loop. The
average water temperature shifts downward progres−
sively from the first to the last unit in the series. Conse−
quently, comfort may not be able to be maintained in
separate spaces heated with a single series loop if wa−
ter flow rate is varied. Control of output from individu−
al terminal units on a series loop is impractical except
by control of heated airflow. Manual dampers can be
used on natural convection units; automatic fan or face
and bypass damper control can be used on forced air
units.
One Special Return Fitting
(Upfeed)
Boiler
Pump
Downfeed (Two Special Fittings)
The true system operating water temperature and flow
rate must be known to calculate the average water
temperature (AWT) for each unit in the loop. If all ter−
minal units are in series on one loop in one zone of in−
terconnecting air space, the entire set of units can be
9.2
FIGURE 9-2 A ONE-PIPE SYSTEM
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
9.1.3.4
One Pipe System (Diverting Fitting)
One−pipe circuits form a single loop to and from the
boiler. For each terminal unit, a supply and a return tee
are installed on the same pipe main. One of the two
tees is a special diverting tee which creates a pressure
drop in the fluid flow to divert a portion of the flow to
the unit. One (return) diverting tee usually is sufficient
for upfeed (units above main) systems. Two special fit−
tings (supply and return tees) are usually required for
downfeed units to overcome the thermal head. Special
tees are proprietary, so consult the manufacturer’s lit−
erature for flow rates and pressure drop data.
One−pipe circuits allow manual or automatic control
of flow to individual connected heating units. On−off
control rather than flow modulation control is advis−
able because of the relatively low pressure drop and
low diverted flow. Piping length and load imposed on
a one−pipe circuit are usually small because of the lim−
itations listed.
ed balancing fitting pressure drops at the same flow
rate.
9.1.3.6
Combination Piping Systems
The basic piping circuits exist only to describe func−
tion as one type can grade into another. A piping sys−
tem can contain one or more types and thus cannot be
described as a particular type. Figure 9−5 illustrates a
primary circuit and two secondary pumping circuits.
As pipe lengths and number of units vary, and as circuit
types are combined, basic names for piping circuits be−
come meaningless; flow, temperature, and head must
be determined for each circuit and for the complete
system.
T
S
9.1.3.5
Two-Pipe Systems
R
Two−pipe circuits may be direct return where the re−
turn main flow direction is opposite the supply main
flow and the return water from each unit takes the
shortest path back to the boiler; or reverse return where
the return main flow is in the same direction as the sup−
ply flow. After the last unit is supplied, the return main
returns all water to the boiler. The direct return system
is popular because less piping is required; however,
circuit balancing valves usually are required on all
units and/or sub−circuits. Since water flow distance
from and to the boiler is virtually the same through any
unit on a reverse−return system, balancing valves are
adjusted less. Operating (pumping) costs are likely to
be higher with direct return piping because of the add−
Z
Y
X
Terminal
Units
Pump
Boiler
or
Chiller
FIGURE 9-3 DIRECT RETURN
TWO-PIPE SYSTEM
Pump
Terminal
Units
Boiler
or
Chiller
FIGURE 9-4 REVERSE RETURN
TWO-PIPE SYSTEM
9.1.3.7
Three-Pipe Systems
The three−pipe system satisfies variations in load by
providing independent sources of heating and cooling
to a terminal unit in the form of constant temperature,
primary and secondary chilled, and warm water.
The terminal unit contains a single secondary water
coil. A modulating three−way valve at the inlet of the
coil admits water from either the warm water or cold
water supply, as required. The water leaving the coil
is carried in a common return pipe to either the secon−
dary cooling or heating equipment. The usual room
control for three−pipe systems is a special three−way
modulating valve that modulates either the warm or
the cold water in sequence, but does not mix the
streams. The cold primary air is furnished at the same
temperature all year.
During the period between seasons, if both hot and
cold secondary water is available, any unit can be op−
erated within a wide capacity range from maximum
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
9.3
Control
Valves
Terminal
Unit
3-W ay control
Valve for
secondary circuit
Common
Flow
Secondary
Pump
Common Flow
Secondary
Pump
B
C
D
Balance Cock
Boiler
or
Chiller
E
F
A
Primary Pump
FIGURE 9-5 EXAMPLE OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
PUMPING CIRCUITS
cooling to maximum heating within the limits set by
the temperature of the secondary chilled or warm wa−
ter. Any unit in the system can be operated through its
full range of capacity without regard to the operation
of any other unit in the system, recognizing the operat−
ing cost penalty that will result from simultaneous
heating and cooling loads. All units are selected on the
basis of their peak capacity requirements.
The three−way control valves used (Figure 9−6) are a
special design in which the hot port gradually moves
from open to fully closed, and the cold port gradually
moves from fully closed to open. The valves are
constructed so that at mid−range there is an interval in
which both ports are completely closed. Room control
action is the same during all seasons.
9.4
9.1.3.8
Four-Pipe Systems
Four−pipe systems used for induction, fan coil, or ra−
diant panel systems derive their name from the four
pipes connected to each terminal unit. These pipes
connect to the cold water supply, cold water return,
warm water supply, and warm water return. The four−
pipe system satisfies variation in cooling and heating
to the room unit in the form of constant temperature
primary air, secondary chilled water, and secondary
warm water.
The terminal unit usually is provided with two inde−
pendent secondary water coils, one served by warm
water, the other by cold water. The primary air is cold
and remains at the same temperature year−round. Dur−
ing peak cooling and heating, the four−pipe system
performs in a manner similar to the two−pipe system,
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
with essentially the same operating characteristics.
During the period between seasons, any unit can be op−
erated at any capacity level from maximum cooling to
maximum heating, if both cold water and warm water
are being circulated. Any unit can be operated at or be−
tween these extremes without regard to the operation
of any other unit.
T
UNIT
THERMOSTAT
HOT
WATER
RETURN
R
HOT
WATER
SUPPLY
HOT COIL
CONTROL
VALVE
COLD COIL
Since the primary air is supplied at a constant cool tem−
perature at all times, it is sometimes feasible for fan
coil or radiant panel systems to extend the interior sys−
tem supply to the perimeter spaces, eliminating the
need for a separate primary air system. The type of ter−
minal unit and the characteristics of the interior system
will be determining factors.
T
CHECK
VALVE
UNIT
THERMOSTAT
COLD
WATER
RETURN
A - SEPARATE COILS
COLD
WATER
SUPPLY
T
UNIT THERMOSTAT
R
HOT
WATER
RETURN
HOT
WATER
SUPPLY
COMMON
SECONDARY
WATER COIL
COLD
WATER
RETURN
2 - POSITION
DIVERTING
VALVE
SEQUENCE
VALVE
COMMON
SECONDARY
WATER COIL
COMMON
RETURN
FIGURE 9-6 RETURN MIX SYSTEM
ROOM UNIT CONTROLS
The four−pipe terminal unit is usually provided with
two completely separated secondary water coils, one
receiving hot water and the second receiving cold wa−
ter. The coils are operated in sequence by the same
thermostat. The coils are never operated simulta−
neously, and the unit receives either hot water or cold
water in varying amounts, or else no flow is present.
This is shown in Figure 9−7A.
Figure 9−7B illustrates another unit and control config−
uration which sometimes is used. A single secondary
water coil is provided at the unit, and three−way valves
located at the inlet and leaving side of the coil admit
the water from either the warm or cold water supply,
as required, and divert it to the appropriate return pipe.
This arrangement requires a special three−way modu−
lating valve, originally developed for one form of the
three−pipe system, described earlier, which controls
the warm or cold water selectively and proportionally
but does not mix the streams. The valve at the coil out−
COLD
WATER
SUPPLY
FIGURE 9-7 FOUR PIPE SYSTEM
ROOM UNIT
SEQUENCE
VALVE
COLD WATER
SUPPLY
HOT
WATER
SUPPLY
let is a two−position valve that opens to either the warm
or cold water return.
9.1.4
Hydronic Piping Devices
9.1.4.1
Air Control And Venting
If air and other gases are not eliminated from hydronic
flow circuits, they may cause air binding in the termi−
nal heat transfer elements and noise in the piping cir−
cuits. High points in piping systems and terminal units
should be vented with manual or automatic air vents.
As automatic air vents may malfunction, valves
should be provided at each vent to permit service or re−
placement without draining the system. If a common
tank is used for an expansion tank, free air should be
routed from the piping circuit into the expansion tank
by a boiler dip tube or air separation device. If a dia−
phragm−type tank is used, all air should be vented from
the system at all high points.
9.1.4.2
Drains And Shut-Offs
All low points should be equipped with drains. Provi−
sions should be made for separate shutoff and drain of
individual equipment and circuits so that the entire
system does not have to be drained for service of a par−
ticular item.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
9.5
9.1.4.3
Balance Fittings
Balance fittings should be applied as needed to permit
balancing of individual terminal units and major sub−
circuits. Such fittings should be placed at the circuit re−
turn when possible.
9.1.4.4
Pitch
9.1.4.6
Thermometers or thermometer wells assist the system
operator and the TAB technician, and may be used for
troubleshooting. Permanently installed thermometers
with separable sockets should be used at all points
where temperature readings are regularly needed.
Thermometer wells only may be installed where read−
ings will be needed during start−up and balancing.
9.1.4.7
Hydronic piping need not be pitched, but may be run
level, provided that flow velocities in excess of 1.5 feet
per second (0.45 m/s) are maintained.
9.1.4.5
Strainers
Strainers should be used where necessary to protect the
elements of a system. Strainers at the pump suction
need to be large enough to avoid cavitation. Large sep−
arating chambers are available, which serve as both
main air venting points and dirt strainers. Automatic
control valves require protection from particles that
may readily pass through the pump and its larger mesh
strainer. Individual fine mesh strainers may therefore
be required ahead of each control valve. If a cooling
tower is used, the strainer provided in the tower basin
usually is adequate.
9.6
Thermometers
Flexible Connections
Flexible connectors are installed at pumps and ma−
chinery to reduce vibration into the piping circuit.
However, vibrations may be transmitted through the
water across flexible connections, reducing the effec−
tiveness of the connectors. Flexible connectors, how−
ever, do prevent damage caused by slight misalign−
ment of equipment connections to the piping.
9.1.4.8
Gages
Gage cocks should be installed at points where pres−
sure readings will be required. At a minimum, these
shall be located immediately entering and leaving
each devise to be measured. There must be no fittings
or transistors between port location and device. Note
that gages permanently installed in the system may de−
teriorate due to vibration and pulsation, and may not
be reliable when needed.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
SYMBOLS
GATE VALVE
FLOW OR WEIGHTED CHECK VALVE
AIR CONNECTION
ADJUSTING COCK
GLOBE VALVE
EXPANSION
TANK
GAGE
GLASS
AUTO MIXING VALVE
CIRCULATING PUMP
WATER FEEDER
DRAIN
A
ALTITUDE GAGE
ZONE
SUPPLIES
THERMOMETER
MANUAL
AIR VENT
A
A
A
BOILER
BOILER
AIR
SEPARATOR
DRAIN
DRAIN
DRAIN
ZONE
RETURN
FIGURE 9-8 BOILER PIPING FOR A MULTIPLE-ZONE,
MULTIPLE-PURPOSE HEATING SYSTEM
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
9.7
COMPLAINT POSSIBLE CAUSE
RECOMMENDED
ACTION
Shaft misalignment
Check and realign
Worn coupling
Replace and realign
Worn pump/motor
bearings
Replace, check
manufacturer’s lubrica−
tion recommendation
Check and realign
shafts
Improper founda−
tion or installation
Pump or
system noise
Check foundation
bolting or proper grout−
ing.
Check possible shift−
ing due to piping expan−
sion/contraction
Realign shafts.
COMPLAINT POSSIBLE CAUSE
RECOMMENDED
ACTION
Pump running
backwards
(3-phase)
Reverse any two-motor leads.
Broken pump
coupling
Replace and realign
Improper motor
speed
Check motor nameplate wiring and voltage.
Pump (or impeller
diameter) too small
Check pump selection
(impeller diameter)
against specified system
requirements.
Clogged strainer(s)
Inspect and clean
screen.
Inadequate or
no circulation
Pipe vibration and/
or strain caused by
pipe expansion/
contraction
Inspect, alter or add
hangers and expansion
provision to eliminate
strain on pump(s)
System not
completely filled
Check setting of PRV
fill valve.
Vent terminal units and
piping high points
Water velocity
Check actual pump
performance against spe−
cified and reduce impel−
ler diameter as required.
Check for excessive
throttling by balance
valves or control valves.
Balance valves or
isolating valves
improperly set
Check settings and
adjust as required.
Air-bound system
Vent piping and terminal units.
Check location of expansion tank connection
line
relative to pump suction.
Review provision for
air elimination.
Pump Operating
close to or beyond
end point of perfor−
mance curve
Check actual pump
performance against spe−
cified and reduce impel−
ler diameter as required.
Table 9-1 Hydronic Trouble Analysis Guide
9.1.4.9
Pump Location
Pump location varies with the size and type of system.
Figures 9−3, 9−4 and 9−8 illustrate pumps in the supply
main from the boiler or chiller, while Figures 9−2 and
9−5 have the pumps in the return piping. A pump (cir−
culator) in the boiler return is acceptable for small sys−
tems when pump head is at 12 foot (3.6 m) head or less,
the compression tank is on the boiler (or a nearby
main), and the highest piping and radiation is main−
tained at a static pressure greater than full pump head.
These conditions apply to most residential systems.
When the pump head is equal to or greater than the dif−
ference between the boiler fill and relief valve dis−
charge pressures, or when the highest piping or radi−
ation can be at a static pressure less than the total pump
head, the pump(s) must be located on the supply side
of the boiler with the compression tank at the pumps
inlet, as illustrated in Figure 9−8. This assures that
pump cycling will not cause excessive pressure varia−
tions in the boiler that will create subatmospheric pres−
sure at topmost system points causing air leakage into
9.8
the system. Pump cavitation is prevented by locating
a properly sized compression tank near the pump inlet.
9.1.4.10 Trouble Shooting
Table 9−1 is a handy chart for the TAB technician to use
when balancing a hydronic system and/or when
trouble is encountered. This list may be expanded as
experience dictates.
9.2
HYDRONIC SYSTEM DESIGN
9.2.1
Closed Loop Systems
9.2.1.1
General
Pipe sizes for heating and chilled water systems should
be based on clean pipe pressure drop charts. This is be−
cause the system is closed, eliminating most normal
corrosion to the piping. The use of pressure drop charts
based on age−corroded pipe leads to oversized piping
and pumps, which together will result in unwarranted
system flow rates in excess of design. The excess flow
and pressure heads, in turn, may cause control prob−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
lems, system noise, pumping troubles, and excessive
pumping power usage. All hydronic system sizing
charts may be found in the Appendix, Engineering
Data, Tables and Charts.
9.2.1.2
General Design Range
The general range of pipe friction loss used for design
of hydronic systems occurs between 1 to 4 ft/100 ft (0.1
to 0.4 kPa/m). A value of 2.5 ft/100 ft (0.25 kPa/m)
represents the mean to which many systems are desig−
ned. Wider ranges may be used in specific designs, if
the precautions described below are considered.
9.2.1.3
Piping Noise
Closed loop hydronic system piping generally is sized
below certain arbitrary upper limits, a velocity limit of
4 fps (1.2 m/s) for 1 inch pipe and under, and a pressure
drop of 4 ft/100 ft (0.4 kPa/m) for piping over 1 inch
diameter. Velocities in excess of 4 fps (1.2 m/s) may be
used in piping of larger size, although they normally
are not used for smaller pipe sizing. This limitation is
generally accepted, although it is based on relatively
inconclusive experience with noise in piping. It seems
apparent that water velocity noise is caused, not by wa−
ter, but by free air, sharp pressure drops, turbulence, or
a combination of these, which in turn cause cavitation,
or flashing of the water into steam.
Therefore, higher velocities may be used if proper pre−
cautions are taken to eliminate air and turbulence. Be−
cause piping noise can be caused by free air, hydronic
systems must be equipped with sufficient air separa−
tion devices to minimize entrained air in the piping cir−
cuits.
9.2.1.4
9.2.1.5
Valve And Fitting Pressure Drop
Valve and fitting pressure drop usually is listed in el−
bow equivalents. The elbow equivalent relates the
pressure drop through a valve or fitting to an equiva−
lent length of pipe. The pressure drop of one elbow is
approximately the same as that of a length of straight
pipe 25 times the pipe diameter. Tables may be found
in the Appendix under Engineering Data, Tables and
Charts.
Example 9.1 (I−P)
Determine the equivalent feet of pipe for a 4 inch open
gate valve at a flow velocity of 4 fps (use Tables and
Figures in the Appendix).
Solution
From Table A−21, at 4 fps, each equivalent elbow is
equal to 10.5 feet of 4 inch pipe. From Table A−23, a
gate valve is equal to 0.5 elbows. The actual equivalent
pipe length (added to measured circuit length for pres−
sure drop determination) will be 10.6 0.5 = 5.3
equivalent feet of 4 inch pipe.
Example 9.1 (SI)
Determine the equivalent meters of pipe for a 100 mm
open gate valve at a flow velocity of 1.33 m/s (use
Tables and Charts in Appendix A).
Air Purge Velocities
Air will be entrained in and carried along with the wa−
ter flow at velocities of 1.5 to 2 fps (0.45 to 0.6 m/s)
or more in pipe sizes 2 inches and under. Minimum ve−
locities of 2 fps (0.6 m/s) are therefore recommended.
For pipe sizes 2 inches and over, minimum velocities
corresponding to a head loss of 0.75 ft/100 ft (0.075
kPa/m) normally are used. Attention to maintenance
of minimum velocities should be observed in the upper
floors of higher buildings because air may come out of
solution because of reduced pressures. Higher veloci−
ties should be used for downfeed return mains at air
separation units.
Solution
From Table A−22, at 1.33 m/s, each equivalent elbow
is equal to 3.2 meters of 100 mm pipe. From Table
A−23, a gate valve is equal to 0.5 elbows. The actual
equivalent pipe length will be 3.2 0.5 = 1.6 equiva−
lent meters of 100 mm pipe.
Pressure drop through pipe tees varies with flow
through the branch. Pressure drops are illustrated in
Figure A−7 for tees of equal inlet and outlet sizes, and
for the flow patterns illustrated.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
9.9
Example 9.2 (I−P)
Determine the main equivalent pipe length for a 4 inch
tee (size of all openings) flowing 25% to a side branch,
75% through the tee at an entering velocity of 3 fps.
Example 9.3 (I−P)
Determine the side branch equivalent length for a 100
mm tee (all openings) with the same flow ratios as in
Example 9.2.
Solution
Solution
From Table A−23, the number of equivalent elbows as
applied to the main flow in the tee is equal to 0.15 el−
bows. A 4 inch elbow is equivalent to 10.2 feet of 4
inch pipe (Table A−21), so the equivalent length of 4
inch pipe is 0.15 10.2 = 1.5 feet.
From Table A−21, the side branch elbow equivalent is
about 13. Thus, the side branch equivalent length
would be 13 3.1 = 40.3 meters of 100 mm pipe.
Most tees are sized to a reduced side branch flow, in
which case the curve in Figure A−7 does not apply ex−
cept through the main. The side branch pressure drop,
in any case, will not exceed 2 elbow equivalents for the
branch pipe size in question.
Example 9.2 (SI)
Determine the main equivalent pipe length for a 100
mm tee (size of all openings) flowing 25 percent to a
side branch, 75 percent through the tee at an entering
velocity of 1.0 m/s.
Example 9.4 (I−P)
Determine the side branch equivalent length for a 4 4 2 inch tee with 100 gpm entering the tee and 50
gpm flowing out the side.
Solution
Solution
From Table A−23, the number of equivalent elbows as
applied to the main flow is equal to 0.15 elbows. A 100
mm elbow is equivalent to 3.1 meters of 100 mm pipe
(Table A−22), so the equivalent length of 100 mm pipe
is 0.15 3.1 = 0.47 meters.
The side branch loss is approximately that of 2 equiva−
lent elbows. For 2 inch pipe, each equivalent elbow is
equal to about 5 feet. Thus, the side branch equivalent
length is 2 5 = 10 equivalent feet of 2 inch pipe.
Example 9.4 (SI)
Example 9.3 (I−P)
Determine the side branch equivalent length for a 4
inch tee (all openings) with the same flow ratios as in
Example 9.2.
Determine the side branch equivalent for a 100 100
50 mm tee with 6 L/s entering the tee and 3 L/s flow−
ing out the side.
Solution
Solution
From Table A−23, the side branch elbow equivalent is
about 13. Thus, the side branch equivalent length
would be 13 10.2 = 133 feet of 4 inch pipe.
The side branch loss is approximately that of 2 equiva−
lent elbows. For 50 mm pipe, each equivalent elbow
is equal to about 1.5 meters. Thus the side branch
equivalent length is 2 1.5 = 3 equivalent meters of
50 mm pipe.
9.2.1.6
It should be noted that the actual pipe friction loss
through a 4 inch side branch pipe could actually be
lower because of reduced side branch flow rates.
9.10
Water Flow-Pressure Drop
The energy head required to force water through pip−
ing, valves and fittings, or heat transfer elements var−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
ies as the square of the change in water flow rate, as
previously stated in Chapter 8. With conditions of flow
and energy head (pressure drop) known at one point,
one can determine pressure drop for any other flow
rate by using Equation 8−2 (from Chapter 8).
H2
Q2
H1
Q1
be used to compute pressure drop through the valve at
any flow rate. If the pressure drop and flow are known,
the valve selection can be made in terms of a specific
Cv rating.
Equation 9-1
2
Where:
DP Where:
H= Head – ft water (m water)
Q = Flow – gpm (L/s or m3/s)
Q
Cv
2
DP Pressuredrop psi(kPa)
Q Flow gpm(m3sorLs)
C v Valveconstant(dimensionless)
Example 9.6 (I−P)
Example 9.5 (I−P)
Determine the pressure drop at 1 gpm for a fan coil unit
that has a catalog rating of a 4 foot pressure drop at a
flow rate of 2 gpm.
Calculate the Cv rating for a control valve to be se−
lected for a pressure drop of 5 psi at a flow rate of 20
gpm.
Solution
Using Equation 9−1:
Solution
H 2 H 1
2
Q2
Q1
2
2
H 2 4 1 1ftwater
2
A valve is selected as closely as possible to the Cv rat−
ing of 9.
Example 9.5 (SI)
Determine the pressure drop at 0.06 L/s for a fan coil
unit that has a catalog rating of a 1.2 meter pressure
drop at a flow rate of 0.12 L/s.
Example 9.6 (SI)
Calculate the Cv rating for a control valve to be se−
lected for a pressure drop at 34 kPa at a flow rate of
1.25 L/s.
Solution
Q
H 2 H 1 2
Q1
Q
Cv
Q
C v 20 8.95
DP
5
DP 2
2
H 2 1.2 0.06 0.3mwg
0.12
9.2.1.7 Valve Coefficients
Control valve manufacturers state their pressure drop
in terms of a coefficient (Cv). The coefficient is numer−
ically equal to the flow rate through the valve at which
a known pressure drop is obtained. When the Cv is
known, the water flow pressure drop relationship can
Solution
2
Q
Cv
Q
C v 1.25 0.21
DP
34
Check valves, strainers, etc., may also be rated by Cv.
When so rated, pressure drop at any given flow may be
determined as in Example 9.7.
DP HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
9.11
Example 9.7 (I−P )
Calculate the pressure drop in ft wg at 750 gpm for a
check valve that has a Cv of 500 (a pressure drop of 1
psi = 2.3 ft).
UNIONS FOR
HEAD REMOVAL
OPEN SIGHT
DRAIN
THERMOMETERS
T
T
Solution
DP 2
Q
Cv
STRAINER
DRAIN
2
DP 750 2.25psi
500
DP 2.25psi 2.3 5.18ftwg
Example 9.7 (SI)
Calculate the pressure drop in kPa and meters water
gage at 50 L/s for a check valve that has a Cv of 12.7
(1 kPa = 0.102 m water).
DP Q
Cv
CONDENSER
CONTROL
VALVE
2
FIGURE 9- 9 WATER COOLED CONDENSER
CONNECTIONS FOR CITY WATER
corrosion on a continuing basis. For this reason, the
piping will have an increased pressure drop with time,
and fouling factors must be included in the condenser
design. Provisions also must be made to treat the water
for bacteria as well as for scale and corrosion.
2
50 15.5kPa
12.7
DP 15.5kPa 0.102 1.6mwg
DP 9.2.2
Open Systems
9.2.2.1
Condenser Water Systems
Condenser water systems for refrigerant compressors
may be classified either as cooling tower systems, or
as other systems of the once−through type, such as city
water, well water, or pond or lake water systems. They
are all open systems, in which air is continuously in
contact with the water, and require a somewhat differ−
ent approach to pump selection and pipe sizing than do
closed heating and cooling systems. Some heat con−
versation systems rely on a split condenser heating
system which includes a two section condenser. Heat
from one section of the condenser is used for heating
in closed circuit systems, occasionally interconnected
with chilled water systems. The other section of the
condenser serves as a heat reject circuit, an open sys−
tem connected to a cooling tower.
In selecting a pump for a condenser water system, con−
sideration must be given to the static head as well as
to the system friction loss in sizing the pump. Proper
provision must be made to assure an adequate net posi−
tive suction head at the pump inlet.
In addition, continuous contact with air in an open sys−
tem introduces impurities which can result in scale and
9.12
Cooling tower water is available at a temperature sev−
eral degrees above the design wet bulb temperature,
depending on tower performance. For city, lake, river,
or well water systems, the maximum water tempera−
ture occurring during the operating season must be
used for equipment selection.
From manufacturers’ performance data with known
condenser water temperature, the required flow rate
may be determined for any condensing temperature
and capacity. A condensing temperature and corre−
sponding flow rate may then be selected to produce the
required capacity with a minimum of energy input and
purchased water within the load capacity of the driver.
9.2.2.2
Once-Through Systems
Figure 9−9 shows a water cooled condenser using city,
well, or river water. The return is run higher than the
condenser so that the condenser is always full of water.
Water flow through the condenser is modulated by a
control valve in the supply line, usually actuated from
condenser head pressure to maintain a constant con−
densing temperature with variations in load. City wa−
ter systems usually require check valves and open
sight drains, as shown. When more than one condenser
is used on the same circuit, individual control valves
are used to avoid balance problems.
Piping should be sized in accordance with the prin−
ciples outlined earlier in this chapter and in Chapter 2,
with velocities of 5 to 10 fps (1.5 to 3.0 m/s) for the
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
flow rates. Where city water is used, a pump is not re−
quired. For well or river water, pumps may be neces−
sary, in which case the procedure for pump sizing gen−
erally would be that indicated below for cooling tower
systems.
9.2.2.3
Cooling Tower Systems
Figure 9−10 illustrates a typical cooling tower system
for a refrigerant condenser. Water flows to the pump
from the tower basin and is discharged under pressure
to the condenser and back to the tower. Since it is usu−
ally desirable to maintain condenser water tempera−
ture above a predetermined minimum, water is di−
verted through a control valve to maintain minimum
sump temperature. Piping from the tower sump to the
pump requires some cautions. Sump levels should be
above the top of the pump casing to provide positive
prime. Piping pressure drop should be minimized. All
piping must pitch up either to the tower or the pump
suction to eliminate air pockets. Suction strainers
should be equipped with inlet and outlet gages to indi−
cate when cleaning is required.
Vortexing in the tower basin is prevented by piping
connections at the tower in accordance with manufac−
turer’s specification and by limiting flow to the maxi−
mum allowed by the sump design. A straight section
of suction pipe five times the diameter in length con−
tributes to achieving expected pump performance.
If multiple cooling towers are to be connected, the pip−
ing should be designed so that the pressure loss from
the tower to the pump suction is approximately equal
for each tower. Large equalizing lines or a common
reservoir are used to maintain the same water level in
each tower.
9.3
HYDRONIC DESIGN PROCEDURES
9.3.1
Determination Of Flows
Regardless of the method used to determine the flow
through each item of terminal equipment, the desired
result should be in terms of gpm (L/s). In an equipment
schedule or on the plans, starting from the most remote
terminal and working back towards the pump, progres−
sively list the cumulative flow in each of the mains and
branch circuits in the entire hydronic distribution sys−
tem.
9.3.2
Preliminary Pipe Sizing
For each portion of the piping circuit, a tentative pipe
size is selected from flow charts, in the Appendix, us−
ing a value of pipe friction loss ranging from 0.75 to
4 ft per 100 ft (0.075 to 0.4 kPa/m).
Residential piping size is often based on pump prese−
lection, using pipe sizing tables, which are available
COOLING
TOWER
The elements of required pump head are illustrated in
Figure 9−10. Since there is an equal head of water be−
tween the level in the tower sump and the pump on
both the suction and discharge sides, these heads can−
cel each other and may be disregarded. The elements
of pump head are: static head from tower sump to the
tower header; friction loss in suction and discharge
piping; pressure loss in condenser; control valves; and
strainer and tower nozzles, if used. These elements
added in feet (meters) of water determine the required
pump total dynamic head.
FLOAT
VALVE
ROOF
3-W AY DIVERTING
VALVE
MAKE-UP
WATER
ALTERNATE
BYPASS
T
Normally, piping is sized to yield water velocities be−
tween 5 and 12 fps (1.5 to 3.6 m/s). Friction factors for
15 year old pipe commonly used are in the range of 1.5
to 1.75. The pressure drops for condenser, cooling tow−
er, control valves, and strainers are obtained from
manufacturers’ data.
If condensers are installed in parallel, only the one
with the highest pressure drop is counted. Combina−
tion flow measuring and balancing valves can be used
to equalize pressure drops.
GAGES
THERMOMETERS CONDENSER
T
CONTROLLER
DRAIN
FIGURE 9-10 COOLING TOWER
PIPING SYSTEM
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
9.13
from the Hydronics Institute or from pump manufac−
turers.
9.3.3
summarized for several of the longest piping circuits,
to determine the precise head against which the pump
must operate at design flow.
Preliminary Pressure Drop
9.3.6
Using the preliminary pipe sizing indicated above, cal−
culate the pressure drop through each portion of the
piping. Find the total pressure drop in several of the
longest circuits to determine what maximum pressure
drop through the piping, including the terminals and
control valves, must be available in the form of pump
head.
9.3.4
Preliminary Pump Selection
The preliminary selection should be based on the abili−
ty of the pump to fulfill the capacity requirements as
determined. It should be selected at a point left of cen−
ter on the pump curve, and should not overload the mo−
tor. Because of the squared relationship between flow
and head, it will generally be found that flow capacity
variation between the next closest stock selection and
an exact point selection will be relatively minor.
9.3.5
Final Piping Layout
An overall examination of the piping layout should be
made at this point, to determine if readjustments in the
sizes of piping in some areas may be necessary. It is de−
sirable to have the pressure drop in a number of the
principal circuits be about equal, so that excessive
heads are not required to serve a small portion of the
building.
In determining the final system friction loss, both the
first cost of the piping system and the pump, and the
operating costs of the pump should be considered. In
general, lower heads and larger piping become more
economical when longer amortization periods are con−
sidered, especially in larger systems. On the other
hand, in small systems, e.g., residences, it may be most
economical to select the pump first and design the pip−
ing system to meet the available head. In any event, ad−
justments should be made in the piping system design
and in the pump selection, until such time as the opti−
mum design has been achieved.
When the final piping layout has been established, the
friction loss for each section of the piping system can
be determined by reading directly from the pressure
drop charts.
After the friction loss at design flow for all sections of
the piping system, all fittings, terminal units, and con−
trol valves have been calculated, they should then be
9.14
Final Pump Selection
After the final pressure drop calculations have been
completed, a final selection of the pump is made, using
the procedure of plotting a system flow and pump
curve, and selecting the pump that operates closest to
the actual calculated design point.
9.4
STEAM SYSTEMS
9.4.1
General
A steam system does not need to be balanced nor can
it be balanced manually in the true sense that air and
hydronic systems need to be tested, adjusted and ba−
lanced. However, the TAB technician needs to have a
working knowledge of steam systems and their rela−
tionships to air and hydronic systems.
A steam heating system uses the vapor phase of water
to supply heat to a conditioned space or a process, con−
necting a source of steam, through piping, with suit−
able terminal heat transfer units located at the space or
process (water heater, fan coil units, or the heating
coils of an absorption refrigerating machine). Steam
heating systems are referred to as vacuum, return line
vacuum, vapor, low, medium, and high pressure sys−
tems. They are also referred to as central or district
heating systems.
The temperature and heating effects of steam systems
vary over wide ranges to control space temperatures or
heating processes. The steam supply temperature may
be controlled according to outdoor temperature in
much the same manner as a hot water system. They op−
erate at 2188F (1038C) or higher during winter de−
sign conditions and as low as 1258F (528C) in mild
weather, so that the average temperature of the radi−
ation may vary in direct relation to heating demands.
9.4.2
Properties Of Steam
Steam has particular characteristics related to specific
volume, temperature, pressure, and heat content.
Tables in the Appendix are a condensed version of
these properties. Note that the conditions indicated are
for saturated steam. This means that the steam at any
given temperature and pressure will begin to condense
if the temperature is even slightly lowered and will be−
come superheated if the temperature is slightly increa−
sed. Except when ensuring dry steam at the point of
use, there is small advantage to superheating in envi−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
ronmental systems because the increase in heat con−
tent is relatively small for the limited amount of super−
heat which might normally be provided.
Also note that there are three enthalpy figures given.
The enthalpy of saturated liquid is the heat content of
the water just before evaporation and the enthalpy of
saturated vapor is the heat content of the gas just after
evaporation. The enthalpy of evaporation is the differ−
ence between the two, or the amount of heat in Btu/lb
(kJ/kg) required to change from liquid to gas at satura−
tion. At standard conditions of 212F (100C) and
14.696 psia (101.325 kPa), this value is 970.3 Btu/lb
(2256 kJ/kg), quite a difference from 1 Btu/lb.CF
(4.19 kJ/kg.C) for liquid water. By use of the ap−
propriate value, the pounds of condensate to be re−
turned and pumped may be determined. For example:
970, 300Btuhr.
1000lb.hr.condensate
970.3Btulb.
1000lb.hr.
8.33lb.gal.8 8 60minhr.
=M2.0 gpm condensate
In a similar manner, the pounds per hour of steam re−
quired by the heat exchanger may also be calculated.
Similar calculations may be made in metric units.
284, 300WorJs
0.126kgscondensate
2, 256, 00Jkg
0.126 kg/s 60 s/minP=M7.56 kg/min or L/min
Once the condensate is formed, it will normally cool
below the condensing temperature before returning to
the boiler. The reduction in temperature is referred to
as sub−cooling.
9.4.3
Types Of Steam Systems
9.4.3.1
Piping Designations
A steam heating system is known as a one−pipe system
when a single main serves the dual purpose of supply−
WET RETURN (BELOW W.L.)
DRY RETURN
DRY
RETURN
VENT TRAP
DRIP CONNECTION
STEAM MAIN
DRY RETURN
STEAM MAIN
WET RETURN (BELOW W.L.)
A. One-Pipe System
B. Two-Pipe System
(Piping Typical of Atmospheric
and Vapor System, etc.)
FIGURE 9-11 BASIC PIPING CIRCUITS FOR GRAVITY FLOW OF CONDENSATE
ing steam to the heating unit and conveying conden−
sate from it. Each transferring device usually has only
one connection which must serve as both the supply
and the return, although separate supply and return
connections may be used. A steam heating system is
known as a two−pipe system when each transferring
device is provided with two piping connections, and
when steam and condensate flow in separate mains and
branches.
9.4.3.2
Steam Flow
Heating systems may also be described as upfeed or
downfeed, depending on the direction of steam flow in
the risers; and as a dry return or a wet return, depending
or whether the condensate mains are above or below
the water line of the boiler or condensate receiver.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
9.15
TRAP
DRY RETURN
DRY RETURN
PUMP
PUMP
A. Two-Pipe Direct-Return System
Return-line vacuum, variable vacuum, subatmospheric,
condensation on return, etc.
DRIP TRAP
TRAP
STEAM MAIN
DRIP TRAP
STEAM MAIN
B. Two-Pipe Reversed-Return System
FIGURE 9-12 BASIC PIPING CIRCUITS FOR MECHANICAL
RETURN SYSTEMS
9.4.3.3
Return Systems
In gravity systems, the condensate returns to the boiler
solely by gravity, but the steam flows by the effect of
the steam pressure. When the condensate cannot be re−
turned to the boiler by the action of gravity, either traps
or pumps must be employed. These systems are known
as mechanical return systems, and may be either open
return systems or vacuum (closed) systems. In these
systems, the condensate flows to the mechanical con−
densate returning device by gravity, and the gradient
for steam circulation is provided by steam pressure.
However, in vacuum systems, the partial vacuum pro−
duced by the pump provides a part or all of the gradi−
ent, depending on the operating steam pressure. Vacu−
um and condensate pumps both return condensate to
the boiler.
9.4.3.4
Steam Piping Systems
The functions of the piping system are the distribution
of low pressure steam, the return of the condensate,
and, in systems where no local air vents are provided,
the removal of the air. The distribution of the steam
should be rapid, uniform, and noiseless. The release of
air should be at a rate equal to or greater than the in−
tended steam distribution. An air bound system will
not heat readily or properly. In designing the piping ar−
9.16
TRAP
VALVE
STEAM
MAIN
TRAP
EQUALIZER LINE
AIR DISCHARGE
BOILER WATERLINE
PUMP
CONTROL
VACUUM HEATING
PUMP
DRIP
TRAP
RETURN
FIGURE 9-13 TYPICAL TWO-PIPE
VACUUM STEAM SYSTEM
Pressures
Steam heating systems may also be classified as high
pressure, intermediate (medium) pressure, low pres−
sure, vapor, and vacuum systems, depending on the
pressure conditions under which the system is de−
signed to operate.
9.4.4
rangement, it is desirable to maintain equivalent re−
sistances through the supply piping to, and the return
piping from, each terminal unit or heat exchanger.
The condensate collecting in steam piping and termi−
nal units must be drained to prevent interference with
the ready flow of steam and air.
It is important that steam piping systems distribute
steam not only at full design load, but also during ex−
cess and partial loads. Usually, the average winter
steam demand is less than half the demand at the de−
sign outdoor temperature. Moreover, when rapidly
warming up a system even in moderate weather, the
load on the steam main and returns momentarily may
exceed the maximum operating load for severe weath−
er, due to the necessity of raising the temperature of
metal in the system to the steam temperature and the
building to design indoor temperature.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
The basic tables for checking the sizes of low pressure
system steam and condensate return piping may be
found in the Appendix of this manual.
9.4.5
THERMOSTATIC
DISC ELEMENT
Heating Unit Piping Connections
INLET
It is important that the following good practices be fol−
lowed when making piping connections to steam heat−
ing units.
VALVE AND
ORIFICE
UNION
OUTLET
a.
Condensate from steam main drip traps
should not be piped into heating units.
b.
If it is necessary to keep the heater in service
at all times, a bypass with globe or plug valve
should be installed around the automatic tem−
perature control valve.
c.
A strainer should be provided on the steam
supply side of a control valve.
d.
The sizing of control valves should be based
on the steam load and not on the heater supply
connection.
e.
Each heater or bank of heaters installed in se−
ries should have a separate trap.
FIGURE 9-14 THERMOSTATIC TRAP
In general, steam traps consist of, a) an inlet connec−
tion that opens into a chamber or passage into which
condensate and non−condensable gases flow, b) an ori−
fice through which the condensate and fixed gases are
discharged, c) a valve which regulates or throttles the
flow through the orifice port, and d) an outlet connec−
tion.
OPTIONAL
INLET
OUTLET
INLET
f.
Return piping from heater to trap should be of
the same size as the heater outlet connection.
g.
Return piping should not be run to a main
which is above the discharge connection of
the heater or trap, or into mains under pres−
sure regulated by control valves (modulating
or on−off), but rather the heater condensate
trap should discharge to a pump and receiver,
or lifting trap, which then discharges to the
overhead main or return main under pressure.
h.
9.4.6
Steam piping and heater sections should be
supported independently.
Steam Traps & Strainers
Steam traps are important components of most steam
heating systems. These devices enable such systems to
properly distribute the heating medium, and operate to
perform two different functions: (1) to hold steam in
the radiation and supply piping until its latent heat has
been given up, and (2) while at the same time releasing
non−condensables and condensate. Steam traps are
usually regarded as drainage devices which release
liquids and gases from a higher to a lower pressure.
VALVE AND
ORIFICE
AIR VENT
FLOAT
DRAIN
FIGURE 9-15 INVERTER BUCKET TRAP
Without a trap as the means of confining the steam to
heat transfer equipment, proper distribution and heat
transfer related to the load could not take place since
the pressure obtained in each unit is virtually unaf−
fected by the pressure in the return piping.
All steam traps, except the small thermostatic type and
all steam control valves, should have a strainer
installed immediately before each unit to prevent pipe
scale and other debris from entering and damaging or
clogging it. Whenever a TAB technician encounters
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
9.17
9.4.7
THERMOSTATIC
DISC ELEMENT
INLET
OUTLET
Steam Systems—Medium And High
Pressure
Medium and high pressure systems are used when heat
transfer must be accomplished at higher temperatures,
either to satisfy process conditions or for economy in
equipment and piping costs. Higher pressure steam
supply sources may be used to provide thermal capac−
ity or to reduce carry over effects. To satisfy actual op−
erating conditions, steam generated at higher pres−
sures is reduced to various lower pressure levels by one
or more pressure regulating stations.
FLOAT
VALVE AND
ORIFICE
FIGURE 9-16 FLOAT AND
THERMOSTATIC TRAP
steam heat transfer equipment that is not operating
properly, usually a clogged strainer or defective trap
will be the problem if the automatic control valve is
operating correctly.
Leaking steam traps are a common maintenance prob−
lem on all steam systems. Live steam in the return lines
can cause overheating by some nearby units and create
live steam problems with condensate or vacuum
pumps.
A critical problem in environmental systems is the re−
moval of condensate from coils, especially those for
100 percent outside air. Proper operation dictates even
steam flow and distribution in the coil. Condensate
trapped in the coil prevents even distribution and
should the temperature fall low enough, freeze−up
might occur. Air must be allowed to enter the atmo−
spheric system coil to prevent tubing collapse during
the fall of pressure during initial heating, but it must
then be immediately vented to prevent holding con−
densate in the coil. Further, the coil must be rapidly
drained of condensate so chance freezing can be redu−
ced. Even under the best operating conditions, a ?non−
freeze" coil (tube−in−tube) can freeze. It is imperative
that improper venting and condensate removal is not
allowed to add to the possibility.
9.18
Medium and high pressure systems may be classified
as follows: 1) medium pressure, 10 to 44 psig (69 to
380 kPa) and 250 to 305F (121 to 152C); at high
pressure, 55 to 125 psig (475 to 860 kPa) and 305 to
350F (152 to 177C).
GATE VALVE
STRAINER
FLOAT AND
THERMOSTATIC
TRAP
STEAM MAIN
REGULATING VALVE
VACUUM
EQUALIZER
STRAINER
GATE
VALVES
HEATING
COILS
DIRT POCKET
DIRT POCKET
STRAINER
RETURN MAIN
GATE VALVE
FLOAT AND THERMOSTATIC TRAP
FIGURE 9-17 TYPICAL CONNECTIONS
TO FINNED TUBE HEATING COILS
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 10
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 10
10.1
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
10.1.1
General Checklist
There is no testing and balancing work for refrigera−
tion systems, but TAB technicians must be familiar
with them since they affect the work that must be done.
The lack of ?cooling" can affect TAB work, so the fol−
lowing is a checklist of common problems, assuming
that all equipment has been turned on.
a.
Check to see if the outdoor air dampers have
been properly set as this can place an exces−
sive load on the cooling coils.
b.
With direct expansion coils, check to see the
air quantity crossing the cooling coil is ade−
quate, as frost could be the result of insuffi−
cient air.
c.
All automatic temperature control devices
should be operating satisfactorily and chilled
water should be flowing at the correct tem−
perature.
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
i.
A low water temperature differential across
the chiller may also indicate fouling of the
tubes.
j.
A low water flow across either condenser or
evaporator will produce a high water temper−
ature differential.
k.
A malfunctioning safety device such as a
flow switch will prevent machine start up
even with water flow.
l.
A malfunctioning operating device such as a
refrigerant solenoid will prevent proper op−
eration and perhaps shut down the machine.
m. Improper operation of centrifugal machine
suction damper controller may cause surg−
ing of the machine.
These and the many other conditions which may occur
do not necessarily cause immediate loss of cooling.
However, if any are apparent during TAB work, nui−
sance calls may be avoided by bringing the conditions
to the attention of the responsible parties.
10.1.2
d.
e.
A frosted DX coil can be the result of insuffi−
cient system refrigerant and a reduced evapo−
rator temperature caused by the compressor
trying to meet the load.
A cooling tower cell fan shut down or high
ambient wet bulb may cause high condenser
pressures. The machine may operate, but the
condensing temperature could rise above the
maximum design. This condition is referred
to as high head.
f.
A compressor shutdown may be the result of
operation of a safety device such as high con−
densing pressure (high head) cutout or low
evaporator temperature (freeze protection or
low temperature) cutoff.
g.
A water valve closed to condenser and/or
chilled water heat exchanger will shut the
machine down on a safety switch.
h.
A high water temperature differential across
the condenser, even though not sufficient to
shut down the machine, may indicate accu−
mulation of fouling solids on the water side of
the tubes which would require cleaning by
rodding or acid.
Refrigeration Cycle
There are four basic components of the compression
refrigeration cycle: the pump (compressor), the heat
rejector (condenser), the metering device (capillary
tube, thermal expansion valve, float valve), and the
heat absorber (evaporator, chiller, cooler, direct ex−
pansion coil). Figure 10−1 partially defines these com−
ponents in terms of function in the cycle, and shows
common names used for them.
The refrigerant flow from the pump through the heat
rejector to the port of the metering device is called the
high side of the refrigeration circuit. From the meter−
ing device through the heat absorber to the pump is
called the low side of the circuit. These two terms refer
to both pressure and temperature. The nature of the re−
frigerants, which will be discussed further in later
paragraphs, produces this effect.
Beginning at the evaporator, the liquid refrigerant is
boiled off at reduced pressure into a gas as it absorbs
heat from the heat exchanger, and water, air or other
environmental fluids are cooled by the heat removal.
The gaseous refrigerant moves through the suction
pipe or line to the compressor, which has reduced the
inlet pressure to cause fluid flow. The compressor
pumps the gas to the condenser through the hot gas
(pipe) line. In the pump, the gas is compressed to a
smaller volume, and heat (heat of compression) is add−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
10.1
Low Side
High Side
Liquid Line
Solenoid Valve
Sight Glass
Expansion Valve
(metering device)
Bulb
Evaporator
(Heat Absorber)
Hot Gas
Piping
Suction Piping
Condenser
(Heat Rejector)
Compressor
(Pump)
Low Side
Liquid
Receiver
High Side
FIGURE 10-1 REFRIGERANT CYCLE
ed to the low pressure, low temperature gas to produce
the high pressure, high temperature conditions found
in the high side.
In the condenser heat exchanger, water from a cooling
source such as a tower, or air moving across the con−
denser coil, converts the high pressure hot gas to a high
pressure, warm liquid. This warm liquid moves
through the liquid line to the metering device, which
allows the proper amount of liquid to flow into the
evaporator, where the cycle starts over. Without the
metering device, excess liquid would flow, causing
loss of evaporator control and likely allowing liquid to
enter the compressor, where damage could occur,
since the compressor is only designed to pump gas.
10.2
10.2
REFRIGERATION TERMS AND
COMPONENTS
10.2.1
Evaporator
The heat exchanger in which the medium being
cooled, usually air or water, gives up heat to the refrig−
erant through the exchanger transfer surface. The liq−
uid refrigerant boils into a gas in the process of heat ab−
sorption. Part of the evaporator contains liquid
refrigerant, part contains a liquid−gas mixture, and part
contains all gas. The amount of each will be deter−
mined by the load and the control provided by the me−
tering device.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
10.2.2
Thermal Expansion Valve
The metering device or flow control that regulates the
amount of liquid refrigerant which is allowed to enter
the evaporator. Flow of refrigerant is automatically
regulated by the valve reaction to the pressure varia−
tions in the sensing bulb being transmitted through the
capillary tube to the thermal valve bellows.
Since liquid flow to the compressor is undesirable and
can be damaging, the thermal expansion valve is usu−
ally adjusted to produce approximately 10F (5.6C)
superheat in the gas leaving the evaporator to assure a
dry condition of this gas entering the compressor.
Slugging liquid into the compressor may cause dama−
ge. The expansion valve connection to the evaporator
may be a single pipe or multiple small pipes to individ−
ual circuits.
10.2.3
Capillary Tube
The capillary tube is a metering device made from a
thin tube approximately 2 to 20 feet (0.6 to 6 m) long
and from 0.025 to 0.090 inches (0.6 to 2.3 mm) in di−
ameter which feeds liquid directly to the evaporator.
Usually limited to systems of 1 ton or less, it performs
most of the functions of a thermal expansion valve
when properly sized.
10.2.4
Suction Piping
Suction piping is the piping that returns gaseous refrig−
erant to the compressor. This may be the most critical
piping in the system design. Sizes must be large
enough to maintain minimum friction to prevent re−
duced compressor and system capacity, but must be
small enough to produce adequate velocity to return
oil to the compressor. Oil separates from the refriger−
ant in the evaporator and must be entrained in the gas
in small particles by gas flow velocity, or excess oil
may collect in the piping and evaporator.
10.2.5
10.2.7
Discharge Stop Valve
The manual service valve on the discharge side or at
the leaving connection of the compressor. Similar to
the suction stop valve except for size and location.
10.2.8
Hot Gas Piping
The compressor discharge piping that carries the hot
refrigerant gas from the compressor to the condenser.
Sizing may be as critical as suction piping, as veloci−
ties must be high enough to carry entrained oil.
10.2.9
Condenser
The heat exchanger in which the heat absorbed by the
evaporator and some of the heat of compression
introduced by the compressor are removed from the
system. The gaseous refrigerant changes to a liquid,
again taking advantage of the relatively large heat
transfer by the change of state in the condensing pro−
cess. Part of the condenser contains all gas, part con−
tains a gas−liquid mixture, and part contains solid liq−
uid refrigerant, in the reverse manner as the
evaporator.
10.2.10 Receiver
The receiver is an auxiliary storage receptacle for re−
frigerant when the system is pumped down (shut
down). When completely isolated by valving, this
equipment provides a storage place to contain refriger−
ant even when the system, including the condenser,
may be opened for servicing. Receivers are optional
except in systems where condenser storage capacity is
inadequate, especially when the system design re−
quires pump down.
10.2.11
Filter-Drier
The filter−drier is a combination device used as a
strainer and moisture remover. Normally used with a
three−valve bypass to allow removal of the cartridge
during system operation.
Compressor
10.2.12 Liquid Solenoid Valve
The compressor is the pump that provides the pressure
differential to cause fluid to flow, and in the pumping
process, increases pressure of the refrigerant to the
high side condition. The compressor is the separation
between the low side and the high side.
10.2.6
Suction Stop Valve
The manual service valve on the inlet side of the com−
pressor.
The electrically operated, automatic shut off valve in
the liquid piping that closes on system shut down. It
also closes off the receiver discharge when used in a
pump down cycle, which prevents refrigerant migra−
tion into the system.
10.2.13 Liquid Sight Glass
The glass ported fitting in the liquid line used to indi−
cate adequate refrigerant charge. When bubbles ap−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
10.3
pear in the glass, there is insufficient refrigerant in the
system.
10.2.14 Hot Gas Bypass And Valve
The piping and manual, but more often automatic,
valve used to introduce compressor discharge gas di−
rectly into the evaporator. This type of arrangement
will maintain compressor operation at light loads by
falsely loading the evaporator and compressor.
10.2.15 Relief Devices
Codes require excess pressure relief devices which
may be reseating relief valves, ?one shot" rupture
discs, or both. Either should or must be piped to atmo−
sphere.
10.3
SAFETY CONTROLS
The two most common safety controls are the high
pressure cutout and the low temperature cutout. The
high pressure cutout is a pressure actuated switch with
its sensing connection in the compressor head. To pro−
tect the compressor from pressures often caused by
high condenser temperatures and pressure due to foul−
ing and lack of water or air, this switch shuts the com−
pressor down when the pressure setting is reached. A
distinctive, increasing pitch sound is emitted from the
compressor before shut down.
The low pressure cutout is either a pressure or temper−
ature actuated device with the sensing element in the
evaporator, which will shut the system down at its con−
trol setting to prevent freezing chilled water or to pre−
vent coil frosting. Direct expansion equipment may
not use thus device.
10.4
OPERATING CONTROLS
Many variations of operating controls are available.
Some are:
a.
cycling compressor with a thermostat,
b.
unloading compressor cylinders with step
controllers operated from multi−stage ther−
mostats,
c.
cycling fan and compressor in an air system,
and
d.
reducing capacity by using compressor cylin−
der unloaders actuated by refrigerant pres−
sure changes.
10.4
10.5
REFRIGERANTS
Equipment manufacturers select refrigerants that will
change state in the cycle at the temperatures required
by the system. Consequently, the refrigerants are se−
lected that will change from liquid to gas in the evapo−
rator while absorbing heat, and will change back to a
liquid from a gas in the condenser while rejecting heat.
The ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook lists the cur−
rently used refrigerants found in HVAC work, as re−
frigerant types are changing due to environmental
problems.
10.6
THERMAL BULBS AND
SUPERHEAT
If warmer air is passed over an evaporator coil, the re−
frigerant will evaporate more quickly and the last drop
of refrigerant will evaporate at a point at or before the
coil outlet. This will cause the suction header to in−
crease in temperature. The expansion valve bulb will
then sense the increase in superheat and cause the ex−
pansion valve to open further. This action will allow
more refrigerant to flow through the expansion valve
into the coil to overcome the higher rate of evaporation
(an increase in superheat), thereby again moving the
point where the last drop of refrigerant evaporated to
the location just ahead of the bulb. It is in this manner
that the expansion valve and its sensing bulb act to
closely control the cooling load of the system by mea−
suring the effects of the load at the outlet of the evapo−
rator coil.
Example ?C" in Figure 10−2 is an undesirable location
because liquid can be trapped at the location of the
bulb, giving a false temperature reading. The location
of ?B" is incorrect because the bulb can never sense the
refrigeration gas or liquid properly in the lower portion
of the coil. Location ?A" is good from an accuracy of
sensing standpoint, but liquid cannot be allowed to
drain directly into the compressor or slugging could
occur. The solution, therefore, is to use location?D"
and to allow superheat to occur.
Superheat is the temperature increase in the refrigera−
tion gas after evaporation has been completed. All re−
frigerant liquid evaporation should occur far enough
ahead of location ?A" in Figure 10−2 to allow a temper−
ature rise of 5F to 15F (2.8C to 8.3C) (or the tem−
perature recommended by the manufacturer) to occur
before the sensing bulb. This superheat establishes the
point, where the last drop of refrigerant evaporated,
deeper into the evaporator coil, thereby preventing liq−
uid refrigerant from flowing into the suction line and
then into the compressor. In other words, ?insurance"
is being added so that all refrigerant is evaporated by
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
the time it reaches the bulb. This is also the reason that
loops are used in suction line piping to collect liquid
refrigerant in the event of an expansion valve malfunc−
tion. To see superheat in a slightly different way, if at
a certain rate of heat transfer or load condition, the
bulb was set to maintain a fully opened expansion
valve, then lowering superheat would slightly close
the valve to ensure that all liquid had evaporated be−
fore reaching the compressor.
Evaporator
Suction
Header
Bulb
B. Wrong
A. Good
(Alternate direction)
or
C. Wrong
D. Good
FIGURE 10-2 LOCATIONS OF THERMAL BULBS
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
10.5
10.7
COMPRESSOR SHORT CYCLING
When the load on a coil requires an expansion valve to
be half open, a compressor running fully loaded would
quickly reduce the suction pressure from the evapora−
tor coil and the low pressure control would stop the
compressor. Since the expansion valve would still be
controlled to remain at the half open point by the bulb,
pressure would again build up in the suction piping, re−
starting the compressor. Rapid stopping and starting of
a compressor is called short cycling. This can quickly
damage a compressor.
Many compressors have unloading devices to prevent
this short cycling (or a hot gas line bypass might be
used). These devices selectively allow one or more of
the cylinders of the compressor to cease operation al−
10.6
lowing the compressor to adjust to the changing load
condition. To continue with the half opened expansion
valve example, if the compressor has 4 cylinders, 2 of
the cylinders would be unloaded or ineffective. The
compressor could now run without being able to re−
duce the suction pressure to a point sufficient to shut
itself off. It is in this manner that the compressor is ad−
justed to match the load.
When the compressor is unloaded to its minimum ca−
pacity during light load conditions, the compressor
can once again short cycle. To prevent this, an anti−
short cycle timer is used. This timer is put in the start−
ing circuit of the compressor so that when the com−
pressor stops, 5 minutes (or some other set time
interval) is required to elapse before the compressor
can again come on.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 11
TAB INSTRUMENTS
CHAPTER 11
11.1
TAB INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Instruments for the measurement of airflow, water
flow, rotation, temperature and electricity are the tools
of the trade for the TAB technician. Many instruments
are available to accomplish TAB tasks and gather TAB
data and information. For example, the instruments
covered in this section are proven by experience to be
reliable and accurate. In addition, new electronic mul−
tipurpose instruments that are capable of providing
more than one measurement, such as airflow and tem−
perature, as well as other electronic types, are avail−
able.
11.2
AIRFLOW MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
11.2.1
Manometer, U-Tube
cause rapid deterioration of any copper it
touches in the system.
c.
U−tube manometers should not be used for
readings under 1.0 in. wg (250 Pa).
OVER-PRESSURE
TRAPS, WITH
SHUT-OFF COCKS
11.2.1.1 Description
The manometer (Figure 11−1) is a simple and useful
means of measuring partial vacuum and pressure, both
for air and hydronic systems. It is so universally used
that both the inch (millimeter) of water and the inch
(millimeter) of mercury have become accepted units
of pressure measurements. In its simplest form, a ma−
nometer consists of a U−shaped glass tube partially
filled with a liquid such as tinted water, oil or mercury.
The difference in height of the two fluid columns de−
notes the pressure differential. U−tube manometers are
made in different sizes and can be used for measuring
pressure drops above 1.0 in. wg (250 Pascals) across
filters, coils, fans, terminal devices, and sections of
ductwork; and are not recommended for readings of
less than 1.0 in. wg (250 Pa).
11.2.1.2
Recommended Uses
Air and gas (with water or oil instrument):
a.
Measuring pressure drops above 1.0 in. wg
(250 Pa) across filters, coils, eliminators,
fans, grilles and duct sections.
b.
Measuring low manifold gas pressures.
FIGURE 11-1 U-TUBE MANOMETER
EQUIPPED WITH OVER-PRESSURE TRAPS
11.2.2
11.2.1.3
Manometer, Inclined/Vertical
Limitations
11.2.2.1 Description
a.
Manometer tubes should be chemically clean
to be accurate and filled with the correct
fluid.
b.
Use collecting safety reservoirs on each side
of a mercury manometer to prevent blowing
out mercury into the water system, which can
The inclined−vertical manometer (Figure 11–2) for
airflow pressure readings is usually constructed from
a solid transparent block of plastic. It has an inclined
scale that provides accurate air pressure readings be−
low 1.0 in.wg (250 Pa) and a vertical scale for reading
greater pressures. Note that all air pressures are given
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.1
in ?inches of water (millimeters or pascals)". For ex−
ample, ?3.0 inches of water" (75 mm of water or 750
Pa) means that the air pressure on one end of a U−
shaped tube is enough to force the water 3 inches (75
mm) higher in the other leg of the tube. Instead of wa−
ter, this instrument uses colored oil which is lighter
than water. This means that although the scale reads in
inches of water (mm), it is longer than a standard rule
measurement. Whenever a manometer is used, the oil
must be at normal room temperatures or the reading
will not be correct. The manometer must be set level
and mounted so it does not vibrate. Note the leveling
screw and the magnetic clips.
Some manometers have two scales C one indicating
some pressure in inches (mm) of water and the other
indicating velocity in feet per minute (meters per sec−
ond).
The manometer (or inclined draft gage) is the standard
in the industry. It can be read accurately down to
approximately 0.03 in. wg (7 Pa) and contains no me−
chanical linkage. It is simple to adjust by setting the
piston at the bottom until the meniscus of the oil is on
the zero line. This instrument can be used with a Pitot
tube or static probe to determine pressures or air veloc−
ity in ducts across coils and fans.
11.2.2.2 Recommended Uses
Use with Pitot tube or static probe.
11.2.2.3 Limitations
When air velocities are extremely low, a micro−ma−
nometer (hook gage) or some other more sensitive in−
strument should be used for acceptable accuracy.
11.2.3
Electronic (Digital) Manometer
11.2.3.1 Description
The electronic manometer (Figure 11−3) is designed to
provide accurate readings at very low differential pres−
sures. Some manometers measure an extremely wide
range of pressures from 0.0001 to 60.00 in. wg (0.025
to 15,000 Pa). Airflow and velocity are automatically
corrected for the density effect of barometric pressure
and temperature. Readings can be stored and recalled
with ?average" and ?total" functions. A specially de−
signed grid enables the reading of face velocities at fil−
ter outlets, coil face velocities and exhaust hood open−
ings. Some millimeters provide additional functions
such as temperature measurement.
FIGURE 11-3 ELECTRONIC/
MULTI-METER
FIGURE 11-2 INCLINED-VERTICAL
MANOMETER
11.2
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.2.3.2 Recommended Uses
DUCT
a.
Use with Pitot tube or static pressure probe.
AIR FLOW
SP
b.
With the velocity grid the instrument can be
used for velocity measurements at HEPA fil−
ter outlets, at hood openings and at coil faces.
PITOT
TUBE
V
TP
11.2.3.3 Limitations
Description
TP
A) PITOT TUBE CONNECTIONS
FOR SUPPLY AIRSTREAM
Because the meter utilizes a time weighted average for
each reading, it is often difficult to measure and identi−
fy the pulsations in pressure. For this reason it may be
difficult to repeat single point readings.
11.2.4
SP
DUCT
AIR FLOW
SP
PITOT
TUBE
SP
V
TP
The standard Pitot tube (Figure 11−5), which is used in
conjunction with a suitable manometer, provides a
simple method of determining the air velocity in a
duct. The Pitot tube is of double concentric tube
construction, consisting of an 1_i inch (3.2 mm) O.D.
inner tube which is concentrically located inside of a
5_qy inch (8.0 mm) O.D. outer tube. The outer ?static"
tube has 8 equally spaced, 0.04 inch (1 mm) diameter
holes around the circumference of the outer tube, lo−
cated 2−1_r inches (57 mm) back from the nose or open
end of the Pitot tube tip. At the base end, or tube con−
nection end, the inner tube is open ended as at the head,
and the outer tube has a side outlet tube connector per−
pendicular to the outer tube and directly parallel with
and in the same direction as the head end of the Pitot
tube.
Both tubes have a 90 degree radius bend in them lo−
cated near the measuring end to allow the open end of
the inner ?impact" tube to be positioned so that it faces
directly into the airstream when the main shaft of the
Pitot tube is perpendicular to the duct and the side out−
let static pressure tube outlet connector is pointed in a
parallel direction with airflow facing upstream.
11.2.4.1 Recommended Uses
a.
Measurement of airstream ?total pressure" by
connecting the inner tube outlet connector to
one side of a manometer or gage (see ?TP"
connections in Figure 11−4).
b.
Measurement of airstream ?static pressure"
by connecting the outer tube side outlet con−
nector to one side of a manometer or gage
(see ?SP" connections in Figure 11−4).
TP
B) PITOT TUBE CONNECTIONS IF AIRSTREAM IS
EXHAUSTED FROM DUCT & TP IS POSITIVE
DUCT
AIR FLOW
SP
PITOT
TUBE
SP
V
TP
TP
C) PITOT TUBE CONNECTIONS IF AIRSTREAM IS
EXHAUSTED FROM DUCT & TP IS NEGATIVE
FIGURE 11-4 PITOT TUBE
CONNECTIONS
c.
Measurement of airstream velocity pressure
by connecting both the inner and the outer
tube connectors to opposite sides of a ma−
nometer or gage (see ?Vp" connections in
Figure 11−4).
d.
This instrument when used with a gage, ma−
nometer or micro−manometer is a most reli−
able and rugged instrument and its use is pre−
ferred over any other method for the field
measurement of air velocity, system total air,
outdoor air, return air, fan static pressure, fan
total pressure and fan outlet velocity pres−
sures.
e.
The following are some of the instruments
that may be used with the Pitot tube:
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.3
2 1_w" in. (63 mm)=8D
5 in. (125 mm)=16D
1_r”
(6.4 mm)
0.125 in. (3.2 mm) DIAM.
A
0.313 in.(8.0 mm)=1D
A
0.938 in.
(23.8 mm.)
RAD
0.156 in. (4.0 mm)
RAD
8 HOLES - 0.04 in (1mm) DIAM.
NOSE SHALL BE FREE
EQUALLY SPACED
FROM NICKS AND BURRS.
FREE FROM BURRS
90 1
SECTION A-A
INNER TUBING - APPROX
0.125 in. (3.2 mm) O.D. 21B & S GA
STATIC PRESSURE
OUTER TUBING
0.313 in. (8 mm) O.D. APPROX. 18 B & S GA.
NOTE:
Other sizes of pitot tubes when required, may be built
using the same geometric proportions with the exception that the
static orifices on sizes larger than standard may not exceed .04 in.
(1 mm) in diameter. The minimum pitot tube stem diameter recognized under this code shall be 0.10 in. (2.5 mm). In no case shall the
stem diameter exceed 1/30 of the test duct diameter.
TOTAL PRESSURE
FIGURE 11-5 PITOT TUBE
11.2.4.2
Micro−manometer (analog or digital),
very low pressure differential; 0 to 6
inch (150 mm or 1500 Pa) range;
Inclined or digital manometer, moder−
ate pressure differential; 0 to 10 inch
(250 mm or 2500 Pa) range;
U−tube manometer, medium pressure
differential; 1.0 to 100 inch (25 mm to
2500 mm or 250 Pa to 25 kPa) range;
Magnehelic gage, 0 to 0.5 inch (0 to 12
mm), 0 to 1.0 inch (0 to 25 mm), and 0
to 5 inch (0 to 125 mm) ranges.
Limitations
The accuracy depends on uniformity of flow and com−
pleteness of traverse. Several shapes and sizes of Pitot
tubes are available for different applications. A rea−
sonably large space is required adjacent to the duct
penetration for maneuvering the instrument. Care
must be taken to avoid pinching instrument tubing. Al−
low a few seconds for duct pressures and probe tem−
perature to stabilize after inserting probe.
11.4
If static pressure, velocity pressure, and total pressure
are to be measured simultaneously, three draft gages
are connected depending on the specific application.
In any case, however, the three values measured will
then fulfill the equation: TP = SP + Vp. In conducting
tests, it frequently is sufficient to measure only two of
these three pressures, since the third one can be ob−
tained by simple addition or subtraction. Care must be
taken, however, so that the signs of the pressures moni−
tored are correct.
If the airstream is exhausted from the duct, the static
pressure is negative and the hose connections will de−
pend on whether the velocity pressure is greater or
smaller than the numerical value of the static pressure.
If it is greater, the total pressure will be positive; if it
is smaller, the total pressure will be negative.
The various connections between the Pitot tube and
gage are frequently made with rubber hose. Precaution
must be taken so that all passages and connections are
dry, clean and free of leaks, sharp bends and other ob−
structions. The branching out of the rubber hose can be
accomplished by the use of a T−fitting or by the use of
a 2−stem nipple adapter which can be purchased as an
accessory.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.2.5
Pressure Gage (Magnehelic)
11.2.5.1 Description
A dry type diaphragm operated differential pressure
gage that employs a calibrated spring loaded horse−
shoe magnet lever operated from the differential pres−
sure on the diaphragm. This causes rotation of a highly
magnetic permeable helix that positions a pointer on
the pressure scale. The Magnehelic pressure gage is
operated by magnetic field linkage only, which makes
it extremely sensitive and accurate. However, the
construction of the gage makes it resistant to shock and
vibration. The helix rotates on anti−shock mounted
sapphire bearings. A zero calibration screw is located
on the plastic cover. Common ranges are: 0 to 0.5 in.
wg (125 Pa); 0 to 1.0 in. wg (250 Pa); and 0 to 5.0 in.
wg (1250 Pa). There are approximately 30 available
pressure ranges in this instrument.
b.
Should not be mounted on a vibrating sur−
face.
c.
Should be held in same position as ?zeroed".
d.
Some should be used in the vertical position
only.
11.2.6
Anemometer, Rotating Vane
11.2.6.1 Description
The basic propeller or rotating vane anemometer (Fig−
ure 11−7) consists of a lightweight, wind−driven wheel
connected through a gear train to a set of recording
dials that read the linear feet of air passing through the
wheel in a measured length of time. The instrument is
made in various sizes; 3 inch (75 mm), 4 inch (100
mm), and 6 inch (150 mm) sizes being the most com−
mon.
At low velocities, the friction drag of the mechanism
is considerable. In order to compensate for this, a gear
train that overspeeds is commonly used. For this rea−
son, the correction is often additive at the lower range
and subtractive at the upper range, with the least
correction in the middle of the 200 to 2000 fpm (1 to
10 m/s) range. Most older instruments are not sensitive
enough for use below 200 fpm (1 m/s). Newer instru−
ments can read velocities as low as 30 fpm (0.15 m/s).
FIGURE 11-6 MAGNEHELIC GAGE
11.2.5.2
Recommended Uses
a.
Use with Pitot tube or static pressure probe as
outlined under subsection 11.2.4.
b.
Use with specially constructed induction unit
primary air total pressure measuring tip for
primary air distribution balancing on high
pressure induction systems and heat of light
systems.
11.2.5.3
a.
The instrument reads in feet (m), and so a timing in−
strument must be used to determine velocity. Readings
are usually timed for one minute, in which case the
anemometer reading (when corrected according to a
calibration curve) will give the result in feet per minute
or meters per minute (divide by 60 for m/s). For mod−
erate velocities, it may be satisfactory to use a one−half
minute timed interval, repeated as a check. A stop
watch should be used to measure the timed interval, al−
though a wristwatch with a sweep second hand may
give satisfactory results for rough field checks.
In the case of coils or filters, an uneven airflow is fre−
quently found because of entrance or exit conditions.
This variation is taken into account by moving the in−
strument in a fixed pattern to cover the entire amount
of time over all parts of the area being measured so that
the varying velocities can be averaged.
11.2.6.2
a.
Measurement of supply air, return air, and ex−
haust air quantities at registers and grilles.
b.
Measurement of air quantities at the faces of
maximum return air dampers or openings, to−
tal air across the filter or coil face areas, etc.
Limitations
Readings should be made in midrange of
scale.
Recommended Uses
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.5
c.
d.
If the opening is covered with a grille, the in−
strument should touch the grille face but
should not be pushed in between the bars. For
a free opening without a grille, the anemome−
ter should be held in the plane of the entrance
edges of the opening. The anemometer must
always be held in such a manner that the air−
flow through the instrument is in the same di−
rection as was used for calibration (usually
from the back toward the dial face). The
manufacturer’s recommendations must be
followed very carefully when using this in−
strument.
A quality stopwatch shall be used to time the
readings.
d.
Not very accurate on coils without using spe−
cific correction factors calculated for each
coil. See Appendix A.
11.2.7
Electronic Rotating Vane
Anemometer
11.2.7.1
Description
A battery operated, direct digital or analog readout
anemometer with interchangeable remote rotating
vane heads. The digital readout of the velocity is auto−
matically averaged for a fixed time period depending
on the measured velocity and the type of instrument.
Analog instruments are direct readout with a choice of
velocity scales,Figure 11−8.
11.2.7.2
Recommended Uses
For measuring airflow velocities at grilles, coils, lami−
nar flow cabinets and other terminal devices.
11.2.7.3
Limitations
a.
Battery operated.
b.
Total inlet area of rotating vane head must be
in measured air flow.
FIGURE 11-7 ROTATING VANE
ANEMOMETER
11.2.6.3
Limitations
FIGURE 11-8 ELECTRONIC ANALOG
ROTATING VANE ANEMOMETER
a.
Each reading from this instrument must be
corrected by its calibration chart.
b.
The air terminal manufacturer’s specified ?k
factor" (effective area) for this instrument
must be used in computing air quantities.
11.2.8
Anemometer, Deflection Vane
11.2.8.1
Description
Total inlet area of instrument must be in mea−
sured airflow.
The deflecting vane anemometer , Figure 11−9, oper−
ates by having pressure exerted on a vane that causes
c.
11.6
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
a pointer to indicate the measured value. It is not de−
pendent on air denisty because of the sensing of pres−
sure differential to indicate velocities. The instrument
is provided and always use with a dual−hose connec−
tion between the meter and the probes, except as noted
below.
11.2.8.3
Limitations
Instruments should not be used in extremely hot, cold,
or contaminated air.
11.2.9
11.2.9.1
Thermal Anemometer
Description
The operation of a thermal type anemometer (Figure
11−10) depends on the fact that the resistance of a
heated wire will change with its temperature. The
probe of this instrument is provided with a special type
of wire element which is supplied with current from
batteries contained in the instrument case. As air flows
over the element in the probe the temperature of the
element is changed from that which exists in still air,
and the resistance change is indicated as a velocity on
the indicating scale of the instrument.
FIGURE 11-9 DEFLECTING VANE
ANEMOMETER SET
A deflecting vane anemometer set meets the needs of
TAB work as most major air distribution device
manufacturers have set up arear factors based on its
use. The set consists of the meter, measuring probes,
range selectors, and connecting hoses. Meters are
scaled through the following velocity ranges: 0–300
fpm (0–1.5 m/s); 0–1250 fpm (0–6.25 m/s); 0–2500
fpm (0–12.5 m/s); 0–5000 fpm (0–25.0 m/s); 0–10,000
fpm (0–50 m/s).
Three velocity probes are providedNCNthe lo−flow
probe, the diffuser probe, and the Pitot tube. The lo−
flow probe is used in conjunction with the 0–300 fpm
(0–1.5 m/s) scale for measuring terminal air velocities
in rooms or open spaces, and to measure face veloci−
ties at ventilating hoods, spray booths, fume hoods,
and the like. The lo−flow probe is directly mounted to
the meter without the use of hoses. The Pitot tube is
used to measure airstream velocities in ducts.
11.2.8.2
a.
b.
Recommended Uses
This instrument may be used for measure−
ments of air velocity through both supply and
return air terminals using the proper jet and
the proper air terminal ?k" factor (effective
area) for the airflow calculation.
Some instruments may also be used for mea−
suring some lower velocities wher the instru−
ment case itself is placed in the airstream.
FIGURE 11-10
11.2.9.2
THERMAL ANEMOMETER
Recommended Uses
a.
Used to measure very low air velocities such
as a filter face velocity, room velocity and the
velocity of hood openings.
b.
Can be used for velocity traverse in ducts to
determine total airflow.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.7
11.2.9.3
Limitations
a.
The probe that is used with this instrument is
quite directional and must be located at the
proper point on the diffuser or grille as indi−
cated by the manufacturer.
b.
Probes subject to fouling by dust and corro−
sive air.
c.
Should not be used in flammable or explosive
atmosphere.
d.
Corrections must be made for the tempera−
ture of air being measured.
11.2.10
Flow Measuring Hood
11.2.10.1
Description
FIGURE 11-1 1 FLOW MEASURING HOOD
The flow measuring hood ,Figure 11−11, is a device
that covers the terminal air outlet device to facilitate
taking air velocity or air flow. The conical or pyramid
shaped hood can be used to collect all of the air dis−
charged from an air terminal and guide it over flow
measuring instrumentation. A velocity measuring grid
and calibrated manometer in the hood will read the air−
flow in cfm (L/s).
The balancing hood should be tailored for the particu−
lar job. The large end of the hood should be sized to fit
over the complete diffuser and should have a gasket
around the perimeter to prevent leakage.
11.2.11
Smoke Devices
WARNING!
Before using any smoke devices, the TAB Technician
must warn all people within the area so that they are
aware of the use.
11.2.11.1 Description
These devices generally are used for the study of air−
flow and for the detection of leaks.
11.2.10.2 Recommended Uses
To measure air outlet devices direction in cfm (L/s).
Some digital instruments have memory, averaging,
and printing capabilities.
When testing for leaks, sufficient smoke should be
used to fill a volume 15 to 20 times larger than the duct
or enclosure volume to be tested.
11.2.10.3 Limitations
a.
b.
11.8
Smoke bombs come in various sizes with different
lengths of burning time from which highly visible,
non−toxic smoke readily mixes with air simplifying
the observation of flow patterns.
Flow measuring hoods should not be used
where the discharge velocities of the air out−
lets exceed manufacturer recommendations.
The hood redirects the normal pattern of air
discharge which creates a slight, artificially
imposed, pressure drop in the ductwork
branch which can be corrected by using
manufacturers backpressure compensation.
Smoke sticks and candles are convenient in that they
come in different sizes and they provide an indicating
stream of smoke. Some are like the puff from a ciga−
rette and others smoke continuously for a few minutes
to a maximum of 10 minutes.
Smoke guns are valuable in tracing air currents, deter−
mining the direction and velocity of airflow, and the
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
general behavior of either warm or cold air in condi−
tioned rooms.
studies, hoods, filters, etc. Air motion rates
below 10 fpm (0.05 m/s) can be measured
with a stopwatch and distance determina−
tions.
11.2.11.2 Recommended Uses
a.
b.
For determining the direction and observing
the velocity and pattern of airflow in room
INSTRUMENT
RECOMMENDED USES
Discharge patterns from exhaust systems,
driers, hoods and stacks can be made.
LIMITATIONS
U-TUBE
MANOMETER
Measuring pressure of air and gas above 1.0 in.wg
(250 Pa)
Measuring low manifold gas pressures
Manometer should be clean and used with correct fluid.
Should not be used for readings under one inch
of differential pressure.
VERTICAL
INCLINED
MANOMETER
Measuring pressure of air and gas above 0.02 in.wg
(5 Pa)
Normally used with pitot tube or static probe for determination of static, total, and velocity pressures in
duct systems.
Field calibration and leveling is required before
each use.
For extremely low pressures, a micro manometer or some other sensitive instrument should be
used for maximum accuracy.
MICROMANOMETER
(ELECTRONIC)
Measuring very low pressures or velocities.
Used for calibration of other instrumentation.
Because some instruments utilize a time
weighted average for each reading, it is difficult
to measure pressures with pulsations.
PITOT TUBE
Used with manometer for determination of total, static and velocity pressures.
Accuracy depends on uniformity of flow and
completeness of duct traverse.
Pitot tube and tubing must be dry, clean and free
of leaks and sharp bends or obstructions.
PRESSURE
GAGE
(MAGNEHELIC)
Used with static probes for determination of static
pressure or static pressure differential.
Readings should be made in midrange of scale.
Should be “zeroed” and held in same position.
Should be checked against known pressure
source with each use.
ANEMOMETER
ROTATING VANE
(MECHANICAL
AND
ELECTRONIC)
Measurement of velocities at air terminals, air inlets,
and filter or coil banks.
Total inlet area of rotating vane must be in measured airflow.
Correction factors may apply, refer to manufacturer data.
ANEMOMETER
DEFLECTING
VANE
Measurement of velocities at air terminals and air
inlets.
Instruments should not be used in extreme temperature or contaminated conditions.
ANEMOMETER
THERMAL
Measurement of low velocities such as room air currents and airflow at hoods, troffers, and other low
velocity apparatus.
Care should be taken for proper use of instrument probe.
Probes are subject to fouling by dust and corrosive air.
Should not be used in flammable or explosive
atmosphere.
Temperature corrections may apply.
FLOW
MEASURING HOOD
Measurement of air distribution devices directly in
CFM (L/s)
Flow measuring hoods should not be used
where the discharge velocities of the terminal
devices are excessive.
Flow measuring hoods redirect the normal pattern of air diffusion which creates a slight, artificially imposed, pressure drop in the duct branch.
Capture hood used should provide a uniform
velocity profile at sensing grid or device.
Table 11-1 Airflow Measuring Instruments
11.3
PRESSURE GAGE, CALIBRATED
11.3.1
Description
The calibrated ?test gage" (Figure 11−12) shall be of a
minimum?GRADE A" quality, have a Bourdon tube
assembly made of stainless steel, alloy steel, monel or
bronze, and a non−reflecting white face with black let−
ter graduations conforming to ANSI Specification
U.S.A.S. B40−1. Test gages are usually 3−1_w inch to 6
inch (90 mm to 150 mm) diameter with bottom or back
connections. Many dials are available with pressure,
vacuum or compound ranges.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.9
11.3.1.1
Recommended Uses
Dial gages are used primarily for checking pump pres−
sures; coil, chiller, and condenser pressure drops; and
pressure drops across orifice plates, valves, and other
flow calibrated devices.
11.3.1.2
Limitations
Some precautions in the use of Bourdon tube gages
are:
a.
Pressure ranges should be selected so the
pressures to be measured fall in the middle
two−thirds of the scale range.
b.
The gage should not be exposed to pressures
greater than the maximum dial reading. Simi−
larly, a compound gage should be used where
exposed to vacuum.
c.
d.
11.3.2
11.3.2.1
Reduce or eliminate pressure pulsations by
installing a needle valve between the gage
and the system equipment or piping. Under
extreme pulsating conditions install a pulsa−
tion dampener or snubber (available from
gage manufacturers).
In using a gage, apply pressure slowly by
gradually opening the gage cock or valve, to
avoid severe strain and possible loss of accu−
racy that sudden opening of the gage cock or
valve can cause. Likewise, when removing
pressure, slowly close the gage cock or valve,
to avoid a sudden release of pressure.
pressure drop across a piece of equipment, a balancing
device, or a flow measuring device. Normally, this re−
quires two pressure measurements, one on the high
pressure side and one on the low pressure side. The dif−
ferential pressure, or pressure drop, is then the differ−
ence between the two pressure readings.
A differential pressure gage is a dual inlet, ?Grade A"
dual Bourdon tube pressure gage with a single indicat−
ing pointer on the dial face which indicates the pres−
sure differential existing between the two measured
pressures. It can be calibrated in psi, inches wg or inch−
es mercury (Pa, kPa, mm wg or mm Hg). The Differen−
tial Pressure Gage will automatically read the differ−
ence between two pressures.
Pressure Gage, Differential
Description
In practically all cases of flow measurement, it will be
necessary to measure a pressure differential, that is, a
11.10
FIGURE 11-12 CALIBRATED
PRESSURE GAGES
Using a single gage, the gage is alternately valved to
the high pressure side and the low pressure side to de−
termine the pressure differential. Such an arrangement
eliminates any problem concerning gage elevations,
and virtually eliminates errors due to gage calibration.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
FUNCTION
RANGE
MINIMUM ACCURACY
CALIBRATION
TEMPERATURE
MEASURING
INSTRUMENT
(CONTACT)
Minimum Range
0 to 240 F
(-20 to 120C)
± 1% of full scale
12 months
HYDRONIC
PRESSURE
MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
0 to 30 SPI
(0 to 200 kPa)
0 to 60 PSA
(0to 400 kPa)
0 to 200 PSI
30 in. Hg to 30 PSI
(-760 mm Hg to 200 kPa)
30 in. Hg to 60 PSI
(-760 mm Hg to 400kPa)
± 1% of full scale
± 1% of full scale
± 1% of full scale
± 1% of full scale
± 1% of full scale
± 1% of full scale
± 1% of full scale
± 1% of full scale
± 1% of full scale
12 months
12 months
12 months
12 months
12 months
12 months
12 months
12 months
12 months
HYDRONIC
DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE
INSTRUMENT
Minimum Range
0 to 36 in. wg
(0 to 9 kPa)
± 1% of full scale
12 months *
* If used, mechanical/electronic instrument requires compliance with calibration dates noted.
Table 11-2 Instruments for Hydronic Balancing
INSTRUMENT
PRESSURE
GAGE
(CALIBRATED)
RECOMMENDED USES
LIMITATIONS
Static pressure measurements of system equipment
and/or piping.
Pressure gages should be selected so the pressures to
be measured fall in the middle two-thirds of the scale
range.
Gage should not be exposed to pressures greater than
or less than dial range.
PRESSURE
GAGE
(DIFFERENTIAL)
FLOW
MEASURING
DEVICES
Pressures should be applied slowly to prevent severe
strain and possible loss of accuracy of gage.
Same as pressure gage.
Differential pressure measurements of system
equipment and/or piping.
Used to obtain highly accurate measurement of
volume flow rates in fluid systems.
Must be used in accordance with recommendations of
equipment manufacturer.
Table 11-3 Hydronic Measuring Instruments
Figure 11−13 illustrates the application of one type of
gage modification that uses a single standard gage and
eliminates the need for subtraction to determine differ−
ential. The gage glass is calibrated to ft wg (kPa) at its
outer periphery. During operation, the gage glass is left
loose so it can be rotated. To measure a pressure differ−
ential, the high pressure is applied to the gage by oper−
ating the valve to the high pressure side, and the gage
glass is then rotated so that its ?zero" is even with the
gage pointer. Next, the high pressure valve is closed
and the valve to the low pressure side is opened. The
gage pointer will now indicate a pressure that is direct−
ly equal to the pressure differential in ft wg (kPa). If the
gage is of large diameter, such as 8 inches (200 mm)
diameter, differential pressures can be read accurately
to the order of 0.25 ft wg (750 Pa).
11.3.2.2
Recommended Uses
a.
This instrument when furnished in one of the
lower differential pressure ranges, calibrated
in inches of mercury (mm Hg), or inches of
water (Pa), can be used with water hose flex−
ible connectors for water distribution balanc−
ing.
b.
This instrument, when furnished in one of the
higher differential pressure ranges can be
used in lieu of the two combination type high
pressure gages.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.11
Snubber
High
pressure
Low
pressure
(A)
Loose glass
rotated to
“zero” setting
Diff.pressure
Ft Hd.
0
0
High
pressure
Valve
open
(B)
Low
High
pressure
pressure
Valve
Valve
closed
closed
Low
pressure
(C)
Valve
open
FIGURE 11-13 SINGLE GAGE BEING
USED TO MEASURE A DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE
11.3.2.3
Limitations
Some applications require use of a pulsation suppres−
sor or needle valve.
11.4
ROTATION MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
A tachometer is an instrument used to measure the
speed at which a shaft or wheel is turning. The speed
is usually determined in revolutions per minute (rpm),
but some have many other ranges such as rev/sec, rev/
hr, ft/sec, in./sec, cm/sec, m/min, rad/sec, and rad/min.
The several types of tachometers described below vary
in cost, in dependability, and in accuracy of results ob−
tainable. One basic difference between the different
types of tachometers is that many have digital readouts
directly in revolutions per minute (rpm), while older
types are primarily revolution counters that must be
used with a timing device such as an accurate stop
watch.
11.4.1
Tachometer, Chronometric
FIGURE 11-14 SINGLE GAGE BEING
USED TO MEASURE A DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE
ter spindle will then be turning with the shaft but the
instrument will not be indicating. To take a reading,
the push button is pressed and then quickly released.
This sets the meter hand to zero, winds the stop watch
movement, and then simultaneously starts both the
revolution counter and the stopwatch. After a fixed
time interval, usually six seconds, the counting mech−
anism is automatically uncoupled so that it no longer
accumulates revolutions even though the instrument
tip is still in contact with the rotating shaft. After the
meter hands have stopped, the tachometer may be re−
moved from the shaft and read. The meter face has two
pointers and two dials, the smaller one indicating one
graduation for each complete revolution of the larger
pointer, and the reading will be directly in rpm (rps).
Some instrument spindles must be rotating in order to
be reset without damage.
11.4.1.1 Description
The chronometric tachometer (Figure 11−16) com−
bines a revolution counter and a stopwatch in one
instrument. In using this type of tachometer, its tip is
placed in contact with the rotating shaft. The tachome−
11.12
Since the timing is automatically synchronized with
operation of the revolution counter, the human error
that can occur when a revolution counter and separate
stop watch are used, is eliminated. In general, the chro−
nometric tachometer is the preferred type of instru−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
ment when the shaft end is accessible and has a coun−
tersunk hole.
There are new hand tachometers capable of producing
instantaneous rpm measurement readings on a dial
face (Eddy−current type) or, solid state instruments
with digital readout.
11.4.1.2
Recommended Uses
For determining the speed of any shaft having a coun−
tersunk end.
11.4.1.3
Limitations
The shaft end must be accessible and countersunk.
FIGURE 11-15 DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE GAGE
INSTRUMENT
REVOLUTION
COUNTER
CHRONOMETRIC
TACHOMETER
CONTACT
TACHOMETER
ELECTRONIC
TACHOMETER
(STROBOSCOPE)
OPTICAL
TACHOMETER
DUAL FUNCTION
TACHOMETER
RECOMMENDED USES
LIMITATIONS
Contact measurement of rotating equipment speed.
Requires direct contact of rotating shaft.
Must be used in conjunction with accurate timing
device.
Contact measurement of rotating equipment speed.
Requires direct contact of rotating shaft.
Contact measurement of rotating and linear speeds.
Non-contact measurement of rotating equipment.
Non-contact measurement of rotating equipment.
Contact or non-contact measurement of rotating
equipment and linear speeds.
Requires direct contact of rotating shaft or device to
be measured.
Readings must be started at lower end of scale to
avoid reading multiples (or harmonics) of the actual
rpm.
Must be held close to object and at correct angle.
Rotating device must use reflective markings.
Same as optical tachometer.
Table 11-4 Rotation Measuring Instruments
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.13
11.4.2
11.4.2.1
Contact Tachometer (Digital)
Description
Contact tachometers (Figure 11−17) are available in ei−
ther LCD or LED displays in multi−ranges. Some have
a ?memory" button to recall the last reading as well as
maximum and minimum readings. In addition, most
have a measuring wheel for linear speeds.
11.4.2.2
Recommended Uses
For measuring rotational speeds and linear speeds of
shafts.
11.4.2.3
FIGURE 11-16 CHRONOMETRIC
TACHOMETER
Limitations
Battery operated; shaft must be accessible.
11.4.3
Optical Tachometer (Photo
Tachometer)
11.4.3.1
Description
The optical tachometer or photo tachometer , Figure
11−18 uses a photocell, or eye which counts the pulses
as the object rotates. Then by use of a transistorized
computer circuit, it produces a direct rpm (rps) reading
on the instrument dial that is either digital or analog.
Several features make it adaptable for use in measur−
ing fan speeds. It is completely portable and is
equipped with long−life batteries for its light and pow−
er source. It has good accuracy and any error can be re−
duced by using more than one reflective marker on the
rotating device. Its calibration can be continually
checked on most jobs by directing its beam to a fluo−
rescent light and comparing the indicated reading
against 7200 on the rpm scale.
11.4.3.2
Recommended Uses
The optical tachometer does not have to be in contact
with the rotating device. It indicates instantaneous
speeds, not average speedCwhether constant or
changingCthereby reading the speed as it is. It is easy
to useCto read rpm, one need only place a contrasting
mark on the rotating device by using chalk or reflec−
tive tape. It is a good instrument to use on in−line fans
and other such equipment where shaft ends are not ac−
cessible. It also has good application for use on equip−
ment rotating at a high rate of speed.
11.14
FIGURE 11-17 DIGITAL CONTACT
TACHOMETER
11.4.3.3
Limitations
Battery operated; must be held close to object and at
correct angle; mark on rotating device must reflect
properly.
11.4.4
Electronic Tachometer
(Stroboscope)
11.4.4.1
Description
The Stroboscope is an electronic tachometer that uses
an electrically flashing light. The frequency of the
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
FIGURE 11-19 STROBOSCOPE
FIGURE 11-18 DIGITAL OPTICAL
TACHOMETER
flashing light is electronically controlled and adjusta−
ble. When the frequency of the flashing light is ad−
justed to equal the frequency of the rotating machine,
the machine will appear to stand still.
The Stroboscope shown in Figure 11−19 does not need
to make contact with the machine being checked, but
need only be pointed toward the machine so that a
moving part will be illuminated by the Stroboscope
light and can be viewed by the operator. The light
flashes are of extremely short duration, and their fre−
quency is adjustable by turning a knob on the Strobos−
cope. When the frequency of the light flashes is exact−
ly the same as the speed of the moving part being
viewed, the part will be seen distinctly only once each
cycle, and the moving part will appear to stand still.
The corresponding frequency, or rpm, can be read
from an analog or digital scale on the instrument.
11.4.4.2
Recommended Uses
For measurement of rotation speeds when instrument
contact with the rotating equipment is not feasible.
11.4.4.3
Limitations
FIGURE 11-20 MULTI-RANGE, DUAL
FUNCTION (OPTICAL/CONTACT
TACHOMETER)
Care must be taken to avoid reading multiples (or har−
monics) of the actual rpm (rps). Readings must be
started at the lower end of the scale.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.15
11.4.5
11.4.5.3
Dual Function Tachometer
Limitations
11.4.5.1 Description
Battery operated.
This dual−function tachometer (Figure 11−20) pro−
vides both optical and contact measurements of rota−
tion and linear motions. Many allow a choice of 19
ranges depending on the application. A digital display
always indicates the unit of measurement to identify
the operating range. The ?memory" button may be
used to recall the last, maximum, minimum, and aver−
age readings. Compact size and light weight make for
easy one−handed operation.
11.5
TEMPERATURE FUNCTION
TACHOMETER MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
11.5.1
Thermometers, Glass Tube
11.5.1.1
Description
Mercury−filled glass thermometers (Figure 11−21)
have a useful temperature range of from minus 40F
to over 220F (−40C to 105C). They are available in
a variety of standard temperature ranges, scale gradua−
tions, and lengths.
11.4.5.2 Recommended Uses
For Measurement of rotation speeds by direct contact
or by counting the speed of a reflective mark.
FUNCTION
RANGE
RECOMMENDED
ACCURACY
RECOMMENDED
CALIBRATION
ROTATION
MEASURING
INSTRUMENT
0 to 5000 RPM
± 2%
24 months
TEMPERATURE
MEASURING
(IMMERSION)
-40 to -120F
(-40 to 50C)
Within ½ of
Scale Division
12 months*
TEMPERATURE
MEASURING
(IMMERSION)
0 to 220F
(-20 to 105C)
Within ½ of
Scale Division
12 months*
TEMPERATURE
MEASURING (AIR)
-40 to 120F
(-40 to 50C)
Within ½ of
Scale Division
12 months*
TEMPERATURE
MEASURING (AIR)
0E to 220E F
(-20E to 105E C)
Within ½ of
Scale Division
12 months*
ELECTRICAL
MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
0 to 600 VAC
0 to 100 Amperes
0 to 30 VDC
3% of Full Scale
3% of Full Scale
3% of Full Scale
12 months*
12 months*
12 months*
*If used, mechanical/electronic instrumentation requires compliance with calibration dates noted.
Table 11-5 Instrumentation for Air & Hydronic Balancing
11.16
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
FUNCTION
AIR PRESSURE
MEASURING
INSTRUMENTATION
RANGE
MINIMUM ACCURACY
CALIBRATION
0 to 0.5 in. wg
± - 0.01 in. wg (2.5 Pa)
12 months *
(0 to 125 Pa)
± - 0.02 in. wg (5 Pa)
12 months *
0 to 1 in. wg
± - 0.20 in. wg (50 Pa)
12 months *
0 to 5 in. wg
± - 0.5
12 months *
in. wg (125 Pa)
(0 to 1250 Pa)
0 to 18 in. wg
(0 to 4500 Pa)
PITOT TUBE
PITOT TUBE
18 in. (450 mm)
36 in. (900 mm)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
AIR VELOCITY
MEASURING
INSTRUMENT
Minimum Range:
100 to 3000 FPM
(0.5 to 15 M/S)
± 10% when used in accordance
with Mfg. recommendations
12 months
HUMIDITY MEASURING
INSTRUMENT
10-90% RH
2% RH,
Range: 10-90% RH
12 months *
AIR VOLUME MEASURING
INSTRUMENT
(DIRECT READING)
Minimum Range:
0 to 1400 CFM
(0 to 700 l/s)
± 5% when used in accordance
with Mfg. recommendations
12 months
* If used, mechanical/electronic instrument requires compliance with calibration dates noted.
Table 11-6 Instruments for Air Balancing
11.5.1.2
a.
b.
11.5.1.3
a.
b.
Recommended Uses
The complete stem immersion calibrated
thermometer, as the name implies, must be
used with the stem completely immersed in
the fluid in which the temperature is to be
measured. If complete immersion of the ther−
mometer stem is not possible or practical,
then a correction must be made for the
amount of emergent liquid column.
The thermometers calibrated for partial stem
immersion are more commonly used. They
are used in conjunction with thermometer
test wells designed to receive them. No emer−
gent stem correction is required for the partial
stem immersion type.
Limitations
Radiation effectsCwhen the temperatures of
the surrounding surfaces are substantially
different from the measured fluid, there is
considerable radiation effect upon the ther−
mometer reading, if left unshielded or other−
wise unprotected from these radiation ef−
fects. Proper shielding or aspiration of the
thermometer bulb and stem can minimize
these radiation effects.
Thermometer test wellsCare used to house
the test thermometer at the desired location
and permits removal and insertion of a ther−
mometer without requiring removal or loss of
the fluid in the system.
c.
Nuclear work and many clean rooms prohibit
the use of instruments containing mercury
11.5.2
Dial Thermometers
11.5.2.1
Description
Dial thermometers are of two general types: stem type
(Figure 11−22) and flexible capillary type. They are
constructed with various size dial heads, 1−3_r" to 5"
(45 mm to 125 mm), with stainless steel encapsulated
temperature sensing element. Hermetically sealed,
they are rust, dust and leak proof and are actuated by
sensitive bimetallic helix coils. Some can be field cali−
brated. Sensing elements range in length from 2−1_w" to
24" (60 mm to 600 mm) and are available in many
temperature ranges, with and without thermometer
wells.
The advantage of dial thermometers is that they are
more rugged and more easily read than glass−stem
thermometers, and they are fairly inexpensive. Small
dial thermometers of this type usually use a bimetallic
temperature sensing element in the stem. Temperature
changes cause a change in the bend or twist of the ele−
ment, and this movement is transmitted to the pointer
by a mechanical linkage.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.17
11.5.2.2
Recommended Uses
Useable for checking both air and water temperature
in ducts and pipe thermometer wells.
11.5.2.3
Limitations
Time lag is relatively long.
11.5.3
Thermocouple Thermometers
11.5.3.1
Description
Digital thermocouple thermometers (Figure 11−23)
uses a thermocouple as a sensing device and a milli−
voltmeter (or potentiometer) with a scale calibrated
for reading temperatures directly.
FIGURE 11-21 GLASS TUBE
THERMOMETERS
The flexible capillary type dial thermometer has a
rather large temperature sensing bulb which is con−
nected to the instrument with a capillary tube. The in−
strument contains a Bourdon tube, the same as in pres−
sure gages. The temperature sensing system,
consisting of the bulb, capillary tube, and Bourdon
tube, is charged with either liquid or a gas. Tempera−
ture changes at the bulb cause the contained liquid or
gas to expand or contract, resulting in changes in the
pressure exerted within the Bourdon tube. This causes
the pointer to move over a graduated scale as in a pres−
sure gage, except that the thermometer dial is graduat−
ed in degrees. The advantage of this type thermometer
is that it can be used to read the temperature in a remote
location.
In using a dial thermometer, the stem or bulb must be
immersed a sufficient distance to allow this part of the
thermometer to reach the temperature being measu−
red. Dial thermometers have a relatively long lag time,
so enough time must be allowed for the thermometer
to reach the temperature and the pointer to come to
rest.
11.18
Electronic type thermometers have an instrument case
containing items such as batteries, various switches,
knobs to adjust variable resistances, and a sensitive
meter. Thermocouple temperature sensing elements
are remote from the instrument case, and connected to
it by means of wire or cables. Electronic type ther−
mometers shown in Figure 11−24 have advantages of
remote−reading, good precision, and flexibility as to
temperature range. Additionally, some electronic type
thermometers have multiple connection points on the
instrument case, and a selector switch, enabling the
use of a number of temperature sensors which can be
placed in different locations, and read one at a time by
use of the selector switch.
11.5.3.2
a.
Recommended Uses
In balancing water circuits thermallyCwhen
balancing by flow measurement is not practi−
cal.
FIGURE 11-22 DIAL THERMOMETER
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
FIGURE 11-24 THERMISTOR
THERMOMETER
FIGURE 11-23 THERMOCOUPLE
b.
11.5.3.3
For evaluation of certain types of boilers, fur−
naces, ovens, etc.
Limitations
In piping applications, it should be remembered that
the surface temperature of the conduit is not equal to
the fluid temperature and that a relative comparison is
more reliable than an absolute reliance on readings at
a single circuit or terminal unit.
11.5.4
11.5.4.1
FIGURE 11-25 INFRARED DIGITAL
THERMOMETER
Electronic Thermometers
Description
There are many types of rugged, light weight, battery
powered digital electronic thermometers that have
precision accuracy with interchangeable probes and/
or sensors. Types include: resistance temperature de−
tectors (RTD), thermistors, thermocouples, and diode
sensors, with either liquid crystal or LED displays. Re−
sponse time and ease of use will vary from model to
model, and type to type. Resistance type electronic
thermometers are shown in Figure 11−23 and in Figure
11−24.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.19
11.5.5
PSYCHROMETER
11.5.5.1
Description
The sling psychrometer (Figure 11−28) consists of two
mercury filled thermometers, one of which has a cloth
wick or sock around its bulb. The two thermometers
are mounted side by side on a frame fitted with a han−
dle by which the device can be whirled with a steady
motion through the surrounding air. The whirling mo−
tion is periodically stopped to take readings of the wet
and dry bulb thermometers (in that order) until such
time as consecutive readings become steady. Due to
evaporation, the wet bulb thermometer will indicate a
lower temperature than the dry bulb thermometer, and
the difference is known as the wet bulb depression.
FIGURE 11-26 RESISTANCE
TEMPERATURE DETECTOR
The newest type of electric thermometers is the in−
frared scanner as shown in Figure 11−25.
Accurate wet bulb readings require an air velocity of
between 1000 to 1500 fpm (5 to 7.5 m/s) across the
wick, or a correction must be made; therefore, an in−
strument with an 18 inch (450 mm) radius should be
whirled at a rate of two revolutions per second. Signifi−
cant errors will result if the wick becomes dirty or dry,
so a constant supply of distilled water should be used.
Digital battery powered versions are available that
blow the ambient air over the wetted wick. These in−
When using an infrared temperature scanner, be sure
to calibrate the meter for the type of surface being
measured. Shiny surfaces like polished metal will
have a different energy reflectivity or emissivity than
a rusted or painted surface. This will cause the meter
readings to be ?off set" unless the emissivity setpoint
matches the material surface conditions being
scanned.
11.5.4.2
Recommended Uses
Remote probe electronic thermometers may be used
for checking air or liquid temperatures either im−
mersed in the fluid steam or from surfaces. Infrared
scanners are excellent for uninsulated overhead pip−
ing, steam traps, and very hot or cold surfaces that are
difficult to access.
11.5.4.3
Limitations
Resistance type have longer response times than ther−
mocouple type. Infrared scanners ?see" a larger area at
a distance which may introduce errors when the item
being scanned is small.
11.20
FIGURE 11-27 ELECTRONIC
THERMOMETER
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
struments are accurate and they can be placed into con−
fined areas where there is insufficient room to whirl a
sling psychrometer.
11.5.5.2
11.5.5.3
a.
Accurate wet bulb readings require an air ve−
locity of between 1000 to 1500 fpm (5 to 7.5
m/s) across the wick, or a correction must be
made.
b.
Significant errors will result if the wick be−
comes dirty or dry.
c.
For an 18 inch (450 mm) radius unit, the in−
strument should be whirled at a rate of two
revolutions per second.
Recommended Uses
The sling psychrometer can be used in determining the
psychrometric properties of the conditioned spaces,
return air, outdoor air, mixed air and conditioned sup−
ply air. The readings taken from the sling psychrome−
ter can be spotted on a standard psychrometric chart
from which all other psychrometric properties of the
air so measured can be determined.
INSTRUMENT
GLASS
TUBE
THERMOMETERS
RECOMMENDED USES
Measurement of temperatures of air and
fluids
Limitations
LIMITATIONS
Ambient conditions may impact measurement of
fluid temperature.
Glass tube thermometers require immersion in fluid
or adequate test wells.
Some applications prohibit use of instruments containing mercury within the work area.
DIAL
THERMOMETERS
Measurement of temperatures of air and
fluids.
Ambient conditions may impact measurement of
fluid temperature.
Stem or bulb must be immersed a sufficient distance in fluid to record accurate measurement.
Time lag of measurement is relatively long.
THERMOCOUPLE
THERMOMETERS
Measurement of surface temperatures of
pipes and ducts.
ELECTRONICTHERMOM- Measurement of temperatures of air and
ETERS
fluids.
Measurement of surface temperatures of
pipes and ducts.
PSYCHROMETERS
Measurement of dry and wet bulb air temperatures.
Surface temperatures of piping and duct may not
equal fluid temperature within due to thermal conductivity of material.
Use instrument within recommended range.
Use thermal probes in accordance with recommendations of manufacturer.
Accurate wet bulb measurements require an air velocity between 1000 and 1500 fpm (5 to 7.5 m/s)
across the wick, or a correction must be made.
Dirty or dry wicks will result in significant error.
ELECTRONIC
THERMO-HYGRO
METER
Measurement of dry and wet bulb air temperatures and direct reading of relative humidity.
Accuracy of measurement above 90% R.H. is decreased due to swelling of the sensing element.
INFRARED
Measurement of surface temperatures of distant objects
Condition and meter must be adjusted for the finish
of surface being measured
Table 11-7 Temperature Measuring Instruments
11.5.6
Electronic Thermohygrometers
11.5.6.1
Description
Unlike the psychrometer, the thermohygrometer (Fig−
ure 11−30) does not utilize the cooling effect of the wet
bulb to determine the moisture content in the air. A thin
film capacitance sensor is used as a sensing element in
many instruments. As the moisture content and tem−
perature change, the resistance in the sensor changes
proportionally. Read out is normally in percent rela−
tive humidity. Because the instruments do not rely
upon evaporation for measurement, the need for air−
flow across the wetted wick or sock is eliminated. The
sensing element needs only to be held in the sampled
air. Typical measuring rate is 10% to 98% RH, 32F
to 140F (0C to 60C).
11.5.6.2
Recommended Uses
The thermohygrometer can be used to determine the
psychrometric properties of air in much the same way
as the sling psychrometer. The reading can be spotted
on a standard psychrometric chart from which all other
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.21
psychrometric properties of the air so measured can be
determined.
It can be used for measuring and monitoring of areas
sensitive to change in relative humidity such as clean
rooms, hospitals, museums and paper storage. Contin−
uous monitoring of conditions in areas sensitive to hu−
midity is possible with a greater accuracy and ease of
measurement.
11.5.6.3
Limitations
At relative humidities above 90%, the accuracy of the
sensor is decreased due to swelling of the sensing ele−
ment.
FIGURE 11-28
SLING PSYCHROMETER
11.6
ELECTRICAL MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
11.6.1
Volt-Ammeter
11.6.1.1
Description
The testing, adjusting, and balancing of mechanical
systems requires the measurement of voltages and
electrical currents as a routine matter. The clamp−on−
type volt−ammeter with digital readout (Figure 11−31)
is one of the types used for taking field electrical mea−
surements. The clamp−on type volt−ammeter shown
has trigger operated, clamp−on transformer jaws
which permit current readings without interrupting
electrical service. Most meters have several scale
ranges in amperes and volts. Two voltage test leads are
furnished which may be quick−connected into the bot−
tom of the volt−ammeter.
11.6.1.2
Safety & Use
When using the volt−ammeter, the proper range must
be selected. When in doubt, begin with the highest
range for both voltage and amperage scales.
Before using, be aware of the following safety precau−
tions:
First C be careful not to contact an open electrical cir−
cuit. Hands should never be put into the electrical box−
es. Do not attempt to pry wires over into position. Do
not force the instrument jaws into position. These pre−
cautions reduce the risk of causing a short circuit
which could injure both equipment and personnel.
FIGURE 11-29 DIGITAL
PSYCHROMETER
11.22
Second C when taking amperage readings do not at−
tach the instrument and then start the motor. Position
the instrument and read it after the motor is running at
full speed. The inrush current required to start a motor
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
is from three to five times higher than the load rated
full nameplate current. Therefore, starting the motor
with the instrument attached could damage the instru−
ment.
Readings may be taken at the motor leads or from the
load terminals of the starter. To determine the amper−
ages of single phase motors, place the clamp about one
wire. When involved with three phase current, take
readings on each of three wires and average the results.
To measure voltage with portable test instruments, set
the meter to the most suitable range, and connect the
test lead probes firmly against the terminals or other
surfaces of the line under test, and read the meter, mak−
ing certain to read the correct scale if the meter has
more than one scale. When reading single phase volt−
age the leads should be applied to the two load termi−
nals. The resulting single reading is the voltage of the
current being applied to the motor.
When reading three phase current it is necessary to ap−
ply the voltmeter terminals to Pole No. 1 and Pole No.
2; then to Pole No. 2 and Pole No. 3; and finally to Pole
No. 1 and Pole No. 3. This will result in three readings,
each of which will likely be a little different, but which
should be close to each other.
If the average voltage delivered to the motor varies by
more than a few volts from the nameplate rating of the
motor, several things can occur. A rise in voltage may
damage the motor and will cause a drop in the amper−
age reading. A drop in the voltage will cause a rise in
the amperage and can cause the overload protectors on
the starter to ?kick out." In either case, it is advisable
to promptly report high or low voltage situations.
11.6.1.3
FIGURE 11-30
THERMOHYGROMETER
digital communication technology to access and ad−
just setpoints or ?variables" of a system.
Digital controllers utilize programmed algorithms to
perform desired functions related to a sequence of op−
eration. The algorithm(s) may call for the proportional
changes, such as modulation of a variable air volume
Limitations
a.
The proper range must be selected. When in
doubt begin with the highest range for both
voltage and amperage scales.
b.
Depending on the conditions at the point of
measurement, and the size of the volt−amme−
ter, access for measurements may be restricti−
ve. Caution is required, particularly when
taking measurements within starters.
11.7
COMMUNICATION DEVICES
11.7.1
Introduction
The advent of microprocessor based controls has
created the need for individuals working within the
TAB industry to become familiar with computer and
FIGURE 11-31 CLAMP-ON
VOLT AMMETER
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.23
(PDA). To speed system trouble shooting, many
brands of electronic wall thermostats also include this
communication jack or data port. This is extremely
helpful when balancing VAV boxes serving a specific
room, since the VAV box minimum and maximum or
flow rates, heating and cooling temperature setpoints,
and thermostat calibrations can be checked from the
same point.
Unfortunately, until all automation control system
manufacturers standardize their communication pro−
tocols, you will need either a specific handheld device
for a given system, or a copy of the manufacturer’s
software installed on your own laptop computer. This
software may be easy to obtain since most automation
system installers realize that giving you this ability re−
duces their onsite setup workload.
Figure 11−32 shows a TAB technician adjusting VAV
box setpoints with a laptop computer ?plugged" into
the data port on a modern electronic wall thermostat.
FIGURE 11-32 ACCESSING
AUTOMATION SYSTEM WITH
LAPTOP COMPUTER
(VAV) terminal unit, or may perform Boolean func−
tions such as starting and stopping a fan. The setpoints
or ?variables" of an algorithm may be predetermined
and programmed. It should be noted that the TAB tech−
nician may establish setpoints and communicate them
to the automation system installer, which normally is
required to facilitate satisfactory system operation.
11.8
HYDRONIC FLOW MEASURING
DEVICES
11.8.1
Metric Measurements
Although gallons per minute (gpm) is the common hy−
dronic measurement value in U.S. units, many coun−
tries have not accepted S.I. units in the metric system.
Many organizations use litres per second (L/s), al−
though cubic meters per second (m3/s) and cubic me−
ters per hour (m3/h) are used.
11.8.2
Venturi Tube and Orifice Plate
Dedicated Communication
Terminals
The venturi tube or orifice plate (Figures 11−33 and
11−34) is a specific, fixed area reduction in the path of
fluid flow, installed to produce a flow restriction and
a pressure drop. The pressure differential (the up−
stream pressure minus the downstream pressure) is re−
lated to the velocity of the fluid. The pressure differen−
tial also is equated to the flow in gpm (L/s) but the
pressure drop is not equal to velocity pressure drop. By
accurate measurement of the pressure drop with a ma−
nometer at flow rates from zero fluid velocity to a max−
imum fluid velocity established by a maximum practi−
cal pressure drop, a calibrated flow range may be
established. The flow range may then be plotted on a
graph which reads pressure drop versus flow rate (gpm
or L/s) or the manometer scale may be graduated di−
rectly in the flow rate values.
Most microprocessor based programmable field pan−
els include a jack or ?port" that allows connecting a
laptop computer or hand held personal data assistant
The diagrams in Figure 11−34 illustrate the difference
between the venturi tube and an orifice plate. The ven−
turi tube, because of the streamlining effect of the en−
11.7.2
Computer Terminals
Today’s building temperature control systems are mi−
croprocessor based, using one or more programmable
field panels to provide all of the sequence of control
functions and setpoints for the HVAC systems. Al−
though there is still a lack of industry standards for in−
terconnect cabling and communication protocols,
most automation system installations include one or
more desktop computers located remotely, that can
monitor each field panel and adjust setpoints and oper−
ating hours for each HVAC system controlled.
11.7.3
11.24
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
ORIFICE
DIAMETER
ORIFICE SIZE
IDENTIFICATON
PRESSURE
TAPPINGS FOR
INSTRUMENT
CONNECTIONS
AIR VENT HOLE;
LOCATE AT TOP
OF HORIZONTAL PIPE
IF CARRYING WATER
DRAIN HOLE:
LOCATE AT BOTTOM
OF PIPE IF
ORIFICE IS USED
IN STEAM PIPE
ORIFICE PLATE
FLOW
ORIFICE
(A) ORIFICE PLATE
(B) ORIFICE PLATE INSTALLED
BETWEEN SPECIAL
FLOWMETER FLANGES
FLOWMETER
FLANGES
FIGURE 11-33 ORIFICE AS A MEASURING DEVICE
trance and the recovery cone, produces a lower pres−
sure loss for the same flow rate.
The full venturi tube can be extremely accurate with
no appreciable system pressure loss, but it must then
be extremely long. Unless such accuracy is required,
a modified version with a shortened entrance and re−
covery cones may be employed. The modified tube
generally provides adequate accuracy with acceptable
system pressure losses (still less than the orifice plate
for the same accuracy) for environmental systems.
valves. They are similar to ordinary balancing valves,
but the manufacturer has provided pressure taps into
the inlet and outlet; and has calibrated the device by
setting up known flow quantities while measuring the
resistance which results from the different valve posi−
tions. These positions usually are graduated on the
valve body (as a dial) and the handle has a pointer to
indicate the reading. The manufacturer then publishes
a chart or graph which illustrates the percentage open
to the valve (the dial settings), the pressure drop and
the resulting flow .
11.8.3
11.8.5
Annual Flow Indicator
The Annular Flow Indicator (Figure 11−35) is a flow
sensing and indicating system that is an adaptation of
the principle of the Pitot tube. The upstream sensing
tube has a number of holes which face the flow and so
are subjected to impact pressure (velocity pressure
plus static pressure). The holes are spaced so as to be
representative of equal annular areas of the pipe, in the
manner of selecting Pitot tube traverse points. An
equalizing tube arrangement within the upstream tube
averages the pressures sensed at the various holes, and
this pressure is transmitted to a pressure gage. The
downstream tube is similar to a reversed impact tube,
and senses a pressure equal to static pressure minus ve−
locity pressure at this point; this pressure is also trans−
mitted to a gage. The difference between the two pres−
sures, when referred to appropriate calibration data,
will indicate flow in gpm (L/s). A differential pressure
gage is used to directly read the pressure differential.
11.8.4
Calibrated Balancing Valves
Calibrated balancing valves (Figure 11−36) perform
dual duty as flow measuring devices and as balancing
Location Of Flow Devices
Flow measuring devices including the orifice, venturi,
and other types described above, give accurate and re−
liable readings only when fluid flow in the line is quite
uniform and free of turbulence. Pipe fittings such as el−
bows, valves, etc., create turbulence and non−unifor−
mity of flow. Therefore, an essential rule is that flow
measuring elements must be installed far enough away
from elbows, valves and other sources of flow distur−
bance to permit turbulence to subside and for flow to
regain uniformity. This applies particularly to condi−
tions upstream of the measuring element, and it also
applies downstream except to a lesser extent. The
manufacturers of flow measuring devices usually
specify the lengths of straight pipe required upstream
and downstream of the measuring element. Lengths
are specified in numbers of pipe diameters, so that the
actual required lengths will depend on the size of the
pipe. Requirements will vary with the type of element
and the types of fittings at the ends of the straight pipe
runs, ranging from about 5 to 25 pipe diameters up−
stream and 2 to 5 pipe diameters downstream, or as
recommended by the manufacturer.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
11.25
MODIFIED TUBE
ORIFICE PLATE
FULL VENTURI TUBE
PIPE
PIPE
TURBULENCE
THROAT
VENA CONTRACTA
ENTRANCE
CONE
RECOVERY
CONE
VENTURI TUBE
ORIFICE PLATE
FIGURE 11-34 FLOW METER TYPES
FIGURE 11-35 ANNULAR FLOW
INDICATOR
11.26
FIGURE 11-36 CALIBRATED
BALANCING VALVE
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 12
PRELIMINARY TAB
PROCEDURES
CHAPTER 12
12.1
INITIAL PLANNING
12.1.1 Organization
Since testing, adjusting and balancing (TAB) of HVAC
systems can best be accomplished by following sys−
tematic procedures, the entire TAB process should be
thoroughly organized and planned. All activities, in−
cluding the organization, procurement of required test
instrumentation and the actual system balancing
should be scheduled as soon as practical after the con−
tract has been consummated. Building space loads
often vary with each change of season and space tem−
perature levels are a significant factor in TAB work.
This needs to be considered when scheduling the TAB
work for any project.
12.1.2 Initial Reviews
Preparatory work includes the planning and schedul−
ing of all TAB procedures, collecting the necessary
data, reviewing the data collected, studying the sys−
tems to be balanced, making schematic system lay−
outs, recording the published data on the test report
forms, and finally, making preliminary field checks of
the HVAC equipment and systems. If the initial study
of the HVAC system plans and specifications by the
TAB technician indicates that the systems may not be
able to be balanced properly, the HVAC system de−
signer should be sent a written notification containing
suggestions for changes or the addition of balancing
equipment (dampers or valves) that would allow cor−
rective action before starting the balancing proce−
dures. Occasionally, a system cannot be balanced or
made to perform in accordance with the contract docu−
ments regardless of the number of balancing dampers
or valves that can be installed.
12.2
CONTRACT DOCUMENTS
Secure the latest contract drawings for the HVAC sys−
tems making sure that they are complete including;
floor plans, sections, schedules, riser diagrams, sche−
matic flow diagrams, ATC schedules and interlocks,
and any other detail drawing that is normally produced
by the preparing engineer or agency.
Obtain a complete set of specifications including all
sections that pertain to the HVAC equipment, auto−
matic temperature controls, motors, air outlets, sheet
metal, VAV boxes, pumps, piping, valves, and any oth−
er appurtenances that will be installed on the project.
PRELIMINARY TAB PROCEDURES
Check to see that you have all change orders, bulletins
or any other document that could have an impact on the
installed project.
Obtain the latest ?as built" shop drawing for the sheet
metal and piping.
Obtain system leakage rates for ductwork and secure
leak test data reports if field testing was in fact required
and performed.
12.2.1 HVAC Equipment Performance Data
Performance data, including fan and pump curves,
should be obtained for all HVAC equipment. Fan per−
formance can only be verified by measuring the total
static pressure. External static pressure values from
manufacturer tables are helpful for initial system duct
designs, but these table values do not include the ef−
fects from connected ductwork.
Fan performance data must relate to the actual job re−
quirements and include items such as inlet vanes and
altitude and temperature effects. Many times data is
general and is not adjusted for these conditions.
Fan performance also can be affected by improper de−
sign of ductwork near the fan inlet and/or discharge.
This phenomenon is called ?system effect", and it can−
not be measured in the field. Performance of lower
pressure fans can be substantially reduced by system
effect.
Fan curves or prototype curves can be obtained upon
request. If none of these can be obtained, limited
curves may be developed from tabulated catalog data.
Use caution and determine if the pressures given are
internal or external to the equipment and are total pres−
sures or static pressure. Pump curves can be handled
in a similar manner.
Take particular note of equipment substitutions that
might affect air and water pressure drops of heat ex−
changers, cooling towers, coils and condensers. These
include changes in coil size, fin spacing, fin configura−
tion, number of rows, cooling coil wet or dry ratings,
or number of tubes in the coil face. Data should include
air and hydronic pressure differences, the direction of
air and water flow (so that proper field installation
checks can be made), temperature differentials, capac−
ities, operating temperatures and pressures, and limit
or safety temperatures and pressures.
12.2.2 Manufacturer’s Catalogs
Obtain manufacturers catalogs for all HVAC equip−
ment including pumps, air moving and air terminal de−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
12.1
vices to supplement the shop drawings and submitted
data where possible.
perature setpoints, operating schedules, and interlock
relationships.
12.2.3 Electrical Data
Before starting any TAB work on a system controlled
by an automation system, obtain copies of the written
sequence of controls, and the latest printout of all
equipment setpoints and operating schedules.
Look for changes of horsepower ratings as a result of
equipment substitutions. Note voltage variations such
as 230 volt indicated on a nameplate instead of the 208
volt specified. Note phase substitutions, especially on
packaged equipment, such as single phase on the
nameplate instead of three phase specified. Often
these changes can be discovered from the shop draw−
ings or submittals. Motor data not available from shop
drawings should be obtained in the field.
Motor starters, sizes, locations, and thermal overload
protection ratings should be checked against horse−
power, phase and voltage for substitutions. Coordinate
this information with the electrical drawings and with
the electrical contractor to verify that the specified
electrical service is being installed to each piece of
HVAC equipment.
12.2.4 Air Distribution Devices
Manufacturer’s recommendations on device testing is
available in most cases. Effective Areas (K factors)
usually can be obtained for all air grilles, registers, and
diffuser devices for the velocity measuring instrument
recommended. In addition to air pattern adjustment
and sound data. Manufacturer’s Data and Test Proce−
dures should be obtained for all other rated or adjust−
able air handling devices, such as variable air volume
boxes, constant volume regulators, static pressure con−
trol dampers and all other similar equipment.
Air pressure drop data across louvers, filter banks,
sound traps, remote coils and other devices in the air
distribution system should be obtained. Note if louvers
are provided with screening; filter pressure drop data
is for clean, partially dirty, or dirty filters; if sound trap
pressure drops are certified and can be confirmed, and
if all pressure drops for substituted equipment are
within design limitations.
12.2.5 Automatic Temperature Control (ATC)
And Energy Management System
(EMS) Diagrams
With the phase out of pneumatic control systems by
microprocessor based programmable controls, it is no
longer possible to determine the sequence of controls
or control setpoints by visually looking into a control
cabinet. Computer chips in microprocessor controls
now contain all of the control logic, equipment tem−
12.2
12.2.6 Maintenance, Operating And
Start-Up
Obtain operating and maintenance manuals for all
equipment if available for review.
12.3
SYSTEM REVIEW AND ANALYSIS
After all preliminary data has been collected, a study
of each HVAC system may be performed. Two basic
reasons for the importance of system review and anal−
ysis are (1) to isolate any discrepancies in the data or
drawings that may prevent the proper balancing and
performance of a system, and (2) to establish the best
approach for testing and balancing. The design engi−
neer, architect, and owner may want to review what
procedures will be employed during the actual testing
and balancing of their systems. This also offers an ex−
cellent opportunity to present any discrepancies found
during the system review and analysis.
12.3.1 System Components And Types
Review all available plans, specifications and equip−
ment data noting such things as the types and locations
of the areas served, types of system, types of compo−
nents used such as fans, pumps, boilers, chillers, coils,
and VAV boxes. Note such things as primary and sec−
ondary systems, interlocked or interconnected sys−
tems, possible tie−ins to existing systems and the loca−
tion of motor control centers, breakers, and other
electrical equipment. Review the equipment sched−
ules, the temperature control drawings and carefully
note the operating sequence of control for each system.
Review the most current set of plans, notes, sections,
and details and check for possible additional fans or
other equipment that may not be listed in the equip−
ment schedules.
12.3.2 System Schematic Drawings
It is recommended that drawings or a schematic layout
of each HVAC duct system be prepared as shown in
Figure 12−1. You can color code an extra set of the
original design drawings if you do not normally gener−
ate your own plans. A similar drawing should be made
for all complex piping systems. All dampers, regulat−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
-400 CFM EA.
(200 l/s)
1200 CFM (600 l/s)
800 fpm (4 m/s)
2
1
-200 CFM EA.
(100 l/s)
3
4
20" 12"
(500 300 mm)
FD
10
6
1800 CFM
(900 l/s)
VD
VD
5
FD
VD
20" 12"
(500 300 mm)
1200 CFM (600 l/s)
800 fpm (4 m/s)
7
8
9
1800 CFM (900 l/s)
1200 fpm (6 m/s)
18" 12"
(450 300 mm)
-200 CFM EA.(100 l/s)
3rd FL.
-400 CFM EA.(200 l/s)
2400 CFM (1200 l/s) 1200 CFM (600 l/s)
11
12
13
1200 fpm (6 m/s) 800 fpm (4 m/s)
-200 CFM EA.(100 l/s)
28" 12"
(700 300 mm)
14
20" 12"
(500 300 mm)
VD
PT
FD
15
FD
20
16
1800 CFM
(900 l/s)
VD
VD PT
1200 CFM (600 l/s)
20” 12”
(500 300 mm) 800 fpm (4 m/s)
17
19
18
3600 CFM (1800 l/s)
1200 fpm (6 m/s)
-200 CFM EA.(100 l/s)
2nd FL.
-400 CFM EA.(200 l/s)
4800 CFM (2400 l/s) 1200 CFM (600 l/s)
21
800 fpm (4 m/s)
1425 fpm (7.2 m/s)
22
36" 13"
(900 325 mm)
23
-200 CFM EA.(100 l/s)
24
30" 18"
20" 12"
(750 250 mm) (500 300 mm)
VD
FD
VD
25
26
28
29
1800 CFM
(900 l/s)
VD
20" 12" 1200 CFM (600 l/s)
PT(500 200 mm) 800 fpm (4 m/s)
27
-200 CFM EA.(100 l/s)
1st FL.
7200 CFM (3600 l/s)
1600 fpm (8 m/s)
30" 26"
(750 650 mm)
FD
S. FAN NO.1
FILTER
COOLING
COIL
PT
35" 20"
(875 500 mm)
OUTDOOR
AIR
LOUVER
VD
ATC
ATC
EXHAUST
LOUVER
5400 CFM (2700 l/s)
1200 fpm (6 m/s)
PREHEAT
COIL
ATC
PREHEAT
COIL
ATC - Temp. Control Damper
FD - Fire Damper
VD - Volume Damper
PT - Pilot Tube Traverse Point
30
5400 CFM
(2700 l/s)
PT
5400 CFM
(2700 l/s)
R.A. FAN NO. 1
FIGURE 12-1 SCHEMATIC DUCT SYSTEM LAYOUT
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
12.3
ing devices, terminal units, supply outlets, return and
exhaust inlets should be indicated on these plans. Note
all air intakes and exhaust air and relief air louvers
where applicable.
cess doors, light fixtures with troffers, wall openings,
architectural louvers, door louvers or door undercut−
ting. Also note:
a.
Location of volume dampers and balancing
valves required to balance systems.
b.
System features which may contribute to an
unbalanced condition.
c.
Required test report forms.
d.
Instrumentation required.
12.3.3 Study Of Systems And Data
e.
The purpose of this study is to find discrepancies in the
submittal data or drawings and to establish the best
testing and balancing approach. The following items
should be verified.
ATC and EMS sequence of operation, and
ability to index (set) system configuration as
required.
f.
Sequence and time of the year of balancing
the systems.
Be sure your drawing set includes any changes in the
HVAC system that was made during construction. For
rapid identification and for reporting purposes, all out−
lets should be numbered similar to that shown in Fig−
ure 12−1. The same applies when there are many fan
coil or heating units in hydronic systems. Add general
notes indicating thermostat locations and other special
conditions needed by the TAB team in the field.
12.3.3.5
12.3.3.1
Performance data for all equipment. Correcting fac−
tors if required (such as altitude and temperature).
12.3.3.2
Notify the general contractor of any concerns related
to access requirements to take measurements and to
adjust volume dampers and balancing valves (are ceil−
ing access doors and other openings large enough).
12.3.3.3
Identify all air filtration requirements including:
Total quantity of fluid flow for all terminal units or de−
vices compared to the designated total fan or pump ca−
pacities. Identify the best locations to obtain duct and
piping flow measurements.
12.3.3.6
Location and function of all devices which might im−
pact the system or change the system operation, in−
cluding:
a.
smoke and fire dampers
b.
automatic control dampers
a.
filter locations
c.
static pressure dampers
b.
special duty filters
d.
automatic control valves
c.
air filters in place
e.
flow control devices
d.
requirements for prefilters
f.
air vents (hydronic systems) and provisions
for make−up water
e.
will systems be balanced with temporary fil−
ters or will they be balanced with an artificial
pressure drop across filter bank to simulate
special duty filters.
g.
strainers and filters
h.
safety devices.
12.3.3.4
12.4
Note special requirements to be provided by other con−
tractors that must be completed prior to doing the test−
ing and balancing work, such as ceiling plenums, ac−
It is recommended that an agenda be prepared and sub−
mitted on jobs, prior to balancing the HVAC systems.
The agenda should include a preliminary reporting of
12.4
THE AGENDA
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
any discrepancies that would prevent the proper bal−
ancing of the project. The agenda should include brief
descriptions about the systems and their operation. It
should include all proposed balancing procedures and
note any items excluded. To be effective, agendas
should be submitted early in the process and with ade−
quate time for review by the owner/engineer.
Look for obvious static and head pressure discrepan−
cies. Review the scheduled pressure drops of compo−
nents and compare to the fan and pump capacities for
each system. If a fan is undersized, the system design−
er, purchaser or owner should be notified.
12.4.1 Balancing Devices
Examine the ATC and EMS control system diagrams
to determine how to set the HVAC system components
(ATC and EMS dampers, terminal boxes, etc.) and
whether full heating or cooling is required for testing.
Also consider any possible sequences that may result
in an unbalanced system operation.
Review the project drawings, schematics, and details
to insure that all necessary balancing devices such as
volume dampers and balancing valves are provided to
facilitate the balancing procedure. Identify additional
dampers or any devices necessary to properly balance
the systems. Report any balancing devices that may be
inaccessible.
12.4.2 System Capacity Review
Check that the total flow requirements of all system
terminal units equals the design fan or pump capaci−
ties. If a diversity procedure is applicable it should be
established and clearly defined in the agenda.
12.4.3 Sequence Of Operation
12.4.4 TAB Instrument Selection
Review Chapter 11CTAB Instruments to select the in−
struments that are best suited for the TAB work to be
done. Select instruments that will give the measure−
ments required in the least amount of time and provide
the accuracies required. Prepare a list of all instru−
ments to be used and include the accuracy informa−
tion.
12.4.5 Report Forms
Select the report forms based upon tests to be con−
ducted and record design data obtained from the sys−
tem drawings, plans, and submittals. Perform all cal−
culations that are possible to do before the actual TAB
work is started. This can save many field labor hours.
If terminal airflows are to be determined by velocity
readings, calculate the terminal velocities using the
manufacturer’s ?K" factors.
12.5
PLANNING FIELD TAB
PROCEDURES
12.5.1 Scheduling
Prepare a schedule and plan of attack for the TAB
work. Review the job progress schedule and know
when the systems are expected to be ready for balanc−
ing.
FIGURE 12-2 INSTRUMENTS SELECTED
FOR A SPECIFIC JOB
It is recommended to estimate the amount of time that
it will take to perform the TAB work and notify all
contractors involved that there will be a specific period
of time needed to perform the work after the job is
complete and ready for balancing. Indicate items that
must be completed such as all doors, windows, ceil−
ings, thermostats, diffusers and registers, and that all
controls are in automatic operation.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
12.5
If partial occupancy is planned, find out which sec−
tions of the building will be needed. Determine if it is
possible to perform the TAB work for this area only.
equipped with thermal overload protection of the
proper size.
12.6.1.4 Power
12.5.2 Field Readiness Check
Contact supervisors of the other trades involved to in−
quire about what work is complete and operable. Also,
ask about special conditions such as prior use of equip−
ment for temporary heat.
Typical pre−balance check lists can be found in the Ap−
pendix which may be used by installing contractors to
verify that the building and the building systems are
ready for the TAB work to begin.
12.6
Check availability of electrical power to all equipment
needed for TAB work and verify the compatibility of
voltage and phase.
12.6.1.5 Dampers
a.
Confirm the operation of all unit and related
dampers and their sequence of operation (in−
cludes fire and smoke dampers). Proper
damper position during startup and TAB
work is very critical. If dampers are closed,
restricting the airflow, serious damage can be
done to casings, housing and ductwork. It is
generally best to work with an automatic tem−
perature control (ATC) technician during bal−
ancing to ensure that all ATC dampers are
positioned properly.
b.
All dampers should be in a position to ensure
the desired path for air to travel through the
correct components of the system and not
cause a choked or blocked condition.
c.
Where separate minimum and maximum O.
A.. dampers are used, the minimum damper
should be opened 100 percent. Where a single
O.A. damper is used in conjunction with a
minimum position controller, the damper
should be opened approximately to the per−
centage of minimum outside airflow. If the
system uses 100 percent outside air, the
damper will have to be fully open. (Note:
Don’t leave O.A. dampers open when the unit
is not in use, especially during cold weather
when freeze−ups may occur.)
d.
Return air dampers should be opened 100%.
e.
Exhaust air dampers may require opening to
a percentage equal to the minimum outside
air damper setting. This is where minimum
relief or exhaust air is specified.
f.
Face and bypass dampers should be set so that
the airflow is through the coil. Multi−zone
dampers should be set so the air will flow
through the cooling coil if sized for 100% full
flow. Confirm that the coils are sized for an
airflow equal to the fan design. Occasionally
coils are sized for less airflow than the fan. In
this case, the bypass damper should be left
open an amount equal to the excess fan air−
PRELIMINARY FIELD PROCEDURES
After completing initial planning, systematically fol−
low the steps listed below.
Note that the responsibilities will be different if the
TAB firm is also the installing contractor. If the TAB
technician is only doing TAB work, the installing con−
tractor has responsibility for assuring satisfactory
startup procedures have been achieved.
12.6.1 HVAC Equipment
12.6.1.1 HVAC Units
Confirm that all HVAC unit fans have been checked
and that:
a.
equipment matches the test report data such
as model number, make, arrangement, class,
etc.
b.
test report forms have had data entered that
must be obtained from the field.
Secure and review system ready to balance check list
from start up contractor, manufacturer or installing
contractor.
12.6.1.2 Airflow
Check the airflow pattern from the outside air louvers/
dampers and the return/exhaust air dampers through to
the supply air fan discharge (and mixing dampers if
present).
12.6.1.3 Electrical
Locate all start−stop, disconnect switches, electrical
interlocks and motor starters. Motor starters must be
12.6
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
flow so that the total airflow will not be re−
stricted.
g.
h.
Fire and smoke dampers must be in the open
position. More complex systems use a variety
of damper configurations, particularly where
multiple fans and sequences are involved. In
this case, the sequence of operation must be
studied and dampers must be open or closed
accordingly.
Vortex and other fan limiting dampers are
often used with variable air volume (VAV)
systems. It is safest to start the systems with
these dampers throttled somewhat and then
open them up slowly, observing the static
pressure and amperage accordingly.
e.
12.6.2 Duct System Checks
12.6.2.1 Field Review
Walk each duct system from the supply air or exhaust
air to the last terminal. Check that:
a.
the ductwork is complete and if any areas of
construction are incomplete.
b.
all terminals, boxes, reheat coils, etc. are
installed.
c.
there are no missing air zone partitions, ceil−
ing plenums, or windows.
d.
the system really is ready for balancing. (This
is important because the TAB technician
often is pressured by the owner, general con−
tractors, mechanical contractors, or system
designer to start the TAB work before the
building and/or the systems are ready.)
12.6.1.6 GENERAL
a.
b.
c.
Check for any type of temporary blockage
over the outside air inlet opening and the ex−
haust air discharge openings, (such as poly−
ethylene, cardboard or plywood), that may
have been placed during construction. Look
for any other types of debris or blockage in
both the outside air and the return air duct sys−
tems.
Check the entire unit and the internal compo−
nents for proper leak sealing. Leaks will
cause whistling, possible moisture carryover
and short circuiting of the air. Particularly
check around pipes and panel holes. Have the
leaks sealed.
If the system has spray systems, they should
be clean and operating.
12.6.1.7 Filters
a.
b.
Confirm that the correct size and type of fil−
ters are installed for the TAB work.
If the permanent filters are to be used, con−
firm that they are the correct size and type of
filter by comparing them with the submitted
data.
c.
Check the filters for cleanliness and pressure
drop. If they aren’t clean, have them replaced
before starting TAB work.
d.
Confirm that the filters and filter frames are
properly installed and are airtight. Any leaks
must be corrected.
If the unit has been running with no filters or
very dirty filters, be alerted for possible dirty
or clogged coils, etc.
12.6.2.2 Terminal Devices
a.
Check that terminal boxes, VAV boxes and
mixing boxes are installed and accessible,
and that the thermostat controls are energized
and operate. Thermostats must be installed
and operable.
CAUTION: Some boxes are furnished with normally
closed dampers. Starting a complete system with
closed terminal box dampers will result in excessive
system static pressures and possible duct system dam−
age.
12.6.2.3 Openings
Check that any required openings between partitions,
etc. have been installed and are open.
12.6.2.4 Test Holes
a.
Pitot tube test holes must be located in the
field to confirm that they will be accessible.
Confirm that the actual duct installation
matches the plans and that adequate straight
sections of duct work are available for the
tests. Look for obstructions that will hamper
swinging the Pitot tube, such as pipes, ceiling
supports, lights, etc. Pitot tube test holes must
be sealed or capped when not being used.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
12.7
b.
If the duct is to be externally insulated, any
insulation removed for the test will have to be
replaced and re−sealed.
c.
If the Pitot tube test holes and caps have al−
ready been installed by others, confirm that
they are in the correct ducts and at satisfacto−
ry locations.
12.8
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 13
GENERAL AIR SYSTEMS
TAB PROCEDURES
CHAPTER 13
13.1
GENERAL AIR SYSTEM TAB PROCEDURES
BASIC FAN TESTING
PROCEDURES
Chapter 12CPreliminary TAB Procedures covered the
preparation work that must be done prior to the actual
testing, adjusting, and balancing of the HVAC systems
on the job. Confirm that these preliminary procedures
have been completed and check lists prepared. Do not
attempt to balance a system before installation has
been completed and the system is ready to be balanced.
trols so that the air returned from the individual rooms
or areas supplied by the fan is returned via the related
return air system. Normally this will involve opening
an outside air damper to the minimum position, open−
ing the return air damper, and closing exhaust air and
relief air dampers. (If the supply system is associated
with a return air system and/or an independent exhaust
system, make sure all systems are operating and all re−
lated dampers are set properly for the TAB work.)
13.3
13.1.1
FAN TESTING
Preparation
The following balancing procedures are basic to all
types of air systems.
Perform the following tests and adjustments prior to
beginning the air balancing.
1.
Confirm that every item affecting the airflow of a duct
system is ready for the TAB work, such as doors and
windows being closed, ceiling tiles (return air ple−
nums) in place, etc.
Record nameplate data on fan, motor, and air
handling cabinet.
2.
Record and measure fan and motor sheaves
indicating number and size of belts along
with center to center distances.
Establish the conditions for the maximum demand
system airflow.
3.
Test and record actual operating fan rpm.
13.2
SYSTEM STARTUP
4.
Measure and record actual running amper−
age.
13.2.1
Fan Check
After verifying all control dampers are open, start all
related systems, returns, and exhaust fans and take pre−
liminary fan static pressure readings.
13.2.2
Damper Check
Be sure each automatic damper is being controlled au−
tomatically and is in the correct position. There will be
some effect on the airflow if these dampers are hun−
ting. This is undesirable while doing air balancing.
Therefore, the dampers or their controls should be
blocked out to keep them in the desired position. All
dampers should be set for a full flow cooling condition.
13.2.3
Damper Setting
If a supply fan is connected to a return air system and
an outside air intake, set all system dampers and con−
Fan Volume
Determine the volume of air being moved by the sup−
ply fan at design rpm by one or more of the acceptable
methods, such as:
a.
Pitot tube traverse of the main duct or the
ducts leaving fan discharge, if good location
available.
b.
Velocity readings across coils, filters, and/or
dampers on the intake side of the fan.
c.
Where impossible to take good Pitot tube tra−
verses of duct system, use total sum of termi−
nal device air volume readings.
d.
Fan curves or fan performance charts. In or−
der to determine fan performance using a fan
curve or performance rating chart, it is neces−
sary to take amperage and voltage readings.
In addition, a static pressure reading across
the fan must be recorded.
Flow/Pressure Check
Confirm that all related system fans serving each area
within the space being balanced are operating. If they
are not, pressure differences and infiltration or ex−
filtration may adversely influence the balancing. Posi−
tive and negative pressure zones should be identified
at this time.
13.2.4
13.3.1
With rpm, brake power and static pressure, the fan
manufacturer’s data sheets may be used to determine
the airflow predicted by the manufacturer. Fan perfor−
mance can deviate from the fan curves, if system effect
or other system installation defects are present.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
13.1
The total fan air flow should be equal to the outlet
CFM plus the allowable transmission losses (leakage)
as described in SMACNA’S HVAC Air Duct Leakage
Test Manual. Appendix ?A" and an additional 5% for
balancing effects.
13.3.2
Fan Adjustments
If there are no obvious deficiencies and the airflow is
high, the fan can be slowed by adjusting the drives or
making drive changes. When the airflow is low, the fan
speed should be increased. First determine if there is
adequate fan motor capacity available. The new air−
flow−fan power relationship can be determined by use
of the fan laws found in Chapter 5CFans. The fan
curves are a better reference, if available. If any siz−
able upward change is made, the fan manufacturer’s
data should be checked for the maximum allowable
rpm for this fan and its bearings. If fan power and static
pressure data are available and the fan speed can be in−
creased, adjust the drives accordingly to obtain the de−
sired airflow.
Although any fan or pump powered from a variable
frequency drive (VFD) can have its speed changed by
adjusting the VFD minimum and maximum setpoints,
this method should only be used for minor speed
correction. The primary purpose of the VFD is to allow
short term reduction of fan or pump speeds during peri−
ods of reduced system loads, and not for balancing a
duct or piping loop system. If changes are made to
drive pulleys and belts to achieve the correct system
flows after initial VFD setup, the VFD setpoints will
need to be adjusted to reflect these pulley and belt
changes.
13.3.3
Fan Drive Changes
When new HVAC systems do not perform as designed,
new drives and motors are often required. The finan−
cial responsibility for these items do not belong to the
TAB technician, but the balancing readings will have
a lot to do with determining responsibility. Be sure to
include the necessary data together with explanations
about how and where the readings were taken. The
above steps should also be used for any return air or ex−
haust air fan associated with the HVAC system in ques−
tion.
13.3.4
Fan Amperage
Always recheck the amperage whenever any rpm
change or major damper setting change is made.
13.2
13.3.5
Fan Static Pressures
Subsequent to the adjustments of the fan and obtaining
the desired air flow, static pressure readings should be
taken at the fan suction and fan discharge to obtain the
current total fan static pressure reading. This data
along with the actual running amperage should be re−
corded.
Many fan rooms are also return air or outside air ple−
nums. When taking readings in these rooms, it will be
necessary to reference the manometer or anemometer
to the atmosphere. This is accomplished by running a
length of hose from the opposite port of the instrument
to the outside or atmosphere. Take advantage of exist−
ing possible openings available for static pressure (SP)
readings such as access doors, handles, bolt holes etc.
that may be removed to get the SP probe into the air−
stream. If none are available, new ones will have to be
drilled. Be sure to close or cap them when finished.
13.4
DEFICIENCY REVIEW
If the fan volume is not within specified range of the
design capacity, determine the reason by reviewing all
system conditions, procedures and recorded data.
Check and record the air pressure drop across filters,
coils, eliminators, sound traps, etc. to see if excessive
loss is occurring. Particularly study duct and casing
conditions at the fan inlet and outlet for system effect.
13.5
RETURN AND OUTSIDE AIR
SETTINGS
If the fan system you are adjusting has return and out−
side air components and no dedicated return, exhaust,
or spill air fan it will be necessary to adjust the associ−
ated dampers to achieve the proper air flow for each.
With the supply fan being set up to the proper air flow
as described above it will be essential to take total air
readings for the return, outside air, and spill air portion
of the system. Total air readings may be taken by:
1.
Duct traverse readings.
2.
Compilation of individual air inlet readings.
3.
By mathematical calculation from previous−
ly taken readings (supply minus return equal
outside air)
4.
By temperature calculations involving sup−
ply air temperature, return air temperature,
mixed air temperature, and outside air tem−
perature.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
If volume dampers are provided for each component
of the system they should be used for balancing. If
dampers are not provided it may be necessary to coor−
dinate with the control contractor to limit the stroke or
adjustment of the automatically operated damper.
Upon completion of the above, it is required to check
the supply air reading to see if these adjustments ad−
versely affected the total air of the system. If the ad−
justments were severe enough to cause a considerable
change in total air flow, all of the above steps must be
repeated until proper supply, return, outside, exhaust,
and spill air quantities are achieved.
After proper air quantities have been achieved in the
minimum outside air mode of operation it will be nec−
essary to check the 100% outside air mode of opera−
tion. The automatic dampers should be indexed to the
100% OA Mode of operation and the operating amper−
age; static pressure should be checked to see if sub−
stantial deviations occur in total performance. If air
flow is increased adjust the volume damper for the out−
side air or restrict the operation of the automatically
operated damper.
If the air flow substantially decreased it may be neces−
sary to review the system to determine if the 100% OA
Mode of operation is the mode with the highest system
pressure drop. If this is the case the previous readings
will have to be taken over in the reverse order and the
AC unit adjusted accordingly. In other words, the sys−
tem would be set up for 100% OA and then checked for
minimum OA operation with adjustments being made
in the minimum mode.
13.6
ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENTS
If the Pitot tube traverse readings are taken at a good
location and the readings are reasonably steady and
uniform, these readings are going to give the most ac−
curate field measurement of the system airflow and
should be used accordingly. When the readings are not
steady and uniform, they should be used in conjunc−
tion with the other test data and the fan curves to make
a determination. The fan curve and fan speed data,
when used with the calculated brake horsepower, will
give the most accurate field readings that can be relied
on heavily. Static pressures will be the least accurate
field readings along with airflow readings, depending
on how and where they were taken. But with a com−
bination of these readings, one should be able to make
a reasonable determination of the performance of the
fan.
13.6.1
Accuracy
Don’t be surprised when all of this data doesn’t fall
into place on the correct fan curve. Field readings are
not that accurate, and fan curves do not reflect
installed conditions (fans are tested in a laboratory un−
der ideal conditions). Accurate HVAC system airflow
readings should be taken with a wet cooling coil. If this
is not possible, allow for some loss of airflow.
13.7
RECORDING DATA
Record the as balanced state of the system on report
forms for all terminals and duct apparatus
13.7.1
Control Verification
Verify the action of all fan control dampers, shut down
controls, and airflow safety controls.
13.7.2
Report Forms
Prepare the report forms and submit as required (see
Chapter 16 TAB Report Forms).
13.8
PROPORTIONAL BALANCING
(RATIO) METHOD
13.8.1
Basic Procedures
Perform the initial air systems TAB work as described
under section 13−1CBasic Air Systems Testing Proce−
dures.
13.8.2
Farthest Branch
Select the supply air duct branch farthest from the fan.
All terminal units or outlets should be numbered on a
schematic drawing. (For example, see Figure 13−1,
outlets number 4 to 9.)
13.8.3
Branch Duct Readings
Preferably using a direct reading flow hood, record the
measured airflow Qm from each of the terminal outlets
on the selected branch duct.
13.9
PERCENTAGE OF DESIGN
AIRFLOW
Calculate the percentage (X%) of design airflow Qd for
each outlet (Qm /Qd =X%). For example, 250 cfm (125
L/s) measured airflow divided by 200 cfm (100 L/s)
design airflow equals 125%.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
13.3
The outlets are renumbered in their degree of percent−
age of design from the lowest to the highest as shown
in the following example (based on Figure 13−1):
Design Q4
Meas. Qm
Outlet
No.
cfm
L/s
cfm
L/s
%
6
200
100
150
150
75
9
200
100
160
160
80
5
200
100
170
170
85
8
200
100
180
180
90
7
200
100
200
200
100
4
200
100
210
210
105
should be verified by measurement, and these two out−
lets (6 and 9) should be in balance.
13.9.2
Outlet number 5, which is the next lowest percentage
of design, is adjusted down to about 160 cfm (80 L/s).
Outlets 6 and 9 should then come up to near 160 cfm
(80 L/s) and number 9 should be measured to verify
this. Outlet numbers 6, 9 and 5 should all be basically
in balance.
13.9.3
First Step
The branch damper for outlet number 6, the lowest
percentage of design, is not adjusted. The damper for
outlet number 9, the next lowest percentage of design,
is adjusted until the airflow volume decreases to about
155 cfm (77 L/s). Outlet number 6 airflow volume
should then come up to about 155 cfm (77 L/s). This
1
2
Next Step
This procedure is followed, proportionally balancing
the next highest percentage of design outlet to the pre−
vious one balanced. This should bring all outlets bal−
anced earlier into balance with it.
13.9.4
13.9.1
Second Step
Second Branch
Using Figure 13−5, the three (3) outlets numbered 1 to
3 would be proportional balanced to each other in the
same manner. The two branches then could be propor−
tional balanced using the same procedures used with
the terminals.
13.9.5
Varying Airflows
If a branch duct has outlets with varying airflows, the
percentage of design is calculated for each and the
3
400 CFM EA.
(200 L/s)
VD
200 CFM EA.
(100 L/s)
20" 12"
(500 300 mm)
4
5
6
VD
20" 12"
VD
8
200 CFM EA.
(100 L/s)
FIGURE 13-1 SAMPLE SUPPLY AIR DUCT (PART)
13.4
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
9
same procedures are used, balancing to the percentage
of design airflow for each.
branch that is very low in capacity to make sure that no
blockage exists.
13.9.6
NOTE: Zone traverse readings are not required on
VAV CAV systems or systems that use terminal type
boxes for volume control.
Completion
Upon completion of proportional balancing of all out−
lets and branches, recheck the supply air fan capacity
to the final Qm /Qd percentage. If measured airflow
(Qm ) is lower than design airflow (Qd ) , the fan airflow
volume must be increased to the design airflow (Qd )
and all outlets should increase proportionally to their
design airflow (Qd ).
Continue the TAB work by following steps for the
Stepwise Method.
13.10
SYSTEM AIRFLOW
13.10.1
Systems Coordination
Make a preliminary survey, spot checking air circula−
tion in various rooms. With knowledge of the supply,
return or exhaust fan volumes and data from the sur−
vey, determine if the return air or exhaust air system
should be balanced before the supply air system is ba−
lanced. In continuation of this procedural outline, the
assumption is made that the supply air system balance
is not restrained by the exhaust air system or the return
air system. However, if such a restraint exists, the ex−
haust air system or the return air system should be bal−
anced prior to continuing with the supply air system.
13.11
BASIC OUTLET BALANCING
PROCEDURES
Balancing air systems may be accomplished in various
ways. Regardless of method, the objectives remain the
same. The system will be considered balanced when
the value of the air quantity of each inlet or outlet de−
vice is measured and found to be within the specified
limits of the design air quantities (unless there are rea−
sons beyond the control of the TAB technician).
13.12.2
Static Pressure Measurements
Adjust the volume damper on each branch that is high
on airflow. Monitor the static pressure (SP) at a point
downstream of the balancing damper. Slowly close the
damper until the SP comes down to the new required
SP determined by the equation
SP2 /SP1 = (airflow2 /airflow1 ) 2
This should give approximately the correct airflow for
this zone. This procedure should be used on each zone
with high airflow, usually starting with the highest one
first. Then remeasure the SP in all of the zones. There
usually will be some interaction between the zones.
Some of the adjusted zones may need adjusting again.
The zones that were low in airflow should have in−
creased, and now some of these may be high and may
themselves need adjusting. After the zones are ad−
justed to the new calculated SP, proceed to the terminal
units.
13.12.3
Zone Balance
There will be instances where a branch damper will
need adjusting but there won’t be any satisfactory
location for a Pitot tube traverse. In this instance, it
will be necessary to take airflow readings at all of the
terminals in the zone and total them. Use this total,
take a reference SP as detailed earlier, and then pro−
ceed to balance the zone.
13.12.4
Terminal Balance
a.
Stepwise method,
Measure and record the airflow at each terminal in the
system. In making adjustments, adjust volume damp−
ers instead of face dampers (if installed) or the damp−
ers at the air terminals.
b.
Proportional Balancing (Ratio) method.
13.12.5
13.12
STEPWISE METHOD
13.12.1
Pitot Tube Traverse
Starting at the main supply duct closest to the fan, or
with the highest percentage of required flow, make Pi−
tot tube traverses on all main supply and major branch
ducts to determine the air distribution. Investigate any
Ak Factors
Using the appropriate instruments and procedures as
delineated earlier, measure and record a preliminary
reading at each terminal unit. This is a good time to
confirm that the size and type of terminal device
installed is what was specified. If not, the Ak factor
will surely be different. Unless a direct reading hood
for airflow is being used, be absolutely sure that the
manufacturer’s published Ak factor and measurement
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
13.5
procedures are being used. Many hours have been
wasted searching for a problem when the wrong Ak
factor was used. Direct reading hoods eliminate the
need for Ak factors and special procedures.
balance. An additional pass will probably be necessary
to fine−tune the system. Mark all dampers at the point
of final adjustment for ease of resetting in the event of
tampering.
13.13
FAN ADJUSTMENT
Verify the fan capacity and operating conditions again
and make a final adjustment to the fan drive, if neces−
sary.
13.14
WET COIL CONDITIONS
If the supply system was tested with dry coil surfaces
and is designed for dehumidification, the total air
quantity should be rechecked under wet coil condi−
tions.
13.15
AIRFLOW TOTALS
After testing and recording all of the terminal units, to−
tal the readings on a zone or branch basis. Compare the
totals to the comparable zone duct traverse reading and
the required airflow. The total airflow for the terminal
units should be close to the traverse reading for the
zone or branch. The terminal unit total usually will be
a little lower due to allowable duct leakage. The accu−
racy of a good Pitot tube traverse is usually consider−
ably better than most terminal readings. If significant
variations are found between traverse readings and
time readings, further investigation of ducts may be re−
quired.
13.16
FIGURE 13-2 TYPICAL AIR DIFFUSER
CFM MEASUREMENT
13.12.6
High Airflow Terminals
Review the readings and start adjusting the terminals
that are highest on airflow. On the first adjusting pass
through the system, it usually helps to throttle these
terminals to about ten percent under design airflow.
This will allow for the possible buildup as other termi−
nals are adjusted.
13.12.7
Adjusting Passes
After adjusting the high airflow volume terminals,
proceed to make another pass through the entire zone
or system. Adjust each terminal to the specified air−
flow, assuming that sufficient air is available. After
two adjusting passes, most systems should be in good
13.6
EXHAUST FANS
Using the methods outlined above, determine the vol−
ume of air being handled by a return air fan, if used,
and/or if a central exhaust fan system is used. Also de−
termine the airflow being handled by the exhaust fan.
If several exhaust fans, such as power roof ventilators,
are related to a particular supply air system, it general−
ly is not necessary to measure the airflow of each such
exhaust fan until after the supply air system is bal−
anced.
13.17
FAN DRIVE ADJUSTMENT
If the measured airflow of the supply air fan, central
return air fan or central exhaust air fan varies more
than the specified design plus allowable leakage, ad−
just the drive of each fan to obtain the approximate re−
quired airflow. Record the fan suction static pressure,
fan discharge static pressure, amperage and air volume
measurements. Confirm that the fan motor is not over−
loaded.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
13.18
DAMPER ADJUSTMENTS
After balancing the return air system and the associat−
ed supply air system, the return air damper should be
closed; the relief air dampers should be 100 percent
open and the return air fan, if used, static pressure and
system airflow should be checked again. If it is neces−
sary to increase the system static pressure and thereby
reduce the fan airflow, adjust the exhaust air damper
to a maximum position less than 100 percent open. Re−
check the supply fan airflow with the outside air damp−
er in the full open position.
13.19
DUCT TRAVERSES
The most accurate and accepted field test of airflow is
by a Pitot tube traverse of the duct being tested.
13.19.1
Airflow Measurements
There will be instances when a total of the outlet read−
ings will be the only field readings available for the
system total airflow. Fan curves can be used when oth−
er required data can be obtained, such as SP, rpm, and
bhp. Experience has shown, however, that often all of
the field readings will not fall into place on the fan and
system curves. Therefore, it is best to make Pitot tube
traverses whenever possible and use them in conjunc−
tion with the other test data and fan and system curves
to tell what actually is happening.
13.19.2
Tranverse Locations
The accuracy of a Pitot tube traverse is determined by
the availability of a satisfactory location to perform
the traverse. Reasonably uniform airflow through the
duct is necessary. Ideally, there should be six to ten di−
ameters of straight duct upstream from the test loca−
tion. Realistically, this condition will not be found
very often in the field, therefore, use the best locations
available. Avoid getting close to elbows, offsets, tran−
sitions or anything else in the duct that is creating tur−
bulence.
13.20
SYSTEM DEFICIENCIES
13.20.1
Fan Airflow
Compare the actual results of the above tests with the
specified performance of the fan. If the fan airflow is
not near design, try to identify the reason for the differ−
ence. Determine if the pressure drops across the duct
system components (such as coils, filters, sound atten−
uators, eliminator blades, etc.) agree with the
manufacturer’s ratings. Observe the duct system con−
figurations at the inlet and discharge of the fans.
Compare these with the contract drawings. Notice if
any radical changes were made to the duct system lay−
out during installation. If any corrections are needed,
report this to the appropriate persons.
13.21
FUME HOOD EXHAUST
BALANCING PROCEDURES
13.21.1
Balancing Criteria
For each fume hood, verify by Pitot tube traverse that
the airflow is between 90% and 100% of design. (The
design airflow is the volume of exhaust that produces
the required face velocity at sash opening, i.e., FV
area). For each laboratory hood balance, the supply
airflow should be between 90% and 100% of design.
Avoid any direct velocity from the ceiling diffuser to−
ward the fume hoods. Verify airflow measurements by
establishing correction factors from Pitot tube traver−
ses. Balance the general exhaust system airflow to be−
tween 100% and 110% of design. When flow hoods are
used to establish general exhaust, care should be taken
when reading multiple grilles that the flow hood does
not add restriction, forcing the air to another grille.
FIGURE 13-3 MEASURING EXHAUST
AIR VELOCITY ON LAB EXHAUST
HOOD WITH SASH HEIGHT
13.21.2
Verify Face Velocities
After the correct airflow for the hood has been estab−
lished and all exhaust and supply air systems have
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
13.7
been balanced, verify that the face velocities do not
fall below the design face velocity at any one point.
Face velocities shall be taken at equal areas over the
cross section of the sash opening. The face velocities
shall be measured using an instrument accurate to 25
fpm. It is imperative that all face velocities be read in
the same plane and the instrument be mounted on a
stand.
Make a sketch of the tested hood, indicating each ve−
locity, the sash opening (height, width, and area), the
position of the internal baffles, the traversed cfm, the
laboratory room number, and exhaust system number.
After the face velocities have been determined to be
within the limits established here, use a titanium tetra−
chloride swab and traverse the face of the hood to ob−
serve smoke flows into the hood to determine that no
reverse flows are present.
13.21.3
Data Label For Hood
A sticker or label indicating the inspection test result
as shown in Figure 13−4 may be requested to be placed
on the side of the hood, at the maximum sash height
measured, indicating the following:
COMPANY NAME
Height of sash (in inches [mm])
Average velocity:
fpm
Highest velocity:
fpm
Lowest velocity:
fpm
Person performing the test:
Date of test:
FIGURE 13-4 EXAMPLE OF EXHAUST
HOOD AIR BALANCE LABEL
13.22
DUST COLLECTION AND
EXHAUST BALANCING
PROCEDURES
13.22.1
Balancing Criteria
Since most dust collection systems include some form
of equipment to remove all or most of the dust particles
contained in the exhaust air prior to flow through the
exhaust fan, these systems are balanced differently
from kitchen hood or lab exhaust systems. The follow−
ing guidelines and Figure 13−5 used with permission
from the Industrial Ventilation Handbook, 24th Edi−
tion.
13.8
13.22.2
New Installation
Sufficient data should be taken on completion of every
installation to verify that exhaust volumes, distribu−
tion and system balance are in agreement with design
data; and that contaminant control is effective. As a
first step, a sketch of the system, indicating size, length
and relative location of all ducts, fittings, and associat−
ed system components should be made. This sketch
will serve as a guide in selection of measuring points
and very often will bring to light incorrect installation
and poor design features. Physical system changes
which may occur at a later date (addition of branches,
alteration of hoods or ductwork) are easily noted if
such a sketch is available as a permanent record.
Initial air measurements should include cfm (velocity)
and static pressure measurements in each branch and
in the main. Static pressure measurements (throat suc−
tion) at each exhaust opening, static and total pressure
measurements at both fan inlet and outlet, and pressure
measurements at collection equipment inlet and outlet
(differential pressure) should also be taken. Measure−
ment data will indicate any variation from design data,
identify where balancing is still needed to obtain re−
quired flow distribution and to verify that transport ve−
locities in branches and main are ample to convey the
material handled. Where imbalance is found, it is ad−
visable to again take pressure readings after the system
has been balanced. All air measurements and location
of measuring points should be recorded to serve as a
basis for future checks designed to spot any variations
in exhaust volumes from original values.
13.22.3
Testing of Ventilation Systems
Hood design checks should verify that the contami−
nant source is hooded as completely as possible with−
out interfering with the operation. Air analysis will
vary with contaminant: sampling at operator’s breath−
ing zone should be completed where toxic materials
are involved, with only observation for visual escape−
ment where non−toxic and nuisance materials are ex−
hausted.
Figure 13−5 is an example of an exhaust system with
recommended testing points. Obviously, selection of
testing points will be dictated by the system under con−
sideration and rarely will it be possible to attain perfect
results. However, with judicious selection of measur−
ing stations to avoid excessively turbulent flow and
with proper attention to calibration, alignment, and
positioning of instruments, measurements approach−
ing the accuracy of design calculations are possible.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
D
5 D MIN.
E
B
B
B
C
A
A
A
A
POINT
A
B
C
MEASUREMENT
HOOD STATIC
PRESSURE
LOCATION OF MEASUREMENT
DISTANCE FROM HOOD 3 PIPE ∅’S-FLANGED OR PLAIN HOOD
1 ∅-T APERED HOOD
VELOCITY AND
BRANCH AND MAINS-PREFERABLY 7.5
STATIC PRESSURE ∅’S STRAIGHT RUN DOWNSTREAM FROM
NEAREST AIR DISTURBANCE
( EL,ENTRY, ETC..)
CENTERLINE VP
SMALL DUCTS LOCATION AS ABOVE.
CENTERLINE VELOCITY READING ONLY.
D
STATIC,VELOCITY
AND TOTAL
PRESSURES
E
STATIC PRESSURE INLET AND OUTLET OF COLLECTOR
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
INLET AND OUTLET OF FAN-ANY TWO
OF THREE READINGS AT EACH
LOCATION
MEASUREMENT USE
1. ESTIMATE FLOW: Q=4005CeA SPh
2. CHECK POINT FOR HOOD AND
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE.
1. TRANSPORT VELOCITY
2. EXHAUST VOLUME: Q=VA
3. SP AS SYSTEM CHECK POINT
ROUND DUCT ONLY. USE ON SMALL
DUCTS WHERE TRANSVERSE
IMPRACTICAL OR WHERE APPROXIMATE
VOLUME WANTED.
1. FAN STATIC AND TOTAL PRESSURES
FSP= SP0 – SP1 – VP1
TP= SP0 - S P1+ VP0 - VP1
2. MOTOR SIZE OR GFM ESTIMATE
CFM TP
BHP=
6356 ME OF FAN
3. SP AS SYSTEM CHECK POINT
1. COMPARE PRESSURE DROP WITH
NORMAL OPERATING RANGE
2. CHECKPOINTS FOR MAINTENANCE.
READINGS ABOVE OR BELOW
NORMAL INDICATE PLUGGING, WEAR
OR DAMAGE TO COLLECTOR
ELEMENTS, NEED OF CLEANING
IN ADDITION TO THE ABOVE, FACE VELOCITY (HOOD FACE) AND CAPTURE VELOCITY (POINT OF
CONTAMINANT DISPERSION) MEASUREMENTS ARE USUALLY MADE TO DEFINE HOOD PERFORMANCE.
OBSERVATION OF AIR FLOWS SURROUNDING EXHAUST OPENINGS MAY BE VISUALLY AUGMENTED BY
USE OF SMOKE GENERATORS, TRAILS, AND STREAMERS.
FIGURE 13-5 SAMPLE DUST COLLECTION EXHAUST SYSTEM
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
13.9
13.22.4
Existing Installations
For most existing installations, elaborate air sampling
studies are seldom needed at frequent intervals. Unless
the process is changed, the hoods or enclosures altered,
or the method of materials handling revised, the haz−
ard should remain controlled as long as the exhaust
system functions properly.
ing, or accumulation on rotor or casing that
would obstruct air flow.
2.
Reduced performance caused by defects in
the exhaust piping, such as accumulations in
branch or main ducts due to insufficient con−
veying velocities, condensation of oil or wa−
ter vapors on duct walls, adhesive character−
istics of material exhausted or leakage losses
caused by loose clean−out doors, broken
joints, holes worn in duct (most frequent in
elbows), poor connection to exhauster inlet,
or accumulations in ducts or on fan blades.
3.
Losses in suction can also be attributed to
additional exhaust points added to the system
(sometimes systems are designed for future
connections and more air than required is
handled by present branches until future con−
nections are made) or change of setting of
blast gates in branch lines. Blast gates adjust
the air distribution between the various bran−
ches. Tampering with the blast gates can seri−
ously affect such distribution and therefore
gates should be locked in place immediately
after the system has been installed and its ef−
fectiveness checked.
4.
Reduced exhaust volume may also be caused
by an increased pressure loss through the dust
collector due to lack of maintenance, improp−
er operation, or wear. These items will vary
with the collector design. Refer to operation
and maintenance instructions furnished with
the collector or consult the equipment
manufacturer.
The tools required under most cases for a routine check
on the performance of an exhaust system are a manom−
eter (U−gage) or an inclined gage, depending on the
static pressure values involved.
While hood suction readings have rightfully fallen into
a state of ill repute as a means of measuring air flow,
they do offer a quick and accurate method of measur−
ing relative air flow. If the hood suction is known while
an exhaust system is functioning properly, its contin−
ued effectiveness can be assured so long as the hood
suction does not reduce from its original value. Any
change from the original hood suction can only indi−
cate a change in velocity in the branch and consequent−
ly a change in air volume removed from the hood. This
relation will be true unless (1) the hood design has been
changed which would affect the ease of exhausting the
air volume (entrance loss), (2) there are obstructions or
accumulations in hood or branch ahead of the point of
hood suction reading, or (3) the system has been al−
tered or extended. Restrictions of cross−sectional area
will reduce the air volume, although hood suction may
even increase, dependent on location and degree of ac−
cumulation.
The hood suction method can more readily be dele−
gated to a less skilled technician than the Pitot tube
where care must be exercised in reading velocity pres−
sures in the correct location with the tube paralleling
the flow of air. U−gages have been standard plant
equipment long enough to eliminate any feeling of un−
certainty in their use.
Since pressure readings vary with the square of the ve−
locity or volume in question, a slight change is magni−
fied by comparison of gage readings. For example, an
indicated reduction in static pressure readings of 19 to
30 percent would reflect a volume (or velocity) de−
crease of 10 to 15 percent.
A marked reduction in hood suction can often be
traced to one or more of the following items:
1.
13.10
Reduced performance by the exhaust fan
caused by belt slippage, wear on rotor or cas−
13.22.5
Check-Out Procedure
The following check−out procedure may be used on
systems which were designed to balance without the
aid of blast gates. It is intended as an initial check on
the design computations and contractor’s construction
in new systems, but it may be used also for existing
systems when design calculations are available or can
be recomputed. It does not detect poor choices of de−
sign criteria such as low conveying or capture veloci−
ties and consequently will not reveal inadequate con−
trol due to this type of error. Agreement with design
within ± 10% is considered acceptable.
a.
Measure flow in duct on inlet side of fan with
a Pitot traverse. If flow is too low, proceed to
step 1.a; if correct, go to step d.
1.
Check fan size against plan
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
2.
Check fan speed and direction of rota−
tion against design
3.
Check fan inlet and outlet configuration
against plan
If a discrepancy is found and corrected, return
to step a. If not, measure fan inlet and outlet
static pressures and compute the fan static
pressure. Using the fan table, check flow, fan
static pressure, and rpm. If agreement is ac−
ceptable although at some other operating
point than specified, fan is satisfactory and
trouble is elsewhere in system. Proceed to
step c.
sary corrections and return to step a. If loss is
less than anticipated, proceed to step h.1.
i.
If errors are found, correct and return to step
a. If no errors can be detected, recheck design
against plan, recalculate and return to step a
with new expected design parameters.
j.
Measure control velocities at all hoods where
possible. If control is inadequate, redesign or
modify hood.
k.
The above process should be repeated until
all defects are corrected and the hood static
pressures and control velocities are in reason−
able agreement with design. The actual hood
static pressures should then be recorded for
use in periodic system checks. A file should
be prepared containing the following docu−
ments:
If fan inlet static pressure is greater (more
negative) than calculated in design, proceed
to step d. If fan outlet static pressure is greater
(more positive) than design, proceed to step
h.
Measure hood static pressure on each hood
and check against design. If too high on any
hood, proceed to step e; if too low, go to step
f. If correct, go to step j.
After all hood construction errors and ob−
structions have been corrected, if hood static
pressures are correct, return to step a; if too
low, proceed to step f.
Measure static pressure at various junctions
in ducts and compare with design calcula−
tions. If too high at a junction, proceed up−
stream until static pressures are too low and
isolate the trouble. In an area where losses ex−
ceed design:
1.
Check angle of entries to junctions
against plan
2.
Check radius of elbows against plan
3.
Check duct diameters against plan
4.
Check duct for obstructions
1.
System plan
2.
Design calculations
3.
Fan rating table
4.
Hood static pressures after check−out
5.
Maintenance schedule
6.
Hood static pressure measurement log
7.
Periodic maintenance log
The following equipment will be adequate to perform
the tests required for this check−out procedure:
a.
Pitot tubesCvarious lengths
b.
Pressure gagesCinclined manometer or
Magnehelic
c.
Rotational speed measuring deviceCrevolu−
tion counter or stroboscope
d.
Air velocity meterClow range (Velometer or
thermal anemometer)
e.
Diameter tape
After correcting all construction details
which deviate from specifications, return to
No. 1.
13.23
Measure pressure differential across air
cleaning device and check against manufac−
turer’s data. If loss is excessive, make neces−
It is often necessary in connection with the evaluation
and control of air pollution to determine the velocity
AIR FLOW MEASUREMENTS ON
DISCHARGE STACKS
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
13.11
and quantity of air in discharge stacks. These measure−
ments are of importance for the following reasons:
1.
It is necessary to know the volume of air com−
ing from a discharge stack to select the proper
size of air−cleaning equipment.
2.
The measurement of the quantity of air dis−
charged is necessary in conjunction with
stack−sampling data in determining the total
quantity of contaminant coming from the
stack per unit time.
3.
The linear velocity in the discharge stack is
necessary for accurate stack−sampling tech−
nique. The collection of a representative dust
sample requires that the velocity in the sam−
pling nozzle and the air stream be nearly
equal. This is known as sampling under isoki−
netic conditions.
13.23.1
Difficulties Encountered In
Measuring Stack Flows Or Density
The general procedures and instrumentation for the
measurement of airflow have been perviously address−
es. However, special problems connected with airflow
measurement in discharge stacks necessitate a some−
what more detailed discussion.
Some of the special problems are:
1.
Measurement of airflows in highly contami−
nated air which may contain corrosive gases,
dusts, fumes, or mists.
2.
Measurement of airflows at high temperate−
ness.
3.
Measurements of airflow in high concentra−
tions of water vapor and mist.
4.
Measurement of airflow where the velocity is
very low.
5.
Measurement of the airflow in locations of
turbulence and non−uniform airflow, i.e., dis−
charge of cupolas, locations near bends or en−
largements.
6.
13.12
Measurement of airflow in connection with
isokinetic sampling where the velocity is
constantly changing.
13.23.2
Corrections For Temperature And
Moisture
Air velocities in discharge stacks are sometimes mea−
sured at elevated air temperature or moisture content.
If these factors are ignored there can be serious errors
introduced in the measurement of actual duct velocity
for isokinetic sampling and the determination of the
actual or standard air volume flowing in the system.
Refer to Industrial Ventilation Handbook, 24th Edi−
tion for additional examples and correction factor cal−
culating procedures.
13.24
INDUSTRIAL VENTILATION
For lower velocities, the swinging−vane anemometer
previously described can be used if conditions are not
too severe. The instrument can be purchased with a
special duct filter which allows its use in light duct
loadings. It can be used in temperatures up to 1000F
if the jet is exposed to the high temperature gases only
for a very short period of time (30 seconds or less). it
cannot be used in corrosive gases. If the very low ve−
locity jet is used, a hole over 1" in diameter must be
cut into the duct or stack
For very low velocities, anemometers utilizing the
heated thermocouple principle can be used under spe−
cial conditions. In most cases, these anemometers can−
not be used in high temperatures above 300F
(149C). One manufacturer claims that the exposed
materials in the thermocouple probe have been se−
lected for non−corrosiveness and that the probe can be
inserted into corrosive gases.
In most stack work, it is necessary to make a traverse
as previously described. Center−line readings only,
may lead to serious error. This is true in cupolas where
the depth of charge may greatly vary the velocity
across the cross−sectional area of the stack and in loca−
tions near bends, duct collectors, etc.
In stack−sampling work where a match of velocities is
required, the null method is sometimes used. This
method uses two static tubes or inverted impact tubes,
one located within the sampling nozzle and the other
in the air stream. Each is connected to opposite legs of
the same manometer, and the sampling rate is adjusted
so the manometer reading is zero.
13.25
SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS
The selection of the proper instrument will depend on
the range of airflow to which the instrument is sensi−
tive, its vulnerability to high temperatures, corrosive
gases and contaminated atmospheres, its portability
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
and ruggedness, and its size of measuring probe rela−
tive to the available sampling hole in the stack.
In many cases, conditions for airflow measurement are
so severe that it is difficult to select an instrument.
Generally speaking, the Pitot tube is the most service−
able instrument as it has no moving parts and it is
rugged and will stand high temperatures and corrosive
atmospheres when it is made of stainless steel. It is
subject to plugging, however, when it is used in a dusty
atmosphere. In many cases, it is difficult to set up an
inclined manometer in the field because many read−
ings are made from ladders, scaffolds, and difficult
places. This greatly limits the lower range of the Pitot
tube. A mechanical gage has been used in place of the
liquid U−tube manometer. This gage is estimated to be
accurate to 0.02" of water, however, the gage should
be frequently calibrated against an inclined U−tube
manometer.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
13.13
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
13.14
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 14
TAB PROCEDURES FOR
SPECIFIC AIR SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 14
14.1
TAB PROCEDURES FOR SPECIFIC AIR SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
reduced airflow or turn down systems. They further
can be connected to single or dual supply air ducts,
have constant or variable airflow on the primary side
of the VAV boxes with variable air flow on the secon−
dary or distribution side. The variable airflow rate can
be from 100 percent to 0 percent of full flow. Figure
14−1 is a system layout for a typical VAV system.
The TAB procedures for basic air systems found in
Chapter 13 General Air System TAB Procedures are
the foundation for the testing, adjusting, and balancing
of any air distribution system. There are, however, cer−
tain different or additional procedures that should be
used when balancing other than single duct, constant
volume air systems.
14.2.1.2 Terminal Units
Even though some of the duct systems addressed in
this section are considered obsolete by the HVAC in−
dustry, TAB firms may encounter them when re−bal−
ancing or retrofitting systems in older buildings.
VAV terminal units (VAV boxes) can also be classified
as pressure independent and pressure dependent. A
pressure independent device has a volume regulator
which will maintain the proper airflow regardless of
the terminal inlet static pressure. A pressure dependent
device will allow the airflow to vary in accordance
with the inlet static pressure.
Procedures will follow for:
Variable air volume (VAV) systems
Multi−zone systems
Dual duct systems
Induction unit systems
Process exhaust air systems
14.2.1.3 Diversity Factor
14.2
VARIABLE AIR VOLUME (VAV)
SYSTEMS
14.2.1
Characteristics Of VAV Systems
Usually, VAV systems are designed with a diversity
factor which means that the supply fan airflow (cfm or
L/s) capacity is less than the sum of the airflows of all
the terminal devices. If the diversity factor is not giv−
en, it can be approximated by dividing the supply air
fan maximum airflow by the sum of the airflows of all
VAV terminal units and converting the decimal num−
ber to a percentage.
14.2.1.1 Categories
There are many types of VAV systems but they can fall
into two basic categories: (1) by−pass systems and (2)
OUTDOOR
AIR INTAKE
OUTDOOR
AIR
DAMPERS
POSSIBLE
PRE-HEA T COIL
HEATING COIL
FILTERS
RETURN
AIR DAMPER
COOLING
COIL
PRIMARY
AIR
DUCT
S.P. CONTROLLER
SUPPLY FAN
WITH
S.P. CONTROL
VAV TERMINAL UNITS
EXHAUST
AIR
LOUVER
EXHAUST AIR DAMPER
OPTIONAL
RETURN
AIR FAN
RETURN
AIR SYSTEM
T
T
FIGURE 14-1 TYPICAL VARIABLE AIR VOLUME (VAV) SYSTEM
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
14.1
POSSIBLE
PRE-HEA T
COIL
OUTDOOR
AIR INTAKE
HIGH STATIC
LIMIT AND
SIGNAL DETECTOR
COOLING
COIL
CONTROLLER
FILTERS
STATIC PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER
O.A.
OUTDOOR
AIR DAMPERS
DM
RETURN
AIR DAMPER
RELIEF AIR
LOUVER
RELIEF
AIR DAMPER
RETURN AIR
FAN WITH
INLET VANES
SUPPLY AIR
FAN WITH
INLET VANES
DM
RETURN
AIR SYSTEM
VAV SUPPLY
SYSTEM
FIGURE 14-2 OPEN LOOP FAN VOLUME CONTROL
14.2.2
Primary Air Volume Control
The supply air fan installation for a VAV system is sim−
ilar to that for constant volume systems except that the
fan air volume must be varied. Inlet or discharge
dampers and variable speed drives or motors may be
used to control the system airflow. A static pressure
sensor, usually located about two−thirds of the way
from the fan to the end of the duct system, senses the
supply air duct static pressure and sends a signal back
to the apparatus controlling the fan airflow volume.
Verify that the controls are set to maintain a constant
static pressure at the sensor location, as the system air−
flow varies.
Systems with combination return/exhaust air fans re−
quire special attention by the TAB technician. Build−
ing pressure will vary if the return air fan volume does
not vary closely with the supply air fan volume. The
three common methods used are: building static con−
trol, open loop control, and closed loop control.
14.2.2.1 Building Static Control
Building static control senses differential pressures
between a typical room and outdoors, and increases
the volume of air handled by the return/exhaust air fan
as building pressure increases.
14.2
14.2.2.2 Open Loop Control
Open loop control uses an adjustable span and start
point on the supply air and return air fan controls to se−
quence the return air fan operation with the supply air
fan (Figure 14−2). This system requires close attention
by the TAB technician. If the system load varies signif−
icantly among major zones the supply air fan serves,
resistance in the return air system may not vary in di−
rect proportion to resistance in the supply air system.
Open loop control does not sense the effect of resist−
ance variance between the supply air and return air
systems, and building pressures may vary when major
load variation occurs.
14.2.2.3 Closed Loop Control
The closed loop control senses changes in the volume
of air the supply air fan delivers and uses a controller
having a second input proportional to the return air fan
flow to reset the return air fan (Figure 14−3). Square
root factors should be applied where flow is measured
as velocity pressure, enabling comparison of linea−
rized signals. Controlling flow eliminates the effects
of different fan or vane characteristics. The controller
can be set to maintain the difference in the airflow re−
quired between the supply and return air fan to main−
tain building pressurization and accommodate auxilia−
ry exhaust systems. If this difference is also the
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
14.2.3
minimum amount of outside air the system requires,
the flow controller on the fans will maintain the mini−
mum ventilation rate regardless of variations in out−
side air and return air damper characteristics. Multiple
point Pitot tubes or flow measuring stations should be
used to sense velocity pressure at the fans on VAV sys−
tems, since the velocity profile will vary with flow;
single−point Pitot tubes will give inaccurate readings
of total airflow. The calibration of these flow stations
should be verified by the TAB technician.
14.2.3.1 Initial Procedures
Prior to beginning the TAB work, verify that the tem−
perature control contractor’s sequence of operation
compliments the terminal unit or VAV box manufac−
turer’s factory installed control system. Inspect prima−
ry air ducts to ensure adequate entry conditions.
14.2.3.2 Preliminary And Initial Procedures
All initial procedures as outlined in the preceeding
chapter apply until you get to the total air and traverse
readings. The curse of a balancer in performing his
work is that ?he must be finished before he starts". This
is the most difficult part to understand when you un−
dertake the balancing of a system with numerous vari−
VAV or constant air volume boxes (CAV).
14.2.2.4 Static Pressure Sensor
The system designer should locate the static pressure
sensor on the drawings, as it depends to some extent on
the type of VAV terminal unit used. Pressure depen−
dent units without controllers may be near the static
pressure midpoint of the duct run to ensure minimum
pressure variation in the system. Where pressure inde−
pendent units are installed, pressure controllers may
be at the end of the duct run with the highest static pres−
sure loss to ensure maximum fan horsepower savings
while maintaining the minimum required pressure at
the last terminal unit. However, as the flow through the
various parts of a large system varies, so does the static
pressure losses. Some field adjustment or relocation
may be required.
Each type of system VAV, CAV, dual duct, pressure de−
pendent, pressure independent, diversified, and non−
diversified system has appurtenances that have to be
adjusted individually before you can ascertain the total
system performance.
Terminal boxes have numerous operating parts and
settings. To assume that they all work and are installed
is incorrect. Therefore, separate balancing procedure
for each type of application is included herewith. In
many cases you have to balance the end items before
you attempt of balance the main system.
RETURN AIR FAN
WITH INLET VANES
RELIEF AIR
DAMPER
RELIEF AIR
LOUVER
L
RETURN AIR
DAMPER
General TAB Procedures
RECEIVER
CONTROLLER
RELIEF AIR
SYSTEM
FLOW
MEASURING
STATIONS
H
VELOCITY
PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER
FILTERS
COOLING COIL
H
L
O.A.
OUTSIDE
AIR INTAKE
OUTSIDE
AIR
DAMPERS
STATIC
PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER
HIGH STATIC
LIMIT
SUPPLY
AIR FAN WITH
INLET VANES
SIGNAL
SELECTOR
CONTROLLER
FIGURE 14-3 CLOSED LOOP FAN VOLUME CONTROL
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
14.3
Pressure Independent VAV System
Balancing Procedures
Pressure dependent VAV boxes or terminal units have
no automatic volume controller to regulate the airflow
as the inlet static pressure to the box changes. The air−
flow delivered by the box for any given condition will
change at any time the inlet static pressure changes.
Since the airflow delivered is dependent on the inlet
static pressure furnished, the VAV boxes are consid−
ered pressure dependent.
DESIGN FAN
OPERATING
POINT
FAN OPERATING
POINT AT REDUCED
AIR FLOW AND SPEED
STATIC PRESSURE in.wg (Pa)
14.2.4
DESIGN P
FOR VAV
TERMINAL
UNIT
P FOR
TERMINAL
UNIT AT
REDUCED
AIRFLOW
FAN
CURVES
SYSTEM
CURVE
These VAV boxes must have an inlet balancing damper
in addition to an automatic temperature control (ATC)
damper. The ATC damper may have limiters to pro−
vide for adjustments of the minimum and maximum
position. The TAB technician must realize that every
change in damper setting, either manual or automatic,
is going to affect the airflow in the system as shown in
Figures 14−4 and 14−5.
REDUCED
DESIGN
AIRFLOW-CFM (L/S)
FIGURE 14-5 FAN AND SYSTEM
CURVES, VARIABLE SPEED FAN
FAN OPERATING POINT
AT REDUCED AIRFLOW
DESIGN FAN
OPERATING
POINT
STATIC PRESSURE in.wg(Pa)
ADDITIONAL
P TO BE
OVERCOME
BY DISCHARGE
DAMPER OR
TERMINAL UNIT
DESIGN P
FOR VAV
TERMINAL
UNIT
P FOR
TERMINAL
UNIT AT
REDUCED
AIRFLOW
SYSTEM
CURVE
c.
Adjust the inlet dampers to each box to obtain
the design airflow and verify the operation of
the VAV box.
d.
With box set at maximum balance individual
outlets to design CFM.
e.
Turn box to minimum and adjust minimum
stops if providedCif no stops are provided
box will go to ?o" flow. Note: If box has flow
sensor or voltage coils for measuring flow,
reading should be taken and recorded.
f.
Repeat steps C through E until all boxes and
air outlets are balanced to project specified
allowances (+/– 10%).
g.
Revisit the fan and confirm all final air read−
ings, static pressure readings, component unit
pressure drops, and operating amperage.
h.
If the system has a static pressure controller,
check and provide the required reading to the
control contractor.
CONSTANT
SPEED
FAN CURVE
REDUCED
DESIGN
AIRFLOW - CFM (L/S)
FIGURE 14-4 FAN AND SYSTEM
CURVES, CONSTANT SPEED FAN
14.2.5
BALANCING NON-DIVERSITY
SYSTEMS
Non−diversity systems are balanced similar to constant
volume systems.
a.
Put all of the VAV boxes and the supply air fan
in a full flow condition.
b.
Test and adjust the fan to design airflow using
methods previously described.
14.4
Turn all boxes to their minimum setting
except the box with the longest equiva−
lent run of duct (this may be the box fur−
thest from the fan or the box that you had
the most difficulty in achieving design
flow through). This box should be in−
dexed to maximum flow.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
i.
Take total air reading at the box or the
outlets (whichever is most convenient or
accessible). The flow should be above
design CFM.
Have the controls contractor reduce the
volume control device (VFD, Vortex,
Spill Damper or Discharge Damper until
design flow is achieved at the box being
monitored.
With the box at design obtain the actual
static pressure reading at the static pres−
sure sensor and advise the control con−
tractor of the required setting. Record
this reading appropriately in the balanc−
ing data sheets.
b.
Test and adjust the supply air fan to deliver
the design airflow with the variable airflow
control device set at maximum. This device
may be an inlet damper, discharge damper,
variable speed drive, or variable speed motor.
c.
After the fan has been set to its operational
design flow, start at the boxes that have been
indexed to their minimum flow and set the ac−
tual minimum flow. These boxes will not be
balanced at this time, but only have the mini−
mum total flow set so that proper total air
flow will be available at the ends of the sys−
tem.
d.
Starting at the supply air fan end of the sys−
tem, adjust the inlet damper of each VAV box
to provide the correct airflow for that box,
and then balance its downstream terminal
outlets. Do this to each VAV box that has the
correct airflow available with the system in
this condition. These VAV boxes and their as−
sociated outlets are now balanced. Adjust the
minimum airflow requirements at this time.
e.
If the boxes have flow measuring devices
they should be recorded at this time. If no
measuring devices are provided, it may be
advisable to take proper static pressure read−
ings at the box so that resetting can be done
without rebalancing all the outlets on the box.
f.
After the boxes that have been indexed to
maximum have been balanced on both maxi−
mum and minimum flow, the remaining
boxes should be indexed to their maximum
position and the proper number of balanced
boxes should be indexed to their minimum
position.
Confirm total air flow and performance on
100% OA Mode of operation.
14.2.5.1 Balancing Diversity Systems
Diversity systems can be the most difficult VAV sys−
tems to balance satisfactorily. Any procedure used will
be a compromise, and shortcomings will appear some−
where in the system under certain operating condi−
tions.
To eliminate possible misunderstandings later, an
agenda with the proposed balancing procedures
should be submitted and approved by the system de−
signer or authorized persons before the TAB work is
started. This practice is recommended for all jobs, but
it is critical on jobs with these particular systems.
Generally, pressure dependent diversity systems are
balanced as follows:
a.
Put the system into a mode where it will re−
quire approximately the same airflow as the
maximum HVAC fan design airflow by plac−
ing the required number of VAV boxes in a
minimum airflow position. And, leaving the
required boxes at their maximum setting, sys−
tem total should equal the required CFM for
the boxes indexed to maximum plus the
boxes indicated to minimum.
Stagger the boxes so that the boxes at the beginning of the duct runs are at their minimum
position and the boxes furthest from the fan
are at the maximum position.
NOTE: The total boxes indexed to minimum and max−
imum should be equal to the total air flow required at
the fan.
g.
Under this mode of operation the fan parame−
ters should be checked to insure that the pre−
vious balancing and the new operating mode
did not adversely affect the system total. If
this is the case, resetting of the fan may be re−
quired at this time.
h.
Balance the remaining boxes as outlined in
paragraph ?D" of this section until all boxes
are balanced.
i.
Revisit the fan and confirm all final air read−
ings, static pressure readings, component unit
pressure drops, and operating amperage.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
14.5
j.
If the system has a static pressure controller,
check and provide the required reading to the
control contractor.
Turn all boxes to their minimum set−
ting except the box with the longest
equivalent run of duct (this may be the
box furthest from the fan or the box
that you had the most difficulty in
achieving design flow through). This
box should be indexed to maximum
flow.
Take total air reading at the box or the
outlets (whichever is most convenient
or accessible). The flow should be
above design CFM.
Have the controls contractor reduce the
volume control device (VFD, Vortex,
Spill Damper, or Discharge Damper
until design flow is achieved at the box
being monitored.
With the box at design, obtain the actu−
al static pressure reading at the static
pressure sensor and advise the control
contractor of the required setting. Re−
cord this reading appropriately in the
balancing data sheets.
At the conclusion of the balancing, the static pressure
set up will be identical as described earlier in this
manual. However, you must remember to set the static
pressure for the true design CFM and not the diversi−
fied CFM.
14.2.6
Pressure Independent VAV System
Balancing Procedures
14.2.6.1 Inlet Pressures
Pressure independent VAV boxes have the ability to
maintain a constant maximum and minimum airflow
as long as the box inlet static pressure is within the de−
sign range of the VAV box. The manufacturer’s pub−
lished data provides the static pressure operating range
and the minimum static pressure drop across each ter−
minal unit for a given airflow. Use this data to verify
that adequate pressure is available for the terminal unit
to function properly. The objective of balancing pres−
sure independent VAV boxes is the same, regardless of
the type of controls used. They must be adjusted to de−
liver the specified maximum and minimum airflows.
14.2.6.2 VAV Downstream System
k.
Confirm total air flow and performance on
100% OA Mode of operation.
14.2.5.2 Proportional Balancing Of
Diversifed Pressure Dependent
Systems
Pressure dependent systems with diversity may be bal−
anced as previously outlined in section 14.2.5.1 of this
manual if you attribute CFM proportionally to the out−
lets in the same proportion as the diversity factor.
For simplification, consider each pressure indepen−
dent VAV box and its associated downstream ductwork
to be a separate supply air duct system. If there is ade−
quate static pressure and airflow available at the box
inlet, the box and its associated outlets can be bal−
anced.
14.2.6.3 TAB Procedures
After the fan systems have been adjusted in accor−
dance with previous procedures, the VAV system
should be tested, adjusted, and balanced using the fol−
lowing procedures:
a.
This method of balancing will guarantee proportional
air flow to all outlets under varying system operating
parameters.
If a diversity factor was used in equipment
selection, set the number of units meeting this
factor in the full cooling mode and the re−
maining terminals in the fully closed posi−
tion. Distribute the closed boxes throughout
the system. If this procedure tends to over
cool the building, the system supply air tem−
perature should be raised.
The diversity factor is the percent of the fan total as
compared to the outlet total. A fan that is scheduled for
8000 CFM and has a connected outlet total of 10,000
has a diversity factor of 20% (8000/10,000 CFM).
Once the diversity factor has been established, all out−
let CFM’s are reduced by the diversity factor. The fac−
tored outlet total will equal the fan or system total.
14.6
Determine if the system designer has taken
into account a diversity factor when selecting
the equipment by comparing the fan design
airflow with the total airflow of the terminal
units shown on the drawings.
b.
Set outside air dampers to the minimum posi−
tion and exhaust and/or return air dampers to
a position that simulates full load.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
c.
Index and verify that the fan volume control
is set for maximum flow. Observe the amper−
age of the fan motor for possible overload.
Three common methods are available for verification
that the box is delivering the correct total air flow:
1.
Most boxes have taps in the lines going from
the flow measuring device (cross flow sensor,
volume probe, etc.) to the controller or regu−
lator on the box. Connect a differential static
pressure gage to these taps and measure the
actual flow differential using the manufactur−
ers curves or charts determine the actual box
CFM flow. Field testing, however, has proven
this method is not always accurate. Often the
inlet duct configuration and the type of sensor
will affect the signal sent to the controller.
Remember the flow stations are velocity av−
eraging devices and, as such, depend upon
uniform flow not irregular flow. (You cannot
average velocity pressures to obtain CFM as
they are a square root function.)
2.
Pitot tube traverse may be used if the flow tap
is not provided or if the inlet condition at the
box is poor. The traverse should only be taken
if there is a better location upstream of the
box. It serves no purpose to traverse in a poor
run of duct or in the same poor inlet condition
at the box.
3.
Total compilation of the individual air outlets
is the most desirable since this is an actual
measure of the air being delivered to the con−
ditioned space. This procedure accounts for
system transmission losses that are inherent
in all duct installations.
g.
After the outlets are balanced, set the VAV
box for a minimum airflow. Check the total
airflow and adjust the minimum setting on
the box, when required, following the
manufacturer’s recommendations. It is not
unusual, however, for the terminals to be
slightly out of balance in the minimum posi−
tion. The VAV box and its associated outlets
are now in balance and they should stay in
balance as long as the inlet static pressure to
the box stays within the design static pressure
range given by the manufacturer.
If the unit is operating above amperage it will
be necessary to reduce flow by adjusting the
volume control devices (VFD, Vortex, Dis−
charge Damper or Bypass Relief Damper). It
is not necessary or required to perform fan or
motor sheave adjustments at this time. At this
stage of the balancing, it is required to have
sufficient static pressure to be able to adjust
the VAV boxes and maintain the fan operation
by insuring that the fan motor is not over am−
perage and running safely.
d.
e.
If the static pressure controller is operational,
it is advisable to set the static pressure to a
value that will maintain fan operation and ad−
equate pressure to perform a box−by−box bal−
ancing procedure. If the controller is not op−
erational, it will be necessary to lock the
volume control device in such a position that
static pressure can be maintained without do−
ing damage to the duct system.
Because of terminal unit pressure indepen−
dent characteristics, it is possible to balance
all of the boxes on a system, even if the sys−
tem pressure is low. When there is inadequate
static pressure, index adjacent boxes into the
minimum airflow position to increase the
static pressure to simulate design conditions.
Adjust the static pressure regulating control−
ler until the static pressure is at the point re−
quired in item d. above. Usually boxes and
outlets of a system can be completely bal−
anced to their design maximum and mini−
mum regardless of fan capacity. This method
of simulating or providing adequate static
pressure also applies to balancing systems
with diversity.
f.
With the VAV box set at the maximum flow
rate, measure the total airflow being deliv−
ered. If necessary, adjust the controller or reg−
ulator to deliver the specified airflow follow−
ing the manufacturer’s recommended
procedures. When the total airflow is correct,
balance the outlets.
After the successful balancing of the VAV
box, all pertinent information concerning the
balanced condition should be recorded and
inserted into the proper VAV commissioning
sheet including; box size, type, address, DES
maximum CFM, DES minimum CFM, actual
maximum CFM, actual minimum CFM, flow
sensor pressure drop maximum and mini−
mum, coefficient, DC voltage, pick up, gain,
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
14.7
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
14.2.7
or any other distinguishing operating param−
eters that would aid in restoring settings if
they are disturbed, erased, or tampered with.
valve with actuator, and an air discharge. When the
VAV box is pressure independent, a primary air veloc−
ity sensor and controller also will be included.
Upon the successful completion of balancing
all the boxes, it is now the proper time to as−
certain the system total design operating
parameters. In either diversified or non−di−
versified systems, place all boxes in the max−
imum air flow position. Note: In the diversi−
fied system we still want to determine if the
unit can go over amperage if all the boxes call
for maximum flow (chiller failure, excessive−
ly high demand day, etc.)
14.2.8.1 Balancing Procedures
Perform total air and fan set up as described
in the General Balancing Procedure section
of this manual.
Once the total supply return and outside air
have been established it is now time to bal−
ance the return system, if applicable.
b.
Index the VAV box to maximum (cooling)
position. Some boxes may have to be set to
the minimum position first.
c.
Test total airflow delivered by the VAV box
using one of the following methods:
Pressure Dependent VAV System
Balancing Procedures
Turndown (Shutoff) VAV Boxes
The basic components of a turndown VAV box consist
of a plenum box with a primary air inlet, damper, or air
Inlet velocity sensor (where furnished).
Total of air being delivered from the
outlets.
Pitot tube traverse of box inlet or dis−
charge.
14.2.8.2 Airflow Adjustment
Adjust total airflow using components provided as fol−
lows:
a.
Pressure Independent:
If the system has a static pressure controller,
provide the control contractor with the re−
quired setting and readings.
These VAV boxes may have an inlet balancing damper
in addition to an automatic temperature control (ATC)
damper. The ATC damper may have limiters to pro−
vide for adjustments of the minimum and maximum
position. The TAB technician must realize that every
change in damper setting, either manual or automatic,
is going to affect the airflow in the system.
14.8
Verify fan and control operation.
With all boxes at maximum set the return air
damper and minimum outside air damper to
their approximate design position with the
aid and cooperation of the control contractor.
Pressure dependent VAV boxes or terminal units have
no automatic volume controller to regulate the airflow
as the inlet static pressure to the box changes. The air−
flow delivered by the box for any given condition will
change at any time the inlet static pressure changes.
Since the airflow delivered is dependent on the inlet
static pressure furnished, the VAV boxes are consid−
ered pressure dependent.
14.2.8
a.
b.
Adjust the controller to achieve design
maximum airflow. Index the VAV box
to minimum (heating) and adjust the
controller to achieve design minimum
airflow.
Pressure Dependent:
Adjust maximum airflow by using one of the fol−
lowing:
Adjust the stops or limiting devices on
the actuator operated damper in the
VAV box.
Adjust the manual volume damper in
the primary air inlet or VAV box dis−
charge.
Index the VAV box to the minimum
position. Adjust minimum airflow us−
ing stops or position limiting devices
on the actuator operated damper in the
VAV box.
14.2.8.3 Downstream Ductwork
After the total airflow is adjusted, index the VAV box
to maximum (cooling) position and balance down−
stream duct system terminal outlets.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
14.2.9
Fan Powered VAV Boxes
air load requirement. Series type VAV boxes include
a primary air velocity sensor and controller.
Fan powered VAV boxes are VAV boxes that contain
individual supply air fans. The variations of operating
sequences are numerous and it is imperative that the
manufacturer’s data be reviewed. Identify the fan
powered VAV box application as either a series or par−
allel type.
Supplemental
Heat Section
Plenum
Inlet
After the initial preliminary balancing procedures
have been performed, the series fan powered VAV
boxes shall be adjusted, tested, and balanced using the
following procedures:
a.
through f.: Either repeat the procedures for
pressure independent or refer to them as be−
ing the same.
g.
In order to properly set up and balance a se−
ries type box, it is mandatory to establish and
confirm the induced air portion of the box.
Under most scenarios the primary air is equal
to the secondary air (VAV fan CFM). In other
cases the primary air is less than the secon−
dary air and air is induced through the induct
air opening at the box. We never want prima−
ry air to exceed the secondary air and exfil−
trate out the induced air opening. This would
lower the ceiling temperature and cause ex−
cess air quantities to be produced by the pri−
mary air fan.
Unit
Discharge
Primary
Air Valve
Fan Motor
Plenum Inlet
FIGURE 14-6 SERIES FAN POWERED VAV UNIT
Unit Discharge
Our first step is to attach a streamer or mylar
filament to the induced air opening to visual−
ly check the air flow path through the induced
air opening.
Supplemental
Heat Section
h.
Primary
Air Valve
Plenum
Inlet Fan Motor
Index the VAV box to its maximum air flow
and confirm that the VAV fan is ?on" and run−
ning. At this time you may wish to set up to
the manufacture’s air flow ports and set the
primary air flow to approximate design flow.
FIGURE 14-7 PARALLEL FAN
POWERED VAV UNIT
14.2.9.1 Series S Type, Balancing
Procedures (Pressure Independent)
A constant volume fan−powered induction type VAV
box mixes primary air with induced air by using a con−
tinuously operating fan located in the VAV box dis−
charge (see Figure 14−7). It provides a relatively
constant volume of air to the space and comes either
with or without an auxiliary heating coil. As more or
less cold primary air flows through the unit, ceiling
plenum return air is induced to mix with the primary
air, providing enough total airflow for a constant dis−
charge. To avoid short circuiting of primary air
through the fan terminal into the return air plenum, a
balancing device permits the discharge to be adjusted
so that total air delivery equals the maximum primary
FIGURE 14-8 PAPER STRIP AT VAV
BOX RETURN BEFORE BALANCING
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
14.9
i.
j.
Verify total flow at the outlets by reading the
individual air outlet or by traverse, which
ever is most convenient at this time. Check
the actual fan speed of the VAV fan. Before
you proceed with further fan adjustments,
note the position of the streamer located on
the induction opening:
1.
If the streamer is blowing out it will be
necessary to reduce the primary flow
before proceeding.
2.
If the streamer is pulling in severely, it
will be necessary to increase the prima−
ry air flow before proceeding.
With the plenum set as described above, pro−
ceed to adjust the fan speed to obtain proper
total air at the outlets. (Solid state speed con−
trols, multi−position switches, or wiring
selection.)
NOTE: You do not want to set up the VAV fan with a
pressurized mixed air plenum or a starving plenum. It
should almost be equal, but not perfect at this time.
k.
Balance all the outlets to within the design al−
lowable tolerances. This procedure estab−
lishes the actual total CFM for the box.
l.
With the box balanced for design total flow,
it is now time to neutralize or balance the pri−
mary air side. Noting the position of the
streamer, utilize the controller or DDC sys−
tem adjust to make the streamer neutral or
pull slightly into the mixed air plenum. (Nev−
er have primary air escape from the mixed air
plenum.)
o.
Repeat these steps on all boxes until com−
plete, then perform fan data and return air
balancing.
14.2.9.2 Parallel Type, Balancing
Procedures (Pressure Independent
Or Dependent)
Parallel flow VAV box components include a plenum
box with a discharge outlet, return air inlet with a fan,
and a primary air inlet (see Figure 14−8). Primary air
enters through an actuated air valve or damper. Return
(secondary) air is induced into the plenum by the fan,
which is usually equipped with a backdraft damper.
When full cooling is no longer needed, the primary air
begins to decrease. At a predetermined setpoint, the
fan comes on and return air is mixed with the primary
air. On full heating, primary air may be completely
shut off.
Consult project specifications for the specific se−
quence specified. Most parallel VAV boxes are pres−
sure independent and include a primary air velocity
sensor and controller. Heating coils may be provided
at the return inlet or at the VAV box discharge.
m. When the plenum is neutralized it may be
necessary to reset and recheck the fan speed
and outlets to see if any adverse effect were
encountered by adjusting the primary flow.
Repeat the above steps until the outlets are at
design and the plenum is neutral.
n.
14.10
After successfully balancing the box, record
all pertinent operating parameters: VAV box
type, size, address, DES primary maximum
and minimum CFM, fan DES CFM, actual
primary maximum and minimum CFM, coef−
ficient, DC volts, pick−up, gain flow sensor
PD maximum and minimum, and/or any oth−
er relevant operating conditions.
FIGURE 14-9 PAPER STRIP AT VAV
BOX AFTER BALANCING
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
After the initial preliminary balancing procedures
have been performed as described in this manual, the
parallel fan powered VAV boxes shall be adjusted,
tested, and balanced using the following procedures:
a.
through g: Either repeat the procedures for
Pressure Independent or refer to them as be−
ing the same.
h.
After successfully setting the maximum set−
ting index the box to its minimum setting.
Based upon the control sequence you will
have at least two operating scenarios:
1.
2.
ume of air to the zone. Bypass VAV terminal units gen−
erally are used on smaller systems.
To balance the bypass VAV system, the same tech−
niques as discussed above for Pressure Independent
VAV and Pressure Dependent VAV systems are used
except that the supply fan does not have airflow or stat−
ic pressure controls.
a.
Follow the procedures a. through d. as de−
scribed in the Pressure Dependent Non−Di−
versified Balancing section of this manual.
b.
Turn the box to its minimum flow (by−pass)
position. In this mode you may be required to
obtain two separate readings:
There is minimum cooling setpoint and
the fan is off. In this mode you have to
set the minimum in the same fashion as
the pressure independent style boxes
prior to proceeding to the full heating
mode.
TThere is a minimum primary air flow
for heating and the fan is on. In this case,
the air flow for the fan may be equal to
or less than the design air flow for the
maximum primary air side of the box.
The primary minimum air flow may be
zero at this point or another minimum
setting (Heating Minimum).
In this scenario, you would set the fan
speed to obtain the required actual air
flow by outlet compilation or traverse
reading.
The amount of air that is bypassed to the
return duct or to the return plenum.
d.
Measurement of the bypass air may be deter−
mined by either of three methods:
The remaining procedures for fan operating
parameters, total supply air, return air, out−
side air and setup of the static pressure con−
troller are the same as described in the Pres−
sure Independent Balancing Procedures,
sections j. – n.
In the bypass VAV system, the supply fan supplies a
constant volume of air at all load conditions and the
terminal device diverts air from the supply outlets to
the return plenum, thus reducing or varying the vol−
2.
With the box indexed for minimum flow, ad−
just the stops or control device to obtain the
required minimum flow to the conditioned
space. The CFM can only be read by total out−
let compilation or by traverse of the supply
duct on the downstream side of the box.
The actual primary air flow can only be
determined by reading the manufac−
ture’s flow sensors or by traversing the
inlet to the box on the primary duct.
14.2.10 Bypass VAV Boxes
The minimum supply air CFM deliv−
ered to the conditioned space.
c.
Rebalancing of the outlets is not done.
i.
1.
1.
Direct reading of the discharge opening
at the box.
2.
By calculating the difference between
the total air flow entering the box less
the actual air flow as measured on the
downstream side of the box.
3.
If the bypass portion of the box is ducted
to the return duct a traverse of this duct
will be required.
If direct measurement cannot be made
you may be able to calculate CFM being
delivered by the box by monitoring ad−
jacent boxed or total air flow in the main
ducts.
e.
For non−ducted bypass boxes measure the
amount of bypass air and adjust the volume
control device on the box. If the box does not
have a volume limiting device on the bypass
it will be required to have the installing con−
tractor provide a damper or blank off to simu−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
14.11
late the full flow condition through the box.
If the bypass flow is low there are no adjust−
ments required.
f.
Recheck the minimum flow to the occupied
space to insure that the total flow has been
maintained. Repeat steps d. and e. if neces−
sary.
g.
For bypass boxes with ducted returns, the by−
pass balancing is very critical. Even if the
correct amount of air is bypassed by the box,
there is a potential for positive air flow in the
return duct thus causing air flow to be sup−
plied through the return outlets and over cool−
ing the conditioned space
A volume damper in the bypass duct is man−
datory for proper balancing of this type duct
configuration.
Study the manufacturer’s data before attempting to do
the TAB work, because many operating sequences are
available. Balancing will consist of setting the primary
airflow, both maximum and minimum. The discharge
air is a total of the primary air and the induced air.
Some boxes have adjustments for the induction damp−
er setting. After the box is set, the downstream air out−
lets can be balanced in the conventional manner.
Induction type boxes are balanced the same manner as
pressure independent boxes both diversified and non−
diversified.
The only difference is that if a minimum amount of in−
duced air is required at full flow we must calculate this
flow by comparing the primary air flow (as measured
by the manufacture’s flow sensor or by a traverse read−
ing of primary air) with the total air flow (as measured
at the box discharge or outlet total).
Cooling Range
h.
The remaining procedures for fan operating
parameters, total supply air, return air, out−
side air are the same as previously described
with the exception of the return air balancing
of bypass boxes that have ducted bypass duct−
work.
All VAV boxes must be indexed to full flow
when balancing the returns to avoid bypass
air going into the return ducts.
14.2.11
Induction VAV Boxes
Induction VAV boxes use primary air from a central
fan system to create a low pressure area within the box
by discharging the primary air at high velocities into
a plenum. This low pressure area usually is separated
from a ceiling return air plenum by an automatic dam−
per. The induced air from the ceiling is mixed with the
primary air, so that the actual airflow being discharged
from the box is considerably more than the primary air
airflow. Most of these induction boxes are designed for
VAV operation, but a few are constant volume boxes.
14.12
Heating Range
Max.
Fan
Airflow
AIRFLOW
Balance the bypass by traversing and set the
volume damper to obtain the proper CFM.
After obtaining the proper CFM you must
measure the static pressure in the duct down−
stream of the volume damper to insure that it
is slightly negative. If the reading is not nega−
tive, you must adjust the volume damper in
the duct until you obtain a negative reading.
Go to Step I) and complete the box set up.
Dead
Band
Min.
Hot
SPACE TEMPERATURE
Cold
FIGURE 14-10 CONSTANT FAN VAV BOX
14.2.12 Combination Systems
System applications may incorporate independent
VAV boxes and pressure dependent VAV boxes on the
same system, either with or without diversity. Balanc−
ing procedures will have to be tailored to each job, but
it is recommended that the pressure independent boxes
are balanced first, since once they are balanced, they
will not be affected by changing static pressures as the
rest of the system is being balanced.
If a system has many pressure dependent boxes, they
may consume most of the system airflow and static
pressure on the initial system start up, since they will
be wide open. Either set some of these boxes to a mini−
mum airflow position or partially close the inlet damp−
ers on some boxes to build up the static pressure in the
system. After setting all of the pressure independent
VAV boxes, use the procedures detailed previously for
pressure dependent systems and balance the down−
stream air outlets.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Cooling Range
Heating Range
AIRFLOW
Max.
Dea
d
Band
since the mixing dampers are not capable of control−
ling the total airflow quantity. Some units will not have
a heating coil, but will just bypass the return air/out−
side air mixture when cooling is not needed.
14.3.2
Fan
Airflow
Min.
Hot
SPACE TEMPERATURE
Cold
FIGURE 14-11 INTERMITTENT FAN
VAV BOX (PARALLEL) CYCLE
14.2.12.1 System Powered
System powered boxes are powered by the HVAC duct
system inlet static pressure and/or velocity pressure.
System powered boxes usually have a higher required
minimum inlet static pressure than non−system pow−
ered boxes. Although the higher static pressure may
not be needed for the airflow quantity, it will be needed
to operate the controls. Since most system powered
boxes are normally open, it is possible to have a VAV
box that is delivering the designed amount of air, but
the controls will not operate due to low system static
pressure at the VAV box inlet.
With a high diversity factor, it is possible to have the
HVAC duct system not develop sufficient pressure to
activate the VAV box control systems upon startup, as
a lack of static pressure leaves all of the boxes wide
open. With a system of wide open boxes, static pres−
sure cannot build up until some of the boxes are either
manually or automatically closed to allow the rest of
the VAV boxes to start controlling and begin to close
down.
14.3
MULTI-ZONE SYSTEMS
14.3.1
Description
A multi−zone unit (Figure 14−12) uses one fan that can
blow air through two paths, usually a cooling coil and
a heating coil or a perforated plate, before being dis−
charged from the HVAC unit. After the air passes
through each coil into a cold air plenum or a hot air (or
neutral) plenum, the air then passes through mixing
dampers into two or more zone ducts serving various
spaces. Each zone duct must have a manual volume
damper that is used to balance the airflow to each zone.
These balancing dampers definitely are required,
Diversity
Multi−zone systems normally are balanced with all the
zones in the full cooling position. There are, however,
exceptions. The cooling coil may be designed for less
air than the fan delivers and the total system requires,
because the building normally will not need full cool−
ing in all zones at the same time. This diversity is
caused by the sun load of the spaces changing from
east to west during the day. It will be necessary to
check the manufacturer’s data to determine if the cool−
ing coil is sized for full airflow or if a diversity factor
has been used. If there is a diversity, set enough zones
into full cooling to equal the design airflow of the coil.
The remaining air will then go through the heating coil
or by the bypass.
14.3.3
Normal Operations
During normal operations, there will be some varia−
tion in airflow as each zone satisfies its individual re−
quirements. It is also not uncommon for the system to
move less air when it is in the heating mode.
14.3.4
Balancing
If the cooling coil is sized for the full fan airflow, put
all zones into full cooling by setting each zone thermo−
stat to its lowest point. The system is then balanced
(similar to any low pressure, constant volume system
detailed earlier) as outlined below:
a.
Adjust and set the fan; put the system into full
flow through the cooling coil with allowance
for diversity.
b.
Make a Pitot tube traverse of each zone and
total the results.
c.
Make any required fan adjustments to obtain
the design total airflow.
d.
Adjust each zone damper to obtain the proper
airflow in each zone. This should be done by
making a traverse if possible. This type of
system usually cannot be balanced satisfacto−
rily without zone balancing dampers. If they
are not shown on the construction drawings,
the TAB technician should notify the proper
people to have them installed.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
14.13
e.
Once each zone has the correct airflow, the
terminals can be balanced by using the pre−
viously described methods.
14.4
INDUCTION UNIT SYSTEMS
14.4.1
Preliminary Procedures
typical basketball or football inflation pin
connected to rubber tubing connected to the
static pressure gage). The opening on the
probe should be on the side to take static pres−
sure and not total pressure.
c.
Induction unit systems (Figure 14−14) use high or me−
dium pressure fans to supply primary air to the induc−
tion units. Since they usually are located around the
perimeter of the building, it is common practice to run
many risers up and down the building and feed the
units from a common header duct from the risers. As
these systems use high or medium pressure, take extra
precautions to avoid building up excessive system
pressures and causing damage.
14.4.2
TAB Procedures
Airflow readings at the induction units are taken by
reading the static pressure at one of the nozzles and
comparing it to the manufacturer’s published data.
The design static pressure and airflow will be shown
on the manufacturer’s submittal data for the various
size units on the job.
a.
b.
Adjust the primary air fan using previously
described methods for constant volume sys−
tems. With a new or wide open system, allow
for a 10 percent reduction in airflow while
balancing.
Proceed with the first pass to test and adjust
each induction unit working from the supply
fan outward. Using an appropriate static pres−
sure gage insert a probe into the nozzle of the
induction unit and read the static pressure (an
acceptable probe for taking such reading is a
EXHAUST AIR
LOUVER
EXHAUST AIR
DAMPER
14.5
Compare the static pressure reading to the
manufacturer’s values and determine the ac−
tual CFM delivery of the unit. If the unit is
above design flow, throttle until the required
static pressure is achieved. (It is suggested to
adjust this reading to the low side of accept−
able air flow to allow for some system build−
up as the rest of the system is balanced.) If the
unit is low on flow, adjust the damper to in−
sure that the damper is open and functioning.
It will be advisable to check inlet static pres−
sure to the unit prior to adjusting the damper
to make sure sufficient static pressure is
available to balance the unit.
DUAL DUCT SYSTEMS
Dual duct systems (see Figure 14−13) use both a hot air
duct and a cold air duct to supply air to mixing boxes.
Mixing boxes may operate in a constant air volume
mode or in a VAV mode. They are usually pressure in−
dependent, but they may be either system powered or
have external control systems.
14.5.1
Constant Volume Systems
Each mixing box has a thermostatically controlled
mixing damper to satisfy the space temperature requi−
rements. A mixture of the hot and cold air is controlled
to maintain a constant airflow to the space.
Constant volume dual duct mixing boxes maintain a
constant volume of air to the conditioned space regard−
less of which duct is supplying the air. This control
POSSIBLE RETURN
AIR FAN
RETURN AIR
SYSTEM
RETURN AIR
DAMPER
ZONE 4
OUTDOOR AIR
INTAKE
FILTERS
OUTDOOR AIR
DAMPER
HEATING COIL
ZONE3
ZONE 2
ZONE MIXING
DAMPERS
SUPPLY AIR
FAN
COOLING COIL
ZONE 1
SUPPLY AIR SYSTEMS
POSSIBLE PRE-HEAT COIL
FIGURE 14-12 MULTI-ZONE SYSTEM
14.14
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
may be accomplished by a mechanical volume regula−
tor located within the box.
Like the multi−zone system, most designers size the
cooling coil for the full connected load of the outlets.
If, however, the coil is not sized for full flow it will be
necessary to index the proper number of boxes to cool−
ing and heating in order to obtain total flow reading in
the final stages of the procedures.
Since these boxes are pressure independent and the
system is non−diversified, the procedures are the same
as outlined previously.
The only difference in this type of system is that you
have two controls to set values for, the hot deck and
cold deck, and both may have a maximum and mini−
mum value.
Since the system is constant volume, it will be neces−
sary to check the static pressures at the longest equiva−
lent run of duct.
It is also required to check and verify that the hot and
cold deck dampers respond properly especially when
there is a common volume regulator.
At the conclusion of the balancing procedure, this is to
properly obtain system total flow at the lowest possible
static pressure.
EXHAUST AIR
LOUVER
RETURN AIR
FAN (OPTIONAL)
EXHAUST AIR
DAMPER
RETURN AIR
DAMPER
SUPPLY AIR
FAN
HEATING COIL
OUTDOOR AIR
INTAKE
RETURN AIR SYSTEM
FILTERS
OUTDOOR AIR
DAMPER
COOLING COIL
POSSIBLE PRE-HEAT COIL
T
ZONE 1
T
SUPPLY DUCT
TO ZONE 2
SUPPLY DUCT
TO ZONE 1
MIXING
DAMPERS
SUPPLY
DUCT
SYSTEM
(COLD)
SUPPLY
DUCT
SYSTEM
(HOT)
ZONE 2
FIGURE 14-13 DUAL DUCT SYSTEM
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
14.15
14.5.2
Variable Air Volume Systems
Each mixing box is thermostatically controlled to sat−
isfy the space and temperature requirements. As the
box airflow changes from cold to hot, the quantity of
the hot air discharged is increased as the cold air is re−
duced or shut off. The available sequences are numer−
ous and it is imperative that the TAB technician review
the operating sequence for the individual box being
balanced.
Testing and adjusting is similar to a dual duct constant
volume system except that VAV capability is incorpo−
rated and will have to be taken into account.
NOTE: If static pressures on the first units read vary
greatly from design, it may be necessary to check indi−
vidual risers to ensure that air flow is available to all
risers. Most induction units have the same static pres−
sure for each exposure. It is advisable to start balanc−
ing those units with the lowest required static pressure
first.
a.
After the first pass, depending on the extent
of adjustment, it may be advisable to check
the fan system to see if total operating param−
eters have been affected. If variation occurs
re−adjust the fan to obtain the required flow.
OUTDOOR
AIR INTAKE
POSSIBLE
PRE-HEA T
COIL
HEATING COIL
RETURN
AIR DAMPER
OUTDOOR AIR
DAMPER
EXHAUST AIR
LOUVER
FILTERS
EXHAUST AIR
DAMPER
POSSIBLE
RETURN
AIR FAN
b.
Proceed with additional passes until all units
are balanced to acceptable air flow and static
pressure tolerances.
c.
Some systems use the primary air source to
power controls and move a secondary damp−
er for adjusting room temperature. In such
case, it is important to maintain the manufac−
turer’s minimum static pressure regardless of
CFM tolerances.
d.
After successfully balancing all induction
units, revisit the fan system and record all fi−
nal operating parameters as described in the
Procedures For Conventional Systems.
14.6
SPECIAL EXHAUST AIR SYSTEMS
Exhaust air systems are found in various types of venti−
lating systems and are encountered in all types of of−
fice buildings, factories, institutions, schools, hospi−
tals, arenas, restaurants, and labs.
Many of these systems utilize hoods to effectively re−
move fumes, odors, grease or any contaminant that is
required to be exhausted. In order to properly remove
any particulate, fume or odor, it is necessary to achieve
the proper capture velocity at the hood opening. It is,
therefore, incumbent upon the design professional and
the hood manufacturer to properly design the air flow
and hood dimensions for effective removal of the con−
taminant that is to be exhausted. Local codes and ordi−
HIGH VELOCITY
PRIMARY AIR
SYSTEM
COOLING
COIL
T
SUPPLY FAN
SECONDARY WATER
COIL
T
INDUCTION
UNITS
FIGURE 14-14 INDUCTION UNIT SYSTEM
14.16
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
INDUCED
AIR
nances will also play an important part in the design
phase of hood selection and operation.
14.7
PROCESS EXHAUST AIR SYSTEMS
Exhaust air systems with hoods are found in various
types of ventilating systems. Hoods in restaurants and
institutions are the type most frequently encountered
in HVAC work. Most kitchen hoods are designed for
a face velocity of about 100 feet per minute (0.5 m/s)
at the hood entrance. Capture velocity is necessary to
insure entrainment of steam and grease laden vapors
from the equipment below. Some municipalities have
ordinances setting minimum requirements for face or
hood perimeter velocities at kitchen hoods, and further
require that an authorized representative be present at
the time of the balancing work.
14.7.1
Kitchen Exhaust/Makeup Air
Systems
14.7.1.1 Test Instruments
Kitchen makeup air systems must be in operation
when the balancing takes place. Sometimes make−up
is achieved by means of relief grilles from adjoining
areas. The thermal anemometer is a good instrument
for measuring these low face velocities. Some swing−
ing vane anemometers (Velometer) can be used at ve−
locities under 100 fpm (0.5 m/s) using the low flow
probe. A Pitot tube used with a micromanometer also
can be used. When making a Pitot tube traverse of the
duct from the hood, be sure to correct for air density if
elevated temperatures are present or predicted.
14.7.1.2 Ducts
Most kitchen hood exhaust ducts are made of heavy
gage metal, and are covered with a thick fire resistant
insulation. A Pitot tube traverse of the duct is the most
accurate way to test, but the test holes will need to be
plugged with moisture tight, fire resistant metal plugs
or caps, and often, holes are not allowed. Avoid putting
holes in the bottom of the duct where moisture or
grease can accumulate and/or leak out. If possible, put
the test holes in the side of a riser. Never use plastic or
rubber test plugs in a kitchen exhaust duct. Also, be
aware that even if the correct airflow is obtained by the
Pitot tube traverse, the hood face velocity may not be
sufficient to satisfy local ordinances. In this case speed
up the fan if the system designer approves and the fan/
drive components can accommodate the increase.
14.7.1.3 Filters
Velocity readings across grease filters are not usually
reliable. Accurate free area correction data is not usu−
ally available and it would be influenced by the condi−
tion of the filters.
14.7.2
Fume Hoods
14.7.2.1 General
Fume hoods frequently are found in laboratory build−
ings, hospitals and clean rooms. See the NEBB Proce−
dural Standards for Certified Testing of Clean Rooms
for additional information. As experiments are con−
ducted in confined areas, the hoods are designed to
prevent the escape of toxic or noxious fumes. Make up
air must be provided from the HVAC system or from
a separate system that some hoods have built in to
minimize the loss of conditioned air from the laborato−
ry. These systems also must be accurately balanced.
14.7.2.2 Working Tests
When toxic experiments will be performed by the oc−
cupants, when permissible, a smoke candle test should
be made to ensure that vapors do not escape. Often the
whole room is designed to be under a negative pres−
sure, so the room also should be smoke tested, if per−
missible. Some of the more sophisticated hoods have
a built in exhaust fan working in series with the system
exhaust fan.
14.7.2.3 Face Velocities
Some fume hoods are designed to exhaust the same
amount of air with the work door open or closed. Many
fume hoods are variable volume and maintain a
constant face velocity at the hood opening as the hood
door is raised or lowered. The airflow varies to main−
tain the same velocity through the opening, no matter
how far the door is open. Face velocity testing should
be done with the door wide open, unless otherwise spe−
cified. Readings are best taken with a thermal
anemometer and should be taken in equal area rectan−
gles similar to a traverse. Be sure to keep well out of
the airstream.
14.7.2.4 Smoke Test
A hand held smoke generator should be used to insure
that the entire face of the hood is drawing air into the
hood. Be sure that air is not swirling and escaping back
out of the hood. A 30−second smoke candle should be
set off in the hood also. This will insure that the hood
will contain the exhaust fumes without escaping back
into the space.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
14.17
14.7.2.5 Balancing
Fume hoods are used mostly in laboratories. When
balancing laboratories, carefully study the drawings,
noting the airflow and pressure differentials between
different areas and rooms. Balancing is critical in these
areas and will require precise readings and adjust−
ments to obtain the correct positive and negative pres−
sure relationship between spaces. Even with airflow
readings within acceptable tolerances, some adjust−
ments may have to be made to the airflows to obtain
the correct pressures. If there is any question, consult
with the system designer or the laboratory operator.
14.7.3
Industrial Exhaust Hoods And
Equipment
14.7.3.1 General
A digital or thermal anemometer is a very valuable in−
strument for this type of work as the probe is small
enough to get into obstructed places. But here again,
review the equipment manufacturer’s data, as the pro−
cedures for setting up and testing the equipment often
may be available.
14.7.3.3 Material Handling Procedures
Industrial exhaust air systems with hoods fall into two
categories. One group, similar in many respects to lab−
oratory fume hoods, is used over vats such as dip tanks
and plating tanks. Exhaust hoods are often placed at
one end above the tank and make up air hoods are
placed at the opposite end. This permits vapors to be
swept from the tank surface but still leaves the top
open for overhead handling equipment. Often an ex−
haust duct will be connected direct to a piece of equip−
ment with no external hood. Other times, hoods may
be used just to remove heat from equipment. Heat re−
covery systems also are being used more frequently.
Here again, make up air becomes critical and air densi−
ty must be corrected in calculations.
14.7.3.2 Exhaust Air Procedures
The balancing procedure is basically the same as any
other exhaust air system. A Pitot tube traverse of the
14.18
exhaust air duct is the preferred method where possi−
ble. The differences are mainly in how to test the vari−
ous inlet openings. If an inlet opening velocity must be
measured, obtain the free area opening by measuring
it and then calculate what the velocity should be. Quite
often this will not be possible due to irregular shapes
and/or obstructions.
A second group of industrial exhaust air systems is
used to remove and convey solid materials. Sawdust,
wood chips, paper trimmings, etc., are transported at
high velocities through these exhaust systems. These
systems must be balanced so that velocities do not fall
below predetermined transport velocities below which
the materials would drop out.
Balancing of these systems is done with blast gates
which are installed in lieu of dampers and are used to
temporarily shut off unused branches. In addition to
velocity readings, static pressure readings of the pres−
sure differential between the room and the hood should
be recorded in a convenient reference point at each
hood or intake device. This will permit easy future
checks designed to spot any deviation in exhaust vol−
umes from original volumes.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 15
HYDRONIC SYSTEM
TAB PROCEDURES
CHAPTER 15
15.1
15.1.1
HYDRONIC SYSTEM
MEASUREMENT METHODS
Basic Balancing Methods
The best possible method for flow measurement of hy−
dronic systems cannot be determined without review−
ing the systems. There are five basic methods avail−
able for measuring the flow quantity in a piping
system:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
with flow meters
with calibrated balancing valves
using the equipment pressure loss
by heat transfer
using pump curves
ultrasonic, Doppler
It is preferable to balance hydronic systems by direct
flow measurement. This balance approach is very ac−
curate because it eliminates compounding errors
introduced by the temperature difference procedures.
Balance by direct flow measurement allows the pump
to be matched to the actual system requirements
(pump impeller trim). Proper instrumentation and
good preplanning is needed. Water flow instrumenta−
tion must be installed during construction of the piping
system; they can consist of all or a combination of the
following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
HYDRONIC SYSTEM TAB PROCEDURES
15.1.2
Using Flow Meters
A flow meter usually is deemed to be the most reliable
method for measuring the system flow. Flow meters
usually are permanently installed in the hydronic pip−
ing system and are used for the measurement and ad−
justment of flow to pumps, to primary heat exchange
equipment, at each zone, and at terminal units. Flow
meters such as the venturi, orifice, and Annubar types,
require the use of a differential pressure gage and flow
charts provided by the manufacturer to calculate the
system flow. Always verify that installation of the flow
meters is in accordance with recommended practices
given by the manufacturer. There must be adequate
amounts of straight sections of piping upstream and
downstream from the flow meter to prevent erroneous
readings affecting final system balance.
NOTE: Verify that the pressure units of the differen−
tial pressure gage and the pressure units found on the
flow charts provided by the manufacturer are identic−
al. If pressure units are not the same, (i.e. psi, in. wg,
ft wg, Pa, kPa, mm. wg, m 3h) pressure conversions will
be required.
System components used as flow metersC
control valves, terminal units, chillers, etc.
Flow metersCventuri, orifice plate, and Pitot
tube
Pumps
Flow limiting devices and balancing devices
System circumstance often dictates a combination of
flow and temperature balance. In many cases, it may
not be economically sound or even necessary to install
flow indicating devices at every terminal. For exam−
ple, in reheat, induction, and radiation systems, tem−
perature readings can be used to set the flow. Branch
piping and risers should still be set with primary flow
measuring devices. The water balance is undertaken
using all the pressure measuring methods available
and verified by total heat transfer using air and water
temperature readings. The pressure readings provide
the necessary accuracy for a good balance, only if veri−
fied by a heat balance.
FIGURE 15-1 HYDRONIC FLOW
MEASUREMENT
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
15.1
15.1.3
Using Combination Valve/Flow
Meters
A self−adjusting valve/flow meter as shown in Figure
15−1 utilizes internal mechanisms that constantly
change internal orifice openings to compensate for
varying system differential pressures while maintain−
ing a pre−set flow rate. An external adjustment is avail−
able on some models. Pressure taps, providing mea−
surement of valve differential pressure, allow
measurements of the system flow.
Calibrated balancing valve/flow meters are field ad−
justable devices. Pressure loss of the valve is measured
similar to that of a flow meter. A chart or graph, pro−
vided by the valve manufacturer, indicates actual flow
rates at various valve positions and differential pres−
sures. Unlike a flow meter, the flow coefficient of a
calibrated balancing valve/flow meter changes with
adjustment of the valve. Always be aware of the actual
valve position when calculating the system flow.
An ultrasonic flow meter as shown in Figure 15−3, can
be located remotely from the strap−on external pipe
flow sensor shown in Figure 15−2. Note that the pipe
insulation was removed so the sensor makes direct
contact with the external pipe surface.
FIGURE 15-3 ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
15.1.4
Equipment Pressure Loss Method
Actual system flow rates may be established by using
HVAC equipment pressure loss calculations, provided
the following two items are available:
a.
certified data from the equipment manufac−
turer indicating rated flow and pressure
losses;
b.
and an accurate means for determining the
actual equipment pressure losses.
When the design criteria of the equipment and the ac−
tual pressure loss is known, the flow rate may be calcu−
lated by using the following equation:
flow 2 flow 1 DP 2DP1
15.1.5
Heat Transfer Method
Approximate flow rates may be established at heating
and cooling terminal units by using both air and hy−
dronic measured heat transfer data and the proper
equations. Although the equations used are slightly
different, both are based upon the First Law of Ther−
modynamics (heat transfer). Each determines the total
heat transfer rate of the terminal unit at the time of test−
ing, and then the flow rate is calculated based upon the
fluid heat transfer rate (water temperature difference).
See section 2.1 Heat Flow for the correct equations.
FIGURE 15-2 EXTERNAL ULTRASONIC
FLOW SENSOR ON PIPE WITH
INSULATION REMOVED
15.2
15.1.6
Using Pump Curves
Flow may be established at circulating pumps through
a series of differential pressure testing and pump curve
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
analysis. When circulating pumps are installed in se−
ries with any item of HVAC equipment, the equipment
flow rate may be assumed to be equal to that of the
pump.
15.2
BASIC HYDRONIC SYSTEM
PROCEDURES
Chapter 12CPreliminary TAB Procedures outlined
the preparation work that must be done prior to the ac−
tual testing, adjusting, and balancing of the HVAC sys−
tems. Confirm that these preliminary procedures have
been completed and check lists prepared. Do not at−
tempt to balance a hydronic system before the installa−
tion has been completed and all of the air systems have
been balanced.
15.2.2
System Balancing Procedures
15.2.2.1
System Startup
Place the systems into operation, check that all air has
been vented from the piping systems and allow flow
conditions to stabilize. Verify that the system com−
pression tank(s) and automatic water fill valve are op−
erating properly.
15.2.2.2
Record the operating voltage and amperage of the
pump(s) and compare these with nameplate ratings
and thermal overload heater ratings. Verify the speed
of each pump.
15.2.2.3
15.2.1
Related Systems
Confirm that all necessary electrical systems, temper−
ature control systems, all related hydronic piping cir−
cuits, and all related duct systems are functional and
that any necessary compensation for seasonal effects
have been made.
15.2.1.2
Hydronic Systems Ready
Verify that all hydronic systems have been cleaned,
flushed, refilled, and vented, as required.
15.2.1.3
Valves Set
Verify that all manual valves are open, or preset as re−
quired and all temperature control (automatic) valves
are in a normal or desired position.
15.2.1.4
Control Devices
Verify that all automatically controlled devices in the
piping or duct systems will not adversely affect the
balancing procedures.
15.2.1.5
Flow Measurements
Preliminary Procedures
The following balancing procedures are basic to all
types of hydronic distribution systems:
15.2.1.1
Pump Amperage
Static Head
With the pump(s) off, observe and record system static
pressure (head) at the pump(s).
If flow meters or calibrated balancing valves are
installed, which would allow the flow rate of the pump
circuit(s) to be measured, perform the necessary work
and record the data.
15.2.2.4
Zero Flow Readings
With the pump(s) running, slowly close the balancing
cock fully in the pump discharge piping and record the
shutoff−discharge and suction pressures found at the
pump gage connections. Do not fully close any valves
in the discharge piping of a positive displacement
pump. Severe damage may occur.
15.2.2.5
Pump Curve Verification
Using pump shut−off head, determine and verify each
actual pump operating curve and the size of each im−
peller. Compare this data with the submittal data cur−
ves. If the test point falls on the design curve, proceed
to the next step; if not, plot a new curve parallel to the
other curves on the chart, from zero flow to maximum
flow. Make sure the test readings were taken correctly
before plotting a new curve. Preferably one gage
should be used to read differential pressure. It is impor−
tant that gage readings should be corrected to the cen−
ter line elevation of the pump.
15.2.2.6
SYSTEM FLOW
Open the discharge balancing cock slowly to the fully
open position; record the discharge pressure, suction
pressure, and total head. Using the total head, read the
system water flow from the corrected pump curve es−
tablished in step 15.2.2.5. Verify the data with that
from flow meters and calibrated balancing valves, if
used (see step 15.2.2.3).
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
15.3
15.2.2.7
Pump Flow Adjustments
If the total head is higher than the design total head, the
water flow will be lower than designed. If the total
head is less than design, water flow will be greater. If
greater, the pump discharge pressure should be in−
creased by partially closing the balancing cock until
the system water flow is approximately 110 percent of
design. Record the pressures and the water flow.
Check pump motor, voltage, and amperage and record.
This data should still be within the motor nameplate
ratings. Start any secondary system pumps and re−
adjust the balancing cock in the primary circuit pump
discharge piping, if necessary. Again record all read−
ings. See section 15.6 of this chapter for the balancing
of primary−secondary systems.
15.2.2.8
15.2.2.12 High Flow Units
Make another adjustment to the balancing valves on
all units which have readings more than 10 percent
above design flow in order to increase the flow through
those units with less than design flow.
15.2.2.13 Unit Balancing
Repeat this process until the actual fluid flow through
each piece of equipment is within plus or minus 10 per−
cent of the design flow.
15.2.2.14 Pump Check
Make a final check of the pressures and the flow of all
pump and equipment; of the voltage and amperage of
pump motors; and record the data.
Initial System Adjustments
15.2.2.15 Bypass Valves
If orifice plates, venturi meters, or other flow measur−
ing or control devices have been provided in the piping
system branches, an initial recording of the flow dis−
tribution throughout the system should be made with−
out making any adjustments. After studying the sys−
tem, adjust the distribution branches or risers to
achieve balanced circuits as outlined above. Vent air
from low flow circuits. Then proceed with the balanc−
ing of terminal units on each branch.
15.2.2.9
Equipment Pressure Drops
Before adjusting any balancing valves at equipment
(i.e. chillers, boilers, hot water exchangers, hot water
coils, chilled water coils, etc.), take a complete set of
pressure drop readings through all equipment and
compare this with submittal data readings. Determine
which are high and which are low in water flow. Vent
air from low flow circuits or units and retake readings.
15.2.2.10 Preliminary Adjustments
Make a preliminary adjustment to the balancing
valves on all units with high water flow, setting each
about 10 percent higher than the design flow rate.
15.2.2.11 Pump Measurements
Take another complete set of pressure, voltage, and
ampere readings on all pumps in the system. If system
total flow has fallen below design flow, open the bal−
ancing cock at each pump discharge to bring the flow
at each pump within 105 to 110 percent of the design
reading (if pump capacity permits).
15.4
Where three−way automatic valves are used, set all by−
pass line balancing valves to restrict the bypassed wa−
ter to 90 percent of the maximum demand through
coils, heat exchangers and other terminal units.
15.2.2.16 Operating Ranges
After all TAB work has been completed and the sys−
tems are operating within plus or minus 10 percent of
design flow, mark or score all balancing valves, gages,
and thermometers at final set points and/or range of
operation.
15.2.2.17 Safety Controls
Verify the action of all water flow safety and shut−
down controls.
15.2.2.18 Report Forms
Prepare all TAB report forms (Chapter 16) and submit
as required.
15.3
PIPING SYSTEM BALANCING
Many systems use combinations of the piping applica−
tions outlined below. As it is necessary to apply bal−
ancing procedures correctly, a procedure (or system)
may be required to be broken down into several steps
that correspond to the source, outlet, and piping.
All of the balancing procedures outlined below have
two things in common:
a.
Balancing of a forced circulation system
starts at the pump. Pump testing and adjust−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
ment, as described in section 15.2, must be
done prior to any adjustments to system pip−
ing or terminal units.
b.
System terminal units are maintained in the
full flow position (i.e. control valves open to
coil and closed to bypass) during the entire
balancing procedure.
15.3.1
One-Pipe Systems
15.3.1.1
Series Loop
Upon adjustment of the source flow rate, balancing of
a series loop is accomplished with the use of one bal−
ancing device located in the loop. Balancing valves are
normally located at the end (return) of a series loop
piping arrangement. Adjustment of more than one de−
vice within a loop will directly affect the flow and heat
transfer of other terminals in the loop. Total loop flow
is the primary concern in the adjustment of series loop
systems.
15.3.1.2
One-Pipe (Monoflow)
Upon adjustment of the source flow rate, balancing of
a one−pipe (single main) system is initiated with the
first terminal unit supplied by the source. Adjustment
of individual terminal unit flow rates may be accom−
plished by any of the acceptable methods utilizing a
balancing device normally located in the return pip−
ing. Adjustment of the system continues sequentially
from the first to the last terminal unit served.
15.3.2
Two-Pipe Systems
15.3.2.1
Direct-Return
Upon adjustment of the source flow rate, balancing of
a two−pipe, direct−return system is initiated with the
first terminal unit supplied by the source. Adjustment
of terminal unit flow rates may be accomplished by
any of the acceptable methods as outlined in the pre−
vious subsection. Adjustment of system terminal units
continues sequentially from the first to the last termi−
nal unit served. Several passes of the system terminal
units may be required to achieve balanced conditions.
Therefore, on the first pass it is recommended that
flow to the first 1_e section of the system should be ad−
justed 10 percent below the design requirements. The
reasoning for this is that the system differential pres−
sure will increase as terminal unit flow rates are adjus−
ted. On the second pass of balancing, flow rates for the
first section of terminal units usually will have in−
creased, but they should remain within acceptable tol−
erances.
15.3.2.2
Reverse-Return
Adjustment and balancing of two−pipe reverse−return
systems is usually much easier due to the inherent
equal system pressure differential resulting from the
piping arrangement. For example, a properly sized re−
verse−return piping system serving ten terminal units
of identical capacity and resistance may require ad−
justment to the total system flow rate only. Flow will
then be equally distributed to the terminals as a result
of the piping application. However, many reverse−
return systems do not contain identical terminal units.
A review of the terminal units with specific attention
to unit resistance should be made. Adjust the terminal
flow rates starting with the units of least resistance and
work toward the units with the greatest resistance.
15.3.3
Three-Pipe Systems (SummerWinter)
Due to the nature of this unusual piping application,
the heating and cooling water systems may be viewed
as diversity operations. In other words, the required
terminal unit flow rate may vary with actual load
conditions. Balancing should be performed on a sys−
tem in a maximum load condition. Therefore, source
and terminal unit adjustment should be accomplished
with all terminal units (or as many as stipulated by di−
versity procedure) in the wide−open position.
Although connected to one another, the cooling and
heating piping systems should be balanced as indepen−
dently as possible with the given system conditions.
Be aware that incorrect piping of automatic tempera−
ture control valves or improper system pressurization
may result in extreme difficulties while performing the
balancing procedures. Crossed piping and/or incorrect
valve applications are another common installation
problem.
15.3.4
Four-Pipe Systems (SummerWinter)
Typical four−pipe systems are simply two independent
two−pipe systems and should be addressed accor−
dingly. Four−pipe systems may also be seen as the heart
of ?summer−winter systems". They are reviewed in the
following section 15.5.
15.4
BALANCING SPECIFIC SYSTEMS
The basic steps previously outlined in section 15.2
form the foundation for balancing any hydronic dis−
tribution system. In this subsection, additional or spe−
cial balancing procedures are outlined for use in bal−
ancing specific types of hydronic distribution systems.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
15.5
All equipment such as boilers, chillers, compressors,
etc., shall be started by, and operated under, the super−
vision of the responsible contractor or the designated
authority.
15.4.1
Chilled and/or Hot Water
Equipment
15.4.1.1
Equipment Pressures Differences
15.4.1.5
Coils
When units or systems have multiple coil sections, ad−
just the water flow to the design water pressure drop
across each coil. A less accurate method of balancing
multiple coil sections involves reading the water tem−
peratures at each coil section with insertion thermom−
eters and adjusting the balancing valves until uniform
temperatures are obtained.
15.4.1.6
Flow through chillers, HVAC unit coils, and heat ex−
changers should be measured by using flow meters or
calibrated balancing valves if installed. Otherwise use
the equipment manufacturer’s certified pressure drop
tables and curves or use the pressure drop characteris−
tics of automatic control valves. If three−way control
valves are used, measure the pressure difference with
full flow both through the coil or unit and the bypass.
Set the bypass line balancing cock to maintain a
constant pressure with the control valve in either posi−
tion.
15.4.1.2
Unit Measurements
When fan−coil units or induction units are used with a
direct return piping system, flow measurements for
each unit should be made, either by using calibrated
balancing valves, by taking pressure readings across
each coil, from pressure readings across each automat−
ic water valve, or (as a last resort) from water or air
temperature readings.
15.4.1.3
Reverse Returns
When a reverse return piping system is installed, a
flow measurement should be made at each set of risers
to make sure that all units are getting the water flow to
provide a fairly uniform water temperature drop. All
automatic water valves must be open and coils must
have the rated airflow when measurements are being
made.
15.4.1.4
Temperature Differences
After all of the fan−coil type units have been put into
operation with all automatic valves fully open and full
flow through the coils, take the entering and leaving
water temperatures of all chillers, boilers, heat ex−
changers and coils. Record and compare with design
conditions.
15.6
Complete the TAB procedures by recording the re−
quired data on TAB report forms (Chapter 16) for sub−
mittal.
15.4.2
Cooling Tower Systems
15.4.2.1
Tower Conditions
With the system off, confirm that the water level in the
tower basin is at the correct level and that the piping
system has been cleaned and flushed. On towers with
variable pitch fan blades, verify that the setting of the
blades is correct for the test conditions. Verify that all
dampers are open and that all fan motors are ready to
operate.
15.4.2.2
Pumps
With pump(s) off, observe and record the system static
pressure at the pump(s).
15.4.2.3
System Startup
Place the system into operation and allow the flow
conditions to stabilize. Check the operation of the wa−
ter makeup valve and blow down.
15.4.2.4
Amperages
Record the operating voltage and amperage of all fan
and pump motors and compare these with nameplate
ratings and thermal overload heater ratings.
15.4.2.5
Pump Speed
Record the speed of each pump and verify with sub−
mittals.
15.4.2.6
Zero Flow Readings
With the pump(s) running, slowly close the balancing
cock in each pump discharge line and record shutoff
discharge and suction pressures at the pump gage con−
nections. Do not use this method if a positive dis−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
placement pump(s) is used. Using the shutoff head,
determine (and verify) the actual pump operating
curve and the size of each impeller. Compare this data
with the submittal data curves. If the test point falls on
the design curve, proceed to the next step; if not, plot
a new curve parallel with other curves on the chart,
from zero flow to maximum flow. Make sure the test
readings were taken correctly before plotting a new
curve. Preferably a single gage should be used to read
differential pressure. It is important that gage readings
be corrected to center line elevation of the pump.
15.4.2.12 Tower Airflow
15.4.2.7
15.4.2.14 Condenser Controls
Tower Water Flow
Establish a uniform water distribution within the tower
where possible, and check for clogged outlets or spray
nozzles. Check for vortex conditions at the tower con−
denser water suction connection.
15.4.2.8
Condensers
Record the inlet and outlet pressures of the condens−
er(s) and check against the manufacturer’s design
pressure difference.
15.4.2.9
Three-W ay Control Valve
When a three−way control valve is used in the condens−
er water piping at the tower, measure the pressure dif−
ference with full water flow going both through the
tower and/or through the bypass line. Set the bypass
line balancing cock to maintain a constant pressure at
the pump discharge with the control valve in either
position.
If the cooling tower has a ducted inlet or outlet, make
a Pitot tube traverse of the duct to verify the airflow.
15.4.2.13 Refrigeration System
After operation stabilizes under a normal cooling load,
measure and record the condenser water inlet and out−
let temperatures. Observe and record the percent of
load on the compressor where possible.
After setting the three−way control valve (to control
head pressure) in the condenser water line (step
15.4.2.9), verify and record that it operates to maintain
the correct head pressure by varying the flow at the
tower. On units that have a fan cycling control, verify
that the fan cycles to maintain design condenser water
temperature. If fan inlet or outlet damper controls are
used, verify that the dampers modulate to maintain the
design condenser water temperature leaving the tower.
15.4.2.15 Pump Adjustments
Make another complete set of pressure, voltage and
ampere readings at the pump(s). If the pump(s) capac−
ity has fallen below design flow, open the balancing
cock(s) at the pump discharge to bring flow within 5
to 10 percent of the design reading, if possible.
15.4.2.16 Final Measurements
Make final measurements of all pump, fan and equip−
ment data, and record on the TAB report forms.
15.4.2.10 Tower Fan(s)
15.4.2.17 Operating Ranges
Start the tower fan(s) and check rotation, gear box,
belts and sheave alignment. Measure and record fan
motor amperes, voltage, phase and speed.
15.4.2.11 Temperature Readings
After all balancing work has been completed and the
system is operating within plus or minus 10 percent of
design flow, mark or score all balancing valves, gages,
and thermometers at final set points and/or range of
operation.
Take inlet and outlet dry bulb and wet bulb air temper−
ature readings. Take test readings continually with a
minimum of time lapse between readings. Note wind
velocity and direction at the time of the test.
15.4.2.18 Safety Controls
Take inlet air temperature readings between 3 and 5
feet (0.9 and 1.5 m) from the tower at all inlets. These
readings shall be taken halfway between the base and
the top of the inlet and then averaged.
15.4.2.19 Report Forms
Verify the action of all water flow safety and shutdown
controls.
Prepare all TAB report forms (Chapter 16) and submit
as required.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
15.7
15.4.3
Boilers
15.4.3.8
15.4.3.1
Boiler Conditions
Follow the basic TAB procedures for hot water sys−
tems.
Verify that the boiler(s) and/or system has been
cleaned, flushed, and started; that all safety and oper−
ating controls have been tested, adjusted and set; and
that the burner(s) is operating properly and at full ca−
pacity.
15.4.3.2
a.
Boiler feed pump(s) or makeup water sys−
tem(s) and compression tank operation.
b.
Boiler, burner and pump nameplate data.
c.
Boiler control settings (operating pressures
and temperatures).
e.
Water flow rates and inlet and outlet tempera−
tures (hot water boilers).
Steam boiler water level proper and steady.
15.4.3.3
System Venting
On initial runs, hot water systems normally require
additional air venting. Confirm that automatic air
vents are operating and vent air manually as required.
15.4.3.4
Steam Traps
Prepare TAB report forms (Chapter 16) and submit as
required.
15.4.4
Heat Exchangers/Converters
15.4.4.1
Water Flow
Determine the water flow through the heat exchanger
for all circuits using flow meters or calibrated balanc−
ing valves. If the measured differential pressure must
be used, the flow data can be obtained from the
manufacturer’s submittal data curves or tables. Adjust
the flow to design conditions and record the data.
15.4.4.2
Control Valves
Confirm that all automatic temperature control valves
and steam pressure reducing valves in the system have
the proper setting or mode of operation for the TAB
work.
15.4.3.6
Strainers
15.4.4.3
15.4.3.7
Steam Distribution
15.4.4.4
15.8
Safety Valves
Record safety valve settings.
Strainers
Confirm that all pipe strainers are clean.
15.4.4.6
Steam Traps
Check the operation of any steam traps.
15.4.4.7
Air Vents
Check all automatic air vents; manually vent air from
hydronic piping as required.
TAB Procedures
Follow the basic procedures for hot water or steam sys−
tem TAB work for items not mentioned above.
15.4.4.9
The distribution of steam systems is set by the piping
design, layout and pressures; therefore, no field bal−
ancing is required.
Control Data
Measure and record the inlet steam pressure when
used; check the setting and/or operation of any auto−
matic temperature control valves, self contained con−
trol valves, or pressure reducing valves. Record the
data.
15.4.4.8
Confirm that all pipe strainers are clean.
Temperature Measurements
Take inlet and outlet water temperature readings;
check against design data and record.
15.4.4.5
Coil and main drip steam traps can be checked for
proper operation with a surface contact thermometer.
15.4.3.5
Report Forms
System Conditions
With the boiler(s) operating under normal conditions,
check the following:
d.
15.4.3.9
Hot Water Procedures
Report Forms
Prepare TAB report forms (Chapter 16) and submit as
required.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
15.5
VARIABLE VOLUME FLOW
15.5.1
Heating Systems at Reduced Flow
Rates
code, does not allow the temperature increase safety
factor to be applied.
The typical heating only hydronic system often oper−
ates satisfactory at reduced flow because of the water
flow/heat transfer relationship, as shown in Figure
15−4.
100
PERCENT OF DESIGN HEAT TRANSFER
90
80
15.5.1.2
The previous comments apply to allowable flow varia−
tion for heating terminal units selected for a 20F
(11C) temperature drop (∆t) and the general order of
200F (93C) supply water temperature. Changes in
design supply water temperature and design tempera−
ture drop affect permissible flow variation. When 90
percent terminal capacity is acceptable for a system
application, the flow variation can be approximated,
as shown in Figure 15−5.
15.5.1.3
70
60
Flow Variation
Heating Tolerance
Note that heating system tolerance to unbalance de−
creases with increases in the design ∆t and with de−
creases in supply water temperature. As a general rule,
however, system tolerance to flow rates less than de−
sign is important.
50
40
30
15.5.2
20
Cooling Systems at Reduced Flow
Rates
10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
PERCENT OF DESIGN FLOW RATE
90
100
FIGURE 15-4 EFFECTS OF FLOW
VARIATION ON HEAT TRANSFER 20_F
(11_C) ∆t AT 200_F (93_C)
15.5.1.1
Heat Transfer Rates
A decrease in terminal unit flow rate to 50 percent of
design requirement still allows about 90 percent of
heat transfer capability. The reason for the relative in−
sensitivity to changing flow rates is that the governing
coefficient for heat transfer is the air side coefficient.
A change in internal or water side coefficient with flow
rates does not materially affect the overall heat transfer
coefficient. This means that (1) load ability for water−
to−air terminals is basically established by the mean
air−to−water temperature difference, (2) a high order of
design temperature difference exists between the air
being heated and mean water temperature in the coil
(a substantial change in mean water temperature is
necessary before terminal load ability is measurably
changed), and (3) a substantial change in the mean wa−
ter temperature (load ability) requires a very substan−
tial change in water flow rate. A reduction in terminal
heating capacity caused by an inadequate flow rate
often can be overcome by simply raising the system
supply water temperature. Designing near the upper
temperature limits, 250F (121C) for low pressure
Chilled water terminal units are much less tolerant to
flow variation. This is illustrated in Figure 15−5, which
compares chilled and heating terminals for flow reduc−
tion that will establish 90 percent of design heat trans−
fer capacity.
PERCENT OF DESIGN FLOW
0
100
50
45
40
90
80
140
220
260
300
180
70
60
50
40
CONVERSION FACTOR:
C=(F-32)/1.8
C=degF/1.8
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
DESIGN T
FIGURE 15-5 PERCENT VARIATION TO
MAINTAIN 90% TERMINAL HEAT
TRANSFER
15.5.2.1
Dual-T emperature Units
Many dual−temperature changeover systems are com−
pleted and first started during the heating season. Rea−
sonably adequate heating ability in all terminals may
suggest that the system is balanced adequately. As
shown in Figure 15−5, 40 percent of design flow
through the terminal provides 90 percent terminal de−
sign heating with about 140F (60C) supply water
and a 10 F (5.6C) ∆t. Increased supply water tem−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
15.9
The majority of dual−temperature systems establish a
decreased flow during the cooling season because of
the introduction of chiller pressure drop against the
distribution pump. The flow reduction can reach 25
percent, meaning that during chiller operation, a ter−
minal that original heated satisfactorily could receive
only 30 percent of the originally defined design flow
rate.
15.5.2.3
Mandatory TAB Work
Under these circumstances, TAB work will become
mandatory during spring chilled water startup. Bal−
ancing procedures therefore must be related to the
least tolerant system application or the cooling season.
The procedures follow below under section 15.7.
100
90
TOTAL
HEAT
80
SENSIBLE
HEAT
100
70
90
60
50
40
30
80
70
60
50
40
100
80
% LATENT
Increased System Pressure
% SENSIBLE
15.5.2.2
75F (23.9C) DB, 65F (18.3C) WB]. Deviation
from the curves shown is to be expected with changes
in inlet water temperature, temperature rise, air veloc−
ity, and DB and WB conditions. Figure 15−4 should be
considered only as a general representation of variable
change, not as a fact that applies to all chilled water ap−
plications.
% TOTAL HEAT TRANSFER
perature establishes the same heat transfer at terminal
flow rates of less than 40 percent design.
30
20
20
10
10
0
15.5.2.4
HEAT TRANSFER RATES
%
Design
Other
Load
Load
Type
90% Load Sensible
Total
Latent
Sensible
65
90
84
58
Total
75
95
90
65
Latent
90
98
95
90
Order of
%
Flow
at
Table 15-1 Load-Flow Variations
Dual temperature systems are designed to chilled flow
requirements and often operate on a 10F (5.6C)
temperature drop as full−load heating.
The basic curve applies to catalog ratings for lower dry
bulb temperatures, provided a consistent entering air
moisture content or vapor pressure is maintained [e.g.,
15.10
20
40
60
PERCENT DESIGN FLOW
80
100
CONVERSION FACTOR:
C=degF/1.8
20
15
10
0
The general change for chilled water heat transfer with
changes in water flow rate is shown in Figure 15−6. The
curves shown are based on ARI rating points: 45F
(7.2C) inlet water at a 10F (5.6C) rise with air at
80F (26.7C) DB and 67F (19.4C) WB.
60
40
20
0
TEMP. RISE
The major reason for lessened tolerance of chilled wa−
ter terminals to decreased flow is that the air−to−water
temperature difference is much less than that with the
heating cycle.
LATENT
HEAT
0
20
40
60
80
100
FIGURE 15-6 CHILLED WATER TERMINAL FLOW VERSUS HEAT TRANSFER
If the chilled water terminal is matched to the load, the
load variation to 90 percent design can be interpreted
to three flow variations, as shown in Table 15−1. Note
that load−flow variation for Figure 15−5 is stated for to−
tal load.
Table 15−1 and Figure 15−6 illustrate that the first loss
with reduced chilled terminal flow rate is latent cap−
ability. Table 15−1 defines that permissible flow varia−
tion from design will be related to the following ap−
plication requirements:
(1) when high latent
capability is needed, operational terminal flow rate
must substantially meet design flow and (2) the ap−
plication where sensible load control is predominant
provides for a much wider terminal flow tolerance.
15.5.3
Variable Speed Pump Curves
Figure 15−7 shows pump curves from 50 percent to 100
percent capacity using a variable speed drive. Several
efficient plot points A, B and C are used as system
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
curve start points to describe variable speed pump op−
eration curves. The intersection of the percent base
speed pump curves with the system ?control curve"
can be determined as points 1 through 5 in Figure 15−7.
Each intersection point states a pump, flow, head, and
efficiency point. These points, in combination with
variable speed drive efficiency, permit an indication of
the power draw for the pump drive combination at the
flow points illustrated.
Procedures
When circulating pump and terminal unit capacities
are within acceptable tolerances, terminal unit balanc−
ing may be performed in accordance with procedures
stipulated by the piping configuration of the system.
Units isolated for the initial balancing procedure are
then balanced to design flow rates.
Specific units and procedures involved in the diversity
balancing procedure should be delineated in an agenda
for approval prior to initiating field testing.
1
POWER
15.5.4.2
2
3
15.6
PRIMARY-SECONDAR Y
SYSTEMS
15.6.1
Primary Loop
4
5
50%
% EFF
60%
70%
A
75%
77%
B
50% EFF CURVE
70%
79%
C
1750 RPM
(100% SYNCHRONOUS)
77%
90%
“CONTROL CURVE”
1
80%
HEAD
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
CONTROL RANGE
2
70%
60%
3
4
50%
5
DISTRIBUTION PIPING HEAD LOSS CURVE
(HIGH HEAD LOSS SYSTEM)
FLOW RATE
FIGURE 15-7 PUMP WITH VARIABLE
SPEED DRIVE
15.5.4
Balancing Variable Volume
Systems
15.5.4.1
Characteristics
Variable volume systems have the following charac−
teristics:
a.
A system diversity is usually present (re−
quired terminal flow rate exceeds pump and
primary heat exchange unit).
b.
Two−way control valves are utilized at termi−
nal units creating a variable system flow rate
or pressure differential.
c.
Some form of differential pressure control
(such as variable speed pumping) normally is
used to maintain system differential pressure
requirements.
Primary−secondary systems (Figure 15−8) may appear
to be too complex when first reviewed, but a proper
system analysis will result in a relatively simple bal−
ancing procedure. First, address the primary loop. The
source (primary pump) may supply outlets (primary
bridges) in any of the possible piping arrangements de−
scribed previously. The duty of the primary pump is to
supply proper circulation to the primary bridges and
return water back to the source. Initial balancing
should therefore be restricted to the primary loop and
its components. Note that secondary systems should
be in full flow operation during primary loop balanc−
ing.
15.6.2
Secondary Loops
Upon adjustment of primary pump flow rate, primary
bridge piping is adjusted using a procedure applicable
to the piping arrangement of the loop. When primary
loop flow rates have been adjusted to design quanti−
ties, testing of the secondary systems may begin. Test−
ing of each secondary system should be accomplished
independently with procedures applicable to the pip−
ing arrangement of the secondary loop.
15.7
SUMMER-WINTER SYSTEMS
Characteristics of summer−winter piping applications
(Figure 15−9) as stated above in section 15.5 Variable
Volume Flow dictate that initial system testing and bal−
ancing be accomplished in the cooling mode of opera−
tion.
15.7.1
Cooling Mode
Design terminal unit cooling flow rates are usually
much greater than that required for heating. As the ter−
minal unit may only be adjusted to satisfy one flow
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
15.11
15.7.2
rate, that flow rate must be the greatest required, nor−
mally that of the cooling application. The system pip−
ing should be analyzed and set to accommodate the re−
quirements of summer operation prior to pump testing.
Insure that no bypasses are open and that summer−win−
ter changeover valves (manual or automatic) are func−
tional and open to the cooling mode of operation. Pro−
ceed to test and balance the pump(s) required for the
chilled water operation. Upon completion of the ad−
justments to the circulation pump(s), test and balance
the terminal units of the system in accordance with
recommended procedures outlined for the piping ap−
plication.
Heating Mode
Upon completion of system balancing in the cooling
mode of operation, switch the system operation over
to the heating mode. Balance applicable pumps and
equipment unique to the hot water piping without dis−
turbing the valve settings accomplished during the
summer mode balancing procedure.
15.7.3
Alternative Mode
If necessary, balancing of summer−winter systems
may be accomplished in the winter mode of operation
provided system pump and terminal units are set to de−
sign chilled water flow rates.
Control
Valves
Terminal
Unit
3-W ay control
Valve for
secondary circuit
Common
Flow
Secondary
Pump
Common Flow
Secondary
Pump
B
C
D
Balance Cock
Boiler
or
Chiller
E
F
A
Primary Pump
FIGURE 15-8 EXAMPLE OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PUMPING CIRCUITS
15.12
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
By-pass valve
Control
valve
Check
valve
Boiler
Flow control
valves
Zone1
Zone 2
Air
flow
Air
flow
Chiller
Compr.
Tank
By-pass valve
Air separator
FIGURE 15-9 SUMMER-WINTER SYSTEMS
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
15.13
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
15.14
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
CHAPTER 16
TAB REPORT FORMS
CHAPTER 16
16.1
PREPARING TAB REPORT FORMS
The proper use of the TAB Report Forms by SMACNA
contractors, both as work sheets and as a final report
of operating conditions, will provide the best method
of ensuring that testing, adjusting, and balancing is be−
ing correctly, systematically, and effectively per−
formed.
As described in Chapter 12CPreliminary TAB Proce−
dures, design and manufacturer’s data should be en−
tered on applicable report forms during the initial plan−
ning stages for TAB. This step coupled with proper
instruction of the TAB team by the use of these forms
as work sheets will facilitate production and enhance
the final results.
Accuracy in preparing the final report forms is impor−
tant for several reasons:
a.
They provide a permanent record of system
operating conditions after the last adjust−
ments have been made.
b.
They confirm that the prescribed TAB proce−
dures have been executed.
c.
They will serve as a handy reference that can
be used by the owner for maintenance.
d.
They provide the system designer with a sys−
tem operational check and would serve as an
aid in diagnosing problem areas.
16.2
DESCRIPTION OF USE
The following is a brief explanation of the use of each
report form and of any entries which may not be self−
explanatory. The TAB Report Forms are designed for
multiple use, therefore it is not necessary to enter data
in all blank spaces or at each designated item.
16.2.1 System Diagram—TAB 1-02
This report form is to be used primarily for a schematic
layout of air distribution systems, but it may be used
for hydronic systems as well. A single line system dia−
gram is highly recommended to insure systematic and
efficient procedures. Figure 12.1 in Chapter 12 depicts
a typical system diagram. Be sure to show quantities
of outside air, return air and relief air, sizes and airflow
for main ducts, sizes and airflow of outlets and inlets,
and all dampers, regulating devices and terminal units.
All outlets should be numbered before filling out form
TAB 9−02CAir Outlet Test Report (or TAB 9A−02,
9B−02 and 9C−02). The use of this form is not mandato−
TAB REPORT FORMS
ry and, if appropriate, a larger (similar) diagram sheet
or computer printout diagram may be used.
16.2.2 Air Apparatus Test Report TAB 2-02
The performance of air handling apparatus with coils
is to be reported on this report form. In addition, there
is space for other information which will be of benefit
to the design engineer, the maintenance engineer, and
the TAB technician. Motor voltage and amperage for
three phase motors should be reported for all three legs
(T1, T2, T3). If the design engineer did not specify a de−
sign quantity for any item in the test data section, place
an X in the slot for the design quantity and record the
actual quantity. However, if the equipment manufac−
turer furnished ratings, enter them in the design co−
lumns. If motor ratings differ from submitted data,
provide an explanation at the bottom of the page.
16.2.3 Apparatus Coil Test Report TAB 3-02
This report form is to be used for recording perfor−
mance of chilled water, hot water, steam, or DX coils,
and for run−around heat recovery systems. The perfor−
mance of as many as four coils (or two run−around sys−
tems) can be shown on the same sheet.
16.2.4 Gas/Oil Fired Heat Apparatus Test
Report—TAB 4-02
Data for gas or oil fired devices such as unit heaters,
duct furnaces, etc. should be recorded on this report
form. This report is not intended to be used in lieu of
a factory start−up equipment report, but could be used
as a supplement. All available design data should be
reported. The ?HP/RPM, F. L. AMPS/S.F. (Service
Factor), Drive Data" information could apply to the
burner motor, burner fan motor, unit air fan motor, etc.
depending on the application or equipment. Therefore,
designate the motor of the recorded data.
16.2.5 Electronic Coil/Duct Heater Test
Report—TAB 5-02
This report form is to be used for electric furnaces, or
for electric coils installed in built−up units or in branch
ducts. ?Min. Air Vel." is the manufacturers recom−
mended minimum airflow velocity.
16.2.6 Fan Test Report—TAB 6-02
This report form is to be used with supply air, return
air, or exhaust air fans. Since housings for various
types of fans may have many different shapes and ar−
rangements, not all entry blanks will be needed for
testing a particular fan. The performance of up to three
fans may be reported on this sheet.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.1
16.2.7 Rectangular Duct Traverse Report—
TAB 7-02
on the test report form is acceptable based on the prior−
ity assigned in Chapter 14.
This report form is to be used as a work sheet for re−
cording the results of a Pitot tube traverse in a rectan−
gular duct. It is recommended that the velocity pres−
sures be recorded in one−half of each of the spaces
provided and converted to velocities in the other half
of each space at a later time. The velocities shall be av−
eraged (not the velocity pressures).
16.2.11 Packaged Chiller Test Report—
TAB 12-02
Instructions for making a traverse are shown on the re−
verse side of the form (next page in manual).
16.2.8 Round Duct Traverse Report—
TAB 8-02
Record the results of a Pitot tube traverse in a round
duct on this work sheet type report form. Spaces shown
are for velocity pressures and velocities taken at points
across two diameters of the duct. Instructions for mak−
ing the traverse are shown on the reverse side (next
page in manual).
16.2.9 Air Outlet Test Report (Includes TAB
9A-02, TAB 9B-02 AND TAB 9C-02)
As these report forms can be used as both work sheets
and final report forms, the TAB technician is encour−
aged to record all readings on these test report forms.
However, it is not necessary to record preliminary ve−
locity readings on the final forms unless specified by
the design engineer. If more than one set of prelimi−
nary readings is necessary or required, the data can be
entered in the blank column between Preliminary and
Final. The outlet number refers to numbers similar to
those assigned on the schematic layout of Figure 12.1
which should be drawn on form TAB 1−02. The mini−
mum columns on TAB 9C−02 are for the recom−
mended minimum settings of VAV boxes.
If the final adjusted airflow of any outlet varies by
more than ± 10 percent from the design airflow, a note
should be placed in the remarks section indicating the
amount of variance. The remarks section at the bottom
of the sheet should be used to provide known or poten−
tial reasons for such deviation.
16.2.10 Terminal Unit Coil Check Report—
TAB 11-02
This report form is used as a work sheet to check the
water coil of terminal units. Any of the three methods
for determining water flow or heat transfer indicated
16.2
Use this report form as a check sheet to record the con−
trol settings and the entering and leaving conditions at
the chiller. Since the TAB technician is not responsible
for start−up or the proper operation of the machine, this
form does not attempt to indicate the performance or
efficiency of the machine except as may be determined
by the design engineer from the data contained therein.
The SMACNA TAB 12−02 report form or the equip−
ment manufacturer’s form should be substantially
completed and verified by the manufacturers’ repre−
sentatives and/or the installing contractor before the
HVAC distribution systems are balanced. Temperature
and pressure readings of the chiller unit evaporator and
condenser should be entered during the TAB proce−
dures.
16.2.12 Package Rooftop/Heat Pump/Air
Conditioning Unit Test Report—
TAB 13-02
Test data from package units of all types is to be re−
corded on this report form, with most of the data being
furnished and verified by the installing contractor. If
the unit has components other than the evaporator fan,
DX coil, compressor, and condenser fan(s), use an ap−
propriate test report form such as:
Form TAB 3−02 for water or steam coils
Form TAB 4−02 for direct fired heaters
Form TAB 5−02 for electric coils
Form TAB 6−02 for return air fans
16.2.13 Compressor and/or Condenser Test
Report—TAB 14-02
The same comments apply to this report form as for
form TAB 12−02. This form may also be used to have
the installing contractor record data for the refrigerant
side of unitary systems, bare compressors, separate air
cooled condensers, or separate water cooled condens−
ers.
16.2.14 Cooling Tower or Evaporative
Condenser Test Report—TAB 15-02
This report form should be substantially completed
and verified by the installing contractor before the sys−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
tem is balanced. The pump data section is to be used
for the recirculating pump in evaporative condensers,
not the system pump used with cooling towers (use
form TAB 17−02CPump Test Report).
16.2.15 Heat Exchanger/Converter Test
Report—TAB 16-02
This report form is designed to record final conditions
for up to three steam or hot water heat exchangers.
16.2.16 Pump Test Report—TAB 17-02
Final data on each pump performance must be re−
corded on this form. The actual impeller diameter
entry is that indicated by plotting the head curve or by
actual field measurement where possible. Net positive
suction heat (NPSH) is an important item for pumps in
open circuits and for pumps handling fluids at elevated
temperatures.
16.2.17 Balance Valve/Flow Meter Test
Report—TAB 18-02
This new report form is used for recording data from
balance valves or flow meters in hydronic systems.
16.2.18 Boiler Test Report—TAB 19-02
This report form may be used by the installing contrac−
tor to substantially verify the data on this test report,
particularly when factory start−up services are invol−
ved. A flue gas analysis is beyond the scope of TAB
procedures, but data could be added in the ?remarks"
section if available and required by the design engi−
neer.
16.2.19 Instrument Calibration Report—
TAB 20-02
This report form is to be used for recording the applica−
tion and date of the most recent calibration test or cal−
ibration for each instrument used in the testing, adjust−
ing, and balancing work.
o determine the average air velocity in square or rec−
tangular ducts, a Pitot tube traverse must be made to
measure the velocities at the center points of equal
areas over the cross section of the duct. The number of
equal areas should not be less than 15, but need not be
more than 64. The maximum distance between center
points, for less than 64 readings, should not be more
than 6 inches (150 mm). The readings closest to the
ductwalls should be taken at one−half of this distance.
For maximum accuracy, the velocity corresponding to
each velocity pressure measured must be determined
and then averaged.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.3
TAB 1-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
TAB Report Forms
SYSTEM DIAGRAM
PROJECT
LOCATION
16.4
SYSTEM UNIT
DATE
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
TAB 2-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
AIR APPARATUS
TEST REPORT
PROJECT
SYSTEM UNIT
LOCATION
DATE
UNIT DATA
MOTOR DATA
Make/Model No.
Make/Frame
Type/Size
HP (W) RPM
Serial Number
Volts/Phase/Hertz
Arr./Class
F.L. Amps/S.F.
Discharge
Sheave
Sheave
Sheave Diam/Bore
Sheave Diam/Bore
Sheave Distance
No. Belts/Make/Size
No. Filters/Type/Size
TEST DATA
DESIGN
ACTUAL
TEST DATA
Total CFM (L/s)
Discharge S.P.
Total S.P.
Suction S.P.
Fan RPM
Reheat Coil S.P.
DESIGN
ACTUAL
Cooling Coil S.P.
Motor Volts
Preheat Coil S.P.
Motor Amps T1/T2/T3
Filters S.P.
Outside Air CFM (L/s)
Return Air CFM (L/s)
Vortex Damp. Position
Out Air Damp. Position
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.5
TAB 3-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
APPARATUS COIL
TEST REPORT
PROJECT
COIL DATA
COIL NO.
COIL NO.
COIL NO.
COIL NO.
System Number
Location
Coil Type
No. Row-Fins/in. (mm)
Manufacturer
Model Number
Face Area, Ft.2 (m2)
TEST DATA
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
Air Qty., CFM (L/s)
Air Vel., FPM (m/s)
Press. Drop, in. (Pa)
Out. Air DB/WB
Ret. Air DB/WB
Ent. Air DB/WB
Lvg. Air DB/WB
Air T
Water Flow, GPM (L/s)
Press. Drop, PSI (kPa)
Ent. Water Temp.
Lvg. Water Temp.
Water T
Exp. Valve/Refrig.
Refrig. Suction Press.
Refrig. Suction Temp.
Inlet Steam Press.
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
16.6
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
ACTUAL
TAB 4-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
GAS/OIL FIRED HEAT APPARATUS
TEST REPORT
PROJECT
UNIT DATA
UNIT NO.
UNIT NO.
UNIT NO.
UNIT NO.
System
Location
Make/Model
Type/Size
Serial Number
Type Fuel/Input
Output
Ignition Type
Burner Control
Volts/Phase/Hertz
HP (W)/RPM
F.L. Amps/S.F.
Drive Data
TEST DATA
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
CFM (L/s)
Ent./Lvg. Air Temp
Air Temp. T
Ent. Lvg. Air Press.
Air Press. P
Low Fire Input
High Fire Input
Manifold Press
High Limit Setting
Operating Set Point
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.7
TAB 5-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
ELECTRIC COIL/DUCT HEATER
TEST REPORT
PROJECT
COIL DATA
COIL NO.
COIL NO.
COIL NO.
COIL NO.
System Number
Location
Coil Type
Stages
Manufacturer
Model Number
Face Area, Ft.2 (m2)
TEST DATA
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
Air Qty., CFM (L/s)
Min. Air Vel., FPM (m/s)
Press.Drop, In. wg (Pa)
KW
Phase
Ent. Air DB/WB
Lvg. Air DB/WB
Air T
Volts (T1-T 2)
Volts (T2-T 3)
Volts (T3-T 1)
Amps (T1)
Amps (T2)
Amps (T3)
Limit-Cutout Time
Limit-Cutout Temp.
Flow Switch Check
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
16.8
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
ACTUAL
TAB 6-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
FAN TEST REPORT
PROJECT
FAN DATA
FAN NO.
FAN NO.
FAN NO.
Location
Service
Manufacturer
Model Number
Serial Number
Class
Motor Make/Frame
Motor HP (W) / RPM
Volts/Phase/Hertz
F.L. Amps/S.F.
Motor Sheave Make
Motor Sheave Diam./Bore
No. Belts/Make/Size
Sheave Distance
TEST DATA
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
CFM (L/s)
Fan RPM
Total S.P. Suction
Total S.P.—Discharge
Total S.P.
Amperage T1/T2/T3
Voltage
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.9
TAB 7-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
RECTANGULAR DUCT
TRAVERSE REPORT
PROJECT
SYSTEM UNIT
LOCATION/ZONE
SERVICE
ALTITUDE
DENSITY
CORR. FACTOR
DUCT
S.P.
REQUIRED
F
Air Temp
(C)
Size
DISTANCE
FROM
BOTTOM
Area
POSITION
1
2
3
ACTUAL
SCFM (sL/s)
SCFM (sL/s)
FPM (m/s)
FPM (m/s)
CFM (L/s)
CFM (L/s)
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
DISTANCE FROM
DUCT EDGE
VELOCITY
SUB-T OTALS
NOTE: Take readings with air blowing toward the observer.
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
16.10
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
12
13
TAB 7-02 (Cont.)
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
INSTRUCTIONS
METHOD No.1
(EQUAL AREA)
To determine the average air velocity in square or
rectangular ducts, a Pitot tube traverse must be made to
measure the velocities at the center points of equal areas
over the cross section of the duct. The number of equal
areas should not be less than 15, but need not be more than
64. The maximum distance between center points, for less
than 64 readings, should not be more than 6 inches (150
mm). The readings closest to the ductwalls should be taken
at one-half of this distance. For maximum accuracy, the
velocity corresponding to each velocity pressure measured
must be determined and then averaged.
METHOD No.2
(LOG)
NO. OF POINTS OR
TRAVERSE LINES
POSITION RELATIVE TO INNER WALL
5
0.074, 0.238, 0.500, 0.712, 0.926
6
0.061, 0.235, 0.437, 0.563, 0.765, 0.939
7
0.053, 0.203, 0.366, 0.500, 0.634, 0.797, 0.947
LOG TCHEBYCHEFF RULE FOR RECTANGULAR DUCTS
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.11
TAB 8-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
ROUND DUCT
TRAVERSE REPORT
PROJECT
SYSTEM UNIT
LOCATION/ZONE
SERVICE
ALTITUDE
DENSITY
DUCT
S.P.
Air Temp
Size
Area
CORR. FACTOR
REQUIRED
F (C)
ACTUAL
SCFM (sL/s)
SCFM (sL/s)
FPM (m/s)
FPM (m/s)
CFM (L/s)
CFM (L/s)
(SEE PREVIOUS PAGE FOR INSTRUCTIONS)
Vert. Subtotal
Horiz. Subtotal
Total
No. of points
Average
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
16.12
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
TAB 8-02 (Cont.)
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
INSTRUCTIONS
Fig. 1 shows the locations for Pitot tube tip making a 10-point traverse across one circular pipe diameter. In making two traverse cross
s zones of equal area.
the pipe diameter, readings are taken at right angles to each other. The traverse points shown represent 5 annular
TABLE 1
Distances of Pitot Tube Tip from Pipe Center
DUCT DIAMETER
Point 1
Point 2
inches
mm
Readings in
one diam.
inches
mm
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
8
8
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
0.612
0.812
1.021
1.225
1.429
1.633
1.837
1.768
2.122
2.214
2.530
2.846
3.162
3.479
3.795
4.111
4.427
4.743
5.060
5.376
5.692
15.3
20.4
25.5
30.6
35.7
40.8
45.9
44.2
53.0
55.3
63.2
71.1
79.1
87.0
94.9
102.8
110.7
118.6
126.5
134.4
142.3
inches
1.061
1.414
1.768
2.121
2.475
2.828
3.182
3.062
3.674
3.834
4.382
4.929
5.477
6.025
6.573
7.120
7.668
8.216
8.764
9.311
9.859
mm
26.5
35.4
44.2
53.0
61.9
70.7
79.5
76.6
91.1
95.8
109.5
123.2
136.9
150.6
164.3
178.0
191.7
205.4
219.0
232.7
246.4
Point 3
Point 4
Point 5
inches
mm
inches
mm
inches
mm
1.369
1.826
2.282
2.738
3.195
3.651
4.108
3.950
4.740
4.950
5.657
6.364
7.077
7.778
8.485
9.192
9.900
10.607
11.314
12.021
12.728
34.2
45.6
57.1
68.5
80.0
91.3
102.7
98.8
118.6
123.7
141.4
159.1
176.8
194.4
212.1
229.8
247.5
265.1
282.8
300.5
318.2
4.677
5.612
5.857
6.693
7.530
8.367
9.213
10.040
10.877
11.713
12.550
13.387
14.233
15.060
116.9
140.3
146.4
167.3
188.2
209.1
230.1
251.0
171.9
292.8
313.7
334.6
355.6
376.5
6.641
7.589
8.538
9.487
10.435
11.384
12.222
13.282
14.230
15.179
16.128
17.176
166.0
189.7
213.4
237.2
260.9
284.6
308.3
332.0
355.7
379.4
403.2
426.9
For distances of traverse points from pipe center for pipe diameters other than those given in Table 1, use constants in Table 2.
TABLE 2
Constants To Be Multiplied By Pipe Diameter
For Distances of Pitot Tube Tip From Pipe Center
Readings
in One
Diameter
6
8
10
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
Point 4
Point 5
0.2041
0.1768
0.1581
0.3535
0.3062
0.2738
0.4564
0.3953
0.3535
0.4677
0.4183
0.4743
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.13
TAB 9A-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
AIR OUTLET
TEST REPORT
PROJECT
SYSTEM
OUTLET MANUFACTURER
TEST APPARATUS
OUTLET
AREA
SERVED
NO.
TYPE
SIZE
DESIGN
AK
VEL
FLOW
PRELIMINARY
VEL
FLOW
FINAL
VEL
FLOW
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
16.14
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
PERCENT
OF
DESIGN
TAB 9B-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
AIR OUTLET
TEST REPORT
(Flow Hood)
PROJECT
SYSTEM
OUTLET MANUFACTURER
TEST APPARATUS
OUTLET
AREA
SERVED
NO.
TYPE
SIZE
DESIGN
PRELIMINARY
FINAL
AIRFLOW
CFM (L/s)
AIRFLOW
CFM (L/s)
AIRFLOW
CFM (L/s)
PERCENT OF
DESIGN
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.15
TAB 9C-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
VAV AIR OUTLET
TEST REPORT
PROJECT
SYSTEM
OUTLET MANUFACTURER
TEST APPARATUS
MAXIMUM
DESIGN
AREA
SERVED
FPM
(m/s)
CFM
(L/s)
MAXIMUM
FINAL
VEL
FLOW
MINIMUM
DESIGN
AIRFLOW
ACTUAL
AIRFLOW
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
16.16
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
TAB 10-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
TERMINAL BOX
TEST REPORT
PROJECT
SYSTEM
OUTLET MANUFACTURER
TEST APPARATUS
BOX
AREA
SERVED
NO.
MAXIMUM
SIZE
DESIGN
CFM (L/s)
ACTUAL
SETPOINT
MINIMUM
ACTUAL
CFM (L/s)
DESIGN
CFM (L/s)
ACTUAL
SETPOINT
ACTUAL
CFM (L/s)
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.17
TAB 11-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
TERMINAL UNIT COIL
CHECK REPORT
PROJECT
SYSTEM
MANUFACTURER
ALTERNATE NO.1
ROOM
NO.
RISER
NO.
UNIT
SIZE
DESIGN
DESIGN ENT.
GPM
P
PRES.
LVG.
PRES.
ALTERNATE NO.2
DESIGN
T
EWT
LWT
ALTERNATE NO.3
DESIGN
EAT
T
LAT
NOTE: USE ONE OF THE ABOVE ALTERNATE METHODS
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
16.18
WATER SUPPLY TEMP.
OUT. AIR TEMP.
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
P
T
TAB 12-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
PACKAGED CHILLER
TEST REPORT
PROJECT
UNIT
LOCATION
MANUF.
MODEL
CAPACITY
REFRIG.
EVAPORATOR
DESIGN
SERIAL NO.
STARTER
ACTUAL
Evaporator Press./Temp.
Ent./Lvg. Water Press.
CONDENSER
DESIGN
ACTUAL
Condenser Press./Temp.
xxxxx
Ent./Lvg. Water Press.
Water Press. P
Water Press. P
Ent./Lvg. Water Temp.
Water Temp. T
Ent./Lvg. Water Temp.
GPM (L/s)
GPM (L/s)
COMPRESSOR
HEATER SIZE
xxxxx
Water Temp. T
DESIGN
ACTUAL
REFRIGERATION
Make/Model
Oil Level Checked
Serial Number
Oil Failure Sw. Diff.
Suction Press./Temp.
Refrig.Level Checked
Dischg. Press./Temp.
Relief Valve Setting
Oil Press./Temp.
Unloader Set Points
Voltage
% Cylinders Unloaded
Amps T1/T2/T3
Purge Operation Checked
KW Input
Bearing Temperature
Crankcase Htr. Amps
Vane Position
Ch. W. Control Setting
Demand Limit
Cond. W. Control Setting
Low Temp. Cutout Setting
DESIGN
ACTUAL
xxxxx
xxxxx
L.P. Cutout Setting
H.P. Cutout Setting
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.19
TAB 13-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
PACKAGE ROOFTOP/HEAT PUMP/
AIR CONDITIONING
UNIT TEST REPORT
PROJECT
SYSTEM/UNIT
LOCATION
UNIT DATA
MOTOR DATA
Make/Model Number
Make/Frame
Type/Size
HP (W)/RPM
Serial Number
Volts/Phase/Hertz
Type Filters/Size
F.L. Amps/S.F.
Fan Sheave Make
Make Sheave
Fan Sheave Diam./Bore
Sheave Diam./Bore
No. Belts/Make/Size
Sheave Distance
Type Heating Section*
TEST DATA
EVAPORATOR
DESIGN
ACTUAL
TEST DATA
CONDENSER
Total CFM (L/s)
Refrigerant/Lbs (kg)
Total S.P.
Compr. Mfr./Number
Discharge S.P.
Low Amb. Control
Suction S.P.
Compr. Model/Ser. Number
Out. Air CFM (L/s)
Suction Press./Temp.
Out. Air DB/WB
Cond. Press./Temp.
Ret. Air CFM (L/s)
Crankcase Htr. Amps
Ret. Air DB/WB
Compr. Volts
Ent. Air DB/WB
Compr.Amps T1/T2/T3
Lvg. Air DB/WB
L.P./H.P. Cutout Setting
Fan RPM
No. of Fans/Fan RPM
DESIGN
Cond. Fan HP (W)/CFM (L/s)
Voltage
Amperage T1/T2/T3
*Use TAB 4-02 or TAB 5-02 for heating section test report
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
16.20
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
ACTUAL
TAB 14-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
COMPRESSOR AND/OR
CONDENSER TEST REPORT
PROJECT
UNIT DATA
UNIT NO.
UNIT NO.
UNIT NO.
LOCATION
Unit Manufacturer
Unit Model/Ser.Number
Compressor Manufacturer
Compr. Model/Ser. Number
Refrigerant/Lbs. (kg)
Low Amb. Control
TEST DATA
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
Suction Press./Temp.
Cond. Press./Temp.
Oil Press./Temp.
Voltage
Amps T1/T2/T3
KW Input
Crankcase Htr. Amps
No.Fans/Fan RPM/CFM (L/s)
Fan Motor Make/Frame/H.P. (W)
Fan Motor Volts/Amps
Duct Inlet/Outlet S.P.
Ent./Lvg. Air D.B.
Cond. Wtr. Temp. In/Out
Cond. Wtr. Press. In/Out
Control Setting
Unloader Set Points
L.P./H.P. Cutout Setting
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.21
TAB 15-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
COOLING TOWER OR
EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER
TEST REPORT
PROJECT
LOCATION
MANUF.
SYSTEM
MODEL
NOM. CAPACITY
REFRIG.
SERIAL NO.
WATER TREAT.
FAN DATA
PUMP DATA
No. of Fan Motors
Make/Model
Motor Make/Frame
Pump Serial No.
Motor HP (W)/RPM
Motor Make/Frame
Volts/Phase/Hertz
Motor HP (W)/RPM
Motor Sheave Diam./Bore
Volts/Phase/Hertz
Fan Sheave Diam./Bore
GPM (L/s)
Sheave Distance
No. Belts/Make Size
AIR DATA
DESIGN
ACTUAL
Duct CFM (L/s)
WATER DATA
Duct Inlet S.P.
Ent./Lvg. Water Press.
Water Press. P
Duct Outlet S.P.
Ent./Lvg. Water Temp.
Avg. Ent. W.B.
Water Temp. T
Avg. Lvg. W.B.
GPM (L/s)
Ambient W.B.
Bleed GPM (L/s)
DESIGN
Fan RPM
Voltage
Voltage
Amperage T1/T2/T3
Amperage T1/T2/T3
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
16.22
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
ACTUAL
TAB 16-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
HEAT EXCHANGER/CONVERTER
TEST REPORT
PROJECT
MANUFACTURER
UNIT DATA
UNIT NO.
UNIT NO.
UNIT NO.
Location
Service
Rating, Btuh (W)
Model Number
Serial Number
TEST DATA
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
STEAM
Pressure,PSI (kPa)
Flow, Lbs./Hr. (kg/s)
PRIMARY WATER
Ent./Lvg. Temp.
Temp. T
Ent./Lvg. Press.
Press. P
GPM (L/s)
SECONDARY WATER
Ent./Lvg. Temp.
Temp. T
Ent./Lvg. Press.
Press. P
GPM (L/s)
Control Set Point
Exchanger Circuiting
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.23
TAB 17-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
PUMP
TEST REPORT
PROJECT
DATA
MANUFACTURER
PUMP NO.
PUMP NO.
PUMP NO.
PUMP NO.
DESIGN
Location
Service
Model Number
Serial Number
GPM (L/s) / Head—ft (m)
Req. NPSH
Pump RPM
Impeller Diam.
Motor Mfr./Frame
Motor HP (W)/RPM
Volts/Phase/Hertz
F.L. Amps/S.F.
Seal Type
ACTUAL
Pump Off-Press.
Valve Shut Diff.
Act. Impeller Diam.
Valve Open Diff.
Valve Open GPM (L/s)
Final Dischg. Press.
Final Suction Press.
Final P
Final GPM (L/s)
Voltage
Amperage T1/T2/T3
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
16.24
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
PUMP NO.
TAB 18-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
BALANCING VALVE/FLOW
METER TEST REPORT
PROJECT
SYSTEM/UNIT
LOCATION
SERVICE
OR
DESIGNATION
SIZE
MODEL
DESIGN
GPM (L/s)
ACTUAL
VALVE
SETPOINT
(DEGREE)
ACTUAL
VALVE
P.D.
ACTUAL
GPM (L/s)
NOTES
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.25
TAB 19-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
BOILER
TEST REPORT
PROJECT
UNIT DATA
UNIT NO.
UNIT NO.
UNIT NO.
Location
Manufacturer
Model Number
Serial Number
Type/Size
Fuel/Input
No. of Passes
Ignition Type
Burner Control
Volts/Phase/Hertz
TEST DATA
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
DESIGN
ACTUAL
Operating Press./Temp.
Ent./Lvg./Temp.
No. Safety Valves/Size
Safety Valve Setting
High Limit Setting
Operating Contr. Setting
High Fire Set Point
Low Fire Set Point
Voltage
Amperage T1/T2/T3
Draft Fan Volts/Amps
Manifold Press.
Output—MBH (kW)
Safety Controls—Check
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
16.26
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
TAB 20-02
Copyright, SMACNA 2002
Page
of
INSTRUMENT
CALIBRATION REPORT
PROJECT
INSTRUMENT/SERIAL NO.
APPLICATION
DATES OF USE
CALIBRATION
TEST DATE
REMARKS:
TEST DATE
READINGS BY
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
16.27
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
16.28
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
APPENDIX A
DUCT DESIGN
TABLES & CHARTS
APPENDIX A
DUCT DESIGN TABLES & CHARTS
10
5
2
1
0.6
0.5
FRICTION LOSS, in. of water/100 ft
0.2
0.1
0.08
0.05
0.02
0.01
50
100
200
500
1000
2000
5000
20,000
10000
AIR QUALITY. cfm at 0.075 lb/ft3
50,000
100,000
400,000
3
FIGURE A-1 DUCT FRICTION LOSS CHART (I-P)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.1
FIGURE A-2 DUCT FRICTION LOSS CHART (SI)
A.2
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Duct Material
Uncoated carbon steel, clean (Moody 1944) (0.00015 ft)
(0.05 mm)
Roughness
Category
Absolute
Roughness ε1
ft
mm
Smooth
0.0001
0.03
Medium
Smooth
0.0003
0.09
PVC plastic pipe (Swim 1982) (0.0003 to 0.00015 ft) (0.01 to
0.05 mm)
Aluminum (Hutchinson 1953) (0.00015 to 0.0002 ft) (0.04 to
0.06 mm)
Galvanized steel, longitudinal seams, 4 ft (1200 mm) joints
(Griggs 1987) (0.00016 to 0.00032 ft) (0.05 to 0.1 mm)
Galvanized steel, spiral seam with 1, 2, and 3ribs,
12 ft (3600 mm) joints (Jones 1979, Griggs 1987)
(0.00018 to 0.00038 ft) (0.05 to 0.12 mm)
Hot-dipped galvanized steel, longitudinal seams, 2.5ft (760
mm) joints (Wright 1945) (0.0005 ft) (0.15 mm)
(New Duct Friction Loss Chart)
Old
Average
0.0005
0.15
Medium
Rough
0.003
0.9
Rough
0.01
3.0
Fibrous glass duct, rigid
Fibrous glass duct liner, air side with facing material (Swim
1978) (0.005 ft) (1.5 mm)
Fibrous glass duct liner, air side spray coated (Swim 1978)
(0.015 ft) (4.5 mm)
Flexible duct, metallic, (0.004 to 0.007 ft (1.2 to 2.1 mm)
when fully extended)
Flexible duct, all types of fabric and wire (0.0035 to 0.015 ft
(1.0 to 4.6 mm) when fully extended)
Concrete (Moody 1944) (0.001 to 0.01 ft) (0.3 to 3.0 mm)
Table A-1 Duct Material Roughness Factors
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.3
2.6
Duct diameter
inches (mm)
2.5
5 (125)
2.4
5 (125)
8 (200)
2.3
12 (300)
2.2
20 (500)
2.1
2.0
40 (1000)
60 (1500)
1.9
Correction Factor
100 (2500)
1.8
1.7
5 (125)
8 (200)
1.6
12 (300)
20 (500)
1.5
40 (1000)
100 (2500)
1.4
1.3
1.2
(ALL SIZES)
1.1
(ALL SIZES)
1.0
100 (2500)
0.9
5 (125)
0.8
100
(.5)
200
(1.0)
300
(1.5)
400 500 600
(2) (2.5) (3)
800 1000
(4) (5)
2000
(10)
3000
(15)
4000 5000
(20) (25)
Velocity-fpm (m/s)
FIGURE A-3 DUCT FRICTION LOSS CORRECTION FACTORS
A.4
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Side
Rectangular
Duct
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
3.0
3.8
4.0
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.7
4.9
5.1
5.2
5.5
5.7
6.0
6.2
6.4
6.6
6.8
7.0
3.5
4.1
4.3
4.6
4.8
5.0
5.2
5.3
5.5
5.7
6.0
6.3
6.5
6.8
7.0
7.2
7.5
7.7
4.0
4.4
4.6
4.9
5.1
5.3
5.5
5.7
5.9
6.1
6.4
6.7
7.0
7.3
7.6
7.8
8.1
8.3
4.5
4.6
4.9
5.2
5.4
5.7
5.9
6.1
6.3
6.5
6.9
7.2
7.5
7.8
8.1
8.4
8.6
8.8
5.0
4.9
5.2
5.5
5.7
6.0
6.2
6.4
6.7
6.9
7.3
7.6
8.0
8.3
8.6
8.9
9.1
9.4
5.5
5.1
5.4
5.7
6.0
6.3
6.5
6.8
7.0
7.2
7.6
8.0
8.4
8.7
9.0
9.3
9.6
9.9
Side
Rectangular
Duct
6
7
8
9
10
6
7
8
9
10
6.6
7.1
7.6
8.0
8.4
7.7
8.2
8.7
9.1
8.7
9.3
9.8
9.8
10.4
10.9
11
12
13
14
15
8.8
9.1
9.5
9.8
10.1
9.5
9.9
10.3
10.7
11.0
10.2
10.7
11.1
11.5
11.8
10.9
11.3
11.8
12.2
12.6
16
17
18
19
20
10.4
10.7
11.0
11.2
11.5
11.3
11.6
11.9
12.2
12.5
12.2
12.5
12.9
13.2
13.5
22
24
26
28
30
12.0
12.4
12.8
13.2
13.6
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
14.9
32
34
36
38
40
14.0
14.4
14.7
15.0
15.3
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
96
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
22
24
26
28
30
Side
Rectangular
Duct
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
11.5
12.0
12.4
12.9
13.3
12.0
12.6
13.1
13.5
14.0
13.1
13.7
14.2
14.6
14.2
14.7
15.3
15.3
15.8
16.4
13.0
13.4
13.7
14.1
14.4
13.7
14.1
14.5
14.9
15.2
14.4
14.9
15.3
15.7
16.0
15.1
15.6
16.0
16.4
16.8
15.7
16.2
16.7
17.1
17.5
16.4
16.8
17.3
17.8
18.2
16.9
17.4
17.9
18.4
18.9
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
18.6
19.1
19.6
20.1
19.7
20.2
20.7
20.8
21.3
21.9
14.1
14.6
15.1
15.6
16.1
15.0
15.6
16.2
16.7
17.2
15.9
16.5
17.1
17.7
18.3
16.8
17.4
18.1
18.7
19.3
17.6
18.3
19.0
19.6
20.2
18.3
19.1
19.8
20.5
21.1
19.1
19.9
20.6
21.3
22.0
19.8
20.6
214
22.1
22.9
20.4
21.3
22.1
22.9
23.7
21.1
22.0
22.9
23.7
24.4
21.7
22.7
23.5
24.4
25.2
22.3
23.3
24.2
25.1
25.9
22.9
23.9
24.9
25.8
26.6
24.0
25.1
26.1
27.1
28.0
26.2
27.3
28.3
29.3
28.4
29.5
30.5
30.6
31.7
32.8
22
24
26
28
30
15.3
15.7
16.1
16.5
16.8
16.5
17.0
17.4
17.8
18.2
17.7
18.2
18.6
19.0
19.5
18.8
19.3
19.8
20.2
20.7
19.8
20.4
20.9
21.4
21.8
20.8
21.4
21.9
22.4
22.9
21.8
22.4
22.9
23.5
24.0
22.7
23.3
23.9
24.5
25.0
23.5
24.2
24.8
25.4
26.0
24.4
25.1
25.7
26.4
27.0
25.2
25.9
26.6
27.2
27.9
26.0
26.7
27.4
28.1
28.8
26.7
27.5
28.2
28.9
29.6
27.5
28.3
29.0
29.8
30.5
28.9
29.7
30.5
31.3
32.1
30.2
31.0
32.0
32.8
33.6
31.5
32.4
33.3
34.2
35.1
32.7
33.7
34.6
35.6
36.4
33.9
34.9
35.9
36.8
37.8
32
34
36
38
40
15.6
15.9
16.2
16.5
16.8
17.1
17.5
17.8
18.1
18.4
18.5
18.9
19.3
19.6
19.9
19.9
20.3
20.6
21.0
21.4
21.1
21.5
21.9
22.3
22.7
22.3
22.7
23.2
23.6
24.0
23.4
23.9
24.4
24.8
25.2
24.5
25.0
25.5
26.0
26.4
25.6
26.1
26.6
27.1
27.6
26.6
27.1
27.7
28.2
28.7
27.6
28.1
28.7
29.2
29.8
28.5
29.1
29.7
30.2
30.8
29.4
30.0
30.6
31.2
31.8
30.3
30.9
31.6
32.2
32.8
31.2
31.8
32.5
33.1
33.7
32.8
33.5
34.2
34.9
35.5
34.4
35.1
35.9
36.6
37.2
35.9
36.7
37.4
38.2
38.9
37.3
38.1
38.9
39.7
40.5
38.7
39.5
40.4
41.2
42.0
42
44
46
48
50
17.1
17.3
17.6
17.8
18.1
18.7
19.0
19.3
19.5
19.8
20.2
20.6
20.9
21.2
21.5
21.7
22.0
22.4
22.7
23.0
23.1
23.5
23.8
24.2
24.5
24.4
24.8
25.2
25.5
25.9
25.7
26.1
26.5
26.9
27.3
26.9
27.3
27.7
28.2
28.6
28.0
28.5
28.9
29.4
29.8
29.2
29.7
30.1
30.6
31.0
30.3
30.8
31.2
31.7
32.2
31.3
31.8
32.3
32.8
33.3
32.3
32.9
33.4
33.9
34.4
33.3
33.9
34.4
35.0
35.5
34.3
34.9
35.4
36.0
36.5
36.2
36.8
37.4
38.0
38.5
37.9
38.6
39.2
39.8
40.4
39.6
40.3
41.0
41.6
42.3
41.2
41.9
42.7
43.3
44.0
42.8
43.5
44.3
45.0
45.7
52
54
56
58
60
20.1
20.3
20.6
20.8
21.1
21.7
22.0
22.3
22.6
22.6
23.3
23.6
23.9
24.2
24.5
24.8
25.1
25.5
25.8
26.1
26.3
26.6
26.9
27.3
27.6
27.6
28.0
28.4
28.7
29.1
28.9
29.3
29.7
30.1
30.4
30.2
30.6
31.0
31.4
31.8
31.5
31.9
32.3
32.7
33.1
32.6
33.1
33.5
33.9
34.4
33.8
34.3
34.7
35.2
35.6
34.9
35.4
35.9
36.3
36.8
36.0
36.5
37.0
37.5
37.9
37.1
37.6
38.1
38.6
39.1
39.1
39.6
40.2
40.7
41.2
41.0
41.6
42.2
42.8
43.3
42.9
43.5
44.1
44.7
45.3
44.7
45.3
46.0
46.6
47.2
46.4
47.1
47.7
48.4
49.0
62
64
66
68
70
23.1
23.3
23.6
23.8
24.1
24.8
25.1
25.3
25.6
25.8
26.4
26.7
27.0
27.3
27.5
27.9
28.2
28.5
28.8
29.1
29.4
29.7
30.0
30.4
30.7
30.8
31.2
31.5
31.8
32.2
32.2
32.5
32.9
33.3
33.6
33.5
33.9
34.3
34.6
35.0
34.8
35.2
35.6
36.0
36.3
36.0
36.4
36.8
37.2
37.6
37.2
37.7
38.1
38.5
38.9
38.4
38.8
39.3
39.7
40.2
39.5
40.0
40.5
40.9
41.4
41.7
42.2
42.7
43.2
43.7
43.8
44.4
44.9
45.4
45.9
45.8
46.4
47.0
47.5
48.0
47.8
48.4
48.9
49.5
50.1
49.6
50.3
50.9
51.4
52.0
72
74
76
78
80
26.1
26.4
26.6
26.9
27.1
27.8
28.1
28.3
28.6
28.9
29.4
29.7
30.0
30.3
30.6
31.0
31.3
31.6
31.9
32.2
32.5
32.8
33.1
33.4
33.8
34.0
34.3
34.6
34.9
35.3
35.4
35.7
36.1
36.4
36.7
36.7
37.1
37.4
37.8
38.2
38.0
38.4
38.8
39.2
39.5
39.3
39.7
40.1
40.5
40.9
40.6
41.0
41.4
41.8
42.2
41.8
42.2
42.6
43.1
43.5
44.1
44.6
45.0
45.5
45.9
46.4
46.9
47.3
47.8
48.3
48.5
49.0
49.6
50.0
50.5
50.6
51.1
51.7
52.2
52.7
52.6
53.2
53.7
54.3
54.8
82
84
86
88
90
29.1
29.6
30.8
31.4
32.5
33.0
34.1
34.7
35.6
36.2
37.1
37.7
38.5
39.2
39.9
40.6
41.3
42.0
42.6
43.3
43.9
44.7
46.4
47.2
48.7
49.6
51.0
52.0
53.2
54.2
55.3
56.4
92
96
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Table A-2 Circulation Equivalents of Rectangular Ducts for Equal Friction
and Capacity (I-P) (2) Dimensions in Inches
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.5
Side
Rectangular
Duct
32
34
36
38
40
32
35.0
36.1
37.1
38.1
39.0
34
36
38
40
37.2
38.2
39.3
40.3
39.4
40.4
41.5
41.5
42.6
43.7
42
44
46
48
50
40.0
40.9
41.8
42.6
43.6
41.3
42.2
43.1
44.0
44.9
42.5
43.5
44.4
45.3
46.2
43.7
44.7
45.7
46.6
47.5
52
54
56
58
60
44.3
45.1
45.8
46.6
47.3
45.7
46.5
47.3
48.1
48.9
47.1
48.0
48.8
49.6
50.4
62
64
66
68
70
48.0
48.7
49.4
50.1
50.8
49.6
50.4
51.1
51.8
52.5
72
74
76
78
80
51.4
52.1
52.7
53.3
539
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
46
48
50
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
84
88
42
44
44.8
45.8
46.9
47.9
48.8
45.9
47.0
48.0
49.1
50.0
48.1
49.2
50.2
51.2
50.3
51.4
52.4
52.5
53.6
54.7
48.4
49.3
50.2
51.0
51.9
49.7
50.7
51.6
52.4
53.3
51.0
52.0
52.9
53.8
54.7
52.2
53.2
54.2
55.1
60.0
53.4
54.4
55.4
56.4
57.3
54.6
55.6
56.6
57.6
58.6
55.7
56.8
57.8
58.8
59.8
56.8
57.9
59.0
60.0
61.0
61.2
62.3
63.4
65.6
51.2
51.9
52.7
53.4
54.1
52.7
53.5
54.2
55.0
55.7
54.1
54.9
55.7
56.5
57.3
55.5
56.4
57.2
58.0
58.8
56.9
57.8
58.6
59.4
60.3
58.2
59.1
60.0
60.8
61.7
59.5
60.4
61.3
62.2
63.1
60.8
61.7
62.6
63.6
64.4
62.0
63.0
63.9
64.9
65.8
64.4
65.4
66.4
67.4
68.3
66.7
67.7
68.8
69.8
70.8
70.0
71.0
72.1
73.2
74.3
75.4
53.2
53.8
54.5
55.1
55.8
54.8
55.5
56.2
56.9
57.5
56.5
57.2
57.9
58.6
59.3
58.0
58.8
59.5
60.2
60.9
59.6
60.3
61.1
61.8
62.6
61.1
61.9
62.6
63.4
64.1
62.5
63.3
64.1
64.9
65.7
63.9
64.8
65.6
66.4
67.2
65.3
66.2
67.0
67.9
68.7
66.7
67.5
68.4
69.3
70.1
69.3
70.2
71.1
72.0
72.9
71.8
72.7
73.7
74.6
75.4
74.2
75.2
76.2
77.1
78.1
76.5
77.5
78.6
79.6
80.6
78.7
79.8
80.9
81.9
82.9
83.1
84.2
85.2
87.5
54.5
55.1
55.7
56.3
56.8
56.4
57.0
57.6
58.2
58.8
58.2
58.8
59.4
60.1
60.7
59.9
60.6
61.2
61.9
62.5
61.6
62.3
63.0
63.6
64.3
63.3
64.0
64.7
65.4
66.0
64.9
65.6
66.3
67.0
67.7
66.5
67.2
67.9
68.7
69.4
68.0
68.7
69.5
70.2
71.0
69.5
70.3
71.0
71.8
72.6
70.9
71.7
72.5
73.3
74.1
73.7
74.6
75.4
76.3
77.1
76.4
77.3
78.2
79.1
79.9
79.0
80.0
80.9
81.8
82.7
81.5
82.5
83.5
84.4
85.3
84.0
85.0
85.9
86.9
87.9
86.3
87.3
88.3
89.3
90.3
88.5
89.6
90.7
91.7
92.7
91.8
92.9
94.0
95.0
96.2
97.3
82
84
86
88
90
57.4
57.9
58A
59.3
59.9
60.5
61.3
61.9
62.4
63.1
63.7
64.3
64.9
65.6
66.2
66.7
67.3
68.0
68.4
69.1
69.7
70.1
70.8
71.5
71.7
72.4
73.1
73.3
74.0
74.8
74.9
75.6
76.3
77.9
78.7
79.4
80.8
81.6
82.4
83.5
84.4
85.3
86.2
87.1
88.0
88.8
89.7
90.7
91.3
92.3
93.2
93.7
94.7
95.7
96.1
97.1
981
98.4
99.4
100.5
92
94
96
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
Table A-2 Circulation Equivalents of Rectangular Ducts for Equal
Friction and Capacity (I-P) (2) Dimensions in Inches (continued)
Equation for Circular Equivalent of a Rectangular Duct:
De = 1.30 [(ab)0.625 / (a+b)0.250]
where
a = length of one side of rectangular duct, inches.
b = length of adjacent side of rectangular duct, inches.
De = circular equivalent of rectangular duct for equal friction and capacity, inches.
A.6
Side
Rectangular
Duct
32
34
36
38
40
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Side
RectangularDuct
100
125
150
100
125
150
175
200
109
122
133
143
152
137
150
161
172
164
177
189
191
204
219
225
250
275
300
350
161
169
176
183
195
181
190
199
207
222
200
210
220
229
245
216
228
238
248
267
232
244
256
266
286
246
259
272
283
305
273
287
299
322
301
314
339
328
354
383
400
450
500
550
600
207
217
227
236
245
235
247
258
269
279
260
274
287
299
310
283
299
313
326
339
305
321
337
352
365
325
343
360
375
390
343
363
381
398
414
361
382
401
419
436
378
400
420
439
457
409
433
455
477
496
437
464
488
511
533
492
518
543
567
547
573
598
601
628
656
650
700
750
800
900
253
261
268
275
289
289
298
306
314
330
321
331
341
350
367
351
362
373
383
402
378
391
402
414
435
404
418
430
442
465
429
443
457
470
494
452
467
482
496
522
474
490
506
520
548
515
533
550
567
597
553
573
592
609
643
589
610
630
649
686
622
644
666
687
726
653
677
700
722
763
683
708
732
755
799
711
737
763
787
833
765
792
818
866
820
847
897
875
927
984
650
700
750
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
301
313
324
334
344
344
358
370
382
394
384
399
413
426
439
420
437
453
468
482
454
473
490
506
522
486
506
525
543
559
517
538
558
577
595
546
569
590
610
629
574
598
620
642
662
626
652
677
701
724
674
703
731
757
781
719
751
780
808
835
762
795
827
857
886
802
838
872
904
934
840
878
914
948
980
876
916
954
990
1024
911
953
993
1031
1066
941
988
1030
1069
1077
976
1022
1066
1107
1146
1037
1086
1133
1177
1220
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
353
362
371
379
387
404
415
425
434
444
452
463
475
485
496
495
508
521
533
544
536
551
564
577
590
575
591
605
619
633
612
629
644
660
674
648
665
682
698
713
681
700
718
735
751
745
766
785
804
823
805
827
849
869
889
860
885
908
930
952
913
939
964
988
1012
963
991
1018
1043
1068
1011
1041
1069
1096
1122
1057
1088
1118
1146
1174
1100
1133
1164
1195
1224
1143
1177
1209
1241
1271
1183
1219
1253
1286
1318
1260
1298
1335
1371
1405
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
395
402
410
417
424
453
461
470
478
486
506
516
525
534
543
555
566
577
587
597
602
614
625
636
647
646
659
671
683
695
688
702
715
728
740
728
743
757
771
784
767
782
797
812
826
840
857
874
890
905
908
927
945
963
980
973
993
1013
1031
1050
1034
1055
1076
1097
1116
1092
1115
1137
1159
1180
1147
1172
1195
1218
1241
1200
1226
1251
1275
1299
1252
1279
1305
1330
1355
1301
1329
1356
1383
1409
1348
1378
1406
1434
1461
1438
1470
1501
1532
1561
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
430
437
443
450
456
494
501
509
516
523
552
560
569
577
585
606
616
625
634
643
658
668
678
688
697
706
717
728
738
749
753
764
776
787
798
797
810
822
834
845
840
853
866
879
891
920
935
950
964
977
996
1012
1028
1043
1058
1068
1085
1102
1119
1135
1136
1154
1173
1190
1208
1200
1220
1240
1259
1277
1262
1283
1304
1324
1344
1322
1344
1366
1387
1408
1379
1402
1425
1447
1469
1434
1459
1483
1506
1529
1488
1513
1538
1562
1586
1589
1617
1644
1670
1696
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
Side
Rectangular
Duct
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
900
Side
Rectangular
Duct
175
200
225
250
275
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
900
Side
Rectangular
Duct
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
Table A-3 Circular Equivalents of Rectangular Ducts for Equal Friction
and Capacity (SI) (2) Dimensions in mm
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.7
Side
RectangularDuct
1000
1100
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1093
1143
1196
1244
1289
1202
1256
1306
1354
1312
1365
1416
1421
1530
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
1332
1373
1413
1451
1488
1400
1444
1486
1527
1566
1464
1511
1555
1598
1640
1526
1574
1621
1667
1710
1584
1635
1684
1732
1778
1640
1693
1745
1794
1842
1749
1803
1854
1904
1858
1912
1964
1968
2021
2077
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
1523
1558
1591
1623
1655
1604
1640
1676
1710
1744
1680
1719
1756
1793
1828
1753
1793
1833
1871
1909
1822
1865
1906
1947
1986
1889
1933
1977
2019
2060
1952
1999
2044
2088
2131
2014
2063
2110
2155
2200
2073
2124
2173
2220
2266
2131
2183
2233
2283
2330
2186
2240
2292
2343
2393
2296
2350
2402
2453
2405
2459
2511
2514
2568
2624
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
1685
1715
1744
1772
1800
1776
1808
1839
1869
1898
1862
1896
1929
1961
1992
1945
1980
2015
2048
2081
2024
2061
2097
2133
2167
2100
2139
2177
2214
2250
2173
2213
2253
2292
2329
2243
2285
2327
2367
2406
2311
2355
2398
2439
2480
2377
2422
2466
2510
2552
2441
2487
2533
2578
2621
2502
2551
2598
2644
2689
2562
2612
2661
2708
2755
2621
2672
2722
2771
2819
2678
2730
2782
2832
2881
Side
Rectangular
Duct
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1800
1900
2000
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1600
1700
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2100
2200
2300
2400
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2733
2787
2840
2891
2941
2500
2842
2896
2949
3001
2952
3006
3058
3061
3115
3170
2600 2700
2800
2900
Table A-3 Circular Equivalents of Rectangular Ducts for Equal
Friction and Capacity (SI) (2) Dimensions in mm (continued)
Equation for Circular Equivalent of a Rectangular Duct:
De = 1.30 [(ab)0.625 / (a+b)0.250]
where
a = length of one side of rectangular duct, mm.
b = length of adjacent side of rectangular duct, mm.
De = circular equivalent of rectangular duct for equal friction and capacity, mm.
A.8
2900
Side
Rectangular
Duct
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
Side
Rectangular
Duct
Velocity
fpm
Velocity
Pressure
in. wg
Velocity
fpm
Velocity
Pressure
in. wg
Velocity
fpm
Velocity
Pressure
in. wg
300
350
400
450
500
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
2050
2100
2150
2200
2250
0.26
0.27
0.29
0.30
0.32
3800
3850
3900
3950
4000
0.90
0.92
0.95
0.97
1.00
5550
5600
5650
5700
5750
550
600
650
700
750
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.04
2300
2350
2400
2450
2500
0.33
0.34
0.36
0.37
0.39
4050
4100
4150
4200
4250
1.02
1.05
1.07
1.10
1.13
800
850
900
950
1000
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.06
2550
2600
2650
2700
2750
0.41
0.42
0.44
0.45
0.47
4300
4350
4400
4450
4500
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
0.07
0.08
0.08
0.09
0.10
2800
2850
2900
2950
3000
0.49
0.51
0.52
0.54
0.56
1300
1350
1400
1450
1500
0.11
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.14
3050
3100
3150
3200
3250
1550
1600
1650
1700
1750
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.18
0.19
1800
1850
1900
1950
2000
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.24
0.25
Velocity
fpm
Velocity
Pressure
in. wg
1.92
1.95
1.99
2.02
2.06
7300
7350
7400
7450
7500
3.32
3.37
3.41
3.46
3.51
5800
5850
5900
5950
6000
2.10
2.13
2.17
2.21
2.24
7550
7600
7650
7700
7750
3.55
3.60
3.65
3.70
3.74
1.15
1.18
1.21
1.23
1.26
6050
6100
6150
6200
6250
2.28
2.32
2.36
2.40
2.43
7800
7850
7900
7950
8000
3.79
3.84
3.89
3.94
3.99
4550
4600
4650
4700
4750
1.29
1.32
1.35
1.38
1.41
6300
6350
6400
6450
6500
2.47
2.51
2.55
2.59
2.63
8050
8100
8150
8200
8250
4.04
4.09
4.14
4.19
4.24
0.58
0.60
0.62
0.64
0.66
4800
4850
4900
4950
5000
1.44
1.47
1.50
1.53
1.56
6550
6600
6650
6700
6750
2.67
2.71
2.76
2.80
2.84
8300
8350
8400
8450
8500
4.29
4.35
4.40
4.45
4.50
3300
3350
3400
3450
3500
0.68
0.70
0.72
0.74
0.76
5050
5100
5150
5200
5250
1.59
1.62
1.65
1.69
1.72
6800
6850
6900
6950
7000
2.88
2.92
2.97
3.01
3.05
8550
8600
8650
8700
8750
4.56
4.61
4.66
4.72
4.77
3550
3600
3650
3700
3750
0.79
0.81
0.83
0.85
0.88
5300
5350
5400
5450
5500
1.75
1.78
1.82
1.85
1.89
7050
7100
7150
7200
7250
3.10
3.14
3.19
3.23
3.28
8800
8850
8900
8950
9000
4.83
4.88
4.94
4.99
5.05
Velocity 4005 V p (or) V p Velocity
Pressure
in. wg
Velocity
fpm
Velocity
4005
2
Table A-4 Velocities/Velocity Pressures (I-P)
PRESSURE LOSS
CORRECTION FACTOR
4
3
2
1
0
10
20
30
PERCENT OF COMPRESSION LENGTH
FIGURE A-4 VELOCITIES/VELOCITY PRESSURES (I-P)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.9
Velocity
(m/s)
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Velocity
Pressure
(Pa)
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
2.0
Velocity
(m/s)
10.0
10.2
10.4
10.6
10.8
Velocity
Pressure
(Pa)
60
63
65
68
70
Velocity
(m/s)
19.0
19.2
19.4
19.6
19.8
Velocity
Pressure
(Pa)
217
222
227
231
236
Velocity
(m/s)
28.0
28.2
28.4
28.6
28.8
Velocity
Pressure
(Pa)
472
479
486
493
499
Velocity
(m/s)
37.0
37.2
37.4
37.6
37.8
Velocity
Pressure
(Pa)
824
833
842
851
860
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
2.4
2.9
3.5
4.1
4.7
11.0
11.2
11.4
11.6
11.8
73
76
78
81
84
20.0
20.2
20.4
20.6
20.8
241
246
251
256
261
29.0
29.2
29.4
29.6
29.8
506
513”
521
528
535
38.0
38.2
38.4
38.6
38.8
870
879
888
897
907
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
5.4
6.2
7.0
7.8
8.7
12.0
12.2
12.4
12.6
12.8
87
90
93
96
99
21.0
21.2
21.4
21.6
21.8
266
271
276
281
286
30.0
30.2
30.4
30.6
30.8
542
549
557
564
571
39.0
39.2
39.4
39.6
39.8
916
925
935
944
954
4.0
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
9.6
10.6
11.7
12.7
13.9
13.0
13.2
13.4
13.6
13.8
102
105
108
111
115
22.0
22.2
22.4
22.6
22.8
291
297
302
308
313
31.0
31.2
31.4
31.6
31.8
579
586
594
601
609
40.0
40.2
40.4
40.6
40.8
963
973
983
993
1002
5.0
5.2
5.4
5.6
5.8
15.1
16.3
17.6
18.9
20.3
14.0
14.2
14.4
14.6
14.8
118
121
125
128
132
23.0
23.2
23.4
23.6
23.8
319
324
330
335
341
32.0
32.2
32.4
32.6
32.8
617
624
632
640
648
41.0
41.2
41.4
41.6
41.8
1012
1022
1032
1042
1052
6.0
6.2
6.4
6.6
6.8
21.7
23.1
24.7
26.2
27.8
15.0
15.2
15.4
15.6
15.8
135
139
143
147
150
24.0
24.2
24.4
24.6
24.8
347
353
359
364
370
33.0
33.2
33.4
33.6
33.8
656
664
672
680
688
42.0
42.2
42.4
42.6
42.8
1062
1072
1083
1093
1103
7.0
7.2
7.4
7.6
7.8
29.5
31.2
33.0
34.8
36.6
16.0
16.2
16.4
16.6
16.8
154
158
162
166
170
25.0
25.2
25.4
25.6
25.8
376
382
389
395
401
34.0
34.2
34.4
34.6
34.8
696
704
713
721
729
43.0
43.2
43.4
43.6
43.8
1113
1124
1134
1145
1155
8.0
8.2
8.4
8.6
8.8
38.5
40.5
42.5
44.5
46.6
17.0
17.2
17.4
17.6
17.8
174
178
182
187
191
26.0
26.2
26.4
26.6
26.8
407
413
420
426
433
35.0
35.2
35.4
35.6
35.8
738
746
755
763
772
44.0
44.2
44.4
44.6
44.8
1166
1176
1187
1198
1209
9.0
9.2
9.4
9.6
9.8
48.8
51.0
53.2
55.5.
57.8
18.0
18.2
18.4
18.6
18.8
195
199
204
208
213
27.0
27.2
27.4
27.6
27.8
439
446
452
459
465
36.0
36.2
36.4
36.6
36.8
780
789
798
807
815
45.0
45.2
45.4
45.6
45.8
1219
1230
1241
1252
1263
Table A-5 Velocities/Velocity Pressures (SI)
Degrees
10
20
30
40
50
60
Radians
0.175
0.349
0.524
0.698
0.873
1.05
Degrees
70
80
90
135
180
360
Radians
1.22
1.40
1.57 (π/2)
2.36
3.14 (π)
6.28 (2π)
Table A-6 Angular Conversion
A.10
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
C
Vs / Vc
75% Regain
90% Regain
0.95
.91
.87
.83
.80
0.03
.04
.06
.08
.09
0.01
.02
.02
.03
.04
0.77
.74
.71
.69
.67
0.10
.11
.12
.13
.14
0.04
.04
.05
.05
.06
0.65
.63
.61
.59
.57
0.15
.15
.16
.16
.17
0.06
.06
.06
.07
.07
0.56
.54
.53
.51
.50
0.18
.18
.18
.18
.19
0.07
.07
.07
.07
.08
Vs = Downstream Velocity; Vc = Upstream Velocity
200°F
93°C
100°F
150°F
38°C
66°C
AIR TEMPERATURE
2440 m
8.000 ft.
STANDARD AIR
07
08
09
10
11
12
-50 °F
-46 °C
0
610 m
2.000 ft.
0°F
-18 °C
50°F
10°C
1220 m
4.000 ft.
1830 m
6.000 ft.
ELEVATION
3050 m
10.000 ft.
250°F
121°C
3660 m 4270 m
12.000 ft. 14.000 ft.
300°F
149°C
Table A-7 Loss Coefficients for Straight-Through Flow
CORRECTION FACTOR 1K. OR K.1
FIGURE A-5 AIR DENSITY FRICTION CHART
CORRECTION FACTORS
NOTE: When an air distribution system is designed
to operate above 2000 feet (610 m) altitude, below 32_
F (0_C), or above 1200_ F (490_ C) temperature, the
duct friction loss obtained must be corrected for the air
density. The actual air flow (cfm or L/s) is used to find
the duct friction loss which is multiplied by the correc−
tion factor or factors from the above chart to obtain the
actual friction loss.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.11
FACE AREA, FT2 (m2) PER LOUVER
30
(3)
INTAKE
20
(2)
EXHAUST
10
(1)
0
0
2000
(1000)
4000
(2000)
8000
(4000)
6000
(3000)
12000
(6000)
10000
(5000)
FIGURE A-6 LOUVER VELOCITY
Parameters Used Above
Minimum Free Area
(48 Inch Square Test Section)
Water Penetration, oz/ft2, 15 min.
Maximum Static Pressure Drop, in. wg (Pa)
Intake Louver
Exhaust Louver
45%
45%
Negligible (Less than 0.2)
Not Applicable
0.15 (37)
0.25 (62)
Table A-8 Recommended Criteria for Louver Sizing
A.12
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
DUCT ELEMENT
LOUVERS
A. Intake:
1. 7,000 cfm (3500 L/s) and greater
2. Less than 7,000 cfm (3500 L/s)
B. Exhaust:
1. 5,000 cfm (2500 L/s) and greater
2. Less than 5,000 cfm (2500 L/s)
FILTERS
A. Fibrous Media Unit Filters:
1. Viscous Impingement
2. Dry Type
3. HEPA
B. Renewable Media Filters:
1. Moving Curtain Viscous Impingement
2. Moving Curtain Dry−media
C. Electronic Air Cleaners:
1. Ionizing Plate−Type
HEATING COILS
A. Steam and Hot Water
B. Electric:
1. Open Wire
2. Finned Tubular
COOLING OR DEHUMIDIFYING COILS
A. Without Eliminators
B. With Eliminators
AIR WASHERS
A. Spray−Type
B. Cell−Type
C. High Velocity Spray−Type
ACTUAL FACE
VELOCITY, fpm
(m/s)
400 (2.0)
See Fig. 16−6
500 (2.5)
See Fig. 16−6
250–700 (1.2–3.5)
Up to 750 (3.5)
250 (1.2)
500 (2.5)
200 (1.0)
300–500 (1.5–2.5)
500–600 (2.5–3.0)
(Most common)
200 (1.0) min.,
1,500 (7.5) max.
Refer to Mfg. Data
Refer to Mfg. Data
500–600 (2.5–3.0)
600–800 (3.0–4.0)
300–700 (1.5–3.5)
Refer to Mfg. Data
Refer to Mfg. Data
Table A-9 Typical Design Velocities for Duct Components
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.13
FITTING LOSS COEFFICIENT TABLES
A. ELBOW, SMOOTH RADIUS (DIE STAMPED), ROUND
Coefficients for 90 Elbows: (See Note 1)
R/D
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
C
0.71
0.33
0.22
0.15
0.13
0.12
q
Note 1: For angles other than 90° multiply by the following factors:
0
20°
30°
45°
60°
75°
90°
110°
130°
150°
180°
K
0
0.31
0.45
0.60
0.78
0.90
1.00
1.13
1.20
1.28
1.40
B. ELBOW, ROUND, 3 TO 5 PIECE — 90_
Coefficient C
q 90°
No.
of
Pieces
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.5
2.0
5
4
3
—
—
0.98
0.46
0.50
0.54
0.33
0.37
0.42
0.24
0.27
0.34
0.19
0.24
0.33
20°
30°
45°
60°
75°
90°
C
0.08
0.16
0.34
0.55
0.81
1.2
R/D
q
C. ELBOW, ROUND, MITERED
Coefficient C
D
NOTE: Fitting loss (TP) = C
Vp. Use the velocity pressure (Vp ) of the upstream section.
Table A-10 Elbow Loss Coefficients
A.14
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
D. ELBOW, RECTANGULAR, MITERED
Coeffiecient C
H/W
θ
20
30
45
60
75
90
0.25
0.5
0.08
0.18
0.38
0.60
0.89
1.3
0.08
0.17
0.37
0.59
0.87
1.3
0.75
0.08
0.17
0.36
0.57
0.84
1.2
1.0
1.5
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
0.07
0.16
0.34
0.55
0.81
1.2
0.07
0.15
0.33
0.52
0.77
1.1
0.07
0.15
0.31
0.49
0.73
1.1
0.06
0.13
0.27
0.43
0.63
0.92
0.05
0.12
0.25
0.39
0.58
0.85
0.05
0.11
0.24
0.38
0.57
0.83
θ
E. ELBOW, RECTANGULAR, SMOOTH RADIUS WITHOUT VANES
θ
Coeffiecient for 90 elbows (See Note 1)
Coefficient C
H/W
R/W
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1.5
0.57
0.27
0.22
0.20
1.4
0.52
0.25
0.20
0.18
1.3
0.48
0.23
0.19
0.16
1.0
1.2
0.44
0.21
0.17
0.15
Note 1: For angles other than 90 multiply by the following factors:
q
0
20
30
45
60
75
K
0
0.31
0.45
NOTE: Fitting loss (TP) = C
0.60
0.78
0.90
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
8.0
1.1
0.40
0.19
0.15
0.14
1.0
0.39
0.18
0.14
0.13
1.0
0.39
0.18
0.14
0.13
1.1
0.40
0.19
0.15
0.14
1.1
0.42
0.20
0.16
0.14
1.2
0.43
0.27
0.17
0.15
1.2
0.44
0.21
0.17
0.15
90
110
130
150
180
1.00
1.13
1.20
1.28
1.40
Vp. Use the velocity pressure (Vp ) of the upstream section.
Table A-10 Elbow Loss Coefficients (continued)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.15
F. ELBOW, RECTANGULAR, MITERED WITH TURNING VANES
S
R
AIR
FLOW
Loss Coefficients (C) for Single Thickness Vanes
Dimensions, Inches (mm)
Velocity, fpm (m/s)
H
1000
1500
2000
2500
R
S
(5)
(7.5)
(10)
(12.5)
2.0 (50)
1.5 (38)
0.24
0.23
0.22
0.20
4.5 (114)
3.25 (83)
0.26
0.24
0.23
0.22
S
W
R
Loss Coefficients (C) for Double Thickness Vanes
Velocity, fpm (m/s)
Dimensions, Inches (mm)
1000
1500
2000
2500
S
(5)
(7.5)
(10)
(12.5)
1.5 (38)
0.43
0.42
0.41
0.40
0.53
0.52
0.50
0.49
0.27
0.25
0.24
0.23
R
2.0 (50)
2.0 (50)
2.25(56)
4.5 (114)
3.25 (83)
Note 1: For angles other than 90 multiply by the following factors:
0
20
30
45
60
75
q
90
110
130
150
180
K
1.00
1.13
1.20
1.28
1.40
0
0.31
0.45
NOTE: Fitting loss (TP) = C
0.60
0.78
0.90
Vp. Use the velocity pressure (Vp ) of the upstream section.
Table A-10 Elbow Loss Coefficients (continued)
A.16
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A. TRANSITION, ROUND, CONICAL
Use Vp of the upstream section
q
Re = 8.56 DV
where:
D = Upstream Diameter (inches)
V = Upstream Velocity (fpm)
Whenq 180°
Re
Coefficient C (See Note 2)
q
A1/A
20°
30°
45°
60°
90°
120°
180°
0.5 105
2
4
6
10
16
0.14
0.23
0.27
0.29
0.31
16°
0.19
0.30
0.33
0.38
0.38
0.32
0.46
0.48
0.59
0.60
0.33
0.61
0.66
0.76
0.84
0.33
0.68
0.77
0.80
0.88
0.32
0.64
0.74
0.83
0.88
0.31
0.63
0.73
0.84
0.88
0.30
0.62
0.72
0.83
0.88
2 105
2
4
6
10
16
0.07
0.15
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.12
0.18
0.28
0.24
0.28
0.23
0.36
0.44
0.43
0.52
0.28
0.55
0.90
0.76
0.76
0.27
0.59
0.70
0.80
0.87
0.27
0.59
0.71
0.81
0.87
0.27
0.58
0.71
0.81
0.87
0.26
0.57
0.69
0.81
087
6 105
2
4
6
10
16
0.05
0.17
0.16
0.21
0.21
0.07
0.24
0.29
0.33
0.34
0.12
0.38
0.46
0.52
0.56
0.27
0.51
0.60
0.60
0.72
0.27
0.56
0.69
0.76
0.79
0.27
0.58
0.71
0.83
0.85
0.27
0.58
0.70
0.84
0.87
0.27
0.57
0.70
0.83
0.89
B. TRANSITION, RECTANGULAR, PYRAMIDAL
Use Vp of the upstream section
q
q
Note 2: A = Area ( Entering airstream)
A1 = Area (Leaving airstream)
Whenq 180°
A1/A
2
4
6
10
Coefficient C (See Note 2)
q
16°
20°
30°
45°
60°
90°
120°
180°
0.18
0.36
0.42
0.42
0.22
0.43
0.47
0.49
0.25
0.50
0.58
0.59
0.29
0.56
0.68
0.70
0.31
0.61
0.72
0.80
0.32
0.63
0.76
0.87
0.33
0.63
0.76
0.85
0.30
0.63
0.75
0.86
Table A-11 Transition Loss Coefficients
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.17
C. CONTRACTION, ROUND AND RECTANGULAR, GRADUAL TO ABRUPT
Use the velocity pressure (Vp) of the downstream section
q
q
q
Whenq 180°
A1/A
2
4
6
10
Coefficient C (See Note 3)
10°
15°–40°
50°–60°
90°
120°
150°
180°
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.12
0.17
0.18
0.19
0.18
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.24
0.35
0.36
0.37
0.26
0.41
0.42
0.43
Note 3: A = Area ( Entering airstream). A1 = Area (Leaving airstream)
Table A-11 Transition Loss Coefficients (continued)
A.18
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A. TEE, 45°, ENTRY, RECTANGULAR MAIN AND BRANCH
Use Vp of the upstream section
Branch, Coefficient C (See Note 4)
Qb/Qc
Vb/Vc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.2
0.91
0.4
0.81
0.79
0.6
0.77
0.72
0.70
0.8
0.78
0.73
0.69
0.66
1.0
0.78
0.98
0.85
0.79
0.74
1.2
0.90
1.11
1.16
1.23
1.03
0.86
1.4
1.19
1.22
1.26
1.29
1.54
1.25
0.92
1.6
1.35
1.42
1.55
1.59
1.63
1.50
1.31
1.8
1.44
1.50
1.75
1.74
1.72
2.24
1.63
For Main Loss Coefficient (C) see below.
B. TEE, RECTANGULAR MAIN TO ROUND BRANCH
Use Vp of the upstream section
Vb/Vc
Branch, Coefficient C (See Note 4)
Qb/Qc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.2
1.00
0.4
1.01
1.07
0.6
1.14
1.10
1.08
0.8
1.18
1.31
1.12
1.13
1.0
1.30
1.38
1.20
1.23
1.26
1.2
1.46
1.58
1.45
1.31
1.39
1.48
1.4
1.70
1.82
1.65
1.51
1.56
1.64
1.71
1.6
1.93
2.06
2.00
1.85
1.70
1.76
1.80
1.8
2.06
2.17
2.20
2.13
2.06
1.98
1.99
For Main Loss Coefficient (C) see below.
C. TEE, RECTANGULAR MAIN AND BRANCH
Use Vp of the upstream section
Vb/Vc
Branch, Coefficient C (See Note 4)
Qb/Qc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.2
1.03
0.4
1.04
1.01
0.6
1.11
1.03
1.05
0.8
1.16
1.21
1.17
1.12
1.0
1.38
1.40
1.30
1.36
1.27
1.2
1.52
1.61
1.68
191
1.47
1.66
1.4
1.79
2.01
1.90
2.31
2.28
2.20
1.95
1.6
2.07
2.28
2.13
2.71
2.99
2.81
2.09
1.8
2.32
2.54
2.64
3.09
3.72
3.48
2.21
For Main Loss Coefficient (C) see below.
Note 4: A = Area ( sq. in.). Q= airflow (cfm). V= Velocity (fpm)
Table A-12 Rectangular Branch Connection Loss Coefficients
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.19
D. TEE, RECTANGULAR MAIN AND BRANCH WITH EXTRACTOR
Use Vp of the upstream section
Branch, Coefficient C (See Note 4)
Qb/Qc
Vb/Vc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.2
1.03
0.4
1.04
1.01
0.6
1.11
1.03
1.05
0.8
1.16
1.21
1.17
1.12
1.0
1.38
1.40
1.30
1.36
1.27
1.2
1.52
1.61
1.68
191
1.47
1.66
1.4
1.79
2.01
1.90
2.31
2.28
2.20
1.95
1.6
2.07
2.28
2.13
2.71
2.99
2.81
2.09
1.8
2.32
2.54
2.64
3.09
3.72
3.48
2.21
For Main Loss Coefficient (C) see below.
E. WYE, RECTANGULAR
Use Vp of the upstream section
R 1.0
W
90 Branch
Ab/As
Ab/Ac
0.25
0.33
0.5
0.67
1.0
1.0
1.33
2.0
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
Ab/As
Ab/Ac
0.25
0.33
0.5
0.67
1.0
1.0
1.33
2.0
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
Branch, Coefficient C (See Note 4)
Qb/Qc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.55
0.35
0.62
0.52
0.44
0.67
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.35
0.48
0.40
0.38
0.55
0.60
0.52
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.32
0.38
0.46
0.51
0.43
0.85
0.80
0.40
0.30
0.41
0.37
0.42
0.33
1.2
1.3
0.48
0.34
0.52
0.32
0.34
0.24
1.8
2.0
0.60
0.44
0.68
0.29
0.28
0.17
3.1
2.8
0.78
0.62
0.92
0.29
0.26
0.15
Main, Coefficient C (See Note 4)
Qb/Qc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
-0 .1
0.08
-0 .3
0.04
0.72
-0 .02
0.10
0.62
- .03
0
- .06
- .02
0.48
- .04
0
0.38
- .01
- .02
- .05
- .04
0.28
- .04
0.01
0.23
0.05
- .01
0
- .03
0.13
- .01
- .03
0.13
0.13
0.02
0.06
-.01
0.05
0.06
-.01
0.08
0.21
0.08
0.12
0.04
0.04
0.13
0.03
0.05
0.29
0.16
0.19
0.12
0.09
0.22
0.10
0.06
Main Duct Loss Coefficient for Above Fittings
Vb / Vc
0.2
C
0.03
Main Coefficeient C (See Note 4)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.04
0.07
0.12
0.13
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0.14
0.27
0.30
0.25
Note 4: A = Area ( sq. in.). Q= airflow (cfm). V= Velocity (fpm)
Table A-12 Rectangular Branch Connection Loss
Coefficients (continued)
A.20
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
F. CONVERGING TEE, 45° ENTRY BRANCH TO RECTANGULAR MAIN
Use Vp of the downstream section
When:
Ab/As
As/Ac
As/As
0.5
1.0
0.5
Branch, Coefficient C (See Note 4)
Qb/Qc
Vc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
< 1200 fpm
-0.83
-0.68
-0.30
0.28
0.55
1.03
1.50
> 1200 fpm
-0.72
-0.52
-0.23
0.34
0.76
1.14
1.83
For Main Loss Coefficient (C) see below.
G. CONVERGING TEE, ROUND BRANCH TO RECTANGULAR MAIN
Use Vp of the downstream section
When:
Ab/As
As/Ac
Ab/Ac
0.5
1.0
0.5
Branch, Coefficient C (See Note 4)
Qb/Qc
Vc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
< 1200 fpm
-0.63
-0.55
-0.13
0.23
0.78
1.30
1.93
> 1200 fpm
-0.49
-0.21
-0.23
0.60
1.27
2.06
2.75
For Main Loss Coefficient (C) see below.
H. CONVERGING TEE, RECTANGULAR MAIN AND BRANCH
Use Vp of the downstream section
When:
Ab/As
As/Ac
As/Ac
0.5
1.0
0.5
Vc
Branch, Coefficient C (See Note 4)
Qb/Qc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
< 1200 fpm
-0.75
-0.53
-0.03
0.33
1.03
1.10
2.15
> 1200 fpm
-0.69
-0.21
-0.23
0.67
1.17
1.66
2.67
For Main Loss Coefficient (C) see below.
Main Duct Loss Coefficient for Above Fittings
Main Coefficeient C (See Note 4)
0.2
0.4
0.6
Vb / Vc
C
0.03
0.04
0.07
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0.12
0.13
0.14
0.27
0.30
0.25
Note 4: A = Area ( sq. in.). Q= airflow (cfm). V= Velocity (fpm)
Table A-12 Rectangular Branch Connection Loss
Coefficients (continued)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.21
I. CONVERGING WYE, RECTANGULAR
Use Vp of the downstream section
Branch, Coefficient C (See Note 4)
R 1.0
W
Ab/As
Ab/Ac
0.25
0.33
0.5
0.67
1.0
1.0
1.33
2.0
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
Qb/Qc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
-0 .50
-1 .2
-0 .50
-1 .0
-2 .2
-0 .60
-1 .2
-2 .1
0
-0 .40
-0 .20
-0 .60
-1 .5
-0 .30
-0 .80
-1 .4
0.50
0.40
0
-0 .20
-0 .95
-0 .10
-0 .40
-0 .90
1.2
1.6
0.25
0.10
-0 .50
-0 .04
-0 .20
-0 .5
2.2
3.0
0.45
0.30
0
0.13
0
- .20
3.7
4.8
0.70
0.60
0.40
0.21
0.16
0
5.8
6.8
1.0
1.0
0.80
0.29
0.24
0.20
Main, Coefficient C (See Note 4)
AS/AC
0.75
1.0
0.75
0.5
1.0
0.75
0.5
Qb/Qc
Ab/AC
0.1
025
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.2
30
0.17
0.27
1.2
0.18
0.75
0.80
0.3
30
0.16
0.35
1.1
0.24
0.36
0.87
0.20
0.10
0.32
0.90
0.27
0.38
0.80
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
-0.10
0
0.25
0.65
0.26
0.35
0.68
-0.45
-0.08
0.12
0.35
0.23
0.27
0.55
-0.92
-0.18
-0.03
0
0.18
0.18
0.40
-1.5
-.027
-0.23
-0.40
0.10
0.05
0.25
J. TEE, RECTANGULAR MAIN TO CONICAL BRANCH
Use Vp of the upstream section
Vb/Vc
0.40
C
0.80
Branch, Coefficient C (See note 4)
0.50
0.75
1.0
1.3
0.83
0.90
1.0
1.1
1.5
1.4
Main Duct Loss Coefficient for Above Fittings
Main Coefficeient C (See Note 4)
Vb / Vc
0.2
0.4
0.6
C
0.03
0.04
0.07
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0.12
0.13
0.14
0.27
0.30
0.25
Note 4: A = Area ( sq. in.). Q= airflow (cfm). V= Velocity (fpm)
Table A-12 Rectangular Branch Connection Loss
Coefficients (continued)
A.22
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A. TEE OR WYE, 30_ DEGREES TO 90_, ROUND
Diverging FittingsCUse the Vp of the upstream section.
Converging FittingsCUse the Vp of the downstream section.
Wye = 30
Ab/Ac
q
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Branch, Coefficient C (See note 5)
Qb/Qc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.75
0.72
0.69
0.65
0.59
0.55
0.40
0.28
0.55
0.51
0.46
0.41
0.33
0.28
0.26
1.5
0.40
0.36
0.31
0.26
0.21
0.24
0.58
—
0.28
0.25
0.21
0.19
0.20
0.38
1.3
—
0.21
0.18
0.17
0.18
0.27
0.76
2.5
—
0.16
0.15
0.16
0.22
0.40
1.3
—
—
0.15
0.16
0.20
0.32
0.62
2.0
—
—
Wye = 45
As/Ac
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Branch, Coefficient C (See note 5)
Qb/Qc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.78
0.77
0.74
0.71
0.66
0.66
0.56
0.60
0.62
0.59
0.56
0.52
0.47
0.48
0.56
2.1
0.49
0.47
0.44
0.41
0.40
0.52
1.0
—
0.40
0.38
0.37
0.38
0.43
0.73
1.8
—
0.34
0.34
0.35
0.40
0.54
1.2
—
—
0.31
0.32
0.36
0.45
0.69
1.8
—
—
0.32
0.35
0.43
0.59
0.95
2.7
—
—
Wye = 60
Ab/Ac
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Branch, Coefficient C (See note 5)
Qb/Qc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.83
0.82
0.81
0.79
0.76
0.80
0.77
1.0
0.71
0.69
0.68
0.66
0.65
0.75
0.96
2.9
0.62
0.61
0.60
0.61
0.65
0.89
1.6
—
0.56
0.56
0.58
0.62
0.74
1.2
2.5
—
0.52
0.54
0.58
0.68
0.89
1.8
—
—
0.50
0.54
0.61
0.76
1.1
2.6
—
—
0.53
0.60
0.72
0.94
1.4
3.5
—
—
Wye = 90
Ab/Ac
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Branch, Coefficient C (See note 5)
Qb/Qc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.95
0.95
0.96
0.97
0.99
1.1
1.3
2.1
0.92
0.94
0.97
1.0
1.1
1.4
1.9
—
0.92
0.95
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.8
2.9
—
0.93
0.98
1.1
1.2
1.5
2.3
—
—
0.94
1.0
1.1
1.4
1.7
—
—
—
0.95
1.1
1.2
1.5
2.0
—
—
—
1.1
1.2
1.4
1.8
2.4
—
—
—
Note 5: A = Area (sq. in.). Q = Airflow (cfm). V = Velocity (fpm)
Table A-13 Round Branch Connection Loss Coefficients
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.23
B. 90_ CONICAL TEE, ROUND
Diverging FittingsCUse the Vp of the upstream section.
Converging FittingsCUse the Vp of the downstream section.
Vb/Vc
0
0.2
0.4
Branch, Coefficient C (See Note 5)
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
C
1.0
0.85
0.74
0.62
0.32
0.52
0.42
0.36
0.32
For Main Loss Coefficient (C) see below.
C. 45_ CONICAL WYE, ROUND
Diverging FittingsCUse the Vp of the upstream section.
Converging FittingsCUse the Vp of the downstream section.
Vb/Vc
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
C
1.0
0.84
0.61
0.41
Branch, Coefficient C (See Note 5)
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
0.27
0.17
0.12
0.12
1.6
1.8
2.0
0.14
0.18
0.27
For Main Loss Coefficient (C) see below.
Diverging Fitting Main Duct
Loss Coefficients
Vs / Vc
0
0.1
0.2
C
0.35
0.28
0.22
Main, Coefficient C (See note 5)
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.17
0.13
0.09
Note 5: A = Area (sq. in.). Q = Airflow (cfm). V = Velocity (fpm)
Table A-13 Round Branch Connection Loss Coefficients
(continued)
A.24
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
0.6
0.8
0.06
0.02
D. CONVERGING WYE, ROUND
Diverging FittingsCUse the Vp of the upstream section.
Converging FittingsCUse the Vp of the downstream section.
Vb/Vc
45
Branch, Coefficient C (See Note 5)
Ab/Ac
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.4
-0.56
-0.44
-0.35
-0.28
-0.15
-0.04
0.05
0.5
-0.48
-0.37
-0.28
-0.21
-0.09
0.02
0.11
0.6
-0.38
-0.27
-0.19
-0.12
0
0.10
0.18
0.7
-0.26
-0.16
-0.08
-0.01
0.10
0.20
0.28
0.8
-0.21
-0.02
0.05
0.12
0.23
0.32
0.40
0.9
0.04
0.13
0.21
0.27
0.37
0.46
053
1.0
0.22
0.31
0.38
0.44
0.53
0.62
0.69
1.5
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.8
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.3
2.5
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.4
5.4
5.4
5.4
3.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
Vb/Vc
Main Coefficient C
Ab/Ac
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.1
-8.6
-4.1
-2.5
-1.7
-0.97
-0.58
-0.34
0.2
-6.7
-3.1
-1.9
-1.3
-0.67
-0.36
-0.18
0.3
-5.0
-2.2
-1.3
-0.88
-0.42
-0.19
-0.05
0.4
-3.5
-1.5
-0.88
-0.55
-0.21
-0.05
0.05
0.5
-2.3
-0.95
-0.51
-0.28
-0.06
0.06
0.13
0.6
-1.3
-0.50
-0.22
-0.09
0.05
0.12
0.17
0.7
-0.63
-0.18
-0.03
0.04
0.12
0.16
0.18
0.8
-0.18
0.01
0.07
0.10
0.13
0.15
0.17
0.9
0.03
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.13
1.0
-0.01
0
0
0.10
0.02
0.04
0.05
Note 5: A = Area (sq. in.). Q = Airflow (cfm). V = Velocity (fpm)
Table A-13 Round Branch Connection Loss Coefficients
(continued)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.25
E. CONVERGING TEE, 90_, ROUND
Diverging FittingsCUse the Vp of the upstream section.
Converging FittingsCUse the Vp of the downstream section.
Branch, Coefficient C (See Note 5)
Ab/Ac
Ob/Qc
90°
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.1
0.40
-0 .37
-0 .51
-0 .46
-0 .50
-0 .51
0.2
3.8
0.72
0.17
-0 .02
-0 .14
-0 .18
0.3
9.2
2.3
1.0
0.44
0.21
0.11
0.4
16
4.3
2.1
0.94
0.54
0.40
0.5
26
6.8
3.2
1.1
0.66
0.49
0.6
37
9.7
4.7
1.6
0.92
0.69
0.7
43
13
6.3
2.1
1.2
0.88
0.8
65
17
7.9
2.7
1.5
1.1
0.9
82
21
9.7
3.4
1.8
1.2
1.0
101
26
4.0
2.1
1.4
12
F. CONVERGING WYE, CONICAL ROUND
Diverging FittingsCUse the Vp of the upstream section.
Converging FittingsCUse the Vp of the downstream section.
Ab
Main, Coefficient C (See Note 5)
Qb/Qs
As/Ac
Ab/Ac
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0.3
0.2
0.3
-2.4
-2.8
-0.01
-1.2
2.0
0.12
3.8
1.1
5.3
1.9
6.6
2.6
7.8
3.2
8.9
3.7
9.8
4.2
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.4
-1.2
-1.6
-1.8
0.93
-0.27
-0.72
2.8
0.81
0.07
4.5
1.7
0.66
5.9
2.4
1.1
7.2
3.0
1.5
8.4
3.6
1.8
9.5
4.1
2.1
10
4.5
2.3
0.5
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
-.046
-.094
-1.1
-1.2
1.5
0.25
-0.24
-0.38
3.3
1.2
0.42
0.18
4.9
2.0
0.92
0.58
6.4
2.7
1.3
0.88
7.7
3.3
1.6
1.1
8.8
3.8
1.9
1.3
9.9
4.2
2.1
1.5
11
4.7
2.3
1.6
0.6
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
-0.55
-1.1
-1.2
-1.3
-1.3
1.3
0
-0.48
-0.62
-0.69
3.1
0.88
0.10
-0.14
-0.26
4.4
1.6
0.54
0.21
0.04
6.1
2.3
0.89
0.47
0.26
7.4
2.8
1.2
0.68
0.42
6.6
3.3
1.4
0.85
0.57
9.6
3.7
1.6
0.99
0.66
11
4.1
1.8
1.1
0.75
0.8
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.06
-0.52
-0.67
-0.73
-0.75
-0.77
-0.78
1.8
0.35
-0.05
-0.19
-0.27
-0.31
-0.34
3.5
1.1
0.43
0.18
0.05
-0.02
-0.07
5.1
1.7
0.80
0.46
0.28
0.18
0.12
6.5
2.3
1.1
0.68
0.45
0.32
0.24
7.8
2.8
1.4
0.85
0.58
0.43
0.33
8.9
3.2
1.6
0.99
0.68
0.50
0.39
10
3.6
1.8
1.1
0.76
0.56
0.44
11
3.9
1.9
1.2
0.83
0.61
0.47
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
2.1
0.54
0.21
0.05
-0.02
-0.10
-0.14
3.7
1.2
0.62
0.37
0.23
0.11
0.05
5.2
1.8
0.96
0.60
0.42
0.24
0.16
6.6
2.3
1.2
0.79
0.55
0.33
0.23
7.8
2.7
1.5
0.93
0.66
0.39
0.27
9.0
3.1
1.7
1.1
0.73
0.43
0.29
11
3.7
2.0
1.2
0.80
0.46
0.30
11
3.7
2.0
1.2
0.85
0.47
0.30
Qb
Qs
As
45°
Qc
Ac
1.0
Converging Fitting Main Duct Loss Coefficients Main, Coefficient C (See note 5)
Qb/Qc
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
C
0.16
0.27
0.38
0.46
0.53
0.57
0.59
0.8
0.9
0.60
0.59
Note 5: A = Area (sq. in.). Q = Airflow (cfm). V = Velocity (fpm)
Table A-13 Round Branch Connection Loss Coefficients
(continued)
A.26
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A. DAMPER, BUTTERFLY, THIN PLATE, ROUND
Use Vp of the upstream section
q
0
10
Coefficient C
20
30
40
50
60
C
0.20
0.52
1.5
11
29
108
4.5
0 is full open
B. DAMPER, BUTTERFLY, THIN PLATE, RECTANGULAR
Use Vp of the upstream section
q
0
10
Coefficient C
20
30
40
50
60
C
0.04
0.33
1.2
9.0
26
70
3.3
0 is full open
C. DAMPER, RECTANGULAR, PARALLEL BLADES
Use Vp of the upstream section
Coefficient C
L/R
q
Damper blades with
crimped leaf edges
and 1/4” metal
damper frame
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.5
80°
70°
60°
50°
40°
30°
20°
10°
0°
Fully
open
116
152
188
245
284
361
576
32
38
45
45
55
65
102
14
16
18
21
22
24
28
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
10
10
5.0
6.0
6.0
5.4
5.4
5.4
5.4
2.3
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.6
0.79
0.85
0.92
0.92
0.92
1.0
1.0
0.52
0.52
0.52
0.52
0.52
0.52
0.52
NW
L
R
2(H W)
where:
N
W
L
R
H
is number of damper blades
is duct dimension parallel to blade axis
is sum of damper blade lengths
is perimeter of duct
is duct dimension on perpendicular to blade axis
Table A-14 Miscellaneous Fitting Coefficients
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.27
D. DAMPER, RECTANGULAR, OPPOSED BLADES
Use Vp of the upstream section
Coefficient C
80°
70°
60°
50°
40°
30°
20°
10°
0°
Fully
open
807
915
1045
1121
1299
1521
1654
284
332
377
411
495
547
677
73
100
122
148
188
245
361
21
28
33
38
54
65
107
9.0
11
13
14
18
21
28
4.1
5.0
5.4
6.0
6.6
7.3
9.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.3
2.4
2.7
3.2
0.85
0.92
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.4
0.52
0.52
0.52
0.52
0.52
0.52
0.52
L/R
H
q
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.5
where:
NW
L
R
2(H W)
Damper blades with
crimped leaf edges
and 1/4” metal
damper frame
N
W
L
R
H
is number of damper blades
is duct dimension parallel to blade axis
is sum of damper blade lengths
is perimeter of duct
is duct dimension on perpendicular to blade axis
E. PERFORATED PLATE IN DUCT, THICK, ROUND AND RECTANGULAR
Use Vp of the upstream section
Coefficient C
n
t/D
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
0.015
52
30
18
8.2
4.0
2.0
0.97
0.42
0.13
0.2
48
28
17
7.7
3.8
1.9
0.91
0.40
0.13
0.4
46
27
17
7.4
3.6
1.8
0.88
0.39
0.13
42
where:
24
15
t = plate thickness
6.6
3.2
1.6
0.80
0.36
0.13
0.6
t/D 0.015
n
Ap
A
d
= duameter of perforated holes
n = free area ratio of plate
Ap = total flow area of perforated plate
A = area of duct
Table A-14 Miscellaneous Fitting Coefficients (continued)
A.28
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
F. RECTANGULAR DUCT WITH 4-90_ MITERED ELLS TO AVOID OBSTRUCTION
Use Vp of the upstream section
Coefficient C
1.0
L/H Ratio 0.5
1.5
2
Single Blade Turning Vanes
—
0.86
0.83
0.77
Double Blade Turning Vanes
—
1.85
2.84
2.91
“S” type Splitter Vanes
0.61
0.65
—
—
No Vanes - Up to 1200 fpm
0.88
5.26
6.92
7.56
No Vanes - Over 1200 fpm
1.26
6.22
8.82
9.24
Where:
W/H = 1.0 to 3.0
B
= 12” to 24”
G. RECTANGULAR DUCT, DEPRESSED TO AVOID AN OBSTRUCTION
Use Vp of the upstream section
Coefficient C
L/H
W/H
12”
0.125
0.15
0.25
0.30
1.0
0.26
0.30
0.33
0.35
0.4
0.10
0.14
0.22
0.30
15
H. ROUND DUCT, DEPRESSED TO AVOID AN OBSTRUCTION
Use Vp of the upstream section
30
12”
When: L/D = 0.33
C = 0.24
Table A-14 Miscellaneous Fitting Coefficients (continued)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.29
I. EXIT, ABRUPT, ROUND AND RECTANGULAR, WITH OR WITHOUT A WALL
Use Vp of the upstream section
C = 1.0
With Screen: Cs = 1 + (C from Table K)
WALL (OPTIONAL)
J. DUCT MOUNTED IN WALL, ROUND AND RECTANGULAR
Use Vp of the upstream section
Coefficient C
L/D
t/D
0
0.02
0.05
Rectangular : D 2HW
(H W)
0
0.002
0.01
0.05
0.2
0.5
1.0
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.57
0.51
0.50
0.68
0.52
0.50
0.80
0.55
0.50
0.92
0.66
0.50
1.0
0.72
0.50
1.0
0.72
0.50
With Screen or Perforated Plate:
a. Sharp Edge (t/De 0.05): Cs = 1 + C1
b. Thick Edge (t/De 0.05): Cs = C + C1
where:
Cs is new coefficient
C is from above table
C1 is from Table K (screen) or Table E (perforated plate)
K. SCREEN IN DUCT, ROUND AND RECTANGULAR
Use Vp of the upstream section
n
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.55
C
6.2
3.0
1.7
1.3
Coefficient C
0.60
0.65
0.97
0.75
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.90
0.58
0.44
0.32
0.14
Table A-14 Miscellaneous Fitting Coefficients (continued)
A.30
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
HVAC EQUATIONS (I-P)
Air Equations (I-P)
V
Vp
d
P
=
=
=
=
T
=
Velocity (fpm)
Velocity Pressure (in. wg)
Density (lb/cu ft)
Absolute Static Pressure (in. Hg)
(Barometric pressure + static pressure)
Absolute Temperature (460 + F)
Q (sens.) = 1.08 × cfm × ∆t
Q
Cp
d
∆t
=
=
=
=
Heat Flow (Btu/hr)
Specific Heat (Btu/lb × F)
Density (lb/cu ft)
Temperature Difference (F)
Q (lat.) = 4750 × cfm × ∆W (lb.)
∆W =
Humidity Ratio (lb or gr H2O/lb dry air)
Vp
d
or for standard air (d = 0.075 lb/cu ft):
a.
V 1096
V 4005 V p
to solve for d:
d 1.325
b.
Pb
T
Q (sens.) = 60 × Cp × d × cfm × ∆t
or for standard air (Cp = 0.24 Btu/lb × F):
c.
Q (lat.) = 0.67 × cfm × ∆W (gr.)
d.
Q (total) = 4.5 × cfm × ∆h
∆h =
Enthalpy Difference (Btu/lb dry air)
e.
Q = A × U × ∆t
A
U
=
=
Area of Surface (sq ft)
Heat Transfer Coefficient
(Btu/sq ft × hr × F)
f.
R 1
U
R
=
Sum of Thermal Resistance
(sq ft × hr × F / Btu)
g.
P1
P
V
R
T
M
=
=
=
=
=
Absolute Pressure (lb/sq ft)
Total Volume (cu ft)
Gas Constant
Absolute Temperature (460 + F = R)
Mass (lb)
h.
TP = Vp + SP
V1
V
P 2 2 RM
T1
T2
V
4005
2
TP =
Vp =
SP =
Total Pressure (in. wg)
Velocity Pressure (in. wg)
Static Pressure (in. wg)
i.
Vp j.
V Vm
V =
Vm =
d =
Velocity (fpm)
Measured Velocity (fpm)
Density (lb/cu ft)
k.
cfm = A × V
A
=
Area of Duct cross section (sq ft)
l.
TP = C × Vp
C
=
Duct Fitting Loss Coefficient
d(otherthanstandard)
0.075(d std.air)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.31
Fan Equations (I-P)
cfm 2
rpm
a.
rpm2
1
cfm 1
2
b.
P2
rpm
rpm2
P1
1
c.
bhp 2
rpm
rpm2
1
bhp 1
d.
rpm
d2
rpm2
1
d1
e.
rpmfan
Pitchdiam.motorpulley
rpmmotor
Pitchdiam.fanpulley
3
2
Pump Equations (I-P)
gpm
rpm
a. gpm 2 rpm2
1
1
gpm 2
D2
b. gpm 1
D1
H2
rpm2 2
c.
rpm
H1
1
cfm =
rpm =
Cubic feet per minute
Revolutions per minute
P
Static or Total Pressure (in. wg)
=
bhp =
Brake horsepower
d
Density (lb/cu ft)
=
rpm =
Revolutions per minute
D
=
Impeller diameter
H
=
Head (ft wg)
2
d.
e.
f.
H2
D2
D1
h1
bhp 2
rpm
rpm2
1
bhp 1
3
bhp 2
D2
D1
bhp 1
bhp =
Brake horsepower
3
Hydronic Equivalents (I-P)
a.
One gallon water = 8.33 pounds
b.
Specific heat (Cp ) water = 1.00 Btu/lb ⋅ F (@68F)
c.
Specific heat (Cp ) water vapor = 0.45 Btu/lb ⋅ F (@68F)
d.
One ft of water = 0.433 psi
e.
One psi = 2.3 ft wg = 2.04 in. Hg
f.
One cu ft of water = 62.4 lb = 7.49 gal.
g.
One in. of mercury (Hg) = 13.6 in. wg = 1.13 ft. wg
h.
Atmospheric Pressure = 29.92 in. Hg = 14.696 psi
A.32
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Hydronic Equations (I-P)
a.
Q 500 gpm Dt
b.
DP 2
gpm
gpm2
1
DP 1
c.
gpm
DP Cv
d.
e.
f.
2
2
gpm H Sp.Gr.
3960
gpm H Sp.Gr.
whp
bhp Ep
3960 E p
whp 100
Ep (inpercent)
bhp
whp g.
NPSHA P a
h.
V
h f L 2
D 2g
Ps V2
P vp
2g
Electric Equations (I-P)
a.
b.
Q =
gpm =
∆t =
Heat Flow (Btu/hr)
Gallons per minute
Temperature Difference (F)
∆P =
Cv =
Pressure difference (F)
Valve constant (dimensionless)
whp =
gpm =
bhp =
H =
Sp.Gr.=
Ep =
Water horsepower
Gallons per minute
Brake horsepower
Head (ft wg)
Specific gravity (use 1.0 for water)
Efficiency of pump
NPSHA
Pa =
Ps =
g =
= Net positive suction head available
Atm. pressure (use 34 ft wg)
Pressure at pump centerline (ft wg)
Gravity acceleration (32.2 ft/sec2)
h
f
L
D
V
Head Loss (ft)
Friction factor (dimensionless)
Length of pipe (ft)
Internal diameter (ft)
Velocity (ft/sec)
=
=
=
=
=
I E P.F. Eff.
(Single Phase)
746
I E P.F. Eff. 1.73
Bhp (Three Phase)
746
Bhp c.
E IR
d.
P EI
e.
F.L.Amps Voltage *
ActualF.L.Amps
ActualVoltage
NOTE: * refers to Nameplate ratings.
Water Temperature F
60F
150F
200F
250F
300F
340F
Ft. head differential per
inch Hg. differential
1.046
1.07
1.09
1.11
1.15
1.165
Table A-15 Converting Pressure In Inches of Mercury to Feet of Water
at Various Water Temperatures
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.33
Altitude
(ft)
Sea
Level
Barometer
(in. Hg)
29.92
28.86
(in. wg)
407.5
392.8
−40°
1.26
1.22
0°
1.15
40°
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10,000
27.82
26.82
25.84
24.90
23.98
23.09
22.22
21.39
20.58
378.6
365.0
351.7
338.9
326.4
314.3
302.1
291.1
280.1
1.17
1.13
1.09
1.05
1.01
0.97
0.93
0.90
0.87
1.11
1.07
1.03
0.99
0.95
0.91
0.89
0.85
0.82
0.79
1.06
1.02
0.99
0.95
0.92
0.88
0.85
0.82
0.79
0.76
0.73
Air Temp.
°F
70°
1.00
0.96
0.93
0.89
0.86
0.83
0.80
0.77
0.74
0.71
0.69
100°
0.95
0.92
0.88
0.85
0.81
0.78
0.75
0.73
0.70
0.68
0.65
150°
0.87
0.84
0.81
0.78
0.75
0.72
0.69
0.67
0.65
0.62
0.60
200°
0.80
0.77
0.74
0.71
0.69
0.66
0.64
0.62
0.60
0.57
0.55
250°
0.75
0.72
0.70
0.67
0.64
0.62
0.60
0.58
0.56
0.58
0.51
300°
0.70
0.67
0.65
0.62
0.60
0.58
0.56
0.54
0.52
0.50
0.48
350°
0.65
0.62
0.60
0.58
0.56
0.54
0.52
0.51
0.49
0.47
0.45
400°
0.62
0.60
0.57
0.55
0.53
0.51
0.49
0.48
0.46
0.44
0.42
450°
0.58
0.56
0.54
0.52
0.50
0.48
0.46
0.45
0.43
0.42
0.40
500°
0.55
0.53
0.51
0.49
0.47
0.45
0.44
0.43
0.41
0.39
0.38
550°
0.53
0.51
0.49
0.47
0.45
0.44
0.42
0.41
0.39
0.38
0.36
600°
0.50
0.48
0.46
0.45
0.43
0.41
0.40
0.39
0.37
0.35
0.34
700°
0.46
0.44
0.43
0.41
0.39
0.38
0.37
0.35
0.34
0.33
0.32
800°
0.42
0.40
0.39
0.37
0.36
0.35
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.30
0.29
900°
0.39
0.37
0.36
0.35
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.30
0.29
0.28
0.27
1000°
0.36
0.35
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.30
0.29
0.28
0.27
0.26
0.25
Standard Air Density, Sea Level, 70°F = 0.0 75 lb/cu ft at 29. 92 in. Hg
Table A-16 Air Density Correction Factors (I-P)
A.34
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
HVAC EQUATIONS (SI)
Air Equations (SI)
a.
V 1.414
Vp
d
or for standard air (d = 1.204 kg/m3):
V 1.66V p
To solve for d:
P
d 3.48 b
T
b.
Q C p d Ls Dt
or for standard air (CP = 1.005 kJ/kg ⋅ C)
Q(sens.) 1.23 Ls Dt (in watts)
V
Vp
d
Pb
=
=
=
=
T
=
Velocity (m/s)
Velocity Pressure (pascals or Pa)
Density (kg/m3)
Absolute Static Pressure (kPa)
(Barometric pressure + static pressure)
Absolute Temp. (273 + C = K)
Q
Cp
d
L/s
=
=
=
=
Heat Flow (watts or kilowatts)
Specific Heat (kJ/kg ⋅ C)
Density (kg/m3)
Airflow (liters per second)
Q(sens.) 1.23 m3s Dt
(in kilowatts)
t =
m3/s =
Temperature Difference (C)
Airflow (cubic meters per second)
c.
Q(lat.) 3.0 Ls DW
W=
Humidity Ratio (g H2O/kg dry air)
d.
Q(totalheat) 1.20 Ls Dh
h =
Enthalpy Diff. (kJ/kg dry air)
e.
Q A U Dt
A
U
=
=
Area of Surface (m2)
Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2 ⋅ C)
f.
R 1
U
R
=
Sum of Thermal Resistances (m2 ⋅ C/W)
g.
P 1V 1
PV
2 2 RM
T1
T2
P
V
T
R
M
=
=
=
=
=
Absolute Pressure (kPa)
Total Volume (m3)
Absolute Temp. (273 + C = K)
Gas Constant
Mass (kg)
h.
TP V P SP
TP =
Vp =
SP =
Total Pressure (Pa)
Velocity Pressure (Pa)
Static Pressure (Pa)
V p d V 2 0.602V2
2
d(otherthanstandard)
V V m
1.204(d std.air)
d =
V =
Vm =
Density (kg/m3)
Velocity (m/s)
Measured Velocity (m/s)
A
C
Area of duct cross section (m2)
Duct Fitting Loss Coefficient
i.
j.
k.
Ls 1000 A V
l.
TP C VP
=
=
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.35
Fan Equations (SI)
Ls 2
m3s
rads 2
revs 2
a.
3 2 Ls 1
m s 1
rads 1
revs 1
2
b.
rads 2
P2
P1
rads 1
c.
rads 2
kW 2
kW 1
rads 1
d.
rads 2
d2
d1
rads 1
e.
rads(fan)
Pitchdiam.motorpulley
Pitch.diam.fanpulley
rads(motor)
3
2
Pump Equations (SI)
Ls 2
m3s
rads 2
revs 2
a.
3 2 Ls 1
m s 1
rads 1
revs 1
m 3s 2
d2
b.
d1
m 3s 1
2
c.
rads 2
H2
H1
rads 1
d.
H2
D2
H1
D1
e.
rads 2
BP 2
BP 1
rads 1
2
L/s = Liters per second
m3/s = Cubic meters per second
rad/s = Radians per second
rev/s = Revolutions per second
P = Static or Total Pressure (Pa)
kW = Kilowatts
d = Density (kg/m3)
NOTE: m3/h = Cubic meters per hour (is used in lieu
of m3/s in some countries.)
L/s = Liters per second
m3/s = Cubic meters per second
rad/s = Radians per second
rev/s = Revolutions per second
D = Impeller diameter
H = Head (kPa)
BP. = Brake horsepower
NOTE: m3/h = Cubic meters per hour (is used in lieu
of m3/s in some countries.)
3
Hydronic Equations (SI)
a.
Q 4190 m3s Dt
2
b.
m3s 2
DP 2
DP 1
m3s 1
c.
m 3s
Ls
DP Cv
Cv
2
Q
Ls 2
Ls 1
2
2
WP(kW) 9.81 m3s H(m) Sp.8 Gr.
Ls H(Pa) Sp.8 Gr.
or WP(W) 1002
=
Heat flow (kilowatts)
t =
m3/s =
Temperature difference (C)
Cubic meters per second
(used for large volumes)
L/s =
Liters per second
P =
Cv =
Pressure diff. (Pa or kPa)
Valve constant (dimensionless)
d.
e.
BP WP
Ep
f.
E p WP 100 (inpercent)
BP
A.36
WP = Water power (kW or W)
m3/s = Cubic meters per second
H = Head (Pa or m)
L/s = Liters per second
Sp.Gr. = Specific gravity (use 1.0 for water)
BP =
Ep =
Brake power (kW)
Efficiency of Pump
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Ps V P vp
2g
2
NPSHA = Net positive suction head available
Pa = Atm. press (Pa)
(Std. Atm. press. = 101,325 Pa)
Ps = Pressure at pump centerline (Pa)
V 2 = Velocity head at point P (m)
s
2g
Pvp = Absolute vapor pressure (Pa)
g.
NPSHA P a
h.
h f L V
D 2g
h
g
f
L
D
V
=
=
=
=
=
=
Head loss (m)
Gravity acceleration (9.807 m/s2)
Friction factor (dimensionless)
Length of pipe (m)
Internal diameter (m)
Velocity (m/s)
I E P.F. Eff.
(Single Phase)
1000
I E P.F. Eff. 1.73
kW 1000
(Three Phase)
kW
I
E
P.F.
R
P.
=
=
=
=
=
=
Kilowatts
Amps (A)
Volts (V)
Power factor
ohms (Ω)
watts (W)
a.
b.
2
kW c.
E IR
d.
P EI
F.L.Amps * Voltage *
ActualF.L.Amps
ActualVoltage
e.
NOTE: * Refers to Nameplate Ratings
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.37
Altitude (m)
Barometer (kPa)
Air Temp °C
0°
20°
50°
75°
100°
125°
150°
175°
200°
225°
250°
275°
300°
325°
350°
375°
400°
425°
450°
475°
500°
525°
Sea
Level
101.3
250
98.3
500
96.3
750
93.2
1000
90.2
1250
88.2
1500
85.1
1750
83.1
2000
80.0
2500
76.0
3000
71.9
1.08
1.00
0.91
0.85
0.79
0.74
0.70
0.66
0.62
0.59
0.56
0.54
0.51
0.49
0.47
0.46
0.44
0.42
0.41
0.39
0.38
0.37
1.05
0.97
0.89
0.82
0.77
0.72
0.68
0.64
0.61
0.58
0.55
0.52
0.50
0.48
0.46
0.44
0.43
0.41
0.40
0.38
0.37
0.36
1.02
0.95
0.86
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.66
0.62
0.59
0.56
0.53
0.51
0.49
0.47
0.45
0.43
0.41
0.40
0.38
0.37
0.36
0.35
0.99
0.92
0.84
0.78
0.72
0.68
0.64
0.62
0.57
0.54
0.52
0.49
0.47
0.45
0.43
0.42
0.40
0.39
0.37
0.36
0.35
0.34
0.96
0.89
0.81
0.75
0.70
0.66
0.62
0.59
0.56
0.53
0.50
0.48
0.46
0.44
0.42
0.41
0.39
0.38
0.36
0.35
0.34
0.33
0.93
0.87
0.79
0.73
0.68
0.64
0.60
0.57
0.54
0.51
0.49
0.47
0.45
0.43
0.41
0.39
0.38
0.37
0.35
0.34
0.33
0.32
0.91
0.84
0.77
0.71
0.66
0.62
0.59
0.55
0.52
0.50
0.47
0.45
0.43
0.41
0.40
0.38
0.37
0.35
0.34
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.88
0.82
0.75
0.69
0.65
0.60
0.57
0.54
0.51
0.48
0.46
0.44
0.42
0.40
0.39
0.37
0.36
0.34
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.30
0.86
0.79
0.72
0.67
0.63
0.59
0.55
0.52
0.49
0.47
0.45
0.43
0.41
0.39
0.38
0.36
0.35
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.30
0.29
0.81
0.75
0.68
0.63
0.59
0.55
0.52
0.44
0.47
0.44
0.42
0.40
0.38
0.37
0.35
0.34
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.29
0.28
0.27
0.76
0.71
0.64
0.60
0.56
0.52
0.49
0.46
0.44
0.42
0.40
0.38
0.36
0.35
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.30
0.29
0.28
0.27
0.26
Table A-17 Air Density Correction Factors (SI)
A.38
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
SI UNITS AND EQUIVALENTS
UNIT
ampere
candela
Celsius
coulomb
farad
henry
hertz
joule
kelvin
SYMBOL
A
cd
°C
C
F
H
Hz
J
K
QUANTITY
Electric current
Luminous intensity
Temperature
Electric charge
Electric capacitance
Electric inductance
Frequency
Energy, work, heat
Thermodynamic
y
temperature
kilogram
liter
lumens
lux
meter
mole
newton
ohm
pascal
kg
L
lm
lx
m
mol
N
Ω
Pa
Mass
Liquid volume
Luminous flux
Illuminance
Length
Amount of substance
Force
Electrical resistance
Pressure, stress
radian
second
siemens
steradian
volt
watt
rad
s
S
sr
v
w
Plane angle
Time
Electric conductance
Solid angle
Electric potential
Power, heat flow
EQUIVALENT OR RELATIONSHIP
Same as I−P
1 cd/m2 = 0.292 ft. lamberts
°F = 1.8 °C + 32°
Same as I−P
Same as I−P
Same as I−P
Same as cycles per second
1 J = 0.7376 ft−lb
= 0.000948 Btu
°K = °C + 273.15°
°F 459.67
1.8
1 kg = 2.2046 lb
1 L = 1.056 qt = 0.264 gal
1 lm/m2 = 0.0929 ft candles
1 lx = 0.0929 ft candles
1 m = 3.281 ft
C
1 N = kg • m/s2 = 0.2248 lb (force)
Same as I−P
1 Pa = N/m2 = 0.000145 psi
= 0.004022 in.wg
1 rad = 57.29°
Same as I−P
C
C
Same as I−P
1 W = J/s = 3.4122 Btu/hr
1 W = 0.000284 tons of refrigeration
Table A-18 SI Units (Basic and Derived)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.39
QUANTITY
acceleration
angular velocity
area
atmospheric pressure
density
density, air
density, water
duct friction loss
enthalpy
gravity
heat flow
length (normal)
linear velocity
mass flow rate
moment of inertia
power
pressure
specific heatCair (Cp )
specific
specific
specific
thermal
heatCair (Cv )
heatCwater
volume
conductivity
volume flow rate
SYMBOL
m/s2
rad/s
m2
C
kg/m 3
C
C
Pa/m
kJ/kg
W
m
m/s
kg/s
kg⋅m2
W
kPa
Pa
C
C
C
m3/kg
W mm/m2⋅°C
m3/s
L/s
C
C
m3/h
UNIT
meters per second squared
radians per second
square meter
101.325 kPa
kilograms per cubic meter
1.2 kg/m3
1000 kg/m3
pascals per meter
kilojoule per kilogram
9.8067 m/s2
watt
meter
meters per second
kilograms per second
kilograms × square meter
watt
kilopascal (1000 pascals)
pascal
1000 J/kg °C
717 J/kg °C
4190 J/kg °C
cubic meters per kilogram
watt millimeter per square
meter °C
cubic meters per second
liters per second
1 m3/s = 1000 L/s
1 mL = liters/1000
cubic meters per hour
I−P RELATIONSHIP
1
= 3.281 ft/sec2
1 rad/sec = 9.549 rpm = 0.159 rps
1 m2 = 10.76 ft2
29.92 in Hg = 14.696 psi
1 kg/m3 = 0.0624 lb/ft3
0.075 lb/ft3
62.4 lb/ft3
1 Pa/m = 0.1224 in.wg/100 ft
1 kJ/kg = 0.4299 Btu/lb dry air
32.2 ft/sec2
1 W = 3.412 Btu/hr
1 m = 3.281 ft = 39.37 in.
1 m/s = 196.9 fpm
1 kg/s = 7936.6 lb/hr
1 kg⋅m2 = 23.73 lb ft2
1 W = 0.00134 hp
1 kPa = 0.296 in Hg = 0.145 psi
1 Pa = 0.004015 in.wg
1000 J/kg °C = 1 kJ/kg °C
= 0.2388 Btu/lb °F
0.17 Btu/lb °F
1.0 Btu/lb °F
1 m3/kg = 16.019 ft3/lb
1 W mm/m2 ⋅°C
= 0.0069 Btuh in/ft2 °F
1 m3/s = 2118.88 cfm (air)
1 L/s = 2.12 cfm (air)
1 m3/s = 15,850 gpm (water)
1 mL/s = 1.05 gph (water)
1 m3/h = 0.588 cfm (air)
1 m3/h = 4.4 gpm (water)
m/s2
Table A-19 SI Equivalents
A.40
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
L w Lp 10 log10
4prQ A4 10.5dB
L p Lw 10 log10
4prQ A4 10.5dB
2
2
R Sa or R A
1a
1a
Lp = Sound pressure level, dB re 0.0002 microbar
Lw = Sound power level, dB re 10−12 watt
r = Distance from the sound source, feet
A%orNSα= Total sabins in the room
Q = Directivity factor
R = Room constant
α = Absorption coefficient of the surface treat−
ment
S = Surface area in square feet
a = Average sabin absorption coefficient for the
room
D
V
f
=
=
=
Characteristic dimension, in.
Velocity, fpm
Octave band center frequency, Hz
Octave Band Sound Power Level
= F G HindBre10 12watts
F
G
H
=
=
=
Function (Use with charts)
Function (Use with charts)
Function (Use with charts)
L WB LWD TL 10 log 10 S
A
LWB =
LWD =
TL =
S =
A =
Sound power level breakout
Sound power level in duct
Transmission loss of duct wall
Radiating surface area of duct wall (sqNft)
Cross−sectional area of duct component
(sqNft)
L w Lp 10 log10 A 10dB
Lw =
Lp =
A =
Sound power level that enters duct
Sound pressure level in source room
Opening in duct (sq ft.)
lc
f
λ
c
f
Wavelength in feet
Speed of sound, 1125 fps
Cycles per second, hertz
L w 10 log W
W ref
Lw =
W =
Wref =
Sound power level, dB
Acoustic power output of noise source
10−12 watt
Lp =
P =
Pref =
Sound power level in dB
rms sound pressure
Ref. rms sound pressure
Strouhal Number N str fD
5
V
=
=
=
dBre10 12watt dBre1013watt 10
L p 20 log P
Pref
D C1 C2
C
... n
T1
T2
Tn
Cn =
Tn =
Actual duration of exposure, hours
Noise exposure limit
B f RPM No.ofBlades
60
Bf =
Blade frequency
Lw
Kw
Q
P
Est sound power level, dB re 10−12 watt
Specific sound power level
Volume flow rate, cfm
Pressure, in. wg
L w Kw 10 log Q 20 log P
=
=
=
=
Table A-20 Sound Design Equations
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.41
NR TL 10 log S 10 log A
TL =
S
A
=
=
The transmission loss of the partition
separating the two spaces
The surface area of the partition (sq ft)
Total of the sound absorptive materials in the
receiving room (sq ft sabins)
TL 20 log M 20 log F 33dB
M =
F =
Mass of construction (lb/sq ft)
Frequency (hertz)
D 0.5 A
D
A
Distance (in feet) from the noise source
Total absorption in room (sq ft sabins)
A2
A1
Noise Reduction in dB
NR, dB 10 log
NR =
L P1 LP2 20 log D 1 20 log D 2
=
=
A1 =
Total absorption (Sabins, sq ft) in the room
before adding the sound absorption
LP1 =
LP2 =
D1 =
Sound pressure level at position #1
Sound pressure level at position #2
Distance (in ft) from noise source to position
#1
Distance (in ft) from noise source to position
#2
D2 =
L p Lw 20 log D 0.5dB
D
a (AntilogL a20)105
a =
La =
Acceleration in meters/sec2 (g = 9.8 m/s2)
Acceleration level in dB re 10−5 (m/s2)
v (AntilogL v20)108
v
Velocity in meters/sec
(1 g@ 100 Hz = 0.015 m/s)
Velocity level in dB re 10−8 (m/s)
=
=
Lv =
d (AntilogL d20)1011
d
=
Ld =
Distance (in ft) from the point source to the
point where sound pressure is measured
Displacement in meters
(1g@100 Hz = 0.0249 mm)
Displacement level in dB re 10−11 (meters)
Table A-20 Sound Design Equations (continued)
A.42
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
FITTING EQUIVALENTS (WATER)
Velocity,
ft/s
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1_w
3_r
1
11_r
I1_w
2
21_w
1.2
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.3
2.4
2.4
2.5
2.2
2.5
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.2
3.0
3.3
3.6
3.7
3.9
4.0
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.3
3.5
3.9
4.2
4.4
4.5
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.0
5.1
4.5
5.1
5.4
5.6
5.9
6.0
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
5.4
6.0
6.4
6.7
7.0
7.2
7.4
7.5
7.7
7.8
Pipe Size
3
31_w
6.7
7.5
8.0
8.3
8.7
8.9
9.1
9.3
9.5
9.7
7.7
8.6
9.2
9.6
10.0
10.3
10.5
10.8
11.0
11.2
4
5
6
8
10
12
8.6
9.5
10.2
10.6
11.1
11.4
11.7
11.9
12.2
12.4
10.5
11.7
12.5
13.1
13.6
14.0
14.3
14.6
14.9
15.2
12.2
13.7
14.6
15.2
15.8
16.3
16.7
17.1
17.4
17.7
15.4
17.3
18.4
19.2
19.8
20.5
21.0
21.5
21.9
22.2
18.7
20.8
22.3
23.2
24.2
24.9
25.5
26.1
26.6
27.0
22.2
24.8
26.5
27.6
28.8
29.6
30.3
31.0
31.6
32.0
Table A-21 Equivalent Length in Feet of Pipe for 90_ Elbows
Pipe Size, mm
Velocity,
m/s
0.33
15
20
25
32
40
50
65
75
100
125
150
200
250
300
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.4
1.6
2.0
2.6
3.2
3.7
4.7
5.7
6.8
0.67
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.3
2.9
3.6
4.2
5.3
6.3
7.6
1.00
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.1
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.5
3.1
3.8
4.5
5.6
6.8
8.0
1.33
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.1
1.3
1.7
2.0
2.5
3.2
4.0
4.6
5.8
7.1
8.4
1.67
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.2
1.4
1.8
2.1
2.6
3.4
4.1
4.8
6.0
7.4
8.8
2.00
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.2
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.7
3.5
4.3
5.0
6.2
7.6
9.0
2.33
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.2
1.5
1.9
2.2
2.8
3.6
4.4
5.1
6.4
7.8
9.2
2.67
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.3
1.5
1.9
2.3
2.8
3.6
4.5
5.2
6.5
8.0
9.4
3.00
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.3
1.5
1.9
2.3
2.9
3.7
4.5
5.3
6.7
8.1
9.6
3.33
0.5
0.8
0.9
1.3
1.5
1.9
2.4
3.0
3.8
4.6
5.4
6.8
8.2
9.8
Table A-22 Equivalent Length in Meters of Pipe for 90_ Elbows
Iron
Pipe
Fitting
Copper
Tubing
Elbow. 90
1.0
1.0
Elbow, 45
0.7
0.7
Elbow. 90 long turn
0.5
0.5
Elbow. welded, 90
0.5
0.5
Reduced coupling
0.5
0.4
Open return bend
1.0
1.0
Angle Radiator valve
2.0
3.0
Radiator or convector
3.0
4.0
Boiler or heater
3.0
4.0
Open gate valve
0.5
0.7
Open globe valve
12.0
17.0
Table A-23 Iron and Copper
Elbow Equivalents
FIGURE A-7 ELBOW EQUIVALENTS OF
TEES AT VARIOUS FLOW CONDITIONS
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.43
PROPERTIES OF STEAM
Pressure
Gage
psi
Vacuum
25 in. Hg
9.56 in. Hg
0
2
5
15
50
100
150
200
Absolute
psia
Saturation
Temperature
F
2.4
10
14.7
16.7
19.7
29.7
64.7
114.7
164.7
214.7
134
193
212
218
227
250
298
338
366
388
Specific Volume
ft3/lb
Enthalpy
Btu/lb
Liquid
Vf
Steam
Vg
Liquid
hf
0.0163
0.0166
146.4
38.4
26.8
23.8
20.4
13.9
6.7
3.9
2.8
2.1
101
161
180
187
195
218
267
309
339
362
0.0167
0.0168
0.0168
0.0170
0.0174
0.0179
0.0182
0.0185
Evap.
hfg
Steam
hg
1018
982
970
966
961
946
912
881
857
837
1119
1143
1150
1153
1156
1164
1179
1190
1196
1179
Table A-24 Properties of Saturated Steam (I-P)
Specific
Volume
L/kg
Pressure,
kPa
19.9
47.4
101.00
199.00
362
618
1003
1555
Enthalpy, kJ/kg
Saturation
Temperature
°C
Liquid
Vf
Steam
Vg
Liquid
hf
Evap.
hfg
Steam
hg
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.06
1.08
1.10
1.13
1.16
7669
3405
1672
891
508
307
194
127
251
335
419
504
589
676
763
852
2358
2308
2256
2202
2144
2082
2015
1941
2609
2643
2775
2706
2733
2758
2778
2793
Table A-25 Properties of Saturated Steam (SI)
A.44
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
STEAM PIPING (I-P)
Pressure DropCpsi per 100 Ft in Length
Nom.
Pipe
Size,
in.
3_r
1
11_r
11_w
1_qy psi (1 oz)
1_i psi (2 oz)
1_r psi (4 oz)
1_w psi (8 oz)
3_r psi (12 oz)
1 psi
2 psi
Sat. press
psig
Sat. press.
psig
Sat. press
psig
Sat. press
psig
Sat. press.
psig
Sat. press.
psig
Sat. press.
psig
3.5
12
3.5
12
3.5
12
3.5
12
3.5
12
3.5
12
3.5
12
9
17
36
56
11
21
45
70
14
26
53
84
16
31
66
100
20
37
78
120
24
46
96
147
29
54
111
174
35
66
138
210
36
68
140
218
43
82
170
260
42
81
162
246
50
95
200
304
60
114
232
360
73
137
280
430
2
21_w
3
31_w
108
174
318
462
134
215
380
550
162
258
465
670
194
310
550
800
234
378
660
990
285
460
810
1218
336
540
960
1410
410
660
1160
1700
420
680
1190
1740
510
820
1430
2100
480
780
1380
2000
590
950
1670
2420
710
1150
1950
2950
850
1370
2400
3450
4
5
6
8
640
1200
1920
3900
800
1430
2300
4800
950
1680
2820
5570
1160
2100
3350
7000
1410
2440
3960
8100
1690
3000
4850
1980
3570
5700
2400
4250
5700
2450
4380
7000
3000
5250
8600
2880
5100
8400
3460
6100
4200
7500
4900
8600
10,000
11,900
14,200
10,000
11,400
14,300
14,500
17,700
16,500
20,500
24,000
29,500
10
12
7200
8800
10,200
12,600
15,000
18,200
21,000
26,000
26,200
32,000
30,000
37,000
42,700
52,000
11.400
13,700
16,500
19,500
23,400
28,400
33,000
40,000
41,000
49,500
48,000
57,500
67,800
81,000
Table A-26 Steam Piping (I-P) Flow Rate of Steam in Schedule 40 Pipe at
Initial Saturation Pressure of 3.5 and 12 psig
(Flow Rate expressed in Pounds per Hour)
Pitch
of
Pipe
Pipe
Size,
in.
1_r in.
1_w in.
1 1_w in.
1 in.
Capa−
city
Max.
Vel.
Capa−
city
Max.
Vel.
Capa−
city
3.2
6.8
11.8
19.8
42.9
8
9
11
12
15
4.1
9.0
15.9
25.9
54.0
11
12
13
16
18
5.7
11.7
19.9
33.0
68.8
Max.
Vel.
Capa−
city
2 in.
Max.
Vel.
Capa−
city
3 in.
Max.
Vel.
4 in.
Capa−
city
Max.
Vel.
Capa−
city
8.3
17.3
31.3
46.8
99.6
17
22
25
26
32
9.9
19.2
33.4
50.8
102.4
5 in.
Max.
Vel.
Capa−
city
Max.
Vel.
22 10.5
24 20.5
26 38.1
28 59.2
32 115.0
22
25
31
33
33
Capacity Expressed in Pounds Per Hour
3_r
1
11_r
11_w
2
13
15
17
19
24
6.4
12.8
24.6
37.4
83.3
14
17
20
22
27
7.1
14.8
27.0
42.0
92.9
16
19
22
24
30
Table A-27 Comparative Capacity of Steam Lines at Various Pitches for
Steam and Condensate Flowing in Opposite Directions
(Pitch of Pipe in Inches per 10 Feet – Velocity in Feet per Second)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.45
Initial Steam
Pressure,
psig
Total Pressure Drop
in Steam Supply Piping,
psi
Pressure Drop
Per 100 Ft, psi
Subatmos, or
vacuum return
0
1
2
5
10
15
30
50
100
150
2–4 oz.
1_w oz.
2 oz.
2 oz.
4 oz.
8 oz.
1–2 psi
1 oz.
1–4 oz.
8 oz.
11_w psi
3 psi
1 psi
2 psi
2–5 psi
2–5 psi
2–10 psi
4 psi
5–10 psi
10–15 psi
15–25 psi
25–30 psi
Table A-28 Pressure Drops In Common Use for Sizing Steam Pipe
(For Corresponding Initial Steam Pressure)
Length in Feet to be Added to Run
Size of Pipe
Inches
1_w
3_r
1
1 1_r
1 1_w
2
2 1_w
3
3 1_w
4
5
6
8
10
12
Standard
Elbow
Side Out−
let Teeb
Gate
Valve 2
Globe
Valve 2
Angle
Valve 2
1.3
1.8
2.2
3.0
3
4
5
6
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
14
18
23
29
7
10
12
15
3.5
4.3
5.0
6.5
7
8
11
13
0.8
1.0
1.1
1.4
34
46
54
66
18
22
27
34
8
9
11
13
15
18
22
27
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.8
80
92
112
136
40
45
56
67
17
21
27
35
45
53
3.7
4.6
5.5
180
230
270
92
112
132
Table A-29 Length in Feet of Pipe to be Added to Actual Length of
Run — Owing to Fittings — to Obtain Equivalent Length
A.46
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Capacity in Pounds per Hour
Two Pipe Systems
Nominal
Pipe Size,
Size
Inches
A
One−Pipe Systems
Condensate Flowing Against Steam
Vertical
Horizontal
Ba
Ca
Supply
Risers Up−Feed
Db
Radiator Valves
and Vertical
Connections
E
Radiator and
Riser Runouts
Fc
3_r
1
1 1_r
1 1_w
2
8
14
31
48
97
7
14
27
42
93
6
11
20
38
72
C
7
16
23
42
7
7
16
16
23
2 1_w
3
3 1_w
4
5
159
282
387
511
1,050
132
200
288
425
788
116
200
286
380
C
C
C
C
C
C
42
65
119
186
278
1,800
3,750
7,000
11,500
22,000
1,400
3,000
5,700
9,500
19,000
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
545
C
C
C
6
8
10
12
16
NOTE: Steam at an average pressure of 1 psig is used as a basis of calculating capacities.
a Do
not use Column B for pressure drops of less than 1_qy ft. of equivalent run.
not use Column D for pressure drops of less than 1_wr psi per 100 ft. of equivalent run except on sizes 3
in. and over.
b Do
c Pitch of horizontal runouts to risers and radiators should be not less than 1_w in. per ft.
Where this pitch cannot
be obtained, runouts over 8 ft. in length should be one pipe size larger than called for in this table.
Table A-30 Steam Pipe Capacities for Low Pressure Systems
(For Use on One-Pipe Systems or Two-Pipe Systems in which Condensate
Flows Against the Steam Flow)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.47
1_er psi or 1_w oz
Drop per 100 ft
Pipe
Size
Inch−
es
G
1_wr psi or 2_e oz
Drop per 100 ft
1_qy psi or 1 oz
Drop per 100 ft
Wet
Dry
Vac.
Wet
Dry
Vac.
H
I
J
K
L
M
1_i psi or 2 oz
Drop per 100 ft
1_r psi or 4 oz
Drop per 100 ft
Wet
Dry
Vac.
Wet
Dry
Vac.
Wet
Dry
Vac.
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
Return Main
3_r
C
C
C
C
C
42
C
C
100
C
C
142
C
C
200
1
125
62
C
145
71
143
175
80
175
250
103
249
350
115
350
11_r
213
130
C
248
149
244
300
168
300
425
217
426
600
241
600
11_w
338
206
C
393
236
388
475
265
475
675
340
674
950
378
950
700
470
C
810
535
815
1,000
575
1,000
1,400
740
1,420
2,000
825
2,000
21_w
2
1,180
760
C
1,580
868
1,360
1,680
950
1,680
2,350
1,230
2,380
3,350
1,360
3,350
3
1,880
1,460
C
2,130
1,560
2,180
2,680
1,750
2,680
3,750
2,250
3,800
5,350
2,500
5,350
31_w
2,750
1,970
C
3,300
2,200
3,250
4,000
2,500
4,000
5,500
3,230
5,680
8,000
3,580
8,000
4
3,880
2,930
C
4,580
3,350
4,500
5,500
3,750
5,500
7,750
4,830
7,810 11,000
5,380 11,000
5
C
C
C
C
C
7,880
C
C
9,680
C
C 13,700
C
C 19,400
6
C
C
C
C
C 12,600
C
C 15,500
C
C 22,000
C
C 31,000
Table A-31 Return Main and Riser Capacities
for Low-Pressure Systems—Pounds per Hour
(Reference to this table will be made by column letter G through V)
A.48
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
STEAM PIPING (SI)
Pressure Drop—Pa/m
Nom.
Pipe
Size
mm
20
25
32
40
14 Pa/m
28 Pa/m
58 Pa/m
113 Pa/m
170 Pa/m
225 Pa/m
450 Pa/m
Sat. press. kPa
Sat. press. kPa
Sat. press. kPa
Sat. press. kPa
Sat. press. kPa
Sat. press. kPa
Sat. press. kPa
25
4
8
16
25
85
5
10
20
32
25
6
12
24
38
85
7
14
30
45
25
9
17
35
54
85
11
21
44
67
25
13
24
50
79
85
16
30
63
95
25
16
31
64
99
85
20
37
77
118
25
19
37
73
112
85
23
43
91
138
25
27
52
105
163
85
33
62
127
195
50
65
80
90
49
79
144
210
61
98
172
249
73
117
211
304
88
141
249
363
106
171
299
449
129
209
367
552
152
245
435
640
186
299
526
771
191
308
540
789
231
372
649
953
218
354
626
907
268
431
758
1100
322
522
885
1340
386
621
1090
1560
100
125
150
200
290
544
871
1770
363
649
1040
2180
431
762
1280
2530
526
953
1520
3180
640
1110
1800
3670
767
1360
2200
4540
898
1620
2590
5170
1090
1930
2590
6490
1110
1990
3180
6580
1360
2380
3900
8030
1310
2310
3910
7480
1570
2770
4540
9300
1910
3400
5400
2220
3900
6440
10,900
13,400
250
300
3270
5170
3990
6210
4630
7480
5720
8850
6800
8260
9530
11,800
11,900
14,500
13,600
16,800
19,400
23,600
10,600
12,900
15,000
18,100
18,600
22,500
21,800
26,100
30,800
36,000
Table A-32 Flow Rate in kg/h of Steam in Schedule 40 Pipe at Initial
Saturation Pressure of 15 and 85 kPa Above Atmospheric
Pitch
of
Pipe
20
40
80
120
170
250
350
420
Pipe
Size
mm
Capa−
city
kg/h
Max
Vel.
m/s
Capa−
city
kg/h
Max
Vel.
m/s
Capa−
city
kg/h
Max
Vel.
m/s
Capa−
city
kg/h
Max
Vel.
m/s
Capa−
city
kg/h
Max
Vel.
m/s
Capa−
city
kg/h
Max
Vel.
m/s
Capa−
city
kg/h
Max
Vel.
m/s
Capa−
city
kg/h
Max
Vel.
m/s
20
1.5
2.4
1.9
3.4
2.6
4.0
2.9
4.3
3.2
4.9
3.8
5.2
4.5
6.7
4.8
6.7
25
3.1
2.7
4.1
3.7
5.3
4.6
5.8
5.2
6.7
5.8
7.8
6.7
8.7
7.3
9.3
7.6
32
5.4
3.4
6.8
4.3
9.0
5.2
11.2
6.1
12.2
6.7
14.2
7.6
15.2
7.9
17.3
9.4
40
9.0
3.7
11.7
4.9
15.0
5.8
17.0
6.7
19.1
7.3
15.1
7.9
23.0
8.5
26.9
10.1
50
19.5
4.6
24.5
5.5
31.2
7.3
37.8
8.2
42.1
9.1
45.2
9.8
46.4
9.8
52.2
10.1
Capacity in kg/h, Velocity in m/s
Table A-33 Comparative Capacity of Steam Lines at Various Pitches for
Steam and Condensate Flowing in Opposite Directions
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.49
Length in Meters to be Added to Run
Size of
Pipe mm
15
20
25
32
Standard
Elbow
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.9
Side Outlet
Teeb
1
1
1
2
Gate Valve
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
Globe Valve
4
5
7
9
Angle Valve a
2
3
4
5
40
50
65
80
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.9
2
2
3
4
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
10
14
16
20
6
8
8
10
100
125
150
2.7
3.3
4.0
5
7
8
0.5
0.7
0.9
28
34
41
14
17
20
200
250
300
350
5.2
6.4
8.2
9.1
11
14
16
19
1.1
1.4
1.7
1.9
55
70
82
94
28
34
40
46
NOTE:
a Valve
in full open position.
b Valve
given only to a tee used to divert the flow in the main to the last riser.
Table A-34 Equivalent Length of Fittings to be Added to Pipe Run
A.50
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Capacity, kg/h
Two−Pipe Systems
Nominal Pipe
Size, mm
A
One−Pipe System
Condensate Flowing Against Steam
Supply Risers
Up−feed
Db
Radiator Valves
and Vertical
Connections
E
Radiator and
Riser Runouts
Fc
Vertical
Horizontal
Ba
Ca
20
25
32
40
50
4
6
14
22
44
3
6
12
19
42
3
5
9
17
33
C
3
7
10
19
3
3
7
7
10
65
80
90
100
125
72
128
176
232
476
60
91
131
193
357
53
91
130
172
C
C
C
C
C
C
19
29
54
84
126
150
200
250
300
400
816
1700
3180
5220
9980
635
1360
2590
4310
8620
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
247
C
C
C
C
NOTE: Steam at an average pressure of 7 kPa above atmospheric is used as a basis of calculating capacities.
a Do
not use Column B for pressure drops of less than 13 Pa/m of equivalent run.
b Do not use Column D for pressure drops of less than 9 Pa/m of equivalent run except on sizes 88 mm and
over.
c Pitch of horizontal runouts to risers and radiators should not be less than 40 mm/m. Where this pitch cannot
be obtained, runouts over 2.5 m in length should be one pipe size larger than called for in this table.
Table A-35 Steam Pipe Capacities for Low-Pressure Systems
(For Use on One-Pipe Systems or Two-Pipe Systems in which
Condensate Flows Against the Steam Flow)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.51
7 Pa/m
9 Pa/m
14 Pa/m
28 Pa/m
57 Pa/m
Pipe
Size,
mm
Wet
Dry
Vac.
Wet
Dry
Vac.
Wet
Dry
Vac.
Wet
Dry
Vac.
Wet
Dry
Vac.
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
20
25
32
40
50
C
57
97
153
318
C
28
59
93
213
C
C
C
C
C
C
66
112
178
367
C
32
68
107
243
19
65
111
176
370
Return Main
C
C
79
36
136
76
215
120
454
261
45
79
136
215
454
C
113
193
306
635
C
47
98
154
336
64
113
193
306
644
C
159
272
431
907
C
52
109
171
374
91
159
272
431
907
65
80
90
100
125
150
535
853
1,125
1,760
C
C
345
662
894
1,330
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
717
967
1,500
2,080
C
C
394
708
998
1,520
C
C
616
989
1,400
2,040
3,570
5,720
762
1,220
1,810
2,490
4,390
7,030
1,070
1,700
2,490
3,520
C
C
558
1,020
1,470
2,190
C
C
1,080
1,720
2,580
3,540
6,210
9,980
762
1,220
1,810
2,490
C
C
431
794
1,130
1,700
C
C
1,520
617 1,520
2,430 1,130 2,430
3,630 1,620 3,630
4,990 2,440 4,990
C
C 8,800
C
C 14,100
Riser
20
25
32
40
50
C
C
C
C
C
22
51
112
170
340
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
22
51
112
170
340
65
111
176
370
616
C
C
C
C
C
22
51
112
170
340
79
136
215
454
762
C
C
C
C
C
22
51
112
170
340
113
193
306
644
1,080
C
C
C
C
C
65
70
80
100
125
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
989
1,470
2,030
3,570
5,720
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
1,220
1,810
2,490
4,390
7,030
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
1,720
2,580
3,540
6,210
9,980
C
C
C
C
C
Table A-36 Return Main and Riser Capacities
for Low-Pressure Systems — kg/h
A.52
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
22
51
112
170
340
159
272
431
907
1,520
C 2,430
C 3,630
C 4,990
C 8,800
C 14,100
Sample Specification for Testing, Adjusting and Balancing
The minimum requirements for testing, adjusting and balancing (TAB) of heating, ventilating and air conditioning
(HVAC) distribution systems shall be as follows:
1.
The TAB Contractor shall review and become thoroughly familiar with the basic duct and piping installation
layout prior to ceiling and wall installation. Prior to any closing−in of ductwork and piping, verify that all
fittings, dampers, control devices, test devices and valves are properly located and installed.
2.
Examine each air and hydronic distribution system to see that is is free from obstructions. Confirm that all
dampers, registers and valves are operating and in a set or full open position; that moving equipment is lubri−
cated and functioning properly; and that the required filters are clean and installed. Request that the installing
contractor perform any adjustments necessary for proper functioning of the system.
3.
The TAB Contractor shall use test instruments that have been calibrated within a time period recommended
by the manufacturer or in the SMACNA HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting and Balancing manual, and that
they have been checked for accuracy prior to the start of the testing, adjusting and balancing activity.
4.
Verify that all equipment performs as specified. Adjust variable type drives, column dampers, control damp−
ers, balancing valves and control valves as required by the TAB work.
5.
Adjust each register, diffuser and terminal unit to handle and properly distribute the design airflow within
10N% of the specified quantities.
6.
Adjust all balancing equipment so that each heating/cooling coil is furnished with the design fluid within
10N% of the specified quantities.
7.
Document the results of all testing on SMACNA TAB Report Forms and submit specified copies for approval
and record.
8.
All TAB work shall be performed in accordance with the methods and the procedures described in the
SMACNA HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting and Balancing manual.
9.
The TAB Contractor shall become familiar with and comply with the provisions of all national, state, and
local codes, ordinances, and safety acts that affect the TAB work.
10. HVAC systems utilizing microprocessor temperature controls, variable speed fans and pumps, and variable
air terminal boxes should have the control system contractor on site during all primary system TAB work to
provide any software programming or setpoint modifications required.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
A.53
REFERENCES
Publications from the following sources can be used as
reference material to supplement the information con−
tained in this manual. The members of the SMACNA
Duct Design Committee express their thanks and ap−
preciation to these firms for allowing selected text, fig−
ures and tables to be used in this manual.
1.
Alnor Instrument Company
2. AMCA Fan Application Manuals C Air Move−
ment and Control Association, Inc.
A.54
3. ASHRAE Handbooks C American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engi−
neers
4.
Bell and Gossett, Fluid Handling Division, ITT
5. Carrier System Design Manuals C Carrier Cor−
poration
6. Fans and Their Application in Air Condition−
ingCTrane Company
7. Products of Environmental Elements Corporation
C Titus Corporation
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
−A−
A−Scale − A filtering system that has characteristics
which roughly match the response characteristics of
the human ear at low sound levels (below 55 dB Sound
Pressure Level, but frequently used to gauge levels to
85 dB). A−scale measurements are often referred to as
dB(A).
Absolute Filter − Obsolete term (See HEPA filter)
Absolute Pressure − Air at standard conditions 70F
(20C ) air at sea level with a barometric pressure of
29.92 in.Hg. (760 mm Hg) exerts a pressure of 14.696
psi (101.325 kPa). This is the pressure in a system
when the pressure gauge reads zero. So the absolute
pressure of a system is the gauge pressure in pounds
per square inch (kPa) added to the atmospheric pres−
sure of 14.696 psi (use 14.7 psi in environmental sys−
tem work) and the symbol is ?psia." Add 101.325 kPa
to the gauge pressure for metric units.
Absorbent − A material which, due to an affinity for
certain substances, extracts one or more such sub−
stances from a liquid or gaseous medium with which
it contacts and which changes physically or chemical−
ly, or both, during the process. Calcium chloride is an
example of a solid absorbent, while solutions of lithi−
um chloride, lithium bromide, and ethylene glycols
are liquid absorbents.
Absorption Unit − Is a factory tested assembly of
component parts producing refrigeration for comfort
cooling by the application of heat. This definition shall
apply to those absorption units which also produce
comfort heating.
Acceleration − The time rate of change of velocity,
i.e., the derivative of velocity; with respect to time.
Acceleration Due to Gravity − The rate of increase
in velocity of a body falling freely in a vacuum. Its val−
ue varies with latitude and elevation. The International
Standard is 32.174 ft. per second per second (9.807 m/
s/s).
Acceptance Test − A test made upon completion of
fabrication, receipt, installation or modification of a
component unit or system to verify that it meets the re−
quirements specified.
Accuracy − The extent to which the value of a quantity
indicated by an instrument under test agrees with an
accepted value of the quantity.
Actuator − A controlled motor, relay or solenoid in
which the electric energy is converted into a rotary, lin−
ear, or switching action. An actuator can effect a
change in the controlled variable by operating the final
control elements a number of times. Valves and damp−
ers are examples of mechanisms which can be con−
trolled by actuators.
Absorber Surface − The surface of the collector plate
which absorbs solar energy and transfers it to the col−
lector plate.
Adiabatic Process − A thermodynamic process during
which no heat is added to, or taken from, a substance
or system.
Absorptance − The ratio of the amount of radiation ab−
sorbed by a surface to the amount of radiation incident
upon it.
Adjustable Differential − A means of changing the
difference between the control cut−in and cutout
points.
Absorption − A process whereby a material extracts
one or more substances present in an atmosphere or
mixture of gases or liquids accompanied by the materi−
al’s physical and/or chemical changes.
Adsorbent − A material which has the ability to cause
molecules of gases, liquids, or solids to adhere to its in−
ternal surfaces without changing the adsorbent physi−
cally or chemically. Certain solid materials, such as
silica gel and activated alumina, have this properly.
Absorption Coefficient − For a surface, the ratio of
the sound energy absorbed by a surface of a medium
(or material) exposed to a sound field (or to sound radi−
ation) divided by the sound energy incident on the sur−
face. The conditions under which measurements of ab−
sorption coefficients are made must be stated
explicitly. The absorption coefficient is a function of
both angle of incidence and frequency. Tables of ab−
sorption coefficients usually list the absorption coeffi−
cients at various frequencies, the values being those
obtained by averaging over all angles of incidence.
Adsorption − The action, associated with the surface
adherence, of a material in extracting one or more sub−
stances present in an atmosphere or mixture of gases
and liquids, unaccompanied by physical or chemical
change. Commercial adsorbent materials have enor−
mous internal surfaces.
Aerodynamic Noise − Also called generated noise,
self−generated noise; is a noise of aerodynamic origin
in a moving fluid arising from flow instabilities. In
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.1
duct systems, aerodynamic noise is caused by airflow
through elbows, dampers, branch wyes, pressure re−
duction devices, silencers and other duct components.
Air, Ambient − Generally speaking, the air surround−
ing an object.
Airborne Noise − Noise which reaches the observer by
transmission through air.
Air, Dry − Air without contained water vapor; air only.
Air, Outdoor − Air taken from outdoors and, therefore,
not previously circulated through the system.
Air, Outside − External air, atmosphere exterior to re−
frigerated or conditioned space; ambient (surround−
ing) air.
Air, Recirculated − Return air passed through the con−
ditioner before being again supplied to the conditioned
space.
Air, Reheating of − In an air conditioning system, the
final step in treatment, in the event the temperature is
too low.
Air, Return − Air returned from conditioned or refrig−
erated space.
Air, Saturated − Moist air in which the partial pressure
of the water vapor is equal to the vapor pressure of wa−
ter at the existing temperature. This occurs when dry
air and saturated water vapor coexist at the same dry−
bulb temperature.
Air, Standard − Dry air at a pressure of 29.92 in.Hg
(760 mm Hg) at 70F (20C) temperature and with a
specific volume of 13.33 ft.3/lb (0.8305 m3/kg).
Air Change Rate − The number of times the total air
volume of a defined space is replaced in a given unit
of time. Ordinarily computed by dividing the total vol−
ume of the subject space (in cubic feet) into the total
volume of air exhausted from the space per unit of
time.
Air Changes − A method of expressing the amount of
air leakage into or out of a building or room in terms
of the number of building volumes or room volumes
exchanged.
Air Conditioner, Unitary − An evaporator, compres−
sor, and condenser combination; designed in one or
G.2
more assemblies, the separate parts designed to be as−
sembled together.
Air Conditioning, Comfort − The process of treating
air so as to control simultaneously its temperature, hu−
midity, cleanliness and distribution to meet the com−
fort requirements of the occupants of the conditioned
space.
Air Conditioning Unit − An assembly of equipment
for the treatment of air so as to control, simultaneously,
its temperature, humidity, cleanliness and distribution
to meet the requirements of a conditioned space.
Air Cooler − A factory−encased assembly of elements
whereby the temperature of air passing through the de−
vice is reduced.
Air Diffuser − A circular, square, or rectangular air
distribution outlet, generally located in the ceiling and
comprised of deflecting members discharging supply
air in various directions and planes, and arranged to
promote mixing of primary air with secondary room
air.
Air Gap − An air gap in a potable water distribution
system is the unobstructed vertical distance through
the free atmosphere between the lowest opening from
any pipe or faucet supplying water to a tank, plumbing
fixture or other device and the floor level rim of the re−
ceptacle.
Air Shower − A relatively small, isolated ?chamber"
normally located at the main entrance of a cleanroom
to remove particulate from personnel and garments by
high velocity air.
Air, Supply − That air delivered to the conditioned
space and used for ventilation, heating, cooling, hu−
midification or dehumidification.
Air, Transfer − The movement of indoor air from one
space to another.
Air, Ventilation − That portion of supply air which is
outdoor air plus any recirculated air that has been
treated for the purpose of maintaining acceptable in−
door air quality.
Air Washer − A water spray system or device for
cleaning, humidifying, or dehumidifying the air.
Airborne Sound − Sound which reaches the point of
interest by radiation through the air.
Airlock − An area between the entrance to the clean−
room and the entry from an outside area. The airlock
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
receives the same clean, filtered air as the cleanroom,
and is designed to prevent contaminated air in the out−
side area from flowing into the cleanroom. (Also re−
ferred to as ?Ante−Room.")
bulb temperature of the entering air. In a conduction
heat exchanger device, the temperature difference be−
tween the leaving treated fluid and the entering work−
ing fluid.
Algae − A minute fresh water plant growth which
forms a scum on the surfaces of recirculated water ap−
paratus, interfering with fluid flow and heat transfer.
Area − Generally used to designate a portion of a build−
ing at a given level of protection or contamination con−
trol, as set off from adjoining portions of different con−
tamination levels. Used somewhat interchangeably
with ?space" or ?zone."
Alternating Current (AC) − A source of power for an
electrical circuit which periodically reverses the po−
larity of its charge.
Ambient − The existing surrounding environmental
conditions (Temperature, Relative Humidity, Pres−
sure, etc...) of a particular area of consideration.
Ampacity − A wire’s ability to carry current safely,
without undue heating. The term formerly used to de−
scribe this characteristic was current−capacity of the
wire.
Amperage − The flow of current in an electrical circuit
measured in ?amperes," abbreviated ?amps" (A).
Amplitude of Ground Surface Temperature Varia−
tion − Peak Annual fluctuation of ground surface tem−
perature about a mean value.
Anemometer − An instrument for measuring the ve−
locity of a fluid.
Anemometer, Shielded Hot−Wire − An instrument for
measuring air velocities based on the convective cool−
ing effect of airflow on a heated wire. Instruments of
this type are specifically designed for low air speeds,
ranging from about 25 to 300 feet per minute (0.12 to
1.5 m/s).
Anticipating Control − One which, by artificial
means, is activated sooner than it would be without
such means, to produce a smaller differential of the
controlled property. Heat and cool anticipators are
commonly used in thermostats.
Anticipators − A small heater element in two−position
temperature controllers which deliberately cause false
indications of temperature in the controller in an at−
tempt to minimize the override of the differential and
smooth out the temperature variation in the controlled
space.
Approach − In an evaporative cooling device, the dif−
ference between the average temperature of the circu−
lating water leaving the device and the average wet−
As−Built Facility − A cleanroom which is complete
and operating, with all services connected and func−
tioning, but has no production equipment or operating
personnel within the facility.
As−Found Data − Data comparing the response of an
instrument to known standards as determined without
adjustment after the instrument is made operational.
Aspect Ratio − In air distribution outlets, the ratio of
the length of the core opening of a grille, face, or regis−
ter to the width. In rectangular ducts, the ratio of the
width to the depth.
Aspiration − Production of movement in a fluid by
suction created by fluid velocity.
At−Rest Facility − A cleanroom which is complete and
has the production equipment installed, but has no per−
sonnel within the facility.
Attenuation − The transmission loss or reduction in
magnitude of a signal between two points in a trans−
mission system.
Autumnal Equinox (See Also Vernal Equinox) − The
position of the sun midway between its lowest and
highest altitude during the autumn; it occurs Septem−
ber 21.
Auxiliary Contacts − A set of contacts that perform a
secondary function, usual in relation to the operation
of a set of primary contacts.
Averaging Element − A thermostat sensing element
which will respond to the average duct temperature.
Azimuth Angle (Solar) − The angular direction of the
sun with respect to true south.
−B−
Backflow − The unintentional reversal of flow in a po−
table water distribution system which may result in the
transport of foreign materials or substances into the
other branches of the distribution system.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.3
Background Noise − Sound other than the signal
wanted. In room acoustics, it is the irreducible noise
level measured in the absence of any building occu−
pants when all of the known sound sources have been
turned off.
Bypass − A pipe or duct, usually controlled by valve or
damper, for conveying a fluid around an element of a
system.
Barometer − Instrument for measuring atmospheric
pressure.
Calibration − Comparison of a measurement standard
or instrument of unknown accuracy with another stan−
dard or instrument of known accuracy to detect, corre−
late, report, or eliminate by adjustment, any variation
in the accuracy of the unknown standard or instrument.
Basic Principles − Essential theory and understanding
of operation.
Bimetallic Element − One formed of two metals hav−
ing different coefficients of thermal expansion such as
are used in temperature indicating and controlling de−
vices.
Boiling Point − The temperature at which the vapor
pressure of a liquid equals the absolute external pres−
sure of the liquid−vapor interface.
Branch Circuit − Wiring between the last overcurrent
device and the branch circuit outlets.
Breakout Noise − The transmission or radiation of
noise through some part of the duct system to an occu−
pied space in the building.
British Thermal Unit (Btu) − The Btu is defined as the
heat required to raise the temperature of a pound of wa−
ter from 59F to 60F.
Btuh − Number of Btu’s transferred during a period of
one hour.
Bulb − The name given to the temperature sensing de−
vice located in the fluid for which control or indication
is provided. The bulb may be liquid−filled, gas−filled,
or gas−and−liquid filled. Changes in temperature pro−
duce pressure changes within the bulb which are trans−
mitted to the controller.
Building Envelope − The elements of a building which
enclose conditioned spaces through which energy may
be transferred to or from the exterior.
Bus Bar − A heavy, rigid metallic conductor which car−
ries a large current and makes a common connection
between several circuits. Bus bars are usually uninsu−
lated and located where the electrical service enters a
building; that is, in the main distribution cabinet.
Bus Duct − An assembly of heavy bars of copper or
aluminum that acts as a conductor of large capacity.
G.4
−C−
Calibration, Field − Calibration test performed in the
field in accordance with the manufacturer’s recom−
mended and/or accepted industry practices.
Calibration, On−Line − Calibration performed using
the reference system built into the instrument, in ac−
cordance with manufacturer’s recommendations and/
or accepted industry standards.
Capacitance − The property of an electric current that
permits the storage of electrical energy in an electro−
static field and the release of that energy at a later time.
Capacitor (condenser) − An electrical device that will
store an electric charge used to produce a power factor
change.
Capacity, Latent − The available refrigerating capac−
ity of an air conditioner for removing latent heat from
the space to be conditioned.
Capillary − The name given to the thin tube attached
to the bulb which transmits the bulb pressure changes
to the controller or indicator. The cross sectional area
of the capillary is extremely small compared to the
cross section of the bulb so that the capillary, which is
usually outside of the controlled fluid, will introduce
the smallest possible error in the signal being trans−
mitted from the bulb.
Capillary Tube − The capillary tube is a metering de−
vice made from a thin tube approximately 2 to 20 feet
(0.6 to 6 m) long and from 0.025 to 0.090 inches (0.6
mm to 2.3 mm) in diameter which feeds liquid directly
to the evaporator. Usually limited to systems of 1 ton
or less, it performs all of the functions of the thermal
expansion valve when properly sized.
Cathodic Protection − The process of providing cor−
rosion protection against electrolytic reactions that
could be deleterious to the performance of the pro−
tected material or component.
Ceiling Outlet − A round, square, rectangular or linear
air diffuser located in the ceiling which provides a hor−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
izontal distribution pattern of primary and secondary
air over the occupied zone and induces low velocity
secondary air motion through the occupied zone.
Celsius (Formerly Centigrade) − A thermometric
scale in which the freezing point of water is called 0C
and its boiling point 100C at normal atmospheric
pressure (101.325 kPa).
Certificate of Compliance (Conformance) − A writ−
ten statement, signed by a qualified party, attesting
that the items or services are in accordance with speci−
fied requirements, and accompanied by additional in−
formation to substantiate the statement.
Certification − The process of validation required to
obtain a certificate of compliance.
Certification Agency − A company providing on−site,
field certification services for profit or gain.
Change of State − Change from one phase, such as sol−
id, liquid or gas, to another.
Changeover − The process of switching an air condi−
tioning system from heating to cooling, or vice versa.
Channel − Term used to describe output of a load man−
agement system. Usually corresponds to a specific
relay.
Chemical Compatibility − The ability of materials
and components in contact with each other to resist
mutual chemical degradation, such as that caused by
electrolytic action.
Clearing a Fault − Eliminating a fault condition by
some means. Generally taken to mean operation of the
over−circuit device that opens the circuit and clears the
fault.
Clo Value − A numerical representation of a clothing
ensemble’s
thermal
resistance.
1Clo 0.88°F ft 2 hrBtu (0.155°C m 2W)
Coanda Effect − The diversion of the normal fluid
flow path from a jet by its attachment to an adjacent
surface (wall or ceiling) caused by a low pressure re−
gion between the fluid flow path and the surface.
Coefficient of Discharge − For an air diffuser, the ratio
of net area or effective area of vena contracta of an
orificed airstream to the tree area of the opening.
Coefficient of Expansion − The change in length per
unit length or the change in volume per unit volume,
per degree. change in temperature.
Coefficient of Performance (COP), Heat Pump −
The ratio of the compressor heating effect (heat pump)
to the rate of energy input to the shaft of the compres−
sor, in consistent units, in a complete heat pump, under
designated operating conditions.
Coil − A cooling or heating element made of pipe or
tubing.
Cold Deck − The cooling section of a mixed air zoning
system.
Collector Azimuth − The horizontal angle between
true south and a line which is perpendicular to the
plane of the collector that is projected on a horizontal
plane.
Circuit − An electrical arrangement requiring a source
of voltage, a closed loop of wiring, an electric load and
some means for opening and closing it.
Collector Plate − The component of a solar collector
which transfers the heat from solar energy to a circulat−
ing fluid.
Circuit Breaker − A switch−type mechanism that
opens automatically when it senses an overload (ex−
cess current).
Collector (Solar) − An assembly of components in−
tended to capture usable solar energy.
Cleanroom − A specially constructed room in which
the air supply, air distribution, filtration of air supply,
materials of construction, and operating procedures
are regulated to control airborne particle concentra−
tions to meet appropriate cleanliness levels as defined
by Federal Standard 209E.
Clean Zone − A defined space in which the concentra−
tion of airborne particles is controlled to specified lim−
its.
Combustion − The act or process of burning.
Comfort Chart − A chart showing effective tempera−
ture with dry−bulb temperatures and humidities (and
sometimes air motion) by which the effects of various
air conditions on human comfort may be compared.
Comfort Cooling − Refrigeration for comfort as op−
posed to refrigeration for storage or manufacture.
Comfort Zone − (average) the range of effective tem−
peratures over which the majority (50 percent or more)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.5
of adults feels comfortable − (extreme) the range of ef−
fective temperatures over which one or more adults
feel comfortable.
Commissioning Plan − A documented, systematic
process to ready new building systems for active ser−
vice.
Common Neutral − A neutral conductor that is com−
mon to, or serves, more than one circuit.
Compressibility − The ease which a fluid may be re−
duced in volume by the application of pressure, de−
pends upon the state of the fluid as well as the type of
fluid itself. In TAB work, consider that water may not
be compressed. Air is a compressible gas, but that fac−
tor is usually not considered during normal testing and
balancing procedures.
Compressor − The pump which provides the pressure
differential to cause fluid to flow and in the pumping
process increases pressure of the refrigerant to the high
side condition. The compressor is the separation be−
tween low side and high side.
Concentration − The quantity of one constituent dis−
persed in a defined amount of another.
Concentrator − A reflective surface or refracting lens
for directing insolation onto the absorber surface.
Condensate − The liquid formed by condensation of a
vapor. In steam heating, water condensed from steam;
in air conditioning, water extracted from air, as by con−
densation on the cooling coil of a refrigeration ma−
chine.
Condensation − Process of changing a vapor into liq−
uid by extracting heat. Condensation of steam or water
vapor is effected in either steam condensers or dehu−
midifying coils, and the resulting water is called con−
densate.
Condenser − The heat exchanger in which the heat ab−
sorbed by the evaporator and some of the heat of com−
pression introduced by the compressor are removed
from the system. The gaseous refrigerant changes to a
liquid, again taking advantage of the relatively large
heat transfer by the change of state in the condensing
process.
Condenser − ElectricalCsee ?capacitor".
Condensing Unit, Refrigerant − An assembly of re−
frigerating components designed to compress and liq−
G.6
uify a specific refrigerant, consisting of one or more
refrigerant compressors, refrigerant condensers, liq−
uid receivers (when required) and regularly furnished
accessories.
Conditioned Space − Space within a building which is
provided with heated and/or cooled air or surfaces and,
where required, with humidification or dehumidifica−
tion means so as to maintain a space condition falling
within the ?comfort zone."
Conditions, Standard − A set of physical, chemical,
or other parameters of a substance or system which de−
fines an accepted reference state or forms a basis for
comparison.
Conductance, Electrical − The reciprocal (opposite)
of resistance and is the current carrying ability of any
wire or electrical component. Resistance is the ability
to oppose the flow of current.
Conductance, Surface Film − Time rate of heat flow
per unit area under steady conditions between a sur−
face and a fluid for unit temperature difference be−
tween the surface and fluid.
Conductance, Thermal − Time rate of heat flow
through a body (frequently per unit area) from one of
its bounding surfaces to the other for a unit tempera−
ture difference between the two surfaces, under steady
conditions.
Conductivity, Thermal − The time rate of heat flow
through unit area and unit thickness of a homogeneous
material under steady conditions when a unit tempera−
ture gradient is maintained in the direction perpendic−
ular to area. Materials are considered homogeneous
when the value of the thermal conductivity is not af−
fected by variation in thickness or in size of sample
within the range normally used in construction.
Conductor, Thermal − A material which readily
transmits heat by means of conduction.
Conduit − A round cross−section electrical raceway, of
metal or plastic.
Connected Load − The sum of all loads on a circuit.
Connection in Parallel − System whereby flow is di−
vided among two or more channels from a common
starting point or header.
Connection in Series − System whereby flow through
two or more channels is in a single path entering each
succeeding channel only after leaving the first or pre−
vious channel.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Contamination − The presence of any unwanted sub−
stance, material or energy which adversely affects a
product or procedure in a cleanroom.
Contactor − Electromagnetic switching device.
Contaminant − An unwanted airborne constituent that
may be reduced acceptability of the air.
Control − A device for regulation of a system or com−
ponent in normal operation, manual or automatic. If
automatic, the implication is that it is responsive to
changes of pressure, temperature or other property
whose magnitude is to be regulated.
Control Diagram (ladder diagram) − A diagram that
shows the control scheme only. Power wiring is not
shown. The control items are shown between two ver−
tical lines; hence, the nameCladder diagram.
Control Point − The value of the controlled variable
which the controller operates to maintain.
Controlled Area − An air conditioned work space or
room in which the particle concentration is lower than
normal air conditioned spaces. A controlled area is not
to be classified as a cleanroom, but some special filtra−
tion is required.
Cooling, Evaporative − Involves the adiabatic ex−
change of heat between air and water spray or wetted
surface. The water assumes the wet−bulb temperature
of the air, which remains constant during its traverse
of the exchanger.
Cooling, Regenerative − Process of utilizing heat
which must be rejected or absorbed in one part of the
cycle to function usefully in another part of the cycle
by heat transfer.
Cooling Coil − An arrangement of pipe or tubing
which transfers heat from air to a refrigerant or brine.
Cooling Effect, Sensible − Difference between the to−
tal cooling effect and the dehumidifying effect, usual−
ly in watts (Btuh).
Cooling Effect, Total − Difference between the total
enthalpy of the dry air and water vapor mixture enter−
ing the cooler per hour and the total enthalpy of the dry
air and water vapor mixture leaving the cooler per
hour, expressed in watts (Btuh).
Cooling Range − In a water cooling device, the differ−
ence between the average temperatures of the water
entering and leaving the device.
Core Area − The total plane area of that portion of a
grille, included within lines tangent to the outer edges
of the openings through which air can pass.
Controlled Device − One which receives the con−
verted signal from the transmission system and trans−
lates it into the appropriate action in the environmental
system. For example − a valve opens or closes to regu−
late fluid flow in the system.
Corresponding Values − Simultaneous values of vari−
ous properties of a fluid, such as pressure, volume,
temperature, etc., for a given condition of fluid.
Controller − An instrument which receives the signal
from the sensing device and translates that signal into
the appropriate corrective measure. The correction is
then sent to the system controlled devices through the
transmission system.
Counterflow − In heat exchange between two fluids,
opposite direction of flow, coldest portion of one meet−
ing coldest portion of the other.
Convection − Transfer of heat by movement of fluid.
Convection, Forced − Convection resulting from
forced circulation of a fluid, as by a fan, jet or pump.
Convection, Natural − Circulation of gas or liquid
(usually air or water) due to differences in density re−
sulting from temperature changes.
Conventional Flow (Nonlaminar Flow) Cleanroom
− A cleanroom with non−uniform or mixed patterns and
velocities.
Corrosive − Having chemically destructive effect on
metals (occasionally on other materials).
Critical Surface − The surface of the work part to be
protected from particulate contamination.
Critical Velocity − The velocity above which fluid
flow is turbulent.
Cross Connection − Any physical connection or ar−
rangement between two otherwise separate piping sys−
tems, one of which contains potable water and the oth−
er either water of unknown or questionable safety or
steam, gas, chemicals, or other substances whereby
there may be a flow from one system to the other, the
direction of flow depending on the pressure differen−
tial between the two systems.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.7
Crossflow − Horizontal airflow.
Crystal Formation, Zone of Maximum − Tempera−
ture range in freezing in which most freezing takes
place, i.e., about 25F to 30F (−4C to −1C) for wa−
ter.
The referenced power for sound power level is 10−12
watts. In noise control work, the decibel notation is
used to indicate the magnitude of sound pressure and
sound power.
Curb Box − Access to an underground valve at the
street curb. It controls water service to a house or
building.
Combining Decibels − In sound survey work, it is fre−
quently necessary to combine sound pressure level
readings. An example would be to evaluate the effect
of adding a noise source in a room where the noise lev−
el is already considered borderline. Since the decibel
scale is logarithmic, decibel values cannot be added
directly. The correct procedure is to convert the deci−
bels to intensity ratios, add the intensity ratios, and re−
convert this sum into decibels.
Current (I) − The electric flow in an electric circuit,
which is expressed in amperes (amps).
Cycle − A complete course of operation of working
fluid back to a starting point, measured in thermody−
namic terms (functions). Also in general for any re−
peated process on any system.
Cycle, Reversible − Theoretical thermodynamic
cycle, composed of a series of reversible processes,
which can be completely reversed.
−D−
DWV − Drainage, waste and vent.
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure − Each constituent
of a mixture of gases behaves thermodynamically as
if it alone occupied the space. The sum of the individu−
al pressures of the constituents equals the total pres−
sure of the mixture.
Damper − A device to vary the volume of air passing
through an airoutlet, air inlet or duct.
Deadband − In HVAC, a temperature range in which
neither heating nor cooling is turned on; in load man−
agement, a kilowatt range in which loads are neither
shed nor restored.
Degree Day − A unit, based upon temperature differ−
ence and time, used in estimating fuel consumption
and specifying nominal heating load of a building in
winter. For any one day, when the mean temperature
is less than 65F (18C), there exist as many degree
days as there are Fahrenheit degrees difference in tem−
perature between the mean temperature for the day and
65F (18C).
Dehumidification − The condensation of water vapor
from air by cooling below the dewpoint or removal of
water vapor from air by chemical or physical methods.
Dehumidifier − (1) an air cooler or washer used for
lowering the moisture content of the air passing
through it; (2) an absorption or adsorption device for
removing moisture from air.
Dehydration − (1) removal of water vapor from air by
the use of absorbing or adsorbing materials, (2) remov−
al of water from stored goods.
Delta Service − An arrangement of the utility trans−
formers. Commonly shown ?."
Decay Rate − The rate at which the sound pressure lev−
el in an enclosed space decreases after the sound
source has stopped. it is measured in decibels per sec−
ond.
Demand − The probable maximum rate of water flow
as determined by the number of water supply fixture
units.
Decibel (dB) − The unit ?bel" is used in telecommu−
nication engineering as a dimensionless unit for the
logarithmic ratio of two power quantities. The decibel
is one−tenth of a bel.
Demand Charge − The part of an electric bill based on
kW demand and the demand interval, expressed in dol−
lars per kilowatt. Demand charges offset construction
and maintenance of a utility’s need for a large generat−
ing capacity.
Therefore,
L 10 log 10
G.8
sound power
reference power
Demand Control − A device which controls the kW
demand level by shedding loads when the kW demand
exceeds a predetermined set point.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Demand Interval − The period of time during which
kW demand is monitored by a utility service, usually
15 or 30 minutes long.
Demand Load − The actual amount of load on a circuit
at any time. The sum of all the loads which are ON.
Equal to the connected load minus the loads that are
OFF.
Demand Reading − Highest or maximum demand for
electricity an individual customer registers in a given
interval, example, 15 minute interval. The metered de−
mand reading sets the demand charge for the month.
Density − The ratio of the mass of a specimen of a sub−
stance to the volume of the specimen. The mass of a
unit volume of a substance. When weight can be used
without confusion, as synonymous with mass, density
is the weight per unit volume.
Desiccant − Any absorbent or adsorbent, liquid or sol−
id, that will remove water or water vapor from a mate−
rial. In a refrigeration circuit, the desiccant should be
insoluble in the refrigerant.
Design Working Pressure − The maximum allowable
working pressure for which a specific part of a system
is designed.
Dewpoint, Apparatus − That temperature which
would result if the psychrometric process occurring in
a dehumidifier, humidifier or surface−cooler were car−
ried to the saturation condition of the leaving air while
maintaining the same ratio of sensible to total heat load
in the process.
Dewpoint Depression − The difference between dry
bulb and dewpoint temperatures.
Dewpoint Temperature − (tdp) The temperature at
which moist air becomes saturated (100% relative hu−
midity) with water vapor when cooled at constant pres−
sure.
Diffuse Sound Field − A diffuse sound field is a space
in which at every point the flow of sound energy in all
directions is equally probable. (It is often assumed that
in a diffuse field, the sound pressure level, averaged
through time, is everywhere the same.)
Diffuser − A circular, square, or rectangular air dis−
tribution outlet, generally located in the ceiling and
comprised of deflecting members discharging supply
air in various directions and planes, and arranged to
promote mixing of primary air with secondary room
air.
Direct Acting − Instruments that increase control pres−
sure as the controlled variable (such as temperature or
pressure) increases; while reverse acting instruments
increase control pressure as the controlled variable de−
creases.
Direct Current (DC) − A source of power for an elec−
trical circuit which does not reverse the polarity of its
charge.
Direct Field − The sound in a region in which all or
most of the sound arrives directly from the source
without reflection.
Directivity Factor − The ratio of the sound pressure
squared at some fixed distance and direction divided
by the mean−squared sound pressure at the same dis−
tance averaged over all directions from the source.
Discharge Stop Valve − The manual service valve at
the leaving connection of the compressor.
Discrete Logic − Electronic circuitry composed of
standard transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc., as
compared to microprocessor circuits where the logic
is condensed on a single chip (integrated circuit).
Domestic Hot Water − Potable hot water as distin−
guished from hot water used for house heating.
Dielectric Fitting − An insulating or nonconducting
fitting used to isolate electrochemically dissimilar ma−
terials.
D.O.P. (Dioctyl Phthalate) − An aerosol generated by
blowing air through liquid dioctyl phthalate. Thermal−
ly generated D.O.P. is an aerosol generated by con−
densing vapor that has been evaporated from liquid
(D.O.P.) by heat. The aerosol mean particle diameter
is between 0.2 and 0.4 micron with a maximum geo−
metric standard deviation of 1.3.
Differential − The difference between the points
where a controller turns ?on" and ?off." If a thermostat
turns a furnace on at 68F (20C) and the differential
is 2F (1C), the burner will be turned off at 70F
(21C).
D.O.P. Aerosol Generator, Air Operated − A device
for producing a D.O.P. aerosol, operated by com−
pressed air at room temperature, equipped with Laskin
nozzles to produce a heterogeneous D.O.P. test aero−
sol.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.9
D.O.P. Aerosol Generator, Pressurized Gas−Ther−
mal − A device for producing D.O.P. aerosol, operated
by pressurized gas and equipped with heating means.
Downflow − Vertical airflow (from ceiling to floor).
Draft − a) A current of air, when referring to the pres−
sure difference which causes a current of air or gases
to flow through a flue, chimney, heater, or space; or b)
to a localized effect caused by one or more factors of
high air velocity, low ambient temperature, or direc−
tion of air flow,whereby more heat is withdrawn from
a person’s skin than is normally dissipated.
Drier − A manufactured device containing a desiccant
placed in the refrigerant circuit. Its primary purpose is
to collect and hold within the desiccant, all water in the
system in excess of the amount which can be tolerated
in the circulating refrigerant.
Drift − Term used to describe the difference between
the set point and the actual operating or control point.
Drip − A pipe, or a steam trap and a pipe considered as
a unit, which conducts condensation from the steam
side of a piping system to the water or return side of the
system.
Drop − The vertical distance that the lower edge of a
horizontally projected airstream drops between the
outlet and the end of its throw.
Dry Bulb, Room − The dry bulb temperature of the
conditioned room or space.
Dry Bulb Temperature − The temperature of a gas or
mixture of gases registered by an accurate thermome−
ter after correction for radiation. The dry bulb repre−
sents the measure of sensible heat, or the intensity of
heat.
Dry Bulb Temperature, Adjusted (tadb) − The average
of the air temperature (ta) and the mean radiant tem−
perature (tr) at a given location. The adjusted dry bulb
temperature (tadb) is approximately equivalent to op−
erative temperature (to) at air motions less than 80 fpm
(0.4 m/s) when tr is less than 120F (49C).
Dynamic Discharge Head − Static discharge head
plus friction head plus velocity head.
Dynamic Insertion Loss − The dynamic insertion loss
of a silencer, duct lining, or other attenuating device is
in the performance measured in accordance with
ASTM E 477 when handling the rated airflow. it is the
reduction in sound pressure level, expressed in deci−
bels, due solely to the placement of the sound attenuat−
ing device in the duct system.
Dynamic Suction Head − Positive static suction head
minus friction head and minus velocity head.
Dynamic Suction Lift − The sum of suction lift and ve−
locity head at the pump suction when the source is be−
low pump centerline.
−E−
Economizer − A system of dampers, temperature and
humidity sensors, and motors which maximizes the
use of outdoor air for cooling.
Effect, Humidifying − Latent heat of water vaporiza−
tion at the average evaporating temperature times the
number of pounds (kilograms) of water evaporated per
hour in Btuh (watts).
Effect, Sun − Solar energy transmitted into space
through windows and building materials.
Effect, Total Cooling − The difference between the to−
tal enthalpy of the dry air and water vapor mixture en−
tering a unit per hour and the total enthalpy of the dry
air and water vapor (and water) mixture leaving the
unit per hour, expressed in Btu per hour (watts).
Effective Area − The net area of an outlet or inlet de−
vice through which air can pass, equal to the free area
times the coefficient of discharge.
Effectiveness (Efficiency) − The ratio of the actual
amount of heat transferred by a heat recovery device
to the maximum heat transfer possible between the air−
streams (sensible heat/sensible heat, sensible heat/to−
tal heat, or total heat/total heat).
Duct − A passageway made of sheet metal or other suit−
able material, not necessarily leak tight, used for con−
veying air or other gas at low pressures.
Elasticity of Demand − The change of quantity of
electricity (or other commodity) purchased as a result
of a change in its price. Demand for electricity is ?elas−
tic" when it increases or decreases in response to de−
creases or increases, respectively, in the price for the
electricity.
Dust − An air suspension (aerosol) or particles of any
solid material, usually with particle size less than 100
microns.
Electrical Circuit − A power supply, a load, and a path
for current flow are the minimum requirements for an
electrical circuit.
G.10
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Electromechanical − Converting electrical input into
mechanical action. A relay in an electromechanical
switch.
Electro−Pneumatic (EP) Switches − Switches that
open or close an air line valve from an electrical im−
pulse.
Electrostatic Discharge (E.S.D.) − A transfer of elec−
trostatic charge between objects at different electro−
static potentials caused by direct contact or induced by
electrostatic field.
Emissivity − The property of a surface that determines
its ability to give off radiant energy.
Emittance − The ratio of the radiant energy emitted by
a body to the energy emitted by a black body at the
same temperature.
End Reflection − When a duct system opens abruptly
into a large room, some of the acoustic energy at the
exit of the duct is reflected upstream with the result
that the amount of the acoustic energy radiated into the
room is reduced. This decrease in radiated energy in−
creases as the frequency decreases.
Energy − Expressed in kilowatt−hours (kWh) or watt−
hours (Wh), and is equal to the product of power and
time.
energy = power × time
kilowatt−hours = kilowatts × hours
watt−hours = watts × hours
Enthalpy, Specific − A term sometimes applied to en−
thalpy per unit weight.
Entrainment − The capture of part of the surrounding
air by the airstream discharged from an outlet (some−
times called secondary air motion).
Entropy − The ratio of the heat added to a substance
to the absolute temperature at which it is added.
Entropy, Specific − A term sometimes applied to en−
tropy per unit weight.
Equal Friction Method − A method of duct sizing
wherein the selected duct friction loss value is used
constantly throughout the design of a low pressure
duct system.
Equivalent Duct Diameter − The equivalent duct di−
ameter for a rectangular duct with sides of dimensions
a and b is 4/abp.
Evaporation − Change of state from liquid to vapor.
Evaporative Cooling − The adiabatic exchange of
heat between air and a water spray or wetted surface.
The water approaches the wet bulb temperature of the
air, which remains constant during its traverse of the
exchanger.
Evaporator − The heat exchanger in which the me−
dium being cooled, usually air or water, gives up heat
to the refrigerant through the exchanger transfer sur−
face. The liquid refrigerant boils into a gas in the pro−
cess of the heat absorption.
Exfiltration − Air leakage outward through cracks and
interstices and through ceilings, floors and walls of a
space or building.
Energy (Consumption) Charge − That part of an elec−
tric bill based on kWh consumption (expressed in
cents per kWh). Energy charge covers cost of utility
fuel, general operating costs, and part of the amortiza−
tion of the utility’s equipment.
Extended Surface − Heat transfer surface, one or both
sides of which are increased in area by the addition of
fins, discs, or other means.
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER), Cooling − The ratio
of net cooling capacity in Btuh to total electric input
in watts under designated operating conditions.
Face Area − The total plane area of the portion of a
grille, coil, or other items bounded by a line tangent to
the outer edges of the openings through which air can
pass.
Engine − Prime mover; device for transforming fuel or
heat energy into mechanical energy.
Face Velocity − The velocity obtained by dividing the
air quantity by the component face area.
Enthalpy − The total quantity of heat energy contained
in a substance, also called total heat; the sum of the
sensible heat and latent heat in an exchange process.
Fahrenheit − A thermometric scale in which 32 (F)
denotes freezing and 212 (F) the boiling point of wa−
ter under normal pressure at sea level (14.696 psi).
−F−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.11
Fail Safe − In load management, returning all loads to
conventional control during a power failure. Accom−
plished by a relay whose contacts are normally closed.
Fan, Centrifugal − A fan rotor or wheel within a scroll
type housing and including driving mechanism sup−
ports for either belt drive or direct connection.
Fan performance Curve − Fan performance curve re−
fers to the constant speed performance curve. This is
a graphical presentation of static or total pressure and
power input over a range of air volume flow rate at a
stated inlet density and fan speed. It may include static
and mechanical efficiency curves. The range of air
volume flow rate which is covered generally extends
from shutoff (zero air volume flow rate) to free deliv−
ery (zero fan static pressure). The pressure curves are
generally referred to as the pressure−volume curves.
Fan propeller − A propeller or disc type wheel within
a mounting or plate and including driving mechanism
supports for either belt drive or direct connection.
Fan, Tubeaxial − A propeller or disc type wheel within
a cylinder and including driving mechanism supports
for either belt drive or direct connection.
Fan, Vaneaxial − A disc type wheel within a cylinder,
a set of airguide vanes located either before or after the
wheel and including driving mechanism supports for
either belt drive or direct connection.
Fault − A short circuitCeither line to line, or line to
ground.
Feed Line − A pipe that supplies water to items such
as a boiler or a domestic hot water tank.
Filter − A device to remove solid material from a fluid.
Filter−Drier − A combination device used as a strainer
and moisture remover.
If this ?first" room has the same noise criterion (NC)
or a lower NC value than rooms further away from the
fan, it may be assumed that, if the acoustical attenua−
tion of the duct system from the fan to this ?first" room
satisfies the requirements for this ?first" room, it also
satisfies the acoustical requirements for rooms further
away from the fan.
Fire Damper − A device, installed in an air distribu−
tion system, designed to close automatically upon
detection of heat, to interrupt migratory airflow, and to
restrict the passage of flame. A combination fire and
smoke damper shall meet the requirements of both.
Fire Resistance Rating − The time, in minutes or
hours, that materials or assemblies have withstood a
fire exposure as established in accordance with the test
procedures of NFPA 251, Standard Methods of Fire
Tests of Building Construction and Materials.
Fire Wall − A wall having adequate fire resistance and
structural stability under fire conditions to accomplish
the purpose of subdividing buildings to restrict the
spread of fire.
First Air − The air which issues directly from the
HEPA filter before it passes over any work location.
First Work Location − The work location nearest the
downstream side of the HEPA filters in a laminar air−
flow device or cleanroom.
Fixed Collector − A permanently oriented collector
that has no provision for seasonal adjustment or track−
ing of the sun.
Flame Spread Rating − The flame spread rating of a
material refers to a number or classification of materi−
al obtained according to NFPA 255, Method of Test of
Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materi−
als.
Fin − An extended surface to increase the heat transfer
area, as metal sheets attached to tubes.
Flanking (Sound) Transmission − The transmission
of sound between two rooms by any indirect path of
sound transmission.
Final Filter − The last stage of filtration before the air−
stream enters the clean space. The performance grade
of this filter determines the air quality entering the
clean space.
Flat−Plate Collector − A solar collector without exter−
nal concentrators or focusing devices, usually consist−
ing of an absorber plate, cover plates, back and side in−
sulation and a container.
First Acoustically Critical Room − Most duct system
service a number of rooms. The room that has the
shortest duct run from the fan is usually exposed to
more fan noise than rooms further away from the fan.
Floating Action Controllers − Essentially two posi−
tion type controllers which vary the position of the
controlled devices but which are arranged to stop be−
fore reaching a maximum or minimum position.
G.12
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Flow, Laminar − Fluid flow in which each fluid par−
ticle moves in a smooth path substantially parallel to
the paths followed by all other particles.
Flow, Turbulent − Fluid flow in which the fluid moves
transversely as well as in the direction of the tube or
pipe axis. Flue − A special enclosure incorporated into
a building for the removal of products of combustion
to the out−of−doors.
Type <A" −
A flue listed for use with oil, gas, or
coal burning equipment.
Type <B" −
A manufactured flue listed for use
with gas burning equipment.
Fluid − Gas, vapor, or liquid.
Fluid Head − The static pressure of fluid expressed in
terms of the height of a column of the fluid, or of some
manometric fluid, which it would support.
Fluid, Heat Transfer − Any gas, vapor, or liquid used
to absorb heat from a source at a high temperature and
reject it to a lower temperature substance.
Fluid Dynamics − Fluid Dynamics is used to describe
the condition of motion of a fluid within a system. The
velocity of a fluid is based upon the cross−sectional
area and the volume of a fluid passing through it. The
importance of this property is that volume may be de−
termined for air or water systems when the area and ve−
locity are known.
Fluid Statics − Fluid Statics as applied to TAB work,
refers to a condition of a quantity of fluid at rest. It is
the direct result of gravity and weight. Static pressure
is used in both air and water testing to determine the
potential for the movement of fluid within a system.
Pressures in air systems are normally measured in
units of inches of water (in.w.g.), millimeters of water
(mm w.g.) or pascals (Pa). A pressure unit of one inch
of water is equivalent to the static pressure found at the
base of a column of water one inch high. Pressures in
water systems are normally measured in pounds per
square inch (psi) or kilopascals (kPa), but are con−
verted to feet of water (ft. w.g.) or meters of water (m
w.g.) for the purpose of evaluating pump and equip−
ment performance.
Force − The action on a body which tends to change its
relative condition as to rest or motion.
Forced Circulation − Circulation of heat transfer fluid
by a pump or fan.
Forward Flow − Forward flow occurs when air flows
and noise propagates in the same direction, as in an air
conditioning supply system or in a fan discharge.
Free Area − The total minimum area of the openings
in the air outlet or inlet through which air can pass.
Free Delivery−Type Unit − A device which takes in air
and discharges it directly to the space to be treated
without external elements which impose air resist−
ance.
Free Sound Field (Free Field) − A free sound field is
a field in a homogeneous, isotropic medium free from
boundaries. In practice, it is a field in which the effects
of the boundaries are negligible over the region of in−
terest. In the free field, the sound pressure level de−
creases 6 dB for a doubling of distance from a point
source.
Freezing Point − Temperature at which a given liquid
substance will solidify or freeze on removal of heat.
Freezing point of water is 32F (C).
Frequency − The number of vibrations or waves or
cycles of any periodic phenomenon per second. In
noise control of duct systems, our interest lies in the
audible frequency range of 20 to 20,000 cycles per sec−
ond. The United States has adopted the international
designation of ?hertz" (Hz.) for cycles per second.
Frequency Spectrum − A representation of a complex
noise which has been resolved into frequency compo−
nents. The most commonly used components are 1/1
octave bands and 1/3 octave bands.
Friction − Friction is the resistance found at the duct
and piping walls. Resistance creates a static pressure
loss in systems. The primary purpose of a fan or pump
is to produce a design volume of fluid at a pressure
equal to the frictional resistance of the system and the
other dynamic pressure losses of the components.
Friction Head − The pressure in psi or feet (kPa or me−
ters) of the liquid pumped which represents system re−
sistance that must be overcome.
Full Load Current − See Running Current.
Focusing Collector − A collector using some type of
focusing device (parabolic mirror, Fresnel lens, etc.) to
concentrate the insolation on an absorbing element.
Fumes − Solid particles commonly formed by the con−
densation of vapors from normally solid materials
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.13
such as molten metals. Fumes may also be formed by
sublimation, distillation, calcination, or chemical
reaction wherever such processes create airborne par−
ticles predominantly below one micron in size. Such
solid particles sometime serve as condensation nuclei
for water vapor to form smog.
Functional Performance Testing − A full range of
checks and tests to determine if all components of
equipment, systems and subsystems function and in−
terface under all conditions required by the contract
documents.
−G−
GFI, GFCI − Ground fault (circuit) interrupterCa de−
vice that senses electrical ground faults and reacts by
opening the circuit.
Ground Conductor − Conductor run in an electrical
system, which is deliberately connected to the ground
electrode. Purpose is to provide a ground point
throughout the system. Insulation colorCgreen. Also
called ?green ground".
Ground Fault − An unintentional connection to
ground.
−H−
Head, Dynamic or Total − In flowing fluid, the sum
of the static and velocity heads at the point of measure−
ment.
Head, Static − The static pressure of fluid expressed in
terms of the height of a column of the fluid, or of some
manometric fluid, which it would support.
Gang − One wiring device position in a box,.
Head, Velocity − In a flowing fluid, the height of the
fluid or of some manometric fluid equivalent to its ve−
locity pressure.
Gas − Usually a highly superheated vapor which, with−
in acceptable limits of accuracy, satisfies the perfect
gas laws.
Heat − The form of energy that is transferred by virtue
of a temperature difference.
Gas, Inert − A gas that neither experiences nor causes
chemical reaction nor undergoes a change of state in
a system or process; e.g. nitrogen or helium mixed
with a volatile refrigerant.
Heat, Latent − Change of enthalpy during a change of
state, usually expressed in Btu per lb (kJ/kg). With
pure substances, latent heat is absorbed or rejected at
a constant temperature.
Gas Constant − The coefficient ?R" in the perfect gas
equation − PV = MRT.
Heat, Sensible − Heat is associated with a chance in
temperature, specific heat exchange of temperature; in
contrast to a heat interchange in which a change of
state (latent heat) occurs.
Gradual Switches − Manual adjustment devices
which proportion the control condition in accordance
with the position of the switch.
Grains of Moisture − The unit of measurement of ac−
tual moisture contained in a sample of air. (7000 grains
= one pound of water).
Gravity, Specific − Density compared to density of
standard material; reference usually to water or to air.
Grille − A louvered or perforated covering for an air
passage opening which can be located on a wall, ceil−
ing or flood.
Heat, Specific − The ratio of the quantity of heat re−
quired to raise the temperature of a given mass of any
substance one degree to the quantity required to raise
the temperature of an equal mass of a standard sub−
stance one degree.
Heat, Total (Enthalpy) − The sum of sensible heat and
latent heat between an arbitrary datum point and the
temperature and state under consideration.
Heat Capacity − The amount of heat necessary to raise
the temperature of a given mass one degree. Numeri−
cally, the mass multiplied by the specific heat.
Ground − Zero voltage, or any point connected to the
earth or ?ground."
Heat Conductor − A material capable of readily con−
ducting heat. The opposite of an insulator or insula−
tion.
Ground Bus − A busbar in a panel or elsewhere, delib−
erately connected to ground.
Heat Exchanger − A device specifically designed to
transfer heat between two physically separated fluids.
G.14
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Heat of Fusion − Latent heat involved in the change
between liquid and vapor states.
rupts system operation if the monitored condition be−
comes excessive.
Heat Pump − A refrigerating system employed to
transfer heat into a space or substance. The condenser
provides the heat while the evaporator is arranged to
pick up heat from air, water, etc. By shifting the flow
of air or other fluid, a heat pump system may also be
used to cool the space.
High Pressure Cutout − A pressure actuated switch to
protect the compressor from pressure often caused by
high condenser temperatures and pressure due to foul−
ing and lack of water or air.
Heat Transfer Medium − A fluid used in the transport
of thermal energy.
Heat Transmission − Any time−rate of heat flow; usu−
ally refers to conduction, convection and radiation
combined.
Heat Transmission Coefficient − Any one of a num−
ber of coefficients used in the calculation of heat trans−
mission by conduction, convection, and radiation,
through various materials and structures.
Heating, Regenerative (or Cooling) − Process of uti−
lizing heat, which must be rejected or absorbed in one
part of the cycle, to perform a useful function in anoth−
er part of the cycle by heat transfer.
HEPA Filter (High Efficiency Particulate Air Fil−
ter) − A throw−away extended media, dry−type filter in
a rigid frame having a minimum particle−collection ef−
ficiency of 99.97 percent for 0.3 micron thermally−
generated dioctyl phthalate (D.O.P.) or acceptable al−
ternative particles, and a maximum clean filter
pressure drop of 1.0 inch water gauge (249 pascals),
when tested at rated airflow capacity.
High Side − Parts of the refrigerating system subjected
to condenser pressure or higher; the system from the
compression side of the compressor through the con−
denser to the expansion point of the evaporator.
Horsepower − Unit of power in foot−pound−second
system; work done at the rate of 550 ft−lb per sec, or
33,000 ft−lb per min.
Hot Deck − The heating section of a multizone system.
Hot Gas Bypass − The piping and manual, but more
often automatic, valve used to introduce compressor
discharge gas directly into the evaporator. This type of
arrangement will maintain compressor operation at
light loads down to zero by falsely loading the evapo−
rator and compressor.
Hot Gas Piping − The compressor discharge piping
which carries the hot refrigerant gas from the compres−
sor to the condenser. Velocities must be high enough
to carry entrained oil.
Humidifier − A device to add moisture to air.
Humidifying Effect − The latent heat of vaporization
of water at the average evaporating temperature times
the weight of water evaporated per unit of time.
Heterogeneous Dioctyl Phthalate (D.O.P.) − An
aerosol having the approximate light scattering mean
droplet size distribution as follows −
Humidistat − A regulatory device, actuated by
changes in humidity, used for the automatic control of
relative humidity.
99 percent less than 3.0 micron
Humidity − Water vapor within a given space.
50 percent less than 0.7 micron
Humidity, Absolute − The weight of water vapor per
unit volume.
10 percent less than 0.4 micron
Hidden Demand Charge − Electric bill charges that
are based on cents per kWh per kW demand contain a
hidden demand charge. A low load factor for a build−
ing then penalizes the energy user through this ?hid−
den" charge.
High Limit control − A device which normally moni−
tors the condition of the controlled medium and inter−
Humidity, Percentage − The ratio of the specific hu−
midity of humid air to that of saturated air at the same
temperature and pressure, usually expressed as a per−
centage (degree of saturation; saturation ratio).
Humidity Ratio − The ratio of the mass of the water
vapor to the mass of dry air contained in the sample.
Humidity, Relative − The ratio of the mol fraction of
water vapor present in the air, to the mol fraction of
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.15
water vapor present in saturated air at the same tem−
perature and barometric pressure; approximately, it
equals the ratio of the partial pressure or density of the
water vapor in the air, to the saturation pressure or den−
sity, respectively, of water vapor at the same tempera−
ture.
not touching it), the ever changing magnetic field will
induce a current in the second conductor.
Humidity, Specific − Weight of water vapor (steam)
associated with 1 pound (kilogram) weight of dry air,
also called humidity.
Inductive Loads − Loads whose voltage and current
are out−of−phase. True power consumption for induc−
tive loads is calculated by multiplying its voltage, cur−
rent, and the power factor of the load.
Hunting − A condition which occurs when the desired
condition cannot be maintained. The controller, con−
trolled device and system, individually or collectively,
continuously override or ?overshoot" the control point
with a resulting fluctuation and loss of control of the
condition to be maintained.
Hydrostatic Pressure − The pressure at any point in a
liquid at rest; equal to the depth of the liquid multiplied
by its density.
Hygroscopic − Absorptive of moisture, readily ab−
sorbing and retaining moisture.
−I−
Impedance (Z) − The quantity in an AC circuit that is
equivalent to resistance in a DC circuit, inasmuch as
it relates current and voltage. It is composed of resist−
ance plus a purely AC concept called reactance and is
expressed, like resistance, in ohms.
Impervious − Not allowing passage of a gas (air).
<In" Contacts − Those relay contacts which complete
circuits when the relay armature is energized. Also re−
ferred to as normally open contacts.
Inch of Water (in.w.g.) − A unit of pressure equal to
the pressure exerted by a column of liquid water 1 inch
high at a temperature of 39.2F.
Incidence, Angle of − The angle at which insolation
strikes a surface.
Indicator − A term used to describe any device such as
a thermometer or pressure gauge which is used to indi−
cate the condition at a point in the system but which
does to provide any controlling action or effect on the
system operation.
Inductance − The process when a second conductor is
placed next to a conductor carrying AC current (but
G.16
Induction − The capture of part of the ambient air by
the jet action of the primary airstream discharging
from a controlled device.
Infiltration − Outside air flowing into a building as
through a wall, crack, etc.
Input Override Relay − A relay that allows the duty
cycle to be inhibited on specific channels because of
inputs from outdoor temperature, space temperature,
case temperature, time−of−day, etc. Sometimes called
duty cycle control relay.
Inrush Current − The current that flows the instant af−
ter the switch controlling current flow to a load is
closed. Also called locked rotor current.
Insertion Loss − The insertion loss of an element of an
acoustic transmission system is the positive or nega−
tive change in acoustic power transmission that results
when the element is introduced.
Insolation − The total amount of solar energy reaching
a surface per unit of time.
Instantaneous Rate − Method for determining when
load shedding should occur. Actual energy usage is
measured and compared to a present kilowatt level. If
the actual kilowatt level exceeds a designated set
point, loads will be shed until the actual rate drops be−
low the set point.
Insulation, Thermal − A material having a relatively
high resistance to heat flow and used principally to re−
tard heat flow.
Interstage Differential − In a multistage HVAC sys−
tem, the change in temperature at the thermostat need−
ed to turn additional heating or cooling equipment on.
Isentropic − An adjective describing a reversible adia−
batic process; a change taking place at constant entro−
py.
Isobaric − An adjective used to indicate a change tak−
ing place at constant pressure.
Isokinetic Sampling − Any technique for collecting
airborne particulate matter in which the collection is
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
so designed that the airstream entering it has a velocity
equal to that of the air passing around and outside the
collector.
izontal Flow), producing a uniform and parallel air−
flow. (Net filter medium face area versus gross area =
0.80.)
Isothermal − An adjective used to indicate a change
taking place at constant temperature.
Laminar Flow Clean Air Device − A clean bench,
clean work station, wall or ceiling hung module, or
other device (except a cleanroom) which incorporates
a HEPA filter(s) and motor blower(s) for the purpose
of supplying laminar flow clean air to a controlled
work space.
−J−
Junction Box − Metal box in which tap to circuit con−
ductors is made. Junction box is not an outlet, since no
load is fed from it directly.
−K−
Kilovolt Ampere − Product of the voltage times the
current. Different from kilowatts because of inductive
loads in an electrical system. Abbreviated − kVA kilo−
watts is equal to KVA times power factor.
Kilowatt − 1000 watts. Abbreviated − kW.
Kilowatt−Hour − A measure of electrical energy con−
sumption, 1000 watts being consumed per hour. Ab−
breviated − kWh.
kW Demand − The maximum rate of electric power
usage required to operate a facility during a period of
time, usually a month billing period. Often called de−
mand.
kWh Consumption − The amount of electric energy
used over a period of time; the number of kWh used per
month. Often called consumption.
−L−
Lag − A delay in the effect of a changed condition at
one point in the system, on some other condition to
which it is related. Also, the delay in action of the sens−
ing element of a control, due to the time required for
the sensing element to reach equilibrium with the
property being controlled, i.e., temperature lag, flow
lag, etc.
Laminar (Unidirectional) Airflow − Airflow in
which the entire body of air within a confined area
moves with uniform velocity along parallel flow lines.
Laminar Airflow Cleanroom − A cleanroom in which
the filtered air entering the room makes a single pass
through the work area in a parallel airflow pattern,
with a minimum of turbulent flow areas. Laminar air−
flow rooms have HEPA filter coverage of at least 80
percent of the ceiling (Vertical Flow) or one wall (Hor−
Langley − Standard unit of insolation measurements,
1 langley = 1 cal/sq.cm. (1 langley/min. = 221 Btuh/
sq.ft.).
Laskin Nozzle − A nozzle used for the generation of a
heterogeneous D.O.P. aerosol by compressed gas (as
defined in Air Generated D.O.P.).
Latent Heat of Fusion − The heat required to change
a solid to a liquid at the same temperature, i.e., ice to
water requires 144 Btu/lb (335 kJ/kg).
Latent Heat of Vaporization − The amount of heat
necessary to change a quantity of water to water vapor
without changing either temperature or pressure (re−
quires 970 Btu/lb or 2256 kJ/kg). When water is vapor−
ized and passes into the air, the latent heat of vaporiza−
tion passes into the air along with the vapor. Likewise,
latent heat is removed when water vapor is condensed.
Law of Partial Pressure, Dalton’s − Each constituent
of a mixture of gases behaves thermodynamically as
if it alone occupied the space. The sum of the individu−
al pressures of the constituents equals the total pres−
sure of the mixture.
Level − The logarithm of the ratio, expressed in deci−
bels, of two quantities proportional to power or energy.
The quantity which is the denominator of the ratio is
the standard reference quantity.
Light Emitting Diode − A low current and voltage
light used as an indicator on load management equip−
ment. Abbreviated − LED.
Limit − Control applied in the line or low voltage con−
trol circuit to break the circuit of conditions move out−
side a preset range. In a motor, a switch which cuts off
power to the motor windings when the motor reaches
its full open position.
Limit Control − A temperature, pressure, humidity,
dew point or other control that overrides the demand
control and/or duty cycler to prevent any affect on the
business operation from load management, malfunc−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.17
tion, or abnormal conditions. Also called load over−
ride.
Limited Combustible Material − A building
construction material not complying with the defini−
tion of noncombustible material, which in the form in
which it is used, has a potential heat value not exceed−
ing 3500 Btu/lb (8141 KJ/kg) (see NFPA 259, Stan−
dard Test Method for Potential Heat of Building Mate−
rials) and complies with one of the following
paragraphs (a) or (b). Materials subject to increase in
combustibility or flame spread rating beyond the lim−
its herein established through the effects of age, mois−
ture, or other atmospheric condition shall be consid−
ered combustible.
(a) Materials having a structural base of noncombus−
tible material,with a surfacing not exceeding a thick−
ness of 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) which has a flame spread rat−
ing not greater than 50.
(b) Materials, in the form and thickness used, other
than as described in (a), having neither a flame spread
rating greater than 25 nor evidence of continued pro−
gressive combustion, and of such composition that
surfaces that would be exposed by cutting through the
material on any plane would have neither a flame
spread rating greater than 25 nor evidence of contin−
ued progressive combustion.
Line Side − The side of a device electrically closest to
the source of current.
Line Voltage − In the control industry, the normal elec−
tric supply voltages, which are usually 120 or 240
volts.
Liquefaction − A change of state to liquid; generally
used instead of condensation in cases of substances or−
dinarily gaseous.
Liquid Sight Glass − The glass ported fitting in the liq−
uid line used to indicate adequate refrigerant charge.
When bubbles appear in the glass, there is insufficient
refrigerant in the system.
Liquid Solenoid Valve − The electrically operated au−
tomatic shutoff valve in the liquid piping which closes
on system shutdown to close off receiver discharge
when used in pump down cycle and which prevents re−
frigerant migration in any system.
Load − The amount of heat per unit time imposed on
a refrigerant system, or the required rate of heat re−
moval.
G.18
Load Factor − This is a ratio expressing a customer’s
average actual use of the utility’s capacity provided
versus the maximum amount used.
Load Management − The control of electrical loads to
reduce kW demand and kWh consumption.
Load Programmer − Any device which turns loads on
and off on a real time, time interval, or kW demand ba−
sis.
Load Side − The side of a device electrically farthest
from the current source.
Locked Rotor Current − See ?Inrush Current".
Loudness − The subjective human definition of the in−
tensity of a sound. Human reaction to sound is highly
dependent on the sound pressure and frequency.
Loudness Level − A subjective method of rating loud−
ness in which a 1000 Hz tone is varied in intensity until
it is judged by listeners to be equally as loud as a given
sound sample. The loudness level in ?phons" is taken
as the sound pressure level, in decibels, of the 100 Hz
tone.
Louver − An assembly of sloping vanes intended to
permit air to pass through and to inhibit transfer of wa−
ter droplets.
Low Limit Control − A device which normally moni−
tors the condition of the controlled medium and inter−
rupts system operation if the monitored condition
drops below the desired minimum value.
Low Side − The refrigerating system from the expan−
sion point to the point where the refrigerant vapor is
compressed; where the system is at or below evapo−
rated pressure.
Low Temperature Cutout − A pressure or tempera−
ture actuated device with sensing element in the evap−
orator, which will shut the system down at its control
setting to prevent freezing chilled water or to prevent
coil frosting. Direct expansion equipment may not use
this device.
Low Voltage − In the control industry, a power supply
of 25 volts or less.
−M−
MCM − Thousand circular milCused to describe large
wire sizes.
Magnahelic Gauge (TM) − An instrument used to
measure differential air pressure between two spaces.
(Trade name of Dwyer Instruments, Inc.)
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Manometer − An instrument for measuring pressures;
especially a U−tube partially filled with a liquid, usual−
ly water, mercury, or a light oil, so constructed that the
amount of displacement of the liquid indicates the
pressure being exerted on the instrument.
Mass − The quantity of matter in a body as measured
by the ratio of the force required to produce given ac−
celeration, to the acceleration.
Mass Law (Sound) − The law relating to the transmis−
sion loss of sound barriers which says that in a part of
the frequency range, the magnitude of the loss is con−
trolled entirely by the mass per unit area of the barrier.
The law also says that the transmission loss increases
6 decibels for each doubling of frequency or each
doubling of the barrier mass per unit area.
Master (Central) Control − Control of all outlets from
one point.
Maximum <No−Flow" Temperature − The maximum
temperature that will be obtained in a component when
the heat transfer fluid is not flowing through the sys−
tem.
Modulating Control − A mode of automatic control in
which the action of the final control element is propor−
tional to the deviation, from set point of the controlled
medium.
Modulating Controllers − Constantly reposition
themselves in proportion to the requirements of the
system, theoretically being able to maintain an accu−
rately constant condition.
Motor Control Center − A single metal enclosed as−
sembly containing a number of motor controllers and
possibly other devices such as switches and control de−
vices.
Multidirectional Airflow − Airflow in which the air
within a combined area moves in a non−uniform or tur−
bulent flow.
Multipole − Connections to more than 1 pole such as
a 2−pole circuit breaker.
Multistage Thermostat − A thermostat which con−
trols auxiliary equipment for heating or cooling in re−
sponse to a greater demand for heating or cooling.
−N−
Media − The heat transfer material used in rotary heat
exchangers, also referred to as matrix.
Melting Point − For a given pressure, the temperature
at which the solid and liquid phases of the substance
are in equilibrium.
Microbar − A unit of pressure equal to 1 dyne/cm2
(one millionth of the pressure of the atmosphere).
Micro−Organism − A microscopic organism, espe−
cially a bacterium, fungus, or a protozoan.
Micron − A unit of measurement equal to one−mil−
lionth of a meter or approximately 0.00003937 inch.
(25 microns are approximately 0.001 inch).
Microprocessor − A small computer used in load man−
agement to analyze energy demand and consumption
such that loads are turned on and off according to a pre−
determined program.
Mixed Airflow Cleanroom − A hybrid cleanroom
consisting of a combination of laminar airflow and tur−
bulent airflow within the same enclosure.
Modulation − Of a control, tending to adjust by incre−
ments and decrements.
Natural Ventilation − The movement of outdoor air
into a space through intentionally provided openings,
such as windows and doors, or though nonpowered
ventilators or by infiltration.
NC − Normally closed contacts of a relay. Circuits are
closed when the relay is de−energized.
NO − Normally open contacts of a relay. Circuits are
opened when the relay is de−energized.
Neutral − The circuit conductor that is normally
grounded or at zero voltage difference to the ground.
Nocturnal Radiation − Loss of energy by radiation to
the night sky.
Noise − Sound which is unpleasant or unwanted by the
recipient.
Noise Criteria Curves (NC Curves) − Curves that de−
fine the limits which the octave band spectrum of a
noise source must not exceed if a certain level of occu−
pant acceptance is to be achieved.
Noise Criterion (NC) Curves − Established 1/1 oc−
tave band noise spectra for rating the amount of noise
of an occupied space with a single number.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.19
Noncombustible Material − A material which, in the
form in which it is used and under the conditions antic−
ipated, will not ignite, burn, support combustion, or re−
lease flammable vapors when subjected to fire or heat.
Materials reported as noncombustible, when tested in
accordance with ASTM E136, Standard Method of
Test for Noncombustibility of Elementary Materials,
shall be considered noncombustible materials.
Normally open (or normally closed) − The position
of a valve, damper, relay contacts, or switch when ex−
ternal power or pressure is not being applied to the de−
vice. Valves and dampers usually are returned to a
?normal" position by a spring.
−O−
Occupied Zone − The region within an occupied space
between planes 3 and 72 inches (75 and 1800 mm)
above the floor and more than 2 feet (600 mm) from
the walls or fixed air conditioning equipment (see
ASHRAE Standard 55−1981).
Octave Band (O.B.) − A range of frequency where the
highest frequency of the band is double the lowest fre−
quency of the band. The band is usually specified by
the center frequency.
1/1 Octave Band − A range of frequencies where the
highest frequency of the band is double the lowest fre−
quency band. The band is specified by the center fre−
quency. The preferred octave bands are designed by
the following center frequencies − 31.5, 63, 125, 250,
500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000, 16,000.
Odor − A quality of gases, liquids or particles that
stimulates the olfactory organ.
Offset − Term used to describe the difference between
the set point and the actual operating or control point.
Ohm (R) − A measure of pure resistance in an electri−
cal circuit.
Ohm’s Law − The relationship between current and
voltage in a circuit. It states that current is proportional
to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance. Ex−
pressed algebraically, in D.C. circuits I = E/R; in AC
circuits I − E/Z.
<On−off" Control" − A two position action which al−
lows operation at either maximum or minimum condi−
tion, or on or off, depending on the position of the con−
troller.
G.20
On−Site Field Certification − Certification at the
location of usage.
Opaque − Not permitting transmission of radiant ener−
gy or light.
Open Circuit − The condition when either deliberately
or accidentally, an electrical conductor or connection
is broken or open with a switch.
Operating Point − The value of the controlled condi−
tion at which the controller actually operates. Also
called control point.
Operation Facility − A cleanroom in normally opera−
tion.
Optimum Operative Temperature − Temperature
that satisfies the greatest possible number of people at
a given clothing and activity level.
Out Contacts − Those relay contacts which complete
circuits when the relay coil is deenergized. Also re−
ferred to as normally closed contacts.
Outgassing − The emission of gases by materials and
components, usually during exposure to elevated tem−
perature, or reduced pressure.
Outlet, Ceiling − A round, square, rectangular, or lin−
ear air diffuser located in the ceiling, which provides
a horizontal distribution pattern of primary and secon−
dary air over the occupied zone and induces low veloc−
ity secondary air motion through the occupied zone.
Outlet, Slotted − A long, narrow air distribution outlet,
comprised of deflecting members, located in the ceil−
ing sidewall, or sill, with an aspect ratio greater than
10, designed to distribute supply air in varying direc−
tions and planes, and arranged to promote mixing of
primary air and secondary room air.
Outlet, Vaned − A register or grille equipped with ver−
tical and/or horizontal adjustable vanes.
Outlet Velocity − The average velocity of primary air
emerging from an opening, fan or outlet, measured in
the plane of the opening.
Output − Capacity, duty, performance, net refrigera−
tion produced by system.
Outside Air Opening − Any opening used as an entry
for air from outdoors.
Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer (thermal
transmittance) − The time rate of heat flow through a
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
body per unit area, under steady conditions, for a unit
temperature difference between the fluids on the two
sides of the body.
Overcurrent Device − A device such as a fuse or a cir−
cuit breaker designed to protect a circuit against exces−
sive current by opening the circuit.
Overload − A condition of excess current; more cur−
rent flowing than the circuit was designed to carry.
Override − A manual or automatic action taken to by−
pass the normal operation of a device or system.
Oxidation − A reaction in which oxygen combined
with another substance.
Particulate Matter − A general term applied to minia−
ture particles of material suspended in gases or liquids.
Passive Solar System − An assembly of collectors,
thermal storage device(s), and transfer media which
converts solar energy into thermal energy and in which
no energy in addition to solar is used to accomplish the
transfer of thermal energy. The prime element in a pas−
sive solar system is usually some form of thermal ca−
pacitance.
Pass−Through Box − A double doored chamber ar−
ranged to permit transfer of material and/or equipment
between two confined spaces of different contamina−
tion levels.
Peak Demand − The greatest amount of kilowatts
needed during a demand interval.
−P−
Package A/C Unit − Consists of a factory made assem−
bly which normally includes a cooling coil, compres−
sor(s), condensing coil, and may include a heating
function as well.
Parallel Airflow − Unidirectional airflow, as demon−
strated by introduction of an isokinetic smoke stream
which exhibits a measured dispersion of not more than
14 from straight line flow.
Parallel Circuit − One where all the elements are con−
nected across the voltage source. Therefore, the volt−
age on each element is the same but the current through
each may be different.
Particulate Matter − A state of matter in which solid
or liquid substances exist in the form of aggregated
molecules or particles. Airborne particulate matter is
typically in the size range of 0.01 to 100 micrometers
(microns).
Particle − A very small discrete mass of solid or liquid
matter, usually measured in microns.
Peak Load Pricing − A pricing principle that charges
more for purchases that contribute to the peak demand
and, thereby, cause the expansion of productive capac−
ity when the peak demand exceeds the peak capacity
(less minimum excess capacity). In the electric power
industry, this means charging more for electricity
bought on or near the seasonal peak of the utility or on
or near the daily peak of the utility. The latter requires
special meters; the former does not.
Performance Factor − Ratio of the useful output ca−
pacity of a system to the input required to obtain it.
Units of capacity and input need not be consistent.
Pert − Program, evaluation and review technique; a
system of planning, scheduling, controlling and re−
viewing a series of interdependent events in order to
follow a proper sequence and complete a project as
quickly and inexpensively as possible.
Pervious − Allows passage of a gas (air).
Phase − Part of an AC voltage cycle. Residential elec−
trical service is 2−phase; commercial facilities are usu−
ally 3−phase, AC voltage.
Particle Counter − A light scattering instrument with
display or recording means to count and size discrete
particles in air.
Phon − A measurement of loudness level. The loud−
ness level in phons of any sound is the sound pressure
level of the 1000 Hz reference tone which is equally
loud to the sound being rated. The loudness of 1 sone
correspondents to a loudness level of 40 phons in ac−
cordance with the definition of the sone; a two fold
change of loudness in sones is associated with a 10
phon change in loudness level.
Particle Size − An expression for the size of solid or
liquid particles expressed as the apparent maximum
linear dimension or diameter of the particle.
Photovoltaic Conversion − Use of semiconductor or
other photovoltaic devices that convert solar radiation
directly to electricity.
Particle Count − Concentration expressed in terms of
the number of particles per unit volume of air or other
gas.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.21
Pilot Duty Relay − A relay used for switching loads
such as another relay or solenoid valve coils. The pilot
duty relay contacts are located in a second control cir−
cuit. Pilot duty relays are rated in volt amperes (VA).
Pitch − The pitch of a sound depends primarily on its
frequency. In music, sounds of higher frequencies are
referred to as treble notes, while those of lower fre−
quencies are referred to as bass notes.
Planting Screen − Bushes or other plantings that hide
a refrigerant compressor.
Plenum − An air compartment connected to one or
more distributing ducts.
Plug−in Bus Duct − Bus duct with built in power tap off
points. Tap off is made with a plug−in switch, circuit
breaker, or other fitting.
Pneumatic − Operated by air pressure.
Pneumatic Electric (PE) Switches − Device that op−
erates an electric switch from a change of air pressure.
Point, Critical − Of a substance, state point at which
liquid and vapor have identical properties; critical
temperature, critical pressure, and critical volume are
the terms given to the temperature,, pressure, and vol−
ume at the critical point. Above the critical tempera−
ture or pressure, there is no demarcation line between
liquid and gaseous phases.
Point of Duty − A statement of air volume flow rate
and static or total pressure at a stated density and is
used to specify the point on the system curve at which
a fan is to operate.
Point of Operation − Used to designate the single set
fan performance values which correspond to the point
of intersection of the system curve and the fan pressure
volume curve.
Point of Rating − A statement of fan performance val−
ues which correspondent to one specific point on the
fan pressure volume curve.
Polarity − The direction of current flow in a DC cir−
cuit. By convention, current flows from plus to minus.
Electron flow is actually in the opposite direction.
Pole − An electrical connection point. In a panel, the
point of connection. On a device, the terminal that con−
nects to the power.
G.22
Potable Water − Water that is safe to drink.
Potential Transformer − A voltage transformer. The
voltage supplied to a primary coil induces a voltage in
a secondary coil according to the ratio of the wire
windings in each of the coils.
Potentiometer − An electromechanical device having
a terminal connected to each and to the resistive ele−
ment, and a third terminal connected to the wiper con−
tact. The electrical input is divided as the contact
moves over the element, thus making it possible to me−
chanically change the resistance.
Power (P) − Expressed in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW),
and is equal to −
in DC circuit, P = EI and P = I2R
in AC circuit, P = EI x Power factor
Power Factor (pf) − A quantity that relates the volt
amperes of an AC circuit to the wattage (power = volt−
amperes x power factor). Power factor also is the ratio
of the circuit resistance (R) to the impedance (Z) ex−
pressed as a decimal between zero and one (p.f. = R/Z).
When the power factor equals one, all consumed pow−
er produces useful work.
Power Factor Charge − A utility charge for ?poor"
power factor. It is more expensive to provide power to
a facility with a poor power factor (usually less than
0.8).
Power Factor Correction − Installing capacitors on
the utility service’s supply line to improve the power
factor of the building.
Power supply − The voltage and current source for an
electrical circuit. A battery, a utility service, and a
transformer are power supplies.
Predicting Method − Method for determining when
load shedding should occur. A formula is used to arrive
at a preset kilowatt limit. Then the actual amount of
energy accumulated during the utility’s demand inter−
vals is measured. A projection is made of the actual
rate of energy usage during the rest of the interval. If
the predicted value exceeds the preset limit, loads will
be shed.
Preferred Noise Criterion (PNC) Curves − The PNC
curves are a proposed modification of the older NC
curves. These PNC curves have values that are about
1 dB lower than the NC curves in the four octave bands
at 125, 250, 500, and 1000 Hz for the same curve rating
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
numbers. In the 63 Hz band, the permissible levels are
4 or 5 dB lower; in the highest three bands, they are 4
or 5 db lower.
Prefilter − A filter, usually of lower performance grade
than the final filter, that precedes the final filter.
Preheating − In air conditioning, to heat the air ahead
of other processes.
Pressure − The normal force exerted by a homoge−
neous liquid or gas, per unit of area, on the wall of its
container.
Pressure, Absolute − Pressure referred to that of a per−
fect vacuum. It is the sum of gauge pressure and stan−
dard atmospheric pressure.
Pressure, Atmospheric − It is the pressure indicated
by a barometer. Standard atmosphere is the pressure
equivalent to 14.696 psi or 29.921 in. of mercury at
70F (101.325 kPa or 760 mm Hg at 20C).
Pressure, Critical − Vapor pressure corresponding to
the substance’s critical state at which the liquid and va−
por have identical properties.
Pressure, Gauge − Pressure above atmospheric.
Pressure, Hydrostatic − The normal force per unit
area that would be exerted by a moving fluid on an in−
finitesimally small body immersed in it if the body
were carried along with the fluid.
Pressure, Partial − Portion of total gas pressure of a
mixture attributable to one component.
Pressure, Saturation − The saturation pressure for a
pure substance for any given temperature is that pres−
sure at which vapor and liquid, or vapor and solid, can
coexist in stable equilibrium.
Pressure, Static (SP) − The normal force per unit area
that would be exerted by a moving fluid on a small
body immersed in it if the body were carried along
with the fluid. practically, it is the normal force per unit
are at a small hole in a wall of the duct through which
the fluid flows (piezometer)or on the surface of a sta−
tionary tube at a point where the disturbances, created
by inserting the tube, cancel. It is supposed that the
thermodynamic properties of a moving fluid depend
on static pressure in exactly the same manner as those
of the same fluid at rest depend upon its uniform hy−
drostatic pressure.
Pressure, Total (TP) − In the theory of the flow of
fluids, the sum of the static pressure and the velocity
pressure at the point of measurement. Also called dy−
namic pressure.
Pressure, Vapor − Vapor pressure denotes the lowest
absolute pressure that a given liquid at a given temper−
ature will remain liquid before evaporating into its
gaseous form or state.
Pressure, Velocity (Vp) − In moving fluid, the pressure
capable of causing an equivalent velocity, if applied to
move the same fluid through an orifice such that all
pressure energy expended is converted into kinetic en−
ergy.
Pressure Drop − Pressure loss in fluid pressure, as
from one end of a duct to the other, due to friction, dy−
namic losses, and changes in velocity pressure.
Pressure Regulator − Automatic valve between the
evaporator outlet and compressor inlet that is respon−
sive to pressure or temperature; it functions to throttle
the vapor flow when necessary to prevent the evapora−
tor pressure from falling below a present level.
Primary Air − The initial airstream to an air outlet or
terminal device being supplied by a fan or supply duct
prior to any entrainment of ambient air.
Primary Control − A device which directly or indi−
rectly controls the control agent in response to needs
indicated by the controller. Typically a motor, valve,
relay, etc.
Primary Element − The portion of the controller
which first uses energy derived from the controlled
medium to produce a condition representing the value
of the controlled variable; for example, a thermostatic
bimetal.
Primary Service − High voltage service, above 600
volts.
Process Hot Water − Hot water needed for manufac−
turing processes over and above the domestic hot wa−
ter that is for the personal use of industrial workers.
Properties, Thermodynamic − Basic qualities used in
defining the condition of a substance, such as tempera−
ture, pressure, volume, enthalpy, entropy.
Proportional Band − The range of values of a propor−
tional positioning controller through which the con−
trolled variables must pass to move the final control
element through its full operating range. Commonly
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.23
used equivalents are throttling range and modulating
range.
Random Incidence − If an object is in a diffuse sound
field, the sound is said to strike the object at random
incidence.
Proportional Control − See Modulating Control.
Psychrometer − An instrument for ascertaining the
humidity or hygrometric state of the atmosphere.
Real Time − Time measured according to the time of
day (1 PM, 2 PM, etc.) Different from the ?electronic
time" of a cycling device.
Psychrometric Chart − A graphical representation of
the thermodynamic properties of moist air.
Receiver − An auxiliary storage receptacle for refrig−
erant when the system is pumped down and shut down.
Pull Box − A metal cabinet inserted into a conduit run
for the purpose of providing a cable pulling point.
Cable may be spliced in these boxes.
Reflected isolation − The portion of the total solar en−
ergy reaching a surface (window, wall, collector)
which has been reflected by an adjoining surface.
Pulsing Demand Meter − A meter which generates a
pulse in correspondence with each revolution of a kWh
meter. Pulses are recorded on paper or magnetic tape.
pulse can also be the signal to demand control equip−
ment.
Reflectivity − The property of a material that deter−
mines its ability to reflect radiant energy.
Pure Tone − A pure tone sound that has a unique pitch
and is characterized by a sinusoidal variation in sound
pressure with time. The frequency spectrum of a pure
tone shows a single line at a discrete frequency.
Pyranometer − A measurement device to determine
local values of total (direct and diffuser) insolation.
Pyrometer − An instrument for measuring tempera−
tures.
Pyrheliometer − An instrument for measuring the ra−
diant energy of the sun.
Refrigerant − The fluid used for heat transfer in a re−
frigerating system, which absorbs heat at a low tem−
perature and a low pressure of the fluid and rejects heat
at a higher temperature and a higher pressure of the
fluid, usually involving changes of state of the fluid.
Regenerated Noise − Duct noise, which is generated
by air turbulence in the duct or fittings.
Register − A grille equipped with an integral damper
or control valve.
Relative Humidity (RH) − The ratio of water vapor in
the air as compared to the maximum amount of water
vapor that may be contained.
Raceway − Any support system, open or closed, for
carrying electric wires.
Relay − An electromechanical switch that opens or
closes contacts in response to some controlled action.
Relay contacts can be normally open (NO) and/or nor−
mally closed (NC). Relays may be electric, pneumatic,
or a combination of both. PE and EP switches are re−
lays.
Radiation, Acoustic − The process of turning structure
borne noise into airborne (or some other fluid borne)
noise.
Relay, Thermal − A switching relay in which a small
heater warms a bimetal element which bends to pro−
vide the switching force.
Radiation, Thermal − The transmission of heat
through space by wave motion; the passage of heat
from one object to another without warming the adja−
cent space.
Remote Temperature Set Point − Ability to set a tem−
perature control point for a space from outside the
space. Often used in public areas.
−R−
Radius of Diffusion − The horizontal axial distance an
airstream travels after leaving an air outlet before the
maximum stream velocity is reduced to a specified ter−
minal level; e.g., 200, 150 or 100 fpm (1.0, 0.75 or 0.5
m/s).
G.24
Reset − A process of automatically adjusting the con−
trol point of a given controller to compensate for
changes in outdoor temperature. The hot deck control
point is normally reset upward as the outdoor tempera−
ture drops. The cold deck control point is normally re−
set downward as the outdoor temperature increases.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Reset Controllers − Two controllers operating togeth−
er; one sensing condition other than that of the con−
trolled space and changing the set point of the second
controller, which is directly responsible for the result
in the controlled space. The resetting controller is
commonly called the master, and the controller being
reset is commonly called the submaster (slave).
Reset Ratio − The ratio of change in outdoor tempera−
ture to the change in control point temperature. For ex−
ample, a 2 −1 reset ratio means that the control point
will increase 1 degree for every 2 degrees change in
outdoor temperature.
Resistance (W) − The opposition which limits the
amount of current that can be produced by an applied
voltage in an electrical circuit, measured in ohms.
Resistance, Thermal − The reciprocal of thermal con−
ductance.
Resistive Loads − Electrical loads whose power factor
is one. Usually contain heating elements.
Resistivity, Thermal − The reciprocal of thermal con−
ductivity.
Respirable Particles − Respirable particles are those
that penetrate into and are deposited in the non−ciliated
portion of the lung. Particles greater than 10 microme−
ters (microns) aerodynamic diameter are not respir−
able.
Return Air − Air returned from conditioned or refrig−
erated space.
Reverberant Sound Field − A space in which sound
persists because of continuous reflections. A reverber−
ant field is not necessarily diffuse.
Reverberation − The persistence of sound in an en−
closed space after the sound source has stopped. In a
reverberation room, it is characterized by the decay or
dying away of the sound.
Reverberation Room − A highly sound reflective
room in which special care has been taken to make the
sound field as diffuse as possible.
Reverberation Time − The reverberation time of an
enclosed space is the number of seconds required, or
that would be required were the decay rate to remain
constant, for the sound pressure level to decrease by 60
decibels.
Reverse Flow − Occurs when noise propagates and air
flows in opposing direction, as in a typical return air
system.
Riser Diagram − Electrical block type diagram show−
ing connection of major items of equipment. It is also
applied to signal equipment connections. Also gener−
ally applied to multistory buildings for vertical hy−
dronic piping and ductwork.
Riser Shaft − A vertical shaft designed to house elec−
tric cables, piping and ductwork.
Room Absorption − The product of average absorp−
tion coefficients inside a room and the total surface
area. This is usually expressed in sabins.
Room Criterion (RC) Curves − RC curves are similar
to NC or PNC curves. However, they have a slightly
different shape to approximate a well balanced, bland
sounding spectrum whenever the space requirements
dictate that a certain amount of background noise be
maintained for masking or other purposes.
Room Dry Bulb − The actual temperature of the condi−
tioned room or space as measured with an accurate
thermometer.
Room Effect − The difference between the sound pow−
er level discharge by a duct (through a diffuser or other
termination device) and the sound pressure level heard
by an occupant of a room is called the Room Effect.
The magnitude of the room effect depends upon the
amount of the absorption in the room (Sabins), the dis−
tance between the termination duct and the nearest ob−
server and the directivity factor of the source.
Room Velocity − The residual air velocity level in the
occupied zone of the conditioned space, e.g., 65, 50,
35 fpm (0.33, 0.25, 0.17 m/s).
Running Current − The current that flows through a
load after inrush current. Usually called full load cur−
rent.
−S−
Sabin − The unit of acoustic absorption. One sabin is
one square foot of perfect sound absorbing material.
Saturation, Degree of − The ratio of the weight of wa−
ter vapor associated with a pound (kilogram) of dry air
saturated at the same temperature.
Season Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) − The total
quantity of heat delivered or removed by heating or
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.25
cooling equipment in Btu divided by the total electri−
cal energy input in kilowatt hours over an entire sea−
son.
Sequencer − A mechanical or electrical device that
may be set to initiate a series of events and to make the
vents follow in sequence.
Seasonal Performance Factor − The ratio of the total
quantity of heat delivered by a heat pump, (including
supplemental resistance heaters) to the total quantity
of energy input (including supplementary resistance
heaters) for the total annual heating hours below 65F
(18C).
Sequencing Control − A control which energizes
successive stages of heating or cooling equipment as
its sensor detects the need for increased heating or
cooling capacity. May be electronic or electromechan−
ical.
Secondary Air − The air surrounding an outlet that is
captured or entrained by the initial outlet discharge air−
stream (furnished by a supply duct or fan).
Secondary Service − Voltage service up to 600 volts.
Seismic − Subject to or caused by an earthquake.
Semi−Extended Plenum − A trunk duct that is ex−
tended as a plenum for a fan or HVAC unit to serve
multiple outlets and/or branch ducts.
Sensible Heat − Sensible heat is any heat transfer that
causes a change in temperature. Heating and cooling
of air and water that may be measured with a thermom−
eter is sensible heat. Heating or cooling coils that sim−
ply increase or decrease the air temperature without a
chance in moisture content are examples of sensible
heat.
Series Circuit − One with all the elements connected
end to end. The current is the same throughout but the
voltage can be different across each element.
Service Drop − The overhead service wires that serve
a building.
Service Switch − One to six disconnect switches or cir−
cuit breakers. Purpose is to completely disconnect the
building from the electric service.
Set Point − The value of the controlled condition at
which the instrument is set to operate. The set point in
the example in ?differential" might be 691_w, the mid
point of the differential.
Shading Loss − The loss of collector efficiency caused
by the shading of the absorber plate by collector edges
or components. The shading loss usually varies with
the angle of incidence of the isolation.
Sensible Heat Factor − The ratio of sensible heat to to−
tal heat.
Shall (or Will) − Where shall or will is used as a provi−
sion specified, that provision is mandatory if com−
pliance with the standard is claimed.
Sensible Heat Ratio, Air Cooler − The ratio of sensi−
ble cooling effect to total cooling effect of an air cool−
er.
Shed − To deenergize a load in order to maintain a kW
demand set point.
Sensing Device − A device that keeps track of the mea−
sured condition and its fluctuations so that when suffi−
cient variation occurs it will originate the signal to re−
vise the operation of the system and offset the change.
Example − a thermostat ?bulb". A sensing device may
be an integral part of a controller.
Sensing Element − The first system element or group
of elements. The sensing element performs the initial
measurement operation.
Sensitivity − The ability of a control instrument to
measure and act upon variations of the measured con−
dition.
Sensor − A sensing element.
G.26
Shed Mode − A method of demand control that reduces
kW demand through shedding and restoring loads.
Shielded Cable − Special cable used with equipment
that generates a low voltage output. Used to minimize
the effects of frequency ?noise" on the output signal.
Short Circuit − An electric circuit with zero load; an
electrical fault.
Short Cycling − Unit runs and then stops at short inter−
vals; generally this excessive cycling rate is hard on
the system equipment.
Should (or It Is Recommended) − Term used to indi−
cate provisions which are not mandatory but which are
desirable as good practice.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Single Particle Counter − An instrument for continu−
ous counting of individual airborne particles larger
than a given threshold size(s). The sensing means may
be optical, electrical, aerodynamic, etc.
Single−Phasing − The condition when one phase of a
multiphase (polyphase) motor circuit is broken or
opened. Motors running when this occurs may contin−
ue to run but with lower power output and overheating.
Smoke − The airborne solid and liquid particles and
gases that evolve when a material undergoes pyrolysis
or combustion. Note − chemical smoke is excluded
from this definition.
Smoke Barrier − A continuous membrane, either ver−
tical or horizontal, such as a wall, floor, or ceiling as−
sembly, that is designed and constructed to restrict the
movement of smoke.
Smoke Control System − A system that utilizes fans
to produce pressure differences to manage smoke
movement.
Smoke Damper − A device to resist the passage of
smoke which −
(a) is arranged to operate automatically, and/or
(b) is controlled by a smoke detector, and/or
(c) may be capable of being positioned manually
from a remote command station.
A smoke damper also may be combined with a fire
damper or a damper serving other functions, if its loca−
tion lends itself to the multiple functions. A combina−
tion fire and smoke damper shall meet the require−
ments of both.
Smoke Detector − A device which senses visible or in−
visible particles of combustion.
Smoke Developed Rating − A smoke developed rating
of a material refers to a number or classification of a
material obtained according to NFPA 255, Method of
Test of Surface Burning Characteristics of Building
Materials, which measures visible smoke.
Solar Altitude − The angular elevation of the sun
above the horizon.
Solar Azimuth − Angle between true south and project
of earth sun line on a horizontal plane.
Solar Collector − Any device which collects solar en−
ergy and transforms it to another usable form of ener−
gy.
Solar Energy − The photon energy originating from
the sun’s radiation in the wavelength region from 0.3
to 2.4 micrometers; the radiant energy of the sun,
whether it be direct, diffuse or reflected radiation.
Solar Time − The time of day based on the relative
position of the sun with respect to a position on the
earth’s surface. Solar noon is that instant on any day at
which the sun reaches its maximum altitude for that
day.
Solenoid Air Valves − EP switches with an electro−
magnetic coil in the valve top works that opens or
closes the valve from normal position. A spring returns
the valve to the normal position when the coil is deen−
ergized.
Sone − One sone is defined as the loudness of a 1000
Hz tone having a sound pressure of 40 dB. Two sones
is twice as loud as the 40 dB reference sound of one
sone, etc.
Sorbent − See absorbent.
Sound Absorption − (1) The process of dissipating or
removing sound energy. (2) the property possessed by
materials, objects and structures, such as rooms, of ab−
sorbing sound energy. (3) The measure of the magni−
tude of the absorptive property of a material, an object,
or a structure, such as a room.
Sound Attenuator − A device or equipment that pre−
vents, reduces, or absorbs sound.
Sound Power Level (Lw) − The fundamental charac−
teristic of an acoustic source (fan, etc.) is its ability to
radiate power. Sound power level cannot be measured
directly; it must be calculated from sound pressure lev−
el measurements. The sound power level of a source
(Lw) is the ratio, expressed in decibels, of its sound.
A considerable amount of confusion exists in the rela−
tive use of sound power level and sound pressure level.
An analogy may be made in that the measurement of
sound pressure level is comparable to the measure−
ment of temperature in a room; whereas, the sound
power level is comparable to the cooling capacity of
the equipment conditioning the room. The resulting
temperature is a function of the cooling capacity of the
equipment and the heat gains and losses of the room.
In exactly the same way, the resulting sound pressure
level would be a function of the sound power output of
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.27
the equipment together with the sound reflective and
sound absorptive properties of the room.
Fahrenheit (Celsius). The following are specific heat
values at standard conditions −
Given the total sound power output of sound source
and knowing the acoustical properties and dimensions
of a room, it is possible to calculate the resulting sound
pressure levels.
waterCC p = 1.0 Btu/lbF (4190 J/kgC)
Sound Power Level of a Source (Lw) − The ratio, ex−
pressed in decibels, of its sound power to the reference
sound power which by divided agreement, is either
10−13 or 10−12 watts. The reference power should al−
ways be stated.
Sound Power of a Source (W) − The rate at which
sound energy is radiated by the source. Without quali−
fication, overall sound power is meant but often sound
power in a specific frequency band is indicated.
Sound Pressure − Sound pressure is an alternating
pressure superimposed on the barometric pressure by
sound. It can be measured or expressed in several ways
such as maximum sound pressure or instantaneous
sound pressure. Unless such a qualifying word is used,
it is the effective of root−mean−square pressure which
is meant.
Sound Pressure Level (Lp) − A measure of the air
pressure change caused by a sound wave expressed on
a decibel scale reference to a reference sound pressure
of 2 x 10−5 Pa or 0.0002 microbar.
Sound Transmission Class − Sound transmission
class is the preferred single figure rating designed to
give a preliminary estimate of the sound insulating
properties of a barrier.
Sound Transmission Coefficient − The sound trans−
mission coefficient of a partition is the fraction of the
incident sound power transmitted through it when the
sound fields on both sides of the partition are diffuse.
Sound Transmission Loss of a Partition (TL) − The
ratio, expressed in decibels, of the incident sound pow−
er on the source side of the specimen of the transmitted
sound power on the receiving side when the sound
fields on both sides of the specimen are diffuse.
When the sound fields are not diffuse, a qualifying
word is necessary, such as normal incidence sound
transmission loss, or field transmission loss.
Specific Heat − Specific heat (Cp) is the amount of heat
energy in Btu’s (joules) required to raise the tempera−
ture of one pound (kilogram) of substance one degree
G.28
airCC p = 0.24 Btu/lbF (1000 J/kgC)
Specification Design − A concise document defining
technical requirements in sufficient detail to form the
basis for a product or process. It indicates, when ap−
propriate, the procedure that determines whether or
not the given requirements are satisfied.
Specification Performance − A concise document
which details the performance requirement for a prod−
uct. The performance specification includes proce−
dures and/or references for testing and certification of
the product.
Specific Volume − The reciprocal of density and is
used to determine the cubic feet (m3) of volume, if the
pounds (kg) of weight are known. Both density and
specific volume are affected by temperature and pres−
sure. The specific volume of air under standard condi−
tions is 13.33 cubic feet per pound (0.8305 m3/kg) and
the specific volume of water at standard conditions is
0.016 cubic feet per pound (0.001 m3/kg).
Spread − The divergence of the airstream in a horizon−
tal or vertical plane after it leaves the outlet.
Stage Differential − Change in temperature at the ther−
mostat needed to turn heating or cooling equipment off
once it is turned on.
Staging Interval − The minimum time period for shed−
ding or restoring two sequential loads.
Stagnant Air Area − An area within a space where the
air velocity is less than 25 fpm (0.12 m/s).
Standard Air Density (d) − Standard air density has
been set at 0.075 lb/cu. ft. In metric units, the standard
air density is 1.2041 kg/m3.
Standard Conditions − The standard conditions for air
are at 70F, and at an atmospheric pressure of 29.92
inches mercury or 14.696 psi. For water, standard con−
ditions are 68F at the same barometric conditions. In
metric units, standard conditions for air are at 20C,
and at an air atmospheric pressure of 760 mm Hg or
101.325 kPa.
Standard Rating − A rating based on tests performed
at Standard Rating Conditions.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Starter − Basic contractor with motor overloads, etc.,
addedCa motor starter is an adaptation of the basic
contractor which includes overload relays. Starters for
large motors may include reactors, step resistors, dis−
connects, or other features required in a more sophisti−
cated starter package.
State − Refers to the form of a fluid, either liquid, gas
or solid. Liquids used in environmental systems are
water, thermal fluids such as ethylene glycol solutions,
and refrigerants in the liquid state. Gases are steam,
evaporated refrigerants and the air−water vapor mix−
ture found in the atmosphere. some substances, includ−
ing commonly used refrigerants, may exist in any of
the three states. A simple example is water, which may
be solid (ice), liquid (water), or gas (steam or water va−
por).
Static Head − The pressure due to the weight of a fluid
above the point of measurement.
Static Regain Method − A method of duct sizing
wherein the duct velocities are systematically re−
duced, allowing a portion of the velocity pressure to
convert to static pressure off setting the duct friction
losses.
Static Suction Head − The positive vertical height in
feet (meters) from the pump centerline to the top of the
level of the liquid source.
Static Suction Lift − The distance in feet (meters) be−
tween the pump centerline and the source of liquid be−
low the pump centerline.
Step Controller − See Sequencer.
Stratified Air − Unmixed air that is in thermal layers
that have temperature variations of approximately five
degrees or more.
Structure−Borne Noise − A condition when the sound
waves are being carried by a portion of the building
structure. Sound waves in this state are inaudible to the
human ear since they cannot carry energy to it. Air−
borne sound can be created from the radiation of the
structure−borne sound into the air.
Subcooling − The difference between the temperature
of a pure condensable fluid below saturation and the
temperature at the liquid saturated state, the same pres−
sure.
Subcooling Specific − The difference between specif−
ic enthalpies of a pure condensable fluid between liq−
uid at a given temperature below saturation and liquid
at saturation, at the same pressure.
Sublimation − A change of state directly from solid to
gas without appearance of liquid.
Suction Head − The positive pressure on the pump in−
let when the source of liquid supply is above the pump
centerline.
Suction Lift − The combination of static suction lift
and friction head in the suction piping when the source
of liquid is below the pump centerline.
Suction Piping − The piping which returns gaseous re−
frigerant to the compressor. Sizes must be large
enough to maintain minimum friction to prevent re−
duced compressor and system capacity but must be
small enough to produce adequate velocity to return
oil to the compressor.
Sun Effect − Solar energy transmitted into space
through windows and building materials.
Sun Rights (Solar Rights) − A legal question concern−
ing the rights to noninterrupted use of the sun’s radiant
energy, such as shading of solar collectors by a neigh−
bor’s building.
Superheat − The difference between the temperature
of a pure condensable fluid above saturation and the
temperature at the dry saturated state, at the same pres−
sure.
Superheat, Specific − The difference between specific
enthalpies of a pure condensable fluid between vapor
at a given temperature above saturation and vapor at
dry saturation, at the same pressure.
Surface, Heating − The exterior surface of a heating
unit. Extended heating surface (or extended surface),
consisting of fins, pins, or ribs which receive heat by
conduction from the prime surface. Prime surface −
heating surface having the heating medium on one side
and air (or extended surface) on the other.
Surge Suppressor − A device that reduces harmonic
distortion in line voltage circuits by clipping off tran−
sient voltages which are fed through the power lines
from operating equipment.
Switching Relays − Relays are devices which operate
by a variation in the conditions of one electrical circuit
to affect the operation of devices in the same or another
circuit. General purpose switching relays are used to
increase switching capability and isolate electrical cir−
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.29
cuits, such as in systems where the heating and cooling
equipment have separate power supplies, and provide
electrical interlocks within the system.
System Curve − A graphic presentation of the pressure
vs. volume flow rate characteristics of a particular sys−
tem.
System − A group of devices that form a network for
distributing something such as conditioned air, hot or
chilled water, electrical current or impulses, gases, etc.
System Effect Factor − A pressure loss factor which
recognizes the effect of fan inlet restrictions, fan outlet
restrictions, or other conditions influencing fan perfor−
mance when installed in the system.
System, Central Fan − A mechanical indirect system
of heating, ventilating, or air conditioning, in which
the air is treated or handled by equipment located out−
side the rooms served, usually at a central location, and
conveyed to and from the rooms by means of a fan and
a system of distributing ducts.
System, Closed − A heating or refrigerating piping
system in which circulating water or brine is complete−
ly enclosed, under pressure above atmospheric, and
shut off from the atmosphere except when an open ex−
pansion tank is used.
System, Duct − A series of ducts, conduits, elbows,
branch piping, etc., designed to guide the flow of air,
gas or vapor to and from one or more locations. A fan
provides the necessary energy to overcome the resist−
ance to flow of the system and causes air or gas to flow
through the system. Some components of a typical sys−
tem are louvers, grilles, diffusers, filters, heating and
cooling coils, energy recovery devices, burner assem−
blies, volume dampers, mixing boxes, sound attenua−
tors, the ductwork and related fittings.
System, Flooded − A system in which only part of the
refrigerant passing over the heat transfer surface is
evaporated, and the portion not evaporated is sepa−
rated from the vapor and recirculated.
System, Gravity Circulation − A heating or refriger−
ating system in which the heating or cooling fluid cir−
culation is affected by the motive head due to differ−
ence in densities of cooler and warmer fluids in the two
sides of the system.
System, Run−around − A regenerative type, closed,
secondary system in which continuously circulated
fluid abstracts heat from the primary system fluid at
one place, returning this heat to the primary system
fluid at another place.
System, Unitary − A complete, factory assembled and
factory tested refrigerating system comprising one or
more assemblies which may be shipped as one unit or
separately, but which are designed to be used together.
G.30
−T−
Temperature, Absolute Zero − The zero point on the
absolute temperature scale, 459.69 degrees below the
zero of the Fahrenheit scale or zero degrees Rankine
(0R) and 273.16 degrees below the zero of the Celsius
scale or zero degrees Kelvin (0K).
Temperature, Critical − The saturation temperature
corresponding to the critical state of the substance at
which the properties of the liquid and vapor are identi−
cal.
Temperature, Dewpoint − (tdp) The temperature at
which moist air becomes saturated (100% relative hu−
midity) with water vapor when cooled at constant pres−
sure.
Temperature, Dry Bulb − The temperature of a gas or
mixture of gases indicated by an accurate thermometer
after correction for radiation.
Temperature, Effective − An arbitrary index which
combines into a single value the effect of temperature,
humidity, and air movement on the sensation of
warmth or cold felt by the human body. The numerical
value is that of the temperature of still, saturated air
which would induce an identical sensation.
Temperature, Mean Radiant (MRT) − The tempera−
ture of a uniform black enclosure in which a solid body
or occupant would exchange the same amount of ra−
diant heat as in the existing nonuniform environment.
Temperature, Saturation − The temperature at which
no further moisture can be added to the air−water vapor
mixture. Equals dew point temperature.
Temperature, Wet Bulb − Thermodynamic wet bulb
temperature is the temperature at which liquid or solid
water, by evaporating into air, can bring the air to satu−
ration adiabatically at the same temperature. Wet bulb
temperature (without qualification) is the temperature
indicated by a wet bulb psychrometer constructed and
used according to specifications.
Temperature, Wet Bulb Depression − Difference be−
tween dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Temperature Difference, Mean − Mean of difference
between temperatures of a fluid receiving and a fluid
yielding heat.
Temperature Velocity − The maximum airstream ve−
locity at the end of the throw.
Therm − Measurement used by gas utilities for billing
purposes. 1 Therm = 100 cubic feet of gas = 100,000
Btu.
Thermal Capacity − The ability of a medium to hold
heat.
Thermal Expansion Valve − The metering device or
flow control which regulates the amount of liquid re−
frigerant which is allowed to enter the evaporator.
Thermistor − Semiconductor material that responds to
temperature changes by changing its resistance.
Thermocouple − Device for measuring temperature
utilizing the fact that an electromotive force is gener−
ated whenever two junctions of two dissimilar metals
in an electric circuit are at different temperature levels.
Thermodynamics, Laws of − Two laws upon which
rest the classical theory of thermodynamics. These
laws have been stated in many different, but equivalent
ways.
Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature − The tem−
perature at which water, by evaporating into air, can
bring the air to saturation adiabatically at the same
temperature. The wet bulb temperature measured with
an appropriate psychrometer can approach the ther−
modynamic wet bulb temperature (also called the
Adiabatic Saturation Temperature).
Thermostat − An instrument which responds to
changes in temperature and which directly or indirect−
ly controls temperature.
Thermosyphon − Circulation of a fluid by making use
of the change in density of a material when it is heated
and cooled. Also called Natural Circulation.
Throttling Range − The amount of change in the vari−
able being controlled to make the controlled device
more through the full length of its stroke.
Throw − The horizontal or vertical axial distance an
airstream travels after leaving an air outlet before the
maximum stream velocity is reduced to a specified ter−
minal level; e.g., 200, 150, 100 or 50 fpm (1.0, 0.75,
0.5 or 0.25 m/s).
Tic Mark − Hatch mark on drawing raceway symbol,
showing numbers of wires.
Ton (of Refrigeration) − A useful refrigerating effect
equal to 12,000 Btuh; 200 Btu/min.
The First Law − (1) When work is expended in gener−
ating heat, the quantity of heat produced is proportion−
al to the work expended; and, conversely, when heat is
employed in the performance of work, the quantity of
heat which disappears is proportional to the work done
(Joule); (2) If a system is caused to change from an ini−
tial state to a final state by adiabatic means only, the
work done is the same for all adiabatic paths connect−
ing the two states (Zemansky); (3) In any power cycle
or refrigeration cycle, the net heat absorbed by the
working substance is exactly equal to the net work
done.
Total Dynamic Head − Dynamic discharge head (stat−
ic discharge head, plus friction head, plus velocity
head) plus dynamic suction lift, or dynamic discharge
head minus dynamic suction head.
The Second Law − (1) It is impossible for a self−acting
machine, unaided by any external agency, to convey
heat from a body of lower temperature to one of higher
temperature (Clausius); (2) It is impossible to derive
mechanical work from heat taken from a body unless
there is available a body of lower temperature into
which the residue not so used may be discharged (Kel−
vin); (3) It is impossible to construct an engine that, op−
erating in a cycle, will produce no effect other than the
extraction of heat from a reservoir and the perfor−
mance of an equivalent amount of work (Zemansky).
Total Pressure Method − A method of duct sizing
which allows the designer to determine all friction and
dynamic losses in each section of a duct system (in−
cluding the total system).
Total Heat (Enthalpy) − Total heat is the sum of the
sensible heat and latent heat in an exchange process.
In many cases, the addition or subtraction of latent and
sensible heat at terminal coils appears simultaneously.
Total heat also is called enthalpy, both of which can be
defined as the quantity of heat energy contained in that
substance.
Total Suspended Particulate Matter − The mass of
particles suspended in a unit of volume of air when col−
lected by a high volume air sampler.
Toxic Fluids − Gases or liquids which are poisonous,
irritating and/or suffocating.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.31
Tracking Collector − A solar energy collector that
constantly positions itself perpendicular to the sun as
the earth rotates.
Transducer − The means by which the controller con−
verts the signal from the sensing device into the means
necessary to have the appropriate effect on the con−
trolled device. For example, a change in air pressure
in the pneumatic transmission piping.
Transformer − The system power supplyCa trans−
former is an inductive stationary device which trans−
fers electrical energy from one circuit to another. The
transformer has two windings, primary and secondary.
A changing voltage applied to one of these, usually the
primary, indicates a current to flow in the other wind−
ing. A coupling transformer transfers energy at the
same voltage; a step−down transformer transfers ener−
gy at the lower voltage, and a step−up transformer
transfers energy at a higher voltage.
Transmission − The means by which a signal is moved
from one point of origin to the point of action.
Transmission, Coefficient of Heat − Any one of a
number of coefficients used in the calculation of heat
transmission by conduction, convection, and radi−
ation, through various materials and structures.
Transmittance, Thermal (U Factor) − The time rate
of heat flow per unit under steady conditions from the
fluid on the warm side of a barrier to the fluid on the
cold side, per unit temperature difference between the
two fluids.
Turbulent Airflow Cleanroom − A cleanroom in
which the filtered air enters the room in a non−uniform
velocity or turbulent flow. Such rooms exhibit non−
uniform or random airflow patterns throughout the en−
closure.
−U−
Utility Service − The utility company. Also, the
amount and configuration of voltage supplied by a
utility company. There are four main types of commer−
cial utility services − 208V AC wye, 480V AC wye,
240V AC delta, and 480V AC delta.
Utility Transformer − Primary and secondary coils of
wire which reduce (step down) the utility supply volt−
age for use within a facility.
Uniform Airflow − Unidirectional airflow pattern in
which the point−to−point readings are within 20 per−
G.32
cent of the average airflow velocity for the total area
of the laminar flow work zone.
Unitary System − A room unit which performs part or
all of the air conditioning functions. It may or may not
be used with a central fan system.
Unloader − A device on or in a compressor for equaliz−
ing the high and low side of pressures for a brief period
during start, in order to decrease the starting load on
the motor; also a device for controlling compressor ca−
pacity by rendering one or more cylinders ineffective.
−V−
Vacuum − Any pressure less than that exerted by the
atmosphere.
Vacuum Breaker − A device to prevent a suction in a
water pipe.
Validation − Establishing documented evidence that a
system does what it purports to do.
Valve, Modulating − A valve which can be positioned
any where between fully on and fully off to proportion
the rate of flow in response to a modulating controller
(see modulating control).
Valve, Two Position − A valve is either fully on or fully
off with no positions between. Also called an on−off
valve.
Vane Ratio − In air distributing devices, the ratio of
depth of vane to shortest opening width between two
adjacent grille bars.
Vapor − A gas, particularly one near to equilibrium
within the liquid phase of the substance and which
does not follow the gas laws. Usually used instead of
gas for a refrigerant, and, in general, for any gas below
the critical temperature.
Vapor, Saturated − Vapor in equilibrium with its liq−
uid; i.e., when the numbers per unit time of molecules
passing in two directions through the surface dividing
the two phases are equal.
Vapor, Superheated − Vapor at a temperature which
is higher than the saturation temperature (i.e., boiling
point) at the existing pressure.
Vapor, Water − Used commonly in air conditioning
parlance to refer to steam in the atmosphere.
Vapor Barrier − A moisture impervious layer applied
to the surfaces enclosing a humid space to prevent
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
moisture travel to a point where it may condense due
to lower temperature.
Vapor Pressure − Vapor pressure denotes the lowest
absolute pressure that a given liquid at a given temper−
ature will remain liquid before evaporating into its
gaseous form or state.
Velocity − A vector quantity which denotes, at once,
the time rate and the direction of a linear motion.
Velocity Head − The pressure needed to accelerate the
fluid being pumped.
Velocity Reduction Method − A method of duct sizing
where arbitrary reductions are made in velocity after
each branch or outlet.
Velocity, Outlet − The average velocity of primary air
emerging from an opening fan or outlet, normally
measured in the plane of the opening.
Velocity, Room − The average, sustained, residuary air
velocity level in the occupied zone of the conditioned
space; e.g., 65, 50, 35 fpm (0.33, 0.25, 0.17 m/s).
Velocity, Terminal − The highest sustained airstream
velocity existing in the mixed air path at the end of the
throw.
Vena Contracta − At an orifice, the fluid flow will
converge from the cross−sectional area of the duct or
conduit to the smaller opening area of the orifice. After
leaving the orifice, the fluid flow will continue to con−
verge somewhat before diverging to the downstream
cross−sectional area of the duct or conduit. The point
of the smallest cross−sectional area of the fluid flow is
called vena contracta. This point also has the highest
fluid flow velocity.
Ventilation − The process of supplying or removing
air, by natural or mechanical means, to or from any
space. Such air may or may not have been conditioned.
Vernal Equinox − The position of the sun midway be−
tween its lowest and highest altitude; during the spring
it occurs March 21. The sunlit period is approximately
the same length as the autumnal equinox. See also Au−
tumnal Equinox)
Viscosity − That property of semifluids, fluids and
gases by virtue of which they resist an instantaneous
change of shape or arrangement of parts. It is the cause
of fluid friction whenever adjacent layers of fluid
move with relation to each other.
Volatility − Volatility, surface tension and capillary ac−
tion of a fluid are incidental to environmental systems.
Volatility is the rapidity with which liquids evaporates
extremely rapidly and therefore is highly volatile.
Voltage (E) − The electromotive force in an electrical
circuit. The difference in potential between two unlike
charges in an electrical circuit is its voltage measured
in ?volts" (V).
Voltage Drop − The voltage drop around a circuit in−
cluding wiring and loads must equal the supply volt−
age.
Volume − Cubic feet per pound (m3/kg) of dry air in the
air−water vapor mixture as used in psychrometrics.
Volume, Specific − The reciprocal of density and is
used to determine the cubic feet (m3) of volume, if the
pounds (kg) of weight are known. Both density and
specific volume are affected by temperature and pres−
sure. The specific volume of air under standard condi−
tions is 13.33 cubic feet per pound (0.8305 m3/kg) and
the specific volume of water at standard conditions is
0.016 cubic feet per pound (0.001 m3/kg).
−W−
Water Hammer − Banging of pipes caused by the
shock of closing valves (faucets).
Watt (W) − A measure of electric power equal to a cur−
rent flow of one ampere under one volt of pressure; or
one joule per second of heat flow in metric units.
Watt Transducer − A device which converts a current
signal into a proportional millivolt signal. Used to in−
terface between current transformers and a load man−
agement panel.
Wavelength − The distance between two similar and
successive points on an alternating wave. The wave−
length is equal to the velocity of the propagation divid−
ed by the frequency of the alternations.
Weight − The amount of force a substance exerts under
pull by the earth’s gravitation field and that force is
measured in pounds (kilograms).
Wet Bulb Temperature (WB) − The temperature reg−
istered by a thermometer whose bulb is covered by a
saturated wick and exposed to a current of rapidly
moving air. The wet bulb temperature also represents
the dew point temperature of the air, where the mois−
ture of the air condenses on a cold surface.
Wet Bulb Depression − Difference between dry bulb
and wet bulb temperatures.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
G.33
White Room − A room designed to be free of dust and
other contaminants, but not controlled to the same lev−
el as a cleanroom.
Will − Where will or shall is used as a provision speci−
fied, that provision is mandatory if in compliance with
the standard claimed.
Winter Solstice − The shortest sunlit day of the year at
which the sun is the lowest altitude; it occurs Decem−
ber 21.
Work Station − An open or enclosed work surface with
direct filtered air supply.
G.34
Work Zone − That volume within the cleanroom
which is designated for clean work. The volume shall
be identified by an entrance and exit plane normal to
the airflow (where there is laminar airflow).
Wye Service − An arrangement of the utility trans−
formers.
−Z−
Zoning − The practice of dividing a building into small
sections for heating and cooling control. Each section
is selected so that one thermostat can be used to deter−
mine its requirements.
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
INDEX
INDEX
A
Absolute
Pressure, 2.19
Temperature, 2.1
Zero, 2.1
Actuator, 4.5
Agenda, 12.4
Air, 2.6, 2.26
Blending, 6.1
Control, 9.5
Density, 2.8
Distributing Ceiling, 6.13
Distribution, 6.6
Distribution Devices, 12.2
Entrainment, 6.6
Filtration Devices, 12.4
System Advantages, 7.1
System Basics, 2.21
System Design, 7.9
System Disadvantages, 7.2
System(s), 7.1
Valves, 6.3
Velocity, 6.6
Velocity Meter, 13.11
Volume, 5.10
Air Terminal Boxes, 6.1
Dual Duct, 6.2
Reheat, 6.1
Types, 6.1
Air−Vapor Relationship, 2.7
Airflow
Adjustment, 14.8
Measurements, 13.7
Measuring Instruments, 11.1, 11.9
Rate, 6.1
Terminals, 13.6
Totals, 13.6
Airfoil Fans, 5.2
Airstream Mixtures, 2.17
Ak Factors, 13.5
Alarm Printers, 4.9
Alternative Mode, 15.12
Amperage Readings, 3.5
Analog Input, 4.8
Analog Output, 4.9
Analysis of Measurements, 13.3
Anemometer, 11.5
Deflection Vane, 11.6, 11.9
Electric Rotating Vane, 11.6, 11.9
Thermal, 11.7, 11.9
Annual Flow Indicator, 11.25
ATC, 4.1
Dampers, 4.4
System Adjustment, 4.6
Valves, 4.3
Automatic
Control Dampers, 4.3
Control Valves, 4.3
Temperature Control Systems, 4.1
Automatic Temperature Control (ATC), 12.2
Axial Fans, 5.2
B
Balance Fittings, 9.6
Balance Rings, 8.4
Balancing, 14.13
Criteria, 13.8
Dampers, 6.5
Devices, 12.5
Procedures, 13.3
Proportional Method, 13.3
Specific Systems, 15.5
Baseboard , 8.14
Basic Electricity, 3.1
Bearings, 8.3
Belt Tension, 5.10
Blade Grilles, Adjustable, 6.12
Blades, 6.9
Body Heat Loss, 6.10
Boiler Conditions , 15.8
Boiler Piping , 9.7
Boilers, 8.13, 12.2, 15.8
Brake Power, 3.7
British Thermal Units (Btu), 2.1
Building Static Control, 14.2
Bypass (Dumping) Boxes, 6.3
Bypass Valves, 15.4
Bypass VAV Boxes, 14.11
Bypass−Type Box, 6.3
C
Calibrated Balancing Valves, 11.25, 15.1
Capillary Tube, 10.3
Categories, 6.1
Ceiling diffusers, 6.8
Ceiling Induction Boxes, 6.2
Celsius Scale , 2.1
Centralized Control, 4.9
Centralized Control Systems, 4.7
Centrifugal Fans, 5.1
Centrifugal Pump(s), 8.1, 8.2, 8.3
Check List, 12.6
Chilled Water System (CW), 9.1
Chronometric , 11.12
Circular Equivalent, 2.23
Closed Loop Control, 14.2
Closed Loop Systems, 9.8
Closed System Curve, 8.7
Closed Systems, 2.27
Coanda effect, 6.8
Coils, 15.6
Combination Boxes, 6.3
Combination Changes, 2.12
Combination Piping Systems, 9.3
Combination Systems, 14.12
Comfort Zone , 6.6
Communication
Devices, 11.23
Technology, 11.23
Terminals, 11.24
Compressibility, 2.19
Compressor, 9.12, 10.3
Compressor Short Cycling, 10.3, 10.6
Computer Terminals, 11.24
Computers, 11.24
Backward Inclined (BI) Fans, 5.1
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
I.1
Condensation, 2.9
Condenser, 10.3
Condenser water system, 9.12
Condensers, 15.7
Condition Changes, 2.11
Conductance (C), 2.4
Conductivity (k), 2.4
Constant
Mass Flow, 5.16
Volume, 5.14
Constant Airflow, 6.1
Constant Fan VAV Box, 14.12
Constant Volume Systems, 14.14
Contract Documents, 12.1
Control, 4.1
Categories, 4.2
Devices, 4.3
Diagrams, 4.5
Loops, 4.2
Relationships, 4.5
Control Verification, 13.3
Controlled Variable, 4.3
Controls, 4.6
Convectors, 8.14
Cooling, 2.12
Counterflow Airstreams, 2.3
Tower Systems, 9.12
Cooling Mode, 15.11
Cooling Systems, 15.9
Cooling, Tower(s), 8.8
Correction Factor Table, 2.8
Cross−Flow Airstreams, 2.4
D
Damper, Operator, 4.5
Damper Adjustments, 13.7
Damper Check, 13.1
Damper Setting, 13.1
Dampers, 12.6
Data, Recording, 13.3
Data Label, 13.8
Degree of Saturation , 2.9
Dehumidification, 2.12
Density, 5.14
Change, 5.16, 5.18
Measuring, 13.12
Dependent−Independent Boxes , 6.3
Design Airflow Volume, 5.19
Design Range, 9.9
Dew Point, 2.8
Dew Point Temperature, 2.11
Dial Thermometers, 11.17
Diffusers
Air−Light, 6.13
Ceiling, 6.14
Multi−passage ceiling, 6.13
Perforated Face Ceiling, 6.13
Slot, 6.13
Variable Area Ceiling, 6.13
Digital Controllers, 11.23
Digital Input, 4.8
Digital Output, 4.8
Direct
Acting, 4.2
Digital Control (DDC), 4.1, 4.10
I.2
Return System, 9.3
Direct , Acting, 4.3
Direct−Return, 15.5
Discharge Stop Valve, 10.3
District Heating Systems, 9.14
Diversified Pressure Dependent Systems, 14.6
Diversity Factor, 14.1
Diversity Systems , 14.5
Diverting Valves, 4.3
Doppler, 15.1
Downstream, Velocity Pressure, 2.22
Downstream System , 14.6
Drains , 9.5
Drive
Arrangements, 5.8
Design, 5.10
Installations, 5.10
Dry Air , 2.6
Dry Bulb, 2.8
Dry Bulb Temperature , 2.8
Dual, Duct System, 14.14
Dual , Duct Terminal Boxes , 6.2
Dual Duct Systems, 7.5
Dual Function Tachometer , 11.16
Dual Temperature Water System (DTW), 9.1
Dual−Path Systems, 7.1
Dual−Temperature, 15.9
Duct
Sizing Examples, 7.11
System, 5.13, 5.14
Duct
Fitting Loss Coefficients, 2.23
Pressure Changes, 2.21
Duct System Checks, 12.7
Duct Traverses, 13.7
Ducts, 2.22, 14.17
Ductwork, 12.7, 14.8
Dust Collection, 13.8
Dynamic Losses, 2.22
Dynamic Suction Head, 8.5
E
Economizer Cycle, 4.6
Effect of Blades, 6.9
Effective
Draft Temperature, 6.6
Duct Length, 5.19
Efficiency Curve, 3.6
Elbow Equivalents, 9.10
Electric, Motors, 3.1
Electric Controls, 4.1
Electric Operators, 4.5
Electrical, 12.6
Circuits, 3.1
Data, 12.2
Diagram, 3.1
Resistances, 3.1
Services, 3.1
Systems, 3.1
Electro−Hydraulic, 4.2
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Electro−Pneumatic, 4.2
Electronic
Manometer, 11.2
Tachometer, 11.14
Thermometer, 11.19
Electronic Controls, 4.1
EMCS
Communications, 4.9
Points List, 4.9
Signals, 4.8
Energy Management System (EMS) Diagrams, 12.2
Energy Management Systems (EMCS) , 4.7
Energy Savings Ideas, 7.6
Enthalpy (Total Heat), 2.8, 2.11
Entrainment, 6.8
Equal Friction, 7.9
Equal Friction Design Method, 7.9
Equipment Heat Flow, 2.5
Equipment Pressure Loss, 15.1
Equipment Pressures Differences, 15.6
Equivalent Length, 2.22
Equivalent Pipe Length, 9.10
Evaporation, 9.15
Evaporator, 10.2
Exhaust
Air Dampers, 4.6
Air Inlet, 6.14
Air Procedures, 14.18
Air Systems, 14.16
Hoods, 14.18
Exhaust Fans, 13.6
Existing Buildings, 1.1
Existing Installations , 13.10
F
Face Velocities, 14.17
Fahrenheit Scale , 2.1
Fan
Adjustment(s), 13.2, 13.6
Air Volume, 5.10
Airflow, 13.7
Amperage, 13.2
belts, 5.8
Brake Power, 5.12
Capacity Ratings, 5.17
Characteristics, 5.1
Check, 13.1
Classes, 5.4
Coil, 8.14
Construction, 5.4
curves, 2.25
Drive Adjustment, 13.6
Drive Changes, 13.2
Drives, 5.9
Inlets, 5.19
Law Relationships, 5.14
Laws, 2.1
Motors, 5.9
Nomenclature, 5.8
Outlet Velocity, 5.12
Outlets, 5.19
Performance, 5.19
Performance Curve, 5.14
Rating Table, 5.4
Selection, 5.19
Static Pressure (SP), 5.12
Static Pressures, 13.2
System Curve Relationship, 5.13
Testing, 5.17
Testing Procedures, 13.1
Total Pressure (TP), 5.12
Velocity Pressure (Vp), 5.12
Volume, 13.1
Fan
Assisted Box, 6.2
System, 6.3
Fan Airflow and Pressure, 5.10
Fan Laws, 2.25
Fan Powered Boxes, 6.2
Fan Powered VAV Boxes, 14.9
Field
Procedures, 12.6
Readiness, 12.6
Review, 12.7
Field Measurements, 5.20
Filter−Drier, 10.3
Filters, 12.7, 14.17
Fin Tube Radiation, 8.14
Fire and Smoke Dampers, 12.7
Fixed Blade Grilles, 6.12
Flexible Connections, 9.6
Floor Plenums, 6.13
Flow
Coefficient, 4.3
Measurement(s), 15.1, 15.3
Flow Measuring Hood, 11.8, 11.9
Flow Meters, 15.1
Flow Variation, 15.9
Flow/Pressure Check, 13.1
Fluid
Dynamics, 2.20
Mechanics, 2.19
Properties, 2.19
Statics, 2.19
Fluid Viscosity, 8.12
Forced Convection Units, 8.14
Four−Pipe Systems, 9.4
Four−Pipe Systems , 15.5
Friction, 2.21
Friction , Losses, 2.23, 2.27
Friction Head , 8.4
Friction Losses, 2.21
Full Load Amps, 3.5
Fume Hoods, 14.17
Fundamentals, 2.1
G
Gage Location, 8.12
Gages, 9.6
General Air System TAB Procedures, 14.1
General Contractor, 12.4
General procedures, 13.12
General Requirements, 1.2
General TAB Procedures , 14.3
Grilles
Adjustable Blade, 6.14
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
I.3
Fixed, 6.14
Light Proof, 6.14
V−Blade, 6.14
Ground Wire, 3.3
Instruments, Selection of, 13.12
Instruments for Air Balancing, 11.17
International Training Institute (ITI), 1.2
J
H
Head, 8.1
Heads, 2.27, 8.4
Heat, Flow, 2.1, 2.5
Heat
Exchangers, 15.8
Transfer Method, 15.2
Heat Exchangers, 8.13
Heat Flow, 2.5
Heat Pumps, 8.13
Heat Transfer, 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 15.1, 15.9, 15.10
Heat Transfer Rates, 15.10
Heater Coils, 3.9
Heating, 2.11
Heating and Humidification, 2.12
Heating Mode, 15.12
Heating Tolerance , 15.9
High Temperature Water Systems (HTW), 9.1
High Velocity System, 7.7
Hood, Balancing, 13.7
Hot Gas Bypass, 10.4
Hot Gas Piping, 10.3
Hot Water Procedures , 15.8
Household Circuit, 3.3
Humidification, 2.12
Humidistat , 4.6
Humidity Ratio, 2.8
HVAC
fundamentals, 2.1
Systems, 2.1
HVAC Equipment, 12.1
HVAC System, 12.2
HVAC Units, 12.6
Hydronic, 2.26
Design Procedures, 9.13
Pressure Losses, 2.26
System Basics, 2.26
System Design, 9.8
System Procedures, 15.3
System(s), 2.27, 9.1
Hydronic , Trouble Analysis Guide, 9.8
Hydronic Balancing, 11.11
Hydronic Piping Devices, 9.5
Hydronic Systems Ready, 15.3
Hydrostatic Head, 2.20
I
Induction Reheat Systems, 7.4, 7.6
Induction Unit Systems, 14.14
Induction Units, 8.14
Induction VAV Boxes, 14.12
industrial ventilation, 13.12
Infared, 11.21
Initial Planning, 12.1
Initial Procedures , 14.3
Initial System Adjustments , 15.4
Inlet Pressures, 14.6
Installation Criteria, 8.11, 8.12
instrumentation, 13.12
I.4
Jet Expansion, 6.11
K
Kitchen Exhaust Systems, 14.17
L
Large Systems, 9.2
Latent heat, 2.12
Laws of Thermodynamics, 2.5
Limit Controls , 4.2
Linkages, 6.6
Liquid Sight Glass, 10.3
Liquid Solenoid Valve, 10.3
Location, Devices, 12.4
Location of Flow Devices, 11.25
Loss
Coefficient Tables, 2.24
Coefficients, 2.23
Magnitude, 2.22
Low Temperature Water Systems (LTW), 9.1
Low Velocity Systems, 7.5
M
Magnetic Starter , 3.8
Main Duct, 2.25
Mandatory TAB Work, 15.10
Manometer, 11.1, 11.9
Electrical, 11.2, 11.9
Inclined/Vertical, 11.1, 11.9
U−Tube, 11.1
Manufacturer’s Catalogs, 12.1
Master, 4.6
Material Handling Procedures , 14.18
Measured Voltage, 3.1
Mechanical Seals, 8.2
Medium Temperature Water Systems (MTW), 9.1
Methods
Basic Balancing, 15.1
Equipment Pressure Loss, 15.2
Hydronic, 15.1
Metric Measurements , 11.24
Mixed Air Temperature, 4.6
Mixtures, 2.17
Modified Design Method, 7.10
Modulating, 4.6
Control, 4.4
Moist Air, 2.6
Moisture, 13.12
Motor(s), 3.5
Brake power, 3.6
Controls, 3.8
Locations, 5.10
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
Performance, 3.6
Starters, 3.8
Multi−Zone Systems, 7.6, 14.13
Multi−zone Systems, 14.13
Multiblade Dampers, 4.4, 6.5
Multiple Pumps, 8.11
Multiple−Zone, 9.7
N
Nameplate Data, 3.5
Natural Airflow, 6.9
Natural Convection, 8.14
Net positive suction head, 8.6
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH), 8.5
Neutral, 3.1
New Buildings, 1.1
New Installation, 13.8
No Load Amps, 3.5
Noise, 9.9
Non−Diversity Systems, 14.4
Non−Sparking Construction, 5.8
Normal
Operating Range, 4.6
Position, 4.3
Normal Operations, 14.13
Normally Closed (N.C.), 4.3
Normally Open (N.O., 4.3
NPSH Curve, 8.6
O
Ohm’s law:, 3.1
Once−Through Systems, 9.12
One Pipe System, 9.3
One−Pipe , 15.5
Open Loop Control, 14.2
Open System Curve, 8.8
Open Systems, 8.9, 9.12
Open systems, 2.27
Operating Controls, 10.4
Operating Manuals, 12.2
Operating Speeds, 8.4
Opposed Blade Damper, 6.5
Opposed Blade Dampers, 4.4
Optical Tachometer, 11.14
Orifice Plate , 11.24
Outlet Balancing Procedures, 13.5
Outlet Throw, 6.10
Outside Air, 4.6
Outside Air Settings, 13.2
Overload Protection Devices, 3.9
P
Packing Glands, 8.2
Parallel, 4.6
Blade, 6.5
Blade Dampers, 4.4
Circuits, 3.1
Flow Airstreams, 2.3
parallel flow airstreams, 2.3
Parallel Type, 14.10
Perfect Gas, 2.7
Performance Data, 12.1
Phantom System Curve, 5.19
Pipe Sizing, 9.13
Piping
circuit, 3.1
Systems, 2.26
Piping Classifications, 9.1
Piping Connections, 9.17
Piping Designations, 9.15
Piping System, 15.1
Piping System Balancing, 15.4
Pitch, 9.6
Pitot Tube, 5.18, 11.4, 11.9
Pitot tube, 12.7
Pitot Tube Traverse, 13.5
Pitot tubes, 13.11
Plotting Conditions, 2.10
Pneumatic Controls, 4.1, 4.9
Power, 12.6
Power Roof Ventilators , 5.4
Pressure, 2.21, 6.1
Independent Boxes, 6.3
Reducing Valves, 6.3
Pressure Drop, 9.9, 9.14
Pressure drop, 9.9
Pressure Gage, 11.9
Calibrated, 11.9
Differential, 11.10
Magnehelic, 11.5
Pressure Gage Location, 8.11
Pressure Gages, 13.11
Pressure Relationships, 8.5
Primary Loop, 15.11
Primary−Secondary Systems, 15.11
Process Exhaust Air Systems, 14.17
Project Drawings, 12.5
Propeller Fans, 5.2
Psychrometer, 11.20
Psychrometric Chart, 2.8
Psychrometrics, 2.6
Pump
Construction Features, 8.2
Curves, 8.7
Drives, 8.4
Head, 8.4
Laws, 8.1
Location, 9.8
Pressure, 8.4
Rotation, 8.4
Types, 8.1
Pump Amperage , 15.3
Pump Check, 15.4
Pump Curve Verification, 15.3
Pump Curves, 15.1, 15.2
Pump Curves , 15.10
Pump Laws, 2.27
Pump Measurements , 15.4
Pump Selection, 9.14
Pumping Problems, 8.5
Q
Quadrants , 6.6
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
I.5
R
Radiation, 2.2, 8.14
Radiation units, 8.14
Receiver, 10.3
Rectangular Duct, 2.23
Refrigerant, 9.12
Refrigerants, 10.4
Refrigeration, 10.2
Refrigeration Cycle, 10.1, 10.2
Refrigeration Systems, 10.1
Reheat Coil, 12.7
Relative Humidity, 2.9
Relief Devices, 10.4
Report Forms, 12.5, 13.3, 15.4, 15.7
Resistances, 2.4
Return Air Settings, 13.2
Return Air, 4.6
Return Air Duct Systems, 7.11
Return air inlet, 6.14
Return Registers , 6.15
Return Systems, 9.16
Reverse Acting, 4.6
Reverse−Return, 15.5
Rise, 3.6
Roof Ventilators, 5.4
Rotating Vane, 11.5
Rotation, 3.5, 5.8
Rotation Measuring Instruments, 11.12
S
Safety
Controls, 4.2, 10.4
Factor, 3.6
Switches, 3.8
Safety Controls , 15.7
Saturation Line, 2.8
Scheduling, 12.5
Schematic Duct System Layout, 12.3
Schematics, 12.5
Secondary Loop, 15.11
Self−Contained Controls, 4.2
Sensible Cooling, 2.12
Sensible Heating, 2.12
Series, 4.6
Series Circuits, 3.1
Series Loop, 15.5
Series Loop System, 9.2
Series Pumping, 8.12
Series S Type, 14.9
Shaft Sleeves, 8.2
Sheaves, 5.10
Shut−Offs, 9.5
Single Phase Circuit, 3.3
Single Phase Circuit Voltages, 3.1
Single−Path Systems, 7.1
Small Systems, 9.2
Smoke Devices, 11.8
Smoke Test, 14.17
Smudging, 6.9
Sound Attenuation, 6.1
Sound Levels, 6.9
Space Temperature, 2.3
Stamped Grilles, 6.12, 6.14
Start−Up, 12.2
I.6
Starting Load Amps, 3.5
Static, 2.22
Head, 2.19, 2.20, 2.27
Pressure, 2.21, 2.22
Static Head, 15.3
Static Pressure, 5.16
Static Pressure Measurements, 13.5
Static Pressure Sensor, 14.3
Static Suction Lift, 8.4
Steam
Piping System, 9.16
Properties of, 9.14
Strainers, 9.17
Systems, 9.14
Traps, 9.17
Steam Distribution, 15.8
Steam Flow, 9.15
Steam Systems−Medium And High Pressure, 9.18
Stepped, 4.6
Strainers, 9.6, 15.8
Stroboscope, 11.14
Study of Systems and Data, 12.4
Stuffing Box , 8.2
Sub−master, 4.6
Suction, 2.22, 2.23
Head, 2.27, 2.28
Lift, 2.27, 2.29
Suction Piping, 10.3
Suction Stop Valve, 10.3
Summer−Winter Systems, 15.11
Superheat, 10.4
Supply Air Duct, 7.9
Supply Outlet Throttling Units, 6.4
Supply Outlets, 6.11
Supply Registers, 6.15
System
Analysis, 12.2
Components and Types, 12.2
Curve, 5.13
Curves, 2.25
Operating Point, 5.14
Resistance Curve, 5.13
Review, 12.2
Schematic Drawings, 12.2
System Airflow, 13.5
System Capacity Review, 12.5
System Curve for Open Circuit, 8.9
System Flow, 15.3
System Powered, 14.13
System Start−up, 13.1
Systems
Condenser, 9.12
Cooling Tower, 9.13
Coordination, 13.5
Deficiencies, 13.7
T
TAB Instrument Selection, 12.5
TAB Procedures, 12.5
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
TAB Report Forms
4−02, 16.1, 16.7
7−02, 16.2, 16.10, 16.11
Preparing, 16.1
TAB 1−02, 16.1, 16.4
TAB 10−02, 16.17
TAB 11−02, 16.2, 16.18
TAB 12−02, 16.2, 16.19
TAB 13−02, 16.2, 16.20
TAB 14−02, 16.2, 16.21
TAB 15−02, 16.2, 16.22
TAB 16−02, 16.3, 16.23
TAB 17−02, 16.3, 16.24
TAB 18−02, 16.3, 16.25
TAB 19−02, 16.3, 16.26
TAB 2−02, 16.1, 16.5
TAB 20−02, 16.3, 16.27
TAB 3−02, 16.1, 16.6
TAB 5−02, 16.1, 16.8
TAB 6−02, 16.1, 16.9
TAB 8−02, 16.2, 16.12, 16.13
TAB 9A−02, 16.14
TAB 9A−02, TAB 9B−02 AND TAB 9C−02, 16.2
TAB 9B−02, 16.15
TAB 9C−02, 16.16
TAB Technical/TEAM, 1.1
TAB technician , 2.25
TAB/ATC Relationship, 4.6
Tachometer, 11.12
Temperature, 13.12
Terminal, Units, 8.14
Terminal Balance, 13.5
Terminal box, 6.1
Terminal Devices, 12.7
Terminal Heating and Cooling Units, 8.14
Terminal Reheat Systems, 7.4, 7.5
Terminal Unit Ductwork, 7.11
Terminal Units, 14.1
Terms and Components, 10.2
Test Holes, 12.7
Testing Adjusting and Balancing Bureau (TABB),
1.2
Thermal Bulbs, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5
Thermal Expansion Valve, 10.3
Thermocouple, 4.6
Thermocouple Thermometers , 11.18
Thermodynamics, 2.1
Thermohygrometer, 11.21
Thermometers, 9.6
Glass Tube, 11.16
Three Phase Circuit Voltages, 3.3
Three−Phase Circuits, 3.3
Three−Pipe Systems, 9.3
Three−Way Control Valve, 15.7
Three−Wire Circuit, 3.3
Tip Speed, 5.13
Tower Conditions , 15.6
Tower Water Flow, 15.7
Transformers, 3.5
Transmission heat gains, 2.6
Tranverse Locations, 13.7
Trouble Shooting, 9.8
Tubeaxial Fans, 5.2
Tubular Centrifugal Fans, 5.3
Turbulent Flow, 2.23
Turndown (Shutoff), 14.8
Two Position, 4.6
Two−Pipe Systems, 9.3
Two−Pipe Vacuum Steam System, 9.16
Two−way valves, 4.3
Types of Controls, 4.1
Typical Connections, 9.18
U
U Value, 2.4
U−Tube, 11.9
Unit Balancing, 15.4
Unit Heaters, 8.14
Unit Ventilators, 8.14
Units of Measurement, 2.1
V
V Belt Drive, 5.9
V−Blade, 6.14
Vacuum Steam System, 9.16
Valve and Damper Linkages, 4.5
Valve Coefficients, 9.11
Valve Constant, 4.3
Valve/Flow Meters, 15.2
Valves Set, 15.3
Vaneaxial Fans, 5.2
Variable Air Volume, 6.1
Variable Air Volume (VAV) Reheat Systems, 7.5
Variable Air Volume Systems , 14.16
Variable Area Grilles, 6.12
Variable Volume Flow, 15.9
Variable Volume Systems , 15.11
VAV
Applications, 6.10
System, 6.3
VAV Boxes, 14.8
VAV Systems
Categories, 14.1
Characteristics, 14.1
Pressure Independent, 14.4, 14.6
Typical, 14.1
Velocities, 9.9
Velocity, 2.20
Velocity head , 8.4
Velocity Profile, 2.20
Ventilation Air, 4.6
Ventilation Systems , 13.8
Venting, 9.5
Venturi Tube , 11.24
Volt−Ammeter, 11.22
Volume Control, 6.3
Volume Dampers, 6.5
Vortex, 8.6, 12.7
W
Water, Vapor, 2.6
Water , Flow−Pressure Drop, 9.10
Water Chillers, 8.13
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
I.7
Water Flow, 15.8
Wearing Rings, 8.3
Wet Bulb, 2.8
Wet Bulb Temperature, 2.10
Wet Coil Conditions, 13.6
Working Tests, 14.17
Z
Zero Flow Readings, 15.3
Zone Balancing, 13.5
I.8
HVAC SYSTEMS Testing, Adjusting & Balancing • Third Edition
SHEET METAL AND AIR CONDITIONING CONTRACTORS’
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION, INC.