Agriculture: A Survey
India has a great variety o f so ils ranging fro m ro cky to alluvial, diverse climate types
and o ne o f the mo st extensive agricultural lands in the world. India’s mo nsoo n is
nature’s abundant irrigating system and India is also blessed with a large network o f
perennial rivers that o ver ages have created vast stretches o f highly productive
alluvial so il.
No t surprising then that India has been an agricultural eco no my and
civilizatio n and has evo lved a lo ng, rich and diverse traditio n o f agricultural
practices, including the selectio n o f right so il and goo d seeds, techniques o f irrigatio n
and manuring, cro p protectio n and grain sto rage as well as animal husbandry and
pisciculture.
Agriculture in Prehistory and Protohistory
Recent archaeo lo gical findings indicate that rice was grown in parts o f the Ganges
Valley as early as in the 8th millennium BCE, and extended later to o ther areas, while
the cultivatio n o f barley and millets dates back to the 7th millennium BCE at
Mehrgarh in Baluchistan.
A granary at Mehrgarh, Baluchistan,
dated about 6000
BCE.
Each ‘box’ of
about 1 m x 1 m was lined with clay
to protect the stored grain (barley or
wheat) from dampness, possibly from
insects.
(The
boxes’
walls
were
higher than the remains suggest, up
to 3 m.) Mehrgarh had many such
granaries, suggesting a sophisticated
collective management.
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The next millennia saw the intro ductio n and spread o f many more cro ps:
 o ther cereals such as wheat;
 o il seeds such as sesame, safflo wer, linseed, mustards and castor;
 legumes such as green gram, black gram and fenugreek;
 fibre cro ps such as co tto n; vegetables o f cucumber family and eggplant
(brinjal);
 fruits such as grapes, dates, jujube, jackfruit, mango , mulberry and black
plum.
In the same perio d, cattle, sheep, asses, go ats, do gs, pigs, fo wl, etc., were
do mesticated. Archaeo lo gy has fo und evidence fo r them in the Indus civilizatio n
(pre-urban phase: 3500–2600 BCE; urban phase: 2600–1900 BCE), as well as o f
cultivatio n o f barley, wheat, millets, co tto n
and o ther cro ps. Besides, the Harappans
practised
plo ugh-based
agriculture:
a
terracotta mo del o f a plo ugh share ( left ) was
fo und at Banawali (Haryana), while a field at
Kalibangan (Rajasthan) dated to abo ut 2800
BCE revealed two perpendicular sets o f furrows, suggesting the practice o f
intercro pping (growing two different crops at the same time).
Textual Sources
Agriculture, k ṛṣi, is frequently mentio ned in India’s ancient literature. Apart fro m
mentio ns scattered in vario us texts, it has a large bo dy o f specialized literature as
well. The texts that have survived include Kṛṣipar āśara, Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra, the
Sangam
literature
Amarako ṣa,
of
early
Tamils,
Manusm ṛti,
Kaśyapiyakṛṣisukti, and Surap āla’s
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Varāhamihira’s
Bṛhatsaṁhit ā,
V ṛk ṣāyurveda. These texts pro vide
info rmatio n abo ut agriculture, ho rticulture, arbo riculture and plant bio diversity. In
additio n, treatises o n ho rses by Śālihotra and o n elephants by Pālakāpya are also
available. We get a wealth o f info rmatio n o n agricultural practices fro m such texts.
Types of Lands
The Amarako ṣa, a Sanskrit thesaurus, describes twelve types o f lands acco rding to the
fertility o f the so il, irrigatio n and physical characteristics. These are: ūrvara (fertile),
ūṣara (barren),
m āru (desert), aprahata (fallo w),
śadvala (grassy),
pankikala (muddy),
jalapr āya (watery), kaccha (land co ntiguo us to water), sharkara (full o f pebbles and
pieces o f limesto ne), sharkar āvati (sandy), nadīmātṛka (land watered by a river), and
devam ātṛka (rain-watered). The Sangam literature (200 BCE to 200 CE) pro vides so me
info rmatio n o n so il types. Fo r example, in Tolk āppiyam, an early wo rk o n Tamil
grammar and po etics, five types o f land are mentio ned: mullai (fo rest), ku ṟiñci (hills),
marutam (cultivable), neytal (coastal land) and p ālai (barren land).
Rain- Fed and Irrigated Crops
Since cro p pro ductio n o ften depended o n seaso nal mo nsoo n rains, scho lars worked
o ut metho ds to predict rainfall. Kṛṣipar āśara and Bṛhat Saṁhit ā describe such metho ds
in every seaso n. Par āśara’s main technique was based o n the po sitio ns o f the Mo o n
and the Sun in the sky. Var āhamihira in his Bṛhat Saṁhit ā co nsidered lunar mansio ns
( nak ṣatras) in predicting seaso nal rainfall. Because o f the co nfidence they have in
ancient metho ds, a large number o f farmers in India even to day carry o ut farm
o peratio ns based o n them.
Agricultural practices o ften invo lve so me technique o f irrigatio n. Who lly or
partly irrigated cro ps were raised thanks to canals, smaller channels o r reservo irs
such as village tanks. Reservo irs also served the purpo se o f water harvesting to co pe
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with the dry seaso ns o r pro lo nged dro ughts. The simplest fo rm o f irrigatio n
co nsisted in having a pair o f bullo cks pull a leather bag o ut o f a well; the bag wo uld
tilt o ver the edge o f the well and empty its co ntent into a small channel.
Whether
simple
or
highly
so phisticated,
water
structures
have
been
co nstructed in India right fro m the time o f the Indus civilizatio n. (See mo dule Other
rd
Technologies fo r more details.) In the 3
millennium BCE, Dho lavira in the Rann o f
Kachchh co uld sustain itself in an arid climate o nly thanks to vast reservo irs and
water harvesting o n a massive scale. In the Ganges plains, embankments, reservo irs,
sluices, channels, interco nnected tanks, wells o f vario us kinds became co mmo n
features in the 1st millennium BCE; in his Arthaśāstra, Kauṭilya referred to many o f
them and lay do wn strict rules fo r the management o f water structures. The rich
Indian vo cabulary attached to them — kulls, kunds, ahars, pokhars, khadins, arakere,
kolas, surangam, tadagams, eris, to mentio n a few — testifies the variety o f structures
India develo ped.
The 329-metre-long ‘Grand Anicut’ ( Kallanai in Tamil) across the Kāveri River, thought to have
been constructed by the Chola king Karik āla some 1,800 years ago (it has been restored
several times since), is a massive and effective water-diverting device, splitting the river into
four streams and irrigating thousands of hectares of agricultural land in the Kāveri delta.
(Courtesy: Michel Danino)
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Implements
The Ṛgveda describes a simple bullo ck-drawn woo den plo ugh with a metal bar
attached as a plo ughshare to o pen the so il. Kṛṣipar āśara gives details o f the plo ugh’s
design with Sanskrit names fo r its different parts. This basic design has hardly
undergo ne any change o ver centuries; even to day, many farmers use a similar
bullo ck-drawn plo ugh. A bamboo stick o f specific size was used to measure land. Disc
plo ugh, seed drill, blade harro w ( bakhar ), wo oden spike to o th harrow, plankers, axe,
ho e, sickle, sūpa fo r winnowing, and a vessel to measure grain ( udara) have all been
mentio ned. One to eight pairs o f bullo cks were used fo r plo ughing in early days.
Ploughing with a wooden ploughshare in West Bengal (source: Wikipedia)
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Seed and Sowing
Farmers knew ho w to select healthy
seed
fro m
a
ripening
cro p.
The
impo rtance o f go od seed was so clearly
reco gnized that the law-giver Manu
reco mmended severe punishment fo r
the adulteratio n o f seed.
Seed were co vered with flo urs o f
rice, black gram, and sesame to ensure
go o d
germinatio n.
several
herbs
as
Surap āla
seed
listed
treatment
materials fo r shrubs and trees. Co w
dung has lo ng been used fo r treating
co tto n and so me o ther seeds by a large
number o f farmers.
The art o f so wing rice seed in
small areas, i.e., in nurseries, and
A few varieties of native rice from Tamil Nadu
(courtesy: Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems,
Chennai)
transplanting the seedlings is no t a
recent practice. It was first perfected in the deltas o f Go davari and Krishna rivers in
the 1st century CE.
Manures
Acco rding to Par āśara, cro ps gro wn witho ut manure will not give go o d yield. Kauṭilya
mentio ned the use o f cow dung, animal bo nes, fish and milk as manure. In the Agni
Pur āṇa, applicatio n o f ‘excreta o f sheep and goat and pulverized barley and sesame
allo wed to be so aked in meat and water fo r seven nights’ is reco mmended to increase
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flo wering and fruiting o f trees. Surap āla describes the ‘ancient’ practice o f preparing
fermented liquid manure ( ku ṇapajala) prepared by bo iling a mixture o f animal
excreta, bo ne marrow, flesh and dead fish in an iro n pot and then adding to it sesame
o ilcake, ho ney, so aked black gram, and a little ghee (clarified butter). No fixed
quantities o f materials were required to prepare ku ṇapajala. This applicatio n o f liquid
manure is still practised by farmers.
Panchagavya, a mixture o f five co w pro ducts, is a fermented culture o f co w
dung, urine, milk, curd and ghee (o ther ingredients are so metimes added to increase
fermentatio n). Studies have sho wn that panchagavya works as a bio fertilizer,
enhancing growth and productivity o f cro ps and increasing resistance to diseases.
Pests and Their Management
Par āśara used the word ‘disease’ in Sanskrit (vy ādhi) to differentiate fro m visible
pests. He even listed go ats, wild boars, pigs, deer, buffalo es, parakeets and sparro ws
amo ng pests. Var āhamihira’s chapter on treatment of trees mentioned that trees are
vulnerable to disease when expo sed to co ld weather, stro ng winds, and hot sun; this
po ssibly laid the fo undatio n o f classifying tree diseases based o n humo urs such as
v āta, pitta and kapha (the trido ṣa o f Ayurveda), which were fo rmalized in later
centuries in Surap āla’s V ṛk ṣāyurveda. (Fo r more details, see Mo dule Life Sciences (3):
Plant and Animal Science in Ancient India. )
Surap āla’s
text deals with arbori-horticulture and gives co nsiderable
info rmatio n o n the importance o f trees, so il types, classificatio n o f plants, seed,
so wing, planting, plant pro tectio n recipes, no urishment, types o f gardens, lo cating
gro undwater, and bio -indicators to decide the suitability o f raising specific cro ps o r
breeding animals. Fo r treating disorders, Surap āla suggests using a number o f plant
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species that we know to day have antimicro bial pro perties, including mustard paste
and milk.
Preparation of biopesticide based on traditional methods
(courtesy: Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai)
Cattle Management
Since Vedic times, o wning cattle meant po ssessing wealth. The Ṛgveda is replete with
references to cattle and their management. References can be fo und to grazing o f
livesto ck, pro visio n o f water fro m clean po nds and succulent green fo dder, and
livesto ck barns. Later, cattle sheds were co nstructed and cleanliness o f the shed was
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emphasized. Co ws came to be regarded as sacred, while Buddhism and Jainism
pro mo ted no n-killing o f all animals.
Village scene in a panel at Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu (courtesy: Michel Danino)
The Kannada text Lokopak āra (1025 CE) indicates treatments for livesto ck
diseases such as tho se affecting the ho rns, teeth and buccal cavity, and human
diseases / diso rders such as so re throat, carditis, lumbago , rheumatism, atro phy o f
muscles and acute dysentery. Plasters were used to treat broken bo nes.
Amo ng o ther o fficers, the Arthaśāstra notes the ‘superintendent o f cattle’, who
supervised livesto ck in the co untry, kept a census o f livesto ck and ensured their
pro per rearing. Livesto ck was classified as tame steers, draft o xen, bulls to be trained
to yoke, stud bulls, livesto ck reared fo r meat, buffalo es and draft buffalo es, female
calves, heifers, pregnant co ws, milking co ws, barren livesto ck (either co ws o r
buffalo es), and calves up to two mo nths o ld. The Arthaśāstra gives an elaborate
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descriptio n o f the ratio ns that a bull, co w or buffalo sho uld be supplied with.
Maintenance o f pastures aro und villages was enco uraged.
Horticulture and Arboriculture
Harappans cultivated fruits such as date palm, po megranate, lemo n and melo n. The
Sangam literature refers to jackfruit, co co nut, date palm, areca nut, plantain, and
tamarind.
A metho d o f grafting described in Bṛhat Saṁhit ā was what is known to day as
‘wedge grafting’. Surap āla’s text mentio ns 170 species o f plants including trees,
shrubs and a few herbs, and deals with the laying o ut gardens and o rchards and
growing unusual trees. Layo uts included designs such as maṇḍapa (cano py),
nandy āvarta (quadrangle with an o pening to the west), swastika (design o f religio us
significance), chaturasra (square), sarvatobhadra (a square enclo sing a circle), v īthi
(line), nikuñja (arbo ur), and punjaka (cluster). The text reco mmends layo uts for
‘pleasure gardens’.
Fishing
The Harappans made fishing nets and co nsumed bo th sea and freshwater fish. The
Ṛgveda makes a general mentio n to fishes, but no t specifically as a fo o d item , while
the Yajurveda mentio ns capturing fish by sedating them in a po nd by treating the
water with the bark o f some trees. Manusm ṛti names two fishes, rohu and pathen , as
suitable fo r fo od. It is believed that fish culture (o r pisciculture) came fro m China,
where it o riginated almo st 2,500 years ago ,to Bengal via Myanmar or Thailand. The
Chalukya king So me śvardeva (1127 CE) described metho ds o f culturing fish and listed
34 kinds o f fishes.
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Agriculture and Society
In India as in every co untry, agriculture was an
integral part o f po pular culture and gave rise
to annual fairs, cattle melas, festivals and
rituals, all
of
which
were
o ccasio ns fo r
celebratio n. Almo st every part o f India had its
o wn dates and custo ms for the purpo se:
Akshaya Tritiya, fo r instance, a Hindu and Jain
festival, is no w o ften taken to be an auspicio us
A decorated cow (source:
day fo r buying go ld, but it is also a harvest
www.sathyasai.org.ar)
festival in parts o f western and northern India. So are Ho li in the same regio n, Lo hri
in Punjab and neighbo uring states, Magh Bihu in Assam, Nabanna in Bengal, Onam in
Kerala o r Po ngal in Tamil Nadu, amo ng o thers, mo st o f them acco mpanied with
rituals ho no uring cows and bullo cks. Such festivals no t o nly helped to bo nd lo cal
co mmunities to gether, but have promo ted national integratio n.
Pongal celebrations in a village of Tamil Nadu (courtesy: Christine Devin)
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A pro spero us agriculture being the base o f strong kingdo ms o r empires, it was
almo st always supported by the multitudes o f In dian rulers. The traditio n was to
impo se minimal tax o n farmers, rarely exceeding o ne-sixth o f the pro duce. We
pro bably need to co ntinuo usly remind o urselves o f the wisdo m o f o ur ancesto rs and
pro vide genuine respect and impo rtance to farmers.
Decorated camels at a festival (source: www.leisurewings.com)
Comprehension
1.
What are the elements that damage cro ps?
2.
Study so me o f the implements used in agriculture in ancient India and
co mpare them to the o nes being used to day.
3.
Ho w do yo u get to learn abo ut the weather fo recast today? How do yo u think
weather predictio n was made in ancient times?
4.
Ho w many land types are there? What physical characteristics are they based
o n?
5.
What are the duties o f the ‘superintendent o f cattle’ mentio ned in Arthaśāstra?
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6.
What do yo u understand by pisciculture and how did it reach Bengal?
7.
What are the ingredients o f ku ṇapajala? What are the advantages o f this
manure?
8.
What are the different types o f manures mentioned by Kauṭilya?
9.
What are the earliest pests mentio ned in Indian literature? Name a few visible
pests and explain how they cause harm to cro ps.
10. What do yo u understand by ‘arbo ri-ho rticulture’?
11. What is grafting? List o ut a few plants and trees that are gro wn using this
metho d.
12. What sho uld be kept in mind while designing a layo ut for gardens as
mentio ned in Surap āla’s text? In modern times what kind o f pro fessio nals
wo uld yo u asso ciate with the designing o f pleasure gardens?
Activity 1
 Machines are replacing human hands in agriculture. Discuss in gro ups and
brainsto rm mentio ning the machines used in place o f manpo wer.
Activity 2
 Discuss in gro ups the vario us uses o f different plants and their parts; co mplete
the fo llowing table:
Plant
Part& Uses
Coconut
Mango
Cinnamon
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Yo u may view this short do cumentary o n the uses o f every part o f the co co nut
tree:
www.theperennialplate.com/ episodes/ 2013/ 04/ episode-118-coconut-nose-to-
tail/
Project Ideas
1. Visit a nearby village to study the prevalent agricultural practices in that
area. Interview farmers and find o ut how differently they wo rk co mpared to
their ancestors. Prepare a questio nnaire keeping in mind the fo llo wing
po ints:
 Preparing the fields
 Seeds
 Manures/ fertilizers
 Irrigatio n
 Varieties o f cro ps
 Harvesting
 Sto rage
 Transporting the pro duce to the market
 Inno vatio ns/ experimentatio n in farming.
2. Agriculture is a waste- free activity. Nothing is waste for a farmer. Find o ut
ho w reusing and recycling takes place in farming. Yo urs pro ject may include
the fo llowing:
 Findings o n recycling pro cesses
 Interview with farmer/ s
 Relevant pictures/ images
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3. Put to gether a presentatio n o n ‘ Agriculture: A Promising Career Option’ .
Use examples that inspired yo uth fro m different pro fessio ns to revert to
agriculture using co nventio nal metho ds as a means o f sustainable living.
4.
The excavatio ns o f Indus Civilizatio n have bro ught forth the early histo ry o f
agriculture and animal husbandry. Make a pro ject abo ut the findings using
maps, to ys, po ts, figurines and seals o f that era.
Extended Activities
 Make a ho me visit to so me relative / friend staying in rural India. Stay
o vernight, taking part in the daily ro utine o f a farmer and experience the
stress-free life and the pleasure o f being in the lap o f nature. Make a diary
entry o f yo ur experience.
 Visit so me farmers who practise o rganic farming to find o ut:

The difference between village fo o d and
what yo u eat at ho me

Why o rganic pro ducts are highly priced
 What manures these farmers use in their
fields and ho w they prepare them.
 There is a traditio n o f planting barley in an
earthen po t during Navaratras. What do yo u think is the significance o f this
ritual? Can we relate it to seed testing? Discuss in gro ups so me o ther
traditio ns related to agriculture and suggest the lo gic o r scientific reaso ns
behind them.
 Animals are a part o f the family o f farmers. There is an emo tio nal co rd that
binds them. They are respected and wo rshipped as also their agricultural
equipments. Make a list o f the different fairs and festivals which revo lve
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aro und farmers. No te ho w the animals are attired and deco rated o n harvest
festivals. To understand this rural sentiment, you may plan a visit fro m scho o l
o r with family to a camel o r cattle fair or markets and understand the
significance o f pashudhan in rural life.
 India is go ing thro ugh a so il crisis, as discussed in articles such as the o ne
belo w. Discuss what remedial measures traditional Indian metho ds may o ffer.
http:/ / articles.eco no mictimes.indiatimes.co m/ 2011-0712/ news/ 29765398_1_so ils-farmers-cereal-pro ductio n
Further Reading
1.
Aiyar, V.V.S. (tr.) 1952. The Kural or the Maxims of Tiruvalluvar . 3rd edn. Dr. V.V.S.
Krishnamurthy, Tiruchirapalli.
2.
Ayachit, SM. (tr.) 2002. Kashyapiyakrishisukti (A Treatise on Agriculture by Kashyapa) . AgriHistory Bulletin No. 4. Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad.
3.
Bedekar, V.V. (ed.) 1993. Agriculture in Ancient India. Itihas Patrika Prakashan, Thane.
4.
Bhat, M.R. 1981 (repr. 1992). Varahamihira’s Brhat Samhita. Part 1. Motilal Banarsidass,
Delhi.
5.
Gangadharan, N. 1986. The Agnipurana, Part III. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.
6.
Gopal, Lallanji. 2008. History of Agriculture in India (up to c. 1200 AD). Concept Publishing
Company, New Delhi.
7.
Nene, Y.L. 2005. Glimpses of the Agricultural Heritage of India. Asian Agri-History
Foundation, Secunderabad.
8.
Randhawa, M.S. 1980. A History of Agriculture in India. Vol. 1. Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
9.
Sadhale, Nalini (tr.) 1996. Surap āla’s Vṛkṣāyurveda (The Science of Plant Life by Surap āla).
Agri-History Bulletin No. 1. Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad.
10. Sadhale, Nalini (tr.). 1999. Krishi-Parāśara (Agriculture by Parāśara). Agri-History Bulletin
No. 2. Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad.
11. Sadhale, Nalini and Nene, Y.L. (eds) 2008. Mriga.pakshi.shastra (The Science of Animals and
Birds). Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad.
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12. Saxena, R.C., S.L. Choudhary, and Nene, Y.L. 2009. A Textbook on Ancient History of Indian
Agriculture. Asian Agri-History Foundation (AAHF), Secunderabad and Udaipur.
13. Sensarma, P. 1989. Plants in the Indian Puranas. Naya Prokash, Calcutta.
14. Shamasastry, R. 1961. Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra. 7th edn. Mysore Printing and Publishing
House, Mysore.
15. Valmiki Sreenivasa Ayangarya (tr.). 2006. Lokopakara (For the Benefit of people). AgriHistory Bulletin No. 6. Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad.
Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in May 2013)
 Asian Agri-History Fo undatio n, Secunderabad, http:/ / asianagrihistory.org/
 Centre fo r Indian Kno wledge Systems, Chennai: www.ciks.org and
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=w5bHfqkQvHA
 Organic seed treatment: www.yo utube.co m/ watch?v=PHDIaVH_F1U
 Fo o d and Agricultural Organizatio n (FAO): www.fao .org/ ag/ ca/
 A discussio n fo rum o n Indian agriculture: http:/ / farmnest.com/
 Examples o f traditio nal Indian farming:
www.vedicsociety.org/ an-introduction-to-vedic-farming-methods-p-185.html
 A reso urce o n Indian o rganic farming: http:/ / ofai.org/ resources/

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Agricultural Heritage:
Excerpts from Primary Texts
Rigveda
This earliest Indian text insists that natural forces (earth — so lid matter; water —
liquid matter; air – subtle matter; fire — energy; and āk āśa — the o ppo site o f matter)
must remain in harmo ny with each o ther and humanity must no t disturb the balance
between them. The fo llo wing verses relate to agriculture and deal with co w
pro tectio n, cattle management, tree cutting, desire fo r rain, and co ntented animals
and farmers.
‘O co ws! Pro create calves, select fine quality grass, and drink clean, safe
water fro m po nds.’ (6:28:7)
‘O humans! Do no t kill a co w who is mo ther o f Rudras [now Shiva],
daughter o f Vasus [attendant deities o f Indra, and later Vishnu], sister o f
Āditya [the Sun], milk bearing, inno cent witho ut co mplex.’ (8:90:15)
‘O Pūṣan [Sun]! Do no t destro y the trees that suppo rt birds but destroy
tho se who hate me.’ (6:48:17)
‘Let the so il get so aked with water and give us harvests in the years to
co me.’ (4:57:7)
‘Let o ur plo ughs o pen the so il happily, let the plo ughman walk happily
with the bullo cks, and let clo uds so ak the lands with water. Give us
happiness.’ (4:57:7, 8)
***
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Kṛṣipar āśara (c. 400 BCE)
Par āśara’s Kṛṣipar āśara is an intro ducto ry text addressed to farmers. He stressed so il
management, seed health, and o verall farm management that included water
harvesting and co nservatio n, animal management and maintenance o f implements.
The fo llo wing verses are self-explanatory:
‘Farms yield go ld if pro perly managed but lead to po verty if neglected.’
‘Even a fo urfo ld yield o f cro ps pro cured at the co st o f health o f the
bullo cks perishes so o n by the sighs o f their exhaustio n.’
‘The bullo cks o f the farmer who keep the co w shed, stro ng, clean, and free
o f cow dung grow well even witho ut special no urishment’.
‘Cro ps grown witho ut manure will no t give yield.’
‘Any implement which is no t sufficiently stro ng o r is no t manufactured as
per the m easurements will, at the time o f farming o peratio ns, o bstruct
the work at every step. There sho uld be no do ubt abo ut it.’
‘Unifo rm seeds pro duce excellent results. Hence every effo rt sho uld be
made to pro cure unifo rm seeds.’
‘One sho uld (therefo re) put in maximum effo rt to pro cure and preserve
these seeds. The o rigin o f plentiful yield is the seed.’
‘What ho pe o f harvest can that fo o lish farmer have who has no t made
arrangements fo r preserving water for the cro p during Aśvin (Octo ber)
and Kārttika (November).’
***
19
Kauṭilya (3 rd or 4 th century BCE)
Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra is o ne o f the mo st info rmative texts o f ancient India. Varta o r
Eco no mics — cro p pro ductio n, animal husbandry and trade — was co nsidered o ne o f
the fo ur sciences o f the time, the other three being Vedas, Po litics and Philo so phy.
Kauṭilya mentio ns intercro pping o f medicinal plants with any field cro p. An example
o f wasteland utilizatio n was planting cucurbits o n river banks after the excess water
receded. The practice co ntinues even to day in parts o f India. So me significant
statements by Kauṭilya:
‘Who ever hurts or causes ano ther to hurt, or steals, o r causes ano ther to
steal a cow, sho uld be slain.’
‘The Superintendent o f fo rest pro duce shall co llect timber and o ther
pro ducts o f forests by employing tho se who guard fo rests.’
‘Brahmins shall be pro vided with fo rests for soma plantatio n, for religio us
learning, and fo r perfo rmance o f penance, such fo rests being granted with
safety for animate and inanimate o bjects, and being named after the tribal
name ( gotra) o f the Brahmins resident therein.’
***
Kaśyapiyakṛṣisukti (800 CE)
This detailed treatise gives advice o n farm management no t o nly to farmers but also
to kings. Details abo ut rice-gro wing practices are still widely fo llo wed in India to day.
‘Land is intended to receive excellence in every age.’
‘A go o d quality land yields go o d results to everyo ne, co nfers go o d health
o n the entire family, and causes growth o f mo ney, cattle and grain.’
20
‘To the west, no rth, east, o r so uth o f the villages and cities at the mo st
co nvenient places, he [the king] sho uld prepare reservo irs o f water
acco rding to the co nditio n o f the land.’
‘The reservo ir o f water to be fo unded sho uld be deep, equipped with
barriers, splendid in the shape o f a bow, lo ng in so me cases, ro und in
o thers but essentially unfatho mable.’
‘They sho uld also be equipped with inlets fo r water. Hence they sho uld be
fo unded near some hill or a high-level gro und joined with a lake.’
‘The king sho uld plan its co nstructio n at such places as no t to cause fear
o f danger fro m floo ding. Such reservo irs sho uld be regularly examined.’
‘Large fo rests teeming with vario us trees, o n the fo rest lands, or o n the
o utskirts, or interio rs o f existing fo rests, or o n mo untain slo pes sho uld be
pro pagated.’
Abo ut canals fo r irrigatio n, ‘Even mo re than the po nds, lakes, wells, etc.
pro tectio n o f canals sho uld be treated by them [farmers and the king] as
their dharma, said the sages who know the truth.’
‘That water [therefo re] sho uld be preserved by all so rts o f effo rts, as
agriculture is said to depend o n water. Hence, kings and [o ther] eminent
perso ns sho uld o btain water by exerting everywhere in the seaso ns and
co nserve it.’
Fo r rice, ‘The seco nd cultivatio n in a year is fruitful everywhere and is
therefo re reco mmended o n vario us types o f farmlands. For taking up this
seco nd o peratio n, it is essential to raise the fertility o f the so il, which can
be achieved by using manure o f go at-dung, co w dung, and vegetatio n
[green manure].’
21
V ṛkṣāyurveda (c. 1000 CE)
Surap āla’s V ṛk ṣāyurveda is a ‘co mplete’ treatise o n arbo ri-horticulture. It also
emphasizes the importance o f trees and environment. So me o f the verses carry deep
meaning. The impo rtance o f gro wing trees is versed beautifully thus:
‘Ten wells are equal to o ne po nd.
Ten po nds are equal to o ne lake.
Ten lakes are equal to o ne so n.
Ten so ns are equal to o ne tree.’
‘… One sho uld undertake planting o f trees, since trees yield the means o f
attaining dharma [righteo usness], artha [accumulating wealth witho ut
being greedy], k āma [pro creatio n], and moksha [liberatio n], which are the
fo ur aims o f life.’
‘Seeds which are treated and preserved [in the prescribed manner] are all
go o d for use. Trees gro wn fro m such seeds bear fo r ever abundant flo wers
and fruits o f an excellent quality.’
***
Kṛṣigītā (c. 1500 AD)
Paraśur āma in Kṛṣigītā reco mmended deep summer plo ughing. This has been in
practice in Kerala fo r several centuries. Green manuring was reco mmended fo r rice.
Altho ugh forest clearing was reco mmended as a means to expand cultivated areas,
farmers were also enco uraged to plant trees and o ther wo ody perennials.
***
22
Comprehension
1.
Name a few texts that depict Indian agriculture in ancient times.
2.
What is the significance o f unifo rm seeds in farming?
3.
List a few herbs that were traditio nally used to treat seeds.
4.
‘… One sho uld undertake planting o f trees, since trees yield the means o f
attaining dharma [righteo usness], artha [accumulating wealth witho ut being
greedy], k āma [pro creatio n], and moksha [liberatio n], which are the fo ur aims o f
life.’ Present yo ur views o n this statement.
5.
What
is
the
advice
to
the
kings
regarding
water
management
in
Kaśyapiyakṛṣisukti?
6.
‘O humans! Do not kill a cow who is mother o f Rudras …’ In the light o f present
day co ntext, analyse the statement and present yo ur views.
Extended Activity

Literature is the mirro r o f so ciety, fo r instance, films like Do Bigha Zameen and
Mother India co nvey the essence o f Indian farming traditio ns. The famo us Hindi
writer Munshi Prem Chand wrote extensively o n the backdro p o f rural India.
Keeping this in view,

co llect fo lk and film so ngs;

read literature o f vario us languages;

watch Indian classics with family and friends.
References
1.
Ayachit, SM. (tr.). 2002. Kashyapiyakrishisukti (A Treatise on Agriculture by Kashyapa). AgriHistory Bulletin No. 4. Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad.
23
2.
Nene, YL and Sadhale, Nalini. 1997. Agriculture and Biology in Rigveda. Asian Agri-History
Foundation, Secunderabad.
3.
Sadhale, Nalini (tr.) 1996. Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda (The Science of Plant Life by Surapala).
Agri-History Bulletin No. 1. Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad-500009.
4.
Sadhale, Nalini (tr.) 1999. Krishi-Parashara (Agriculture by Parashara). Agri-History Bulletin
No.2. Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad.
5.
Shamasastry, R. 1961. Kauṭilya’s Arthasastra. Mysore Printing and Publishing House,
Mysore, 7th edn.

24
Architecture: A Survey
(1) Early and Classical Architecture
V āstu-vidy ā o r
Śilpaśāstra — the science o f architecture — is o ne o f the technical
subjects studied in ancient India, alo ng with āyurveda (science o f medicine),
dhanurveda (science o f archery), jyotiṣa (astro no my), etc. In the earliest texts, the
wo rd v āstu o ccurs in the sense o f a building site o r the building itself. Later o n, o ther
subjects such as temple co nstructio n, to wn planning, public and private buildings
and fo rts were included in the discipline in which the co nstructio n o f a structure was
regarded as a sacred act.
In the Atharvaveda there are references to different parts o f the building such
as sitting-ro o m, inner apartment, ro om fo r sacred fire, cattle shed and receptio n
ro om. ( Atharvaveda, IX.3). The Sāṅkh āyana Gṛhya Sūtra (c. 500 BCE) describes in three
chapters the
ceremo nials performed
fo r co nstructing a building. Kautilya’s
Arthaśāstra (c. 300 BCE) deals with town planning, fo rtificatio ns and o ther structures
o f civil nature. Samar āngaṇasūtradhāra, autho red by King Bho ja (1010-55 CE), discusses
metho ds o f examinatio n o f a site, analysis o f the so il, systems o f measurement,
qualificatio ns o f the sthapati (architect) and his assistants, building materials,
co nsecratio n o f the plan fo llowed by co nstruction o f fo undatio n, basal mo uldings and
technical details fo r each part o f the plan, design and elevatio n. The two principal
so uth Indian texts, Mayamata (1000 CE) and Mānasāra (1300 CE), share a co mmo n
understanding o f the architectural plan and design o f the so uthern (Dr āviḍa) vintage
but while the former has a practical o utloo k, the latter develo ps the theory o f the
science.
25
Temple Architecture
India is justly famo us as a land o f temples. Many o f these temples, especially tho se
belo nging to the ancient and medieval ages, are reno wned o n acco unt o f their
architectural and sculptural excellence. Hindu temple architecture has bro adly been
classified as Nāgara o r the no rth Indian style, Dr āviḍa or the so uth Indian style, and
Vesara which co ntains elements o f bo th. Each regio n o f India has given rise to a
unique style o f temple architecture due to the availability o f sto ne and o ther material
and in keeping with the climatic co nditio ns and o ther factors.
The o rigin o f Indian temple architecture can be traced to Vedic times. The
square shape o f the vedi (Vedic sacrificial altar) inspired the basic design o f temples.
The Indian shrine depicted in early bas-reliefs at Bharhut, Sanchi, Mathura and
Amravati, has a small square altar, o ften enclo sed by a vedik ā (square railing) and
shaded by a tree o r a chattra (paraso l). V āstu Śāstra visualizes the v āstupuru ṣa-maṇḍala
— the abstract representatio n o f temple architecture — as a square in the fo rm o f a
yantra (symbo lic diagram). The philo so phy behind this co ncept is based o n an
equivalence behind the macro co sm — the universe, represented by the vario us go ds
o r powers in the maṇḍala — and the micro co sm — the temple, o ften taken to be in the
image o f the human bo dy. One central o bjective o f Indian temple architecture is thus
to co nnect the human being to the universe.
26
One of the v āstupuruṣa-maṇḍalas on which India’s temple architecture is based
(adapted from Stella Kramrisch).
Rock- Cut Structures
In India, temples were initially co nstructed o f perishable material like wo od, brick
and mo rtar, perhaps reinfo rced by metal. Later, the need to have a permanent
structure to ho use the deities led to the creation o f shrines in sto ne and this is how
the artificial ‘cave temples’, scoo ped o ut o f hard ro ck came into being in several
27
places in India. The early ro ck-cut cave temples in vario us parts o f India were Hindu,
Jaina and Buddhist in nature. So me o f the earliest examples o f this type o f
architecture are the caves excavated during the 3rd century BCE in the time o f the
Mauryas, o ne o f the best kno wn being the Lomas Ṛṣī cave in the Barabar Hills of
Bihar, excavated o ut o f hard granite fo r the Ājīvika sect, a hetero do x sect. The
entrance is a representatio n in sto ne o f a hut’s entrance, with mo ck timber
cro ssbeams pro truding fro m the roo f. A carved frieze o f elephants is a sto ne
imitatio n o f similar work in wo od alo ng with a sto ne imitatio n o f bambo o trellis.
Lomas Ṛṣī cave, Bihar
Subsequently, the ro ck-cut caves o f different parts o f India develo ped
variatio ns depending upo n the nature o f the rock into which they were carved. The
caitya shrines o f the Buddhists as also the vih āras or mo nasteries are fo und in large
numbers in the earliest phase o f the evo lutio n of cave temples. Remains o f a circular
caitya sh rine
belonging to the time of Aśo ka are seen at Bairat in Rajasthan. Buddhist
ro ck-cut caves are also fo und in Maharashtra, most notably at Ajanta and Ellora,
where sandsto ne is abundant.
28
Left : Ajanta Caves, Right : Ellora Caves (source: Wikipedia)
The earliest Hindu caves, which belo ng to the early 5th century, are seen at
Udayagiri, near Bhilsa in Madhya Pradesh. Badami (ancient V ātāpi), in Karnataka, the
capital o f the Cālukyan dynasty is home to a number o f such cave temples o f
sandsto ne belo nging to the 6th century. They are mo stly fo r Hindu deities and o ne is a
Jaina cave temple. Many such cave temples were excavated during the Pallava
dynasty o f the 7th–8th century in the no rthern part o f Tamil Nadu, especially at
Mamallapuram (also known as Mahabalipuram), their port-city in Tamil Nadu.
During the reign o f the Pān ḍyas o f so uth Tamil Nadu who were the co ntemporaries o f
the Pallavas, many such Hindu and Jaina cave temples were excavated, fo llo wed by
impo rtant Jaina cave temples at Ello ra in the 9th century.
Monolithic Temples
The co ncept o f creating cave temples slo wly faded away as the architects graduated
to making mo no lithic temples, i.e., shrines carved fro m to p to botto m o ut o f o ne
piece o f ro ck. Examples o f these are seen in Mamallapuram belo nging to the 7 th
century. Famo usly known as the ‘Five Rathas’ (chariots), these five mo no lithic
mo numents are each o f a different shape and size and are believed to replicate
29
mo numents made o f perishable material that existed prior to their time. The
grandest o f the mo no lithic temples is the famo us Kailāśa temple at Ellora in the reign
o f the Rāṣṭrakūṭas in the 8th century.
Constructed Temples
This type o f architecture began with st ūpas (relic mo unds), caitya halls and
mah āvihāras, which go back to the time o f Buddha (6
th
century BCE). Originally the
st ūpas were made o f bricks and surro unded by a wo oden railing, then were enlarged
and elaborated o ver centuries to magnificent co mplexes during the perio d o f
different empires and dynasties — Maurya empire, Śuṅga dynasty, Andhra period and
Kuṣāṇ perio d.
The great st ūpa at Sanchi
Mauryan architecture, which is inspired by Buddhist tho ught, is illustrated by
the st ūpas at Sanchi, the mo no lithic rail at Sarnath and the pillars o f Bo dh Gaya.
30
Śuṅga architecture added deco ratio ns o f stone
vedikas (railings) and gateways
surro unding the st ūpa. Examples o f these mo numents are the st ūpas at Sanchi (near
Bho pal), Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), and Amaravati o n the Krishna River. At Bharhut
the gateways are imitatio ns in sto ne o f the wo o den po rtals o f early Indian to wns.
Mo st prominent in the embellishment o f the vedikas are the carvings o f Yakṣas and
Yakṣīs (supernatural beings). The great st ūpa at Sanchi, who se fo undatio n was
originally laid by Aśoka, was enlarged under the patro nage o f the Andhra Dynasty.
Architecture under the Kuṣāṇas produced relief friezes carved in dark schist and
po rtrayed figures in classical po ses with flo wing Hellenistic draperies; it also made
use o f ivo ry and impo rted glass. The st ūpa in Gandhara marks the gradual elabo ratio n
o f the primitive types kno wn at Sanchi and Bharhut.
In the Gupta age, the traditio n o f excavating cave temples and mo no lithic
shrines evo lved into the co nstructio n o f brick and sto ne temples. This was due to two
reaso ns. One reaso n was that while the architects and sculpto rs co uld create a cave
temple o nly where bo ulders or hills were available, a structural sto ne temple co uld
be created at any cho sen site by baking bricks or quarrying and transporting sto nes.
Seco ndly, there was more sco pe fo r architectural and sculptural inno vatio n and
experimentatio n while co nstructing a temple.
Initially, temples were made as small shrines with po ssibly o nly the central
sanctum sancto rum o r the main cell enshrining the principal deity. Over time, they
evo lved into bigger temple co mplexes, with mo re sculptures and niches enshrining
deities. Eventually, temples evo lved into vario us styles, but tho se remained based o n
certain co mmo n co ncepts and features:

gopura: an elabo rate gateway, especially in so uth Indian temples, generally in
the fo rm o f a to wer;

jagat ī (literally, ‘earth’): the platfo rm o n which the temple is erected;
31

maṇḍapa: a o pen pillared hall fo r public events, including rituals, disco urses o r
art perfo rmances;

antar āla: an antechamber between the maṇḍapa and the garbhag ṛha;

garbhag ṛha: the sanctum sanctorum, where the presiding deity is installed;
 śikhara (fo r no rth Indian temples) o r
to wer o ver the garbhag ṛha.
The main parts of a classical Hindu temple
(here the Bṛhad īśvara temple of Tanjavur)
So me o f the best examples o f such
structural sto ne temples are o f the Gupta
age like the Daśavatāra Viṣṇu temple in
Deo garh in Uttar Pradesh o f the early 6th
century (right) , which is studded with
intricate sculptures.
32
vim āna (fo r so uth Indian temple): the
The structural temples o f the Cālukyas in Badami, Aiho le and Pattadakal in
Karnataka, belo nging to the 7th and 8th centuries, fo llow clo se o n the heels o f the
Gupta creatio ns. The temples o f Aiho le and Pattadakal need special mentio n as so me
are in the Dr āviḍa and some in the Nāgara styles o f architecture, situated in clo se
pro ximity o f each o ther.
Aro und this time, also aro se
the magnificent Dr āviḍa temples
o f the Pallavas in Mamallapuram
and in Kanchipuram, their capital
city. Special
made
o f the
mentio n
Shore
must
be
temple
in
Mamallapuram which is o ne o f the
earliest structural sto ne temples o f
this dynasty co nstructed in the 8th
Shore Temple, Mamallapuram
century.
(courtesy: Dr. Chithra Madhavan)
In the same century was
constructed the Śiva temple no w
kno wn as the Kailāśanātha temple
in Kanchipuram, almo st who lly o ut
o f sandsto ne, far mo re grand that
its
predecesso rs.
o thers
in
this
Later,
many
to wn
were
co nstructed by the kings o f this
dynasty.
Kailāśanātha temple
(courtesy: Dr Chithra Madhavan)
33
(Left:) Sun temple, Konarak. ( Top right:) Liṅgar ājā. ( Bottom right:)
Mukteśvara temple,
Bhubaneswar (courtesy: Michel Danino)
In Orissa, from the 7th century up to the 13th century temples o f the Nāgara
o rder were built. These temples, while retaining the blueprint o f the earlier o nes o f
this style, became far larger and more ornate. This regio nal scho o l, called the Kalinga
o r Orissan style, had a lo ng perio d o f evo lutio n. The curvilinear śikhara o ver the
sanctum sancto rum is the most eye-catching feature as also the hall called the
jagmohana. The walls are pro fusely decorated with sculptures. The Paraśur āme śvara
temple in Bhubaneswar belo ngs to this century, the Mukte śvara temple (third
quarter o f the 10th century), the Rājārān ī temple (11th century) and the Liṅgar ājā
temple (mid-11th century). The best-kno wn temple by way o f architecture, the Sun
temple in Ko narak, is a 13th-century creatio n.
34
With the coming o f the age o f the Imperial Cōḻas who came to power in the 9th
century with their capital initially at Tanjavur (Tamil Nadu), Dravidian temple
architecture reached its pinnacle. The great temples o f the Cōḻas at Tanjavur,
Gangaiko ndacho lapuram, Darasuram and Tribhuvanam are standing examples o f the
height temple architecture o f so uth India had reached. The vim ānas are very tall in
these fo ur temples. In additio n to these grand temples, the Cōḻas co nstructed
numero us others o f varying sizes in almo st every to wn and village acro ss their vast
empire. The innumerable sculptures o f sto ne and bro nze in the Cōḻa temples are
o utstanding examples o f the skill and dexterity o f the artisans o f the period and also
reflect the patro nage given to them by the Cōḻa empero rs. It must be po inted o ut that
the grand gopuras o f Tamil Nadu, which started to evo lve in the Pallava times, gained
much pro minence in the Cōḻa age.
Great Cōḻa temples at Tanjavur and Darasuram, Tamil Nadu
Impro ving upo n the already kno wn Nāgara style and co ntributing greatly to
this style o f architecture o f appro ximately between the 9th and the 12th centuries was
the Candela dynasty. Its majo r claim to fame is the gro up o f o utstanding temples at
Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, the best-known being the Kand āriyā Mahādeva
temple co nstructed in the 11th century. There are literally hundreds o f sculptures
adorning the walls o f these temples. So me o f the minute carvings are explicitly ero tic
35
in nature. Scho lars have o ver time attributed this to the then prevalent Tantric
beliefs. The increasing co mplexity o f the fo rm o f the Nāgara art and architecture is
best exemplified in the architectural style o f the Candelas.
Kand āriyā Mahādeva temple (source: Wikipedia)
In the So uth, the Pāṇḍyas o f Madurai, who returned to power after the fall o f
the Cōḻa Empire in the seco nd half o f the 13th century, are known fo r their
co ntributio n to the famo us Mīn ākṣī-Sundare śvara temple in Madurai.
36
Mīnākṣī- Sundareśvarar temple in Madurai
This temple’s gopuras set the example o f many mo re to fo llow in the
subsequent perio ds. The Pāṇḍyas also added many new shrines and man ḍapas to the
already existing temples in Tamil Nadu.
Somanathapura (Keśava temple), near Mysore, in Hoysāla style
37
The kings o f the Ho ysāla dynasty, who ruled o ver so uth Karnataka and for
so me time o ver parts o f Tamil Nadu as well, co ntributed immensely to temple art and
architecture. Their very unique star-shaped temples, mo stly built o f so ft soap sto ne,
are pro fusely deco rated with hundreds o f minute sculptures. The mo st impo rtant
Ho ysāla temples are at Belur (co nstructed in 1117), Halebid (its co nstructio n
co mmenced in 1118) and So manathapura (13th century).
The very large and powerful empire o f Vijayanagara was established in the
ancient city o f Vijayanagara (now called Hampi) in Karnataka in 1336. The mo narchs
o f Vijayanagara co ntributed in no small measure to the develo pment o f temple art
and architecture in So uth India. They drew upo n the architectural plan o f the
temples o f the Tamil co untry and co nstructed the beautiful temples in Hampi such as
the Viṭṭhala temple, Acyutar āyā temple and the gopura o f the Virup ākṣa temple.
(Left) Virup ākṣa temple. ( Top right) Viṭṭhala temple. ( Bottom right) Acyutar āyā temple.
38
The temples o f Kerala are very different fro m the o thers in So uth India, with
wo od being used much mo re than sto ne. The central part o f the Kerala temple called
the śri vimāna is mo stly circular with slo ping tiled ro o f. The k ūṭṭambalam , which is the
hall where the traditio nal music and dance perfo rmances are staged, is o ne o f the
striking features o f temples o f this regio n.
To a large number o f temples in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, they added
gopuras, prakaras (enclo sures) and many smaller shrines and man ḍapas (o pen
pavilio ns). The expansio n o f many o f the temples into mammo th temple co mplexes is
the result o f the impetus given to religio n and temple architecture by the mo narchs
o f Vijayanagara.
These empero rs, beginning fro m the 16th century, appo inted vicero ys called
Nāyakas in different parts o f their empire. In Tamil Nadu, these Nāyak chieftains
ruled fro m many areas, the mo st impo rtant being fro m Madurai, Tanjavur and Ginjee
(o r Senji, near Tiruvanamalai). They too fo llowed in the fo otsteps o f the Vijayanagara
mo narchs and added to the already big temples like tho se in Madurai, Tanjavur,
Rameswaram and Srirangam, amo ng many o thers. Many o f the gopuras and man ḍapas
seen in temples o f Tamil Nadu are creatio ns o f the Nāyak times.
While Jain temples share mo st o f their architectural features with Hindu
temples, Sikh temples o r gurdw ār ās do no t have to co nform to any particular
architectural style; their chief requirements is that the Guru Granth Sahib sho uld be
installed o n a seat under a cano py, usually o n a higher platfo rm. In practice,
ho wever, gurdw ār ās, the mo st famo us o f which is the Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar,
o ften draw their features fro m Indo -Persian architecture.
39
A view of the temples at Mount Shatrunjaya (near Palitana, Bhavnagar district, Gujarat).
This site, which is sacred for Jains, has around 900 temples (source: Wikipedia).
A view of the Harmandir Sahib or Golden Temple in Amritsar (source: Wikipedia).
40
Public and Private Architecture
Excavatio ns at Harappa and Mo henjo -daro in 1921-22 marked the disco very o f the
Indus or Harappan civilizatio n (2600–1900 BCE). Later disco veries include majo r sites
like Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lo thal (Gujarat) and, in the last two decades, Dho lavira
(Gujarat), Bhirrana, Rakhigarhi and Farmana (all three in Haryana). To date, o ver
1,100 urban and rural Harappan settlements have been fo und in the no rthwest o f the
Indian subco ntinent.
Unlike o ur mo dern cities, mo st o f which grew o rganically o ut o f a to wn or a
village, Harappan cities were planned, with the streets generally o riented alo ng the
cardinal directio ns. Ho uses were built with bricks o f standardized pro portio ns; so me
o f the larger o nes had at least an upper sto rey; ro o fs co nsisted o f wo oden structures
co vered with grass or leaves. Mo st ho uses had individual bathro o ms co nnected to
extensive drainage netwo rks. Co mplex structures, such as Mo henjo -daro ’s Great Bath
o r the so -called Granary, demo nstrated advanced planning and co nstructio n skills. In
the Great Bath’s central basin, fo r example, the flo o r was made o f tightly fitted bricks
set o n edge and cemented with a gypsum plaster to make a watertight surface; it was
then co vered with a layer o f bitumen (natural tar). Humbler structures, such as wells
co nstructed with trapezo id bricks, which prevented inward co llapse, were no less
advanced. So me o f these Harappan techniques and co ncepts were preserved in later
Indian architecture: for instance, the general ho use plan, with ro oms organized
aro und a central co urtyard, survives in many parts o f rural India; the drainage
system o f the later Ganges civilizatio n was very likely a Harappan legacy.
41
The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro (source: Michael Jansen)
Dholavira’s plan with the city’s different areas
(adapted from Archaeological Survey of India)
42
At Dho lavira, a large and rigoro usly planned city lo cated o n an island in the
Rann o f Kachchh, sto ne was used to build massive fo rtificatio ns, while a netwo rk o f
eno rmo us reservo irs ensured water supply to the city thro ugh the year. The city was
divided into upper to wn (co nsisting o f Castle and Bailey, see plan belo w); middle
to wn (where mo st habitatio ns were lo cated), which included a 283-m etre-lo ng
ceremo nial gro und; and lower town. Dressed sto ne was used in co nstructio n alo ng
with mud bricks that co nfo rmed to Harappan standardized pro po rtio ns. Sto ne pillars
made o f highly po lished segments have also been fo und here.
(Left:) Massive stone fortifications at Dholavira (courtesy: Michel Danino). (Right:) A row
of bathing platforms connected by a common drain at Lothal (courtesy: Archaeological
Survey of India).
Bathing platfo rms with drains were o ften situated in roo ms adjacent to the
wells. A small drain cut thro ugh the ho use wall o ut into the street directed dirty
waters into a larger sewage drain. Tapered terraco tta drainpipes were used to direct
water o ut to the street. Many ho uses had distinct to ilets, separate fro m the bath
areas; co mmo des were large jars or sump po ts sunk into the floo rs. Drains were made
o f burnt bricks and co nnected the bathing platfo rms and latrines o f private ho uses to
43
medium-sized o pen drains in the side streets. These o pen drains flo wed into the
larger sewers in the main streets: tho se were co vered with baked bricks o r dressed
sto ne blo cks. In Mo henjo -daro , large garbage bins were also pro vided alo ng the major
streets at regular intervals.
Nearly a millennium after the Indus civilizatio n had co llapsed, the Ganges
civilizatio n aro se in the first millennium BCE. Amo ng the first cities to emerge in the
Ganges plains fro m abo ut 800 BCE were Mathura, Kanyakubja (modern Kanauj),
Kauśāmbi and Vār āṇasī (Benares) in to day’s Uttar Pradesh, Rājagṛha (Rajgir) and
Vaiśalī in Bihar. But this urban development extended beyond the Ganges valley, as
testified by Takṣaśilā (Taxila, today in northern Pakistan), Ujjayinī (Ujjain, in Madhya
Pradesh) or Śiśupālgarh (pro bably the ancient Kaliṅganagar, near Bhubaneswar in
Odisha).
A segment of Rajgir’s Cyclopean Wall, near the southern gateway
(courtesy: Dr. B.R. Mani).
44
In Rājagṛha, a huge fo rtificatio n called ‘Cyclo pean Wall’, running o ver several
kilo metres aro und the city, co nsists o f unhewn sto nes being piled o ne o n to p o f the
o ther; it was co nstructed in the 6th o r 5th century BCE. At Śiśup ālgarh (3rd century BCE
at least), sto ne maso ns were at wo rk using large blo cks o f laterite to build a very wellmade fo rt entrance that co uld be clo sed with huge do o rs turning o n hinges. At the
centre o f the city, a huge apsidal (semi-o val) structure with pillars has been
excavated, which may have been either a temple o r a palace.
One of Śiśupālgarh’s gateways, excavated in 1948 (courtesy: Archaeological Survey of
India)
Other impo rtant structures o f this perio d include Aśo ka’s pillars, a series o f
co lumns dispersed thro ugho ut north Indian, erected o r at least inscribed with edicts
by the Mauryan emperor Aśo ka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. Originally,
there must have been many pillars but o nly nineteen survive with inscriptio ns. They
are mo no lithic, abo ut twelve metres high, two metres undergro und, with mirror-like
po lish. The finest amo ng them, now in Sarnath museum, had at its capital (to p) a
45
sculpture o f fo ur lio ns fused to gether, which was ado pted as the emblem o f the
Republic o f India.
Examples of Aśoka’s pillars with their capitals depicting lions (source: Wikipedia)
Comprehension
1. What do yo u understand by v āstu? Ho w o ld is the v āstu traditio n in India?
Justify yo ur answer by giving a reference to an ancient text.
2. What
info rmatio n
do
we
get
fro m
the
Samar āngaṇasūtradhāra
abo ut
architectural planning and design?
3. Name the two so uth Indian texts which expo und the practical aspects o f the
science o f architecture?
4. ‘Indian temples are renowned o n acco unt o f their architectural and sculptural
excellence.’ Justify.
5. Name a few ro ck-cut temples in India mentioning the perio d in which they
were carved. Also mentio n their religio us co ntext.
46
6. What are the characteristics o f mo no lithic temples? What distinguishes them
fro m the other types o f temples?
7. What is a st ūpa? Make a line-drawing o f it and label it. Also make a list o f the
mo st visited st ūpas and vih āras in India?
8. See the abo ve picture o f Delhi’s Akshardham temple, which is based o n
v āstuśastra. Co mpare it with any o f the ancient temples.
9. Name fo ur majo r cities o f Indus civilizatio n. Express yo ur views o n the co ncept
o f town planning o f that perio d. What features o f co nstructio n / architecture
o f that perio d testify to the co ntinuity o f traditio n in India?
Activity 1
 Be in gro ups and list down the temples, fo rts, palaces, mo sques and
mauso leums o f vario us states in India.
47
State
Tem ples
Fort and Palaces
Mosques and
Mausoleum
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Etc.
Activity 2
 There are three majo r styles o f temple architecture in India — nāgara, drāvida
and vesāra. Explain the pro minent features o f these styles and prepare a list of
temples with tho se respective styles.
Style
Prom inent Features
Nāgara
Dr āvida
Ves āra
48
Tem ples
Activities
 Fo rm gro ups, study impo rtant temples such as tho se at Khajuraho or Tanjavur
and identify the vario us elements o f a temple: gopuram , jagat ī, maṇḍapa,
antar āla, garbhag ṛha,
śikhara or vim āna.
 Go thro ugh the above Survey text abo ve and prepare a wo rksheet o n temples
built by these vario us dynasties: Vijayanagara, Co ḻās, Pāṇḍyas, Hoysālā,
Kaliṅga. You may use the following hints to prepare yo ur worksheet:

Name o f the mo nument

Lo catio n (ro ute fro m yo ur schoo l to the mo nument)

Organizatio n which maintains the place

Interesting features and facts abo ut the mo nument

Add pictures / drawings o f the mentio ned mo nument

Any suggestio ns and reco mmendatio ns yo u would like to give a visitor to
the heritage site.
Projects
 State to urism organizes educatio nal trips to vario us histo rical mo numents.
Wo rk in gro ups and design an info rmatio n bro chure which includes:

Ro ute map o f vario us mo numents o f yo ur respective states

Histo ry o f each mo nument alo ng with images

Fo lklo re asso ciated with the mo nument.

Also prepare a budget which includes travel expenses, bo arding lo dging
and state the expenditure per perso n.
49
 Make a list o f temples built in
dr āvida,
nāgara and
vesāra style in the last 100
years and do cument the fo llowing:

Histo ry, perio d, dynasty o f temple architecture.

Where did the craftsmen live during the co nstructio n o f the temples, fo rts
etc.?

Visit vario us mo numents and study the floo r and elevatio n plan and
deco ratio n o f the building.

Write yo ur views o n ho w the wo rld wo uld have been witho ut beautiful
mo numents.

Indicate the ro le o f o ur heritage sites in enhancing the lo ve and
understanding (brotherhoo d) in so ciety. Also mentio n the go vernment
and no n-go vernment initiatives taken to preserve o ur architectural
heritage.
Further Reading
1. Acharya, P.K. 1913. M ānasāra. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2. Agrawal, V.S., (ed.) 1966. Samarāngaṇasūtradhāra. Baroda: Oriental Institute.
3. Bhattacharya, Tarpada. 2007. Vastuvidya Systems of Indian Architecture . New Delhi: Ajai Book
Service.
4. Dagens, Bruno. 1994. Mayamata (text with translation). New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National
Centre for the Arts.
5. Fabri, C.L. 1963. Introduction to Indian Architecture. Mumbai: Asia Publishing House.
6. Kapoor, Kapil, (ed.) 2010. Encyclopedia of Hinduism, vol. 1. New Delhi: IHRF in association
with Rupa.
7. Kramrisch, Stella. 1976. The Hindu Temple , 2 vols. New Delhi: Motilas Banarsidass.
8. Krishna Deva. 1995. Temples of India, 2 vols. New Delhi: Aryan Books International.
9. Meister, M.W., et al., 1988. Encyclopedia of Indian Temple Architecture, vol. 2, part 1; North
India: Foundation of North Indian Style, New Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies.
50
Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in May 2013)
 Indian Temple Architecture: www.templenet.com/ arch.html
 Archaeo lo gical survey o f India, Photo gallery o f mo numents:
http:/ / asi.nic.in/ asi_pgallery.asp
 Overview o f Ajanta caves: http:/ / sahapedia.org/ ajanta/
 An o nline encyclo paedia o n temple architecture o f vario us regio ns:
www.templenet.com/ encyclo.html
 Mo no lithic temples in Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram):
http:/ / asi.nic.in/ asi_monu_whs_mahabalipuram_monolithic.asp
 Mo henjo -Daro : Intro ductio n to the site:
www.mohenjodaro.net/ mohenjodarointroduction.html
 Slides o n Mo henjo -Daro : www.mohenjodaro.net/ mohenjodaroslides.html
 Slides o n Harrapan civilizatio n: www.harappa.com/ walk/ index.html

51
Architecture:
Excerpts from Primary Texts
Viṣṇudharmottarapur āṇa
The jagat ī [site platfo rm] sho uld be divided according to the portio n o f the
temple. The jagat ī sho uld co nsist o f three bh ūmikās [stages] o f equal
height. The bh ūmikā o ne after the o ther sho uld have the shape o f the
bhadrap īṭh shape.
Kaṭi [the hip o r the waist] o f the temple sho uld be made, half o f the
[height o f the] temple, similarly the k ūṭa [the portio n o f the temple abo ve
the kaṭi]. The width o f the flight o f the steps sho uld be o ne-eighth o f [the
measurement o f] the bo tto m o f the kaṭi.
Fo r each bh ūmikā sho uld be o f equal number. The k ūṭa sho uld be divided
into three parts, each having an auspicio us āmalasāraka [to pmost part].
O king! The kūṭa sho uld be quadrilateral and gradually elevating. The
[three parts] vicchedas [co mpartments] sho uld be deco rated with a ro e o f
lio ns. (Khaṇḍa III, 86:4–8)
Note: Here the characteristics o f a temple which is the best and which increases
victo ry and health.
*
52
Viṣṇudharmottarapur āṇa
Catursra [square] temple having o ne story and the shape o f a ho use is
kno wn as g ṛha. Lakṣm ī [the goddess of wealth] should be installed there.
Fo r all go ds, the same [ gṛha temple] sho uld be made having many sto reys
acco rding to o ne’s desire ... that desired temple is called bahubh ūmikā.
The temple having twelve sto reys and six sides is called meru. It sho uld be
made with fo ur doo rs for all the three go ds.
All the temples having eleven storeys are called śuktīmān. When it has ten
sto reys, it is called mandara.
That with nine sto reys is kno wn as p āriyātra and that with eight sto reys is
well kno wn as alaka. That with seven sto reys is vim āna and that with six
sto reys is called nandana. By five it beco mes pancabhauma and that with
fo ur sto reys catu ṣkaka. That with three sto reys beco mes tribhūmi and that
with two storeys dvibh ūmika and that with o ne sto rey is called ekabh ūmika.
... There is a temple r ājarāja. It is praised as the chief temple. It has o ne
jagat ī which is knee-high and equal to o ne third o f the temple, similarly
kaṭi is also o ne third. Its
śikhara [tower abo ve the sanctum sancto rum] is
equipped with kuhara [o pening] and decorated with vario us figures. It has
o ne man ḍapa [pavilio n]. Fo ur small temples are placed at the intermediate
directio ns, which are jo ined o n the gro und through fo ur man ḍapas, o ut o f
which two are at the base o f the sop āna [staircase]. (Khaṇḍa III, 86:91–97)
Note: Here the temples have been classified o n the basis o f their characteristics,
particularly the number o f sto reys.
*
53
Viṣṇudharmottarapur āṇa
On an auspicio us day co nstellatio n ... after wo rshipping, the sthapati
[architect] fo llows a daivajña [an astro lo ger] and enters a fo rest. There he
sho uld examine the trees and decide which are to be cut and which sho uld
no t be cut.
The trees who se core is red are auspicio us fo r kings; who se co re is white
are auspicio us Br āhmaṇas, whose core is yellow are auspicious Vaiśyas,
and whose core is black are auspicious Śūdras.
O King! They sho uld be o ffered foo d o f kulm āṣa — ullopika and o ther
flo wers; incense [ dh ūpa] and then O o ne co ming fro m the Yadu dynasty
this mantra sho uld be spo ken.
O the living Beings — bh ūtāni [gho sts] — living here, I bo w down to yo u.
May yo u be blessed. Accept this o ffering and change yo ur residence.... If
yo u canno t leave this tree, yo u sho uld kindly tell me clearly in the dream.
O King! O fortunate o ne! Saying this, the architect and the astro lo ger
guarded by armed men, sho uld sleep there. If o ne o f them sees an
auspicio us dream o r do es no t see accordingly the tree may be cut.
(Khaṇḍa III, 89: 1–2, 12–19)
Note: This disco urse between M ārkaṇḍeya and Vajra is a piece o f advice to the
architect regarding dārū-parik ṣā [the test o f the wo od] fo r co nstructing a building.
*
Viṣṇudharmottarapur āṇa
The learned peo ple say that the sto nes which have unifo rm co lo ur, which
are even and glo ssy, which are under the gro und, which break o nly after
54
severe blo ws, which are massive and pliant and beautiful, which are
smo oth, vo id o f sand, pleasing to the eye and mind, which are washed by
the water o f the river, pure and plunged in water, which are hidden by the
shade o f trees, which are near a sacred place and which are extensive and
bro ad sho uld be selected. (Khaṇḍa III, 90: 2–5)
Note: This disco urse is an acco unt regarding
śilā paīkṣā [the testing o f the sto ne] fo r
the co nstructing a building.
*
Viṣṇudharmottarapur āṇa
The land which is white, red and yello w o r black are beneficial to the
var ṇas [Br āhmaṇa, Kṣatriya,
Vaiśya and Śūdra] respectively. The land that
tastes madhur ā [sweet], kaṣāyā [astringent], āmlā [so ur], lavaṇā [salty] are
beneficial fo r all the peo ple o f the var ṇas respectively.
The gro und which gives o ut go o d smell and goo d so und, which is glossy
and firm, who se earth dug o ut fro m the pit no t o nly is capable o f filling it,
but also remains in excess and in who se pit the lamp do es no t faint and
the flower put in it, do es no t wither and water stays for a lo nger time, this
gro und sho uld be kno wn as praiseworthy. (Khaṇḍa III, 94: 32–33, 42–43)
Note: This acco unt sho w as to ho w the examinatio n o f land sho uld be made fo r
co nstructing a building.
***
Kautilya’s
Arthaśāstra
On all the fo ur quarters o f the bo undaries of the kingdo m, defensive
fo rtificatio ns against an enemy in war shall be co nstructed o n gro unds
55
best fitted fo r the purpo se: a water-fo rtificatio n [ audaka] such as an island
in the midst o f a river, or a plain surro unded by lo w gro und; a
mo untaino us fortificatio n [ p ārvata] such as a ro cky tract o r a cave; a
desert [ dh ānvana] such as a wild tract devo id o f water and o vergro wn with
thicket gro wing in barren so il; or a forest fo rtificatio n [ vanadurga] full o f
wagtail [ khajana], water and thickets. Of these, water and mo untain
fo rtificatio ns are best suited to defend po pulo us centres; and desert and
fo rest fo rtificatio ns are habitatio ns in wilderness [ atav īsth ānam ]. (II.4)
Note: Here Kautilya classifies the fo rtificatio ns against an enemy in war.
*
Kautilya’s
Arthaśāstra
Ro und [the] fo rt, three ditches with an intermediate space o f o ne danda
[abo ut 1.8 m] fro m each o ther, fo urteen, twelve and ten
dandas
respectively in width, with depth less by o ne quarter o r by o ne-half o f
their width, square at their botto m and o ne-third as wide as at their to p,
with sides built o f sto nes o r bricks, filled with perennial flo wing water o r
with water drawn fro m some other so urce, and po ssessing cro co diles and
lo tus plants shall be co nstructed. At a distance o f fo ur dandas [7.2 m] fro m
the [innermo st] ditch, a rampart six dandas high [10.8 m] and twice as
much bro ad shall be erected by heaping mud upwards and by making it
square at the bottom, o val at the centre pressed by the trampling o f
elephants and bulls, and planted with tho rny and po iso no us plants in
bushes. (II.4)
Note: Here other defensive measures, to be used aro und the fort, have been
suggested.
***
56
May amata
The architect will be fro m a reno wned land and issued fro m a mixed caste.
He will be a man o f quality, capable o f establishing co nstructio ns and well
versed in all sciences. He must be o f perfect bo dy, just, co mpassio nate,
disinterested, free fro m envy and weakness, beautiful and learned in
mathematics. He must have studied the authors o f o ld, be frank and a
master o f his senses. He must kno w ho w to draw and be familiar with the
who le land. He must be genero us, free from greed, in go od health,
attentive and free fro m the seven vices, endo wed with a well-cho sen name
and persevering. He must have cro ssed the o cean o f the science o f
architecture. (5.14-18, translatio n adapted fro m Bruno Dagens)
Note: This passage fro m Mayamata, a so uth Indian text o n architecture co mposed in
the time o f the Co ḻa Empire, lays down the qualities and kno wledge an architect must
be endo wed with.
*
May amata
The m ānāṅgula [o ne o f the vario us types o f āṅgula, a linear measure equal
to the width o f the middle finger o r the length o f its middle phalanx] is
said to be a multiple o f the ato m, which is defined as the smallest thing
tho se who have mastered their senses can distinguish. Eight ato ms make
up a speck o f dust; multiplying by eight every time takes us fro m the
speck o f dust to the tip o f a hair, then to a nit, to a lo use, and finally to a
grain o f barley. Eight barley grains make up a digit [ āṅgula] called m ātra
[ m ātrāṅgula, ano ther type o f āṅgula]. Twelve āṅgulas make up a span
[ vitasti o r t āla, the distance between the tips o f the extended thumb and
little finger]. Twice that is what scho lars call a cubit [ hasta, the length o f
57
the arm fro m the end o f the middle finger to the elbow]. Twenty-five
āṅgulas make up a pr ājāpatya, twenty-six a dhanurmuṣṭi and twenty-seven a
dharnurgraha.
Fo r vehicles and seats, the cubit is used. Fo r buildings, the dhanurmu ṣṭi.
Fo r all kinds o f settlements, the dharnurgraha. Ho wever, the cubit can also
be used fo r all types o f buildings. ... Fo ur cubits make up a to ise [ yaṣṭi o r
daṇḍa, 96
āṅgulas o r ro ughly 6 ft o r 1.8 m]. Villages o f vario us kinds, to wns,
villas, palaces must be measured o ut in to ises, while ho uses must be
measured in cubits. (5.2-9, translatio n adapted fro m Bruno Dagens)
Note: This lays do wn a system o f linear units to be used by architects, which is very
similar to that described in Kautilya’s Arthaśāstra. In practice, units fro m the āṅgula
(digit) to the daṇḍa (96 āṅgulas) were tho se in co mmo n use, especially the span o f 12
digits and the cubit o f 24 digits. These linear units patterned o n the pro po rtio ns and
dimensio ns o f the human bo dy were the basis for all measurements o f ro o ms, ho uses,
temples, palaces, to wns o r cities. The same units were used in ico no metry, that is, the
science o f measurements and pro po rtio ns o f sculptures.
***
M ānasāra
The characteristic features o f the palaces o f kings [o f vario us ranks] will
be described no w. The breadth … is said to begin fro m 181 daṇḍas [o f fo ur
cubits each] and end at 201 daṇḍas, the increment being by two daṇḍas. …
The length sho uld be greater than the breadth by o ne-fo urth, o ne-half,
three-fo urths, o r twice the breadth. (40.1-7, adapted fro m P.K. Acharya’s
translatio n)
Note: The M ānasāra, another so uth Indian text o n classical architecture, lays do wn
here vario us dimensio ns as well as pro portio ns fo r a king’s palace. The cho ice o f
58
specific pro portio ns perceived to be auspicious is a co nstant feature o f Indian
classical architecture, and was applied to ho uses, palaces and temples alike.
*
M ānasāra
Leaving o ut the Brahm ā plo t at the centre, in all the surro unding quarters
[o f the palace co mplex] sho uld be co nstructed the dwelling ho uses o f
kings, and all other desirable peo ple. In the Indra [east], or the Varu ṇa
[west] quarter sho uld be built the palace o f the Sārvabhauma [class o f
kings]. … The palace o f the Adhir āja [class o f king] sho uld be built in the
Yama [so uth] and the Vivasvat quarters. … [Several other classes o f kings
fo llo w.] All the main palaces sho uld have their [main] do or towards the
east. … The co ro natio n hall sho uld be situated to the so uth o f the main
palace. … The treasury and the ho use for the sto rage o f [valuable] clo thes
sho uld be separately situated in the Varu ṇa [west] o r the Nair- ṛita [so uthwest] quarter. … The ho uses fo r keeping jewels and go ld, etc., sho uld be
situated in the Soma [no rth] o r the Mukhyaka quarter. … The dining hall
sho uld be situated in the so uth or so uth-west, as well as in the north-east,
where sho uld also be situated the kitchen. The tank sho uld be dug in the
no rth-west or the so uth-west. … The stables fo r ho rses and elephants, etc.,
sho uld be built o n the left side o f the gate. The guard-ho use for the
watchmen sho uld be situated o n the right side o f the gate. (40.73-111,
adapted fro m P.K. Acharya’s translatio n)
Note: These are o nly a few instructio ns in a lo ng list describing every po ssible feature
o f the king’s palace, its lo catio n with regard to the cardinal directio ns o r with regard
to quarters asso ciated with specific deities. This is the traditio n o f v āstuśāstra, which
asso ciates divine powers to the vario us roo ms o f a residence and therefo re to vario us
59
human o ccupatio ns. It may be no ted that such arrangements were never co mpletely
standardized, and
despite
co mmo nly agreed
general principles, there were
so metimes substantial differences fro m o ne text to ano ther.
*
M ānasāra
There sho uld no t be any defect in the breadth, the height, the plinth, the
lintel, the pillar, the entablature, the platfo rm, the neck, the [spherical]
ro o f, the do me, the no se, the windows, and the doo r, with regard to the
po rtico , the stalk and such o ther parts, the sanctum, the floo rs, all the
stairs and staircases, the wall, the gateho uses, the pavilio ns, the corrido rs,
the balco nies, the ro o f, the shed-yards, the sides and the to ps, and with
regard to the fo undatio n and the neighbo uring area: no where sho uld
there be any defect. The [vigilant] eye o f the architect sho uld avo id the
po ssibility o f any defect in tho se members. (69.3-11, adapted fro m P.K.
Acharya’s translatio n)
Note: The M ānasāra devotes a who le chapter to the misfortunes that will befall a
ho use master, a king or the kingdo m itself if there are any defects in the co nstructio n
o f the ho me, the palace or the city. Perfectio n in architecture and co nstructio n were
clearly highly valued.
Comprehension
1. Acco rding to Mayamata, what qualities and kno wledge sho uld an architect
po ssess?
2. What is ico no metry?
60
3. Acco rding to M ānsar ā, what sho uld be the pro portio n and dimensio ns for the
palaces o f kings? Do the same principles apply to any other kind o f buildings?
4. Acco rding to M ānsar ā , what sho uld be the lo catio n with regard to the cardinal
directio ns that is appro priate for building palaces for kings.
5. ‘Perfectio n in architecture and co nstructio n were clearly highly valued’. What
vital factors sho uld the architect keep in mind during the co nstructio n o f the
ho me, palace o r city to avo id misfo rtunes befalling a ho usemaster or king?

61
Architecture: A Survey
(2) Medieval & Colonial Architecture
Fort and Palace Architecture
There are many references to forts and fo rtificatio ns in ancient and medieval
literature dating fro m the Vedic times. In the Ṛgveda the wo rd pur refers to a large
settlement that was protected by fortificatio ns o r o ther means. The Aitareya
Br āhmaṇa refers to the three Agnis (fires) as three fo rts which prevent the asuras
(demo ns) fro m disturbing the sacrifice. Kautilya’s Arthaśāstra gives a detailed acco unt
o f an ideal fo rtified city. Durg is the Indian term fo r ‘fort’, and means ‘difficult to
trespass’, signifying the impo rtance o f a strategic site, a stro ng wall and a mo at to
make it an impregnable bastio n. There are six types o f fo rts: the dhanva durg (desert
fo rt), the mahi durg (the mud fort), the jala durg (the water fort), the giri durg (hill
fo rt), the v ṛk ṣa or vana durg (the fo rest fort) and the nara durg (fo rt pro tected by men).
India is do tted with forts built by vario us rulers, such as the Rajputs and the
Muslim dynasties. In no rthern India, fo rt architecture was a combinatio n of
traditio nal architecture and Central Asian and Persian influences. The So uth being
geo graphically iso lated, its architecture was no t influenced to that level and
generally retained its o wn styles.
The Rajputs were creative builders and constructed so me o f the mo st
illustrio us and impressive forts and palaces. So me o f the fo rts are at Kangra, Rai
Pitho ra, Chitto rgarh, Gwalior, Kumbhalgarh, Jaisalmer, Meharangarh, Junagarh,
Amber, Jaigarh and Shrirangapatnam . These fo rts and palaces have co mplex
co mpo sitio ns.
62
Wall of Rai Pithora fort built in 1180 CE by Prithviraj Chauhan.
The Kangra Fo rt (Himachal Pradesh) was built by the ro yal Rajput family of
Kangra (the Kato ca dynasty), which traces its o rigins to the ancient Trigarta kingdo m
mentio ned in the Mah ābh ārata. It is the largest fo rt in the Himalayas and probably the
o ldest dated fo rt in India. The fo rt was first mentio ned in Alexander the Great’s war
reco rds, which wo uld bring it to the 4th century BCE.
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Kangra Fort and its Laxminarayan temple
Left : Chittorgarh Fort, Right: Vijaya stambha (source: Wikipedia)
Chitto rgarh, the o ldest surviving fo rt, is said to have been co nstructed by the
Mo r kings between the 5th and the 8th centuries and is named after o ne o f them,
Chitrangada Mori, as inscribed o n the co ins o f the perio d. The fo rt co mplex
co mprises 65 histo ric built structures, amo ng them fo ur palace co mplexes, nineteen
main temples, fo ur memorials and twenty functio nal water bodies. The first hill fort
with o ne main entrance was established in the 5th century and successively fortified
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until the 12th century. The seco nd, a mo re significant defence structure, was
co nstructed in the 15th century during the reign o f the Siso dia Rajputs. Besides the
palace co mplex, lo cated o n the highest and mo st secure terrain to the west o f the
fo rt, many o f the other significant structures, such as the Kumbha Shyam, Mira Bai,
Adi Varah and Shringar Chauri temples, and the vijaya stambha (pillar o f victo ry)
memo rial were co nstructed in this seco nd phase.
Ano ther important surviving fort is at Gwalior. This fo rt, bo unded by so lid
walls o f sandsto ne, is sprawled o ver a hillto p measuring o ver 2 km in length. The fo rt
co mplex includes temples, palaces and a number o f water tanks. Mo reo ver, the
so uthern path is bo unded by intricately carved ro ck-cut temples o f Jain t īrthāṅkars.
The Telī-kā-Mandir temple fo llows the Dr āviḍa style o f architecture, as do es the 9th
century Caturbhuj Mandir which is an example o f a Vaiṣṇavite shrine. The Man Singh
palace is a pro minent early 16th-century palace built by Raja Man Singh To mar.
Panoramic view of Gwalior Fort (source: Wikipedia).
The Kumbhalgarh fo rt is lo cated o n the banks o f Banas River and is the seco nd
mo st impo rtant fort after that o f Chittorgarh. Bo th were built under the rule o f Rana
Kumbha. The Kumbhalgarh fo rt is accessed through a series o f seven gateways named
Aret Po l, Halla Po l, Hanuman Po l, Ram Po l, Vijay Po l, Nimboo Po l and Bhairo n Po l.
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The fo rt’s perimeter walls extend to 36 km. The fro ntal walls are three metres thick;
the ramparts reach a height o f 3 to 5 m, reinforced by circular structures. All gates
leading to wards the palace co mpo und o n the western side o f the fort are ro o fed and
flanked by additio nal structures. There are o ver 360 temples within the fort, 300
ancient Jain and the rest Hindu.
Top : The walls of the fort of Kumbhalgarh extend over 38 km. Bottom : Aerial view of
Kumbhalgarh fort (source: Wikimedia commons)
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Jaisalmer Fort, built in 1156 by Rawal Jaisal, a Bhati Rajput ruler, stands o n the
stark stretches o f the great Thar Desert, on the Trikuta Hill. Architecturally,
Jaisalmer fort co nsists o f three layers o f wall. The o uter wall (the lowest) is compo sed
o f so lid sto ne blo cks. Fro m the inner wall, Rajput warrio rs used to thro w bo iling
water, o il, massive blo cks o f ro cks o n the enemies, when they go t trapped between
the inner and the middle walls.
Jaisalmer Fort (source: fotopedia).
Mehrangarh fo rt is an architectural marvel that stands pro udly o n a 125-mlo ng hill in the histo ric city o f Jo dhpur. Rao Jodha, the fo under o f Jodhpur, started
the co nstructio n o f this fo rt in the 15th century, but it was co mpleted during the reign
o f Maharaja Jaswant Singh two centuries later. The fo rt wall spreads o ver so me 5 km.
The fo rt is situated 120 m abo ve the city and is enclo sed by impo sing thick walls. The
Jaypo l o r the gate o f victory is the starting po int o f the fo rt. Maharaja Man Singh who
ruled Jo dhpur in the 19th century used this gate to commemo rate his victo ry o ver the
armies o f Jaipur and Bikaner. Apart fro m this gate there are six o ther gates. The Iro n
Gate preserves the handprints o f the wives o f Maharaja Man Singh who immo lated
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themselves o n their husband’s funeral pyre. The area within this fo rt is co vered with
spacio us co urtyards and deco rated palaces. The main palaces o f the fo rt include Mo t ī
Mahal (Pearl Palace), Ph ūl Mahal (Flower Palace), Śīśa Mahal (Mirror Palace), Sileh
Kh ānā and Daulat Khānā. So me artifacts o f the era like musical instruments and ro yal
attire are also preserved in the palaces.
Mehrangarh Fort, Jodhpur (source: fotopedia)
Junagarh fort at Bikaner (source: Wikipedia)
The Junagarh fort, lo cated in Bikaner, is o ne o f the mo st impressive fort
co mplexes in India. It was built by Raja Rai Singh in 1588. It is o ne o f tho se few fo rts
that are no t built o n a hillto p. There are 37 red sandsto nes (Dulmera) and marble
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inside the premises o f the fort, which include palaces with intricately carved
windows, beautiful balco nies, towers, temples and pavilio ns. The highlights o f the
fo rt are Candra Mahal, deco rated beautifully with mirro rs, paintings and carved
marble panels, the Ph ūl Mahal, the Karan Mahal and the multi-sto reyed An ūp Mahal,
which was o nce used as the go vernance chambers fo r the rulers. Gaṅg ā Niwās,
Dūngar Niwās, Vijai Mahal and Raṅg Mahal are also fine examples o f the splendid
architecture.
Amber Fo rt, set in a picturesque lo catio n, a little away from Jaipur, the capital
o f Rajasthan state, was built by the Kacchaw āha Raja Man Singh in 1592. Its
architectural style is a blend o f Hindu and Mughal architecture. Huddling o n the
hillto p, the fort sho wcased so me unique work o f delicate glass mirro rs o n the walls
and ceiling that reflect the go lden rays o f the sun all o ver the premises. The fo rt is
built in red sandsto ne and white marble. The entrance to the fort is thro ugh the Sūraj
Po l which o pens into the Jaleb Chowk, the main co urtyard. The mo st prominent
structures inside the Amber fo rt are the Diw ān-i- Ām (the hall o f public audience) and
the Diw ān-i-Kh ās (the Hall o f private audience).
Amber Fort (source: Wikimedia)
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The magnificent Jaigarh Fo rt o r ‘victory fo rt’ constructed near Jaipur by Sawai
Jai Singh in 1726 is rugged and similar in structural design to the Amber Fort. The
fo rt is built with thick walls o f red sandsto ne and is spread o ver a vast range o f 3 km
in length, with a width o f 1 km. The fort houses an eno rmo us 50-to n canno n o n
wheels kno wn as ‘Jaivana Canno n’ and a huge palace co mplex. This includes the
Laxm ī Vilās, Lalit Mandir and the Vilās Mandir.
Left: Double wall Jaigarh fort, Right: Diya Burj (Lamp tower) in Jaigarh fort
In co ntrast to the co mplex co mpositio ns o f forts and palaces built by Rajputs,
the Islamic fo rts and palaces, like Pur ānā Quilā (‘o ld fo rt’) and Lāl Quilā (‘red fo rt’) in
Delhi, tend to be symmetrical. The architecture o f these fo rts is a blend o f Islamic,
Persian and Indian styles o f architecture. These were built o f sandsto ne o r marble
and were endo wed with jharokh ās (a type o f o verhanging balco ny), chatr īs (elevated,
do me-shaped pavilio ns), chajjās (pro jecting eaves o r co ver usually suppo rted o n large
carved brackets) and jālīs (perfo rated sto ne or latticed screen used for ventilatio n as
well as deco ratio n).
70
West gate of Pur ānā Quilā in Delhi (source: Wikipedia)
The Pur āna Quilā was co nstructed by Humayun and Sher Shah. The walls o f
the fort rise to a height o f 18 m, traverse abo ut 1.5 km, and have three arched
gateways: the Humayun Darw āz ā, Talāqī Darwāzā and Barā Darwāz ā. All the gates are
huge, do uble-sto reyed and built with red sandsto ne. They are flanked by two huge
semi-circular bastio n towers, deco rated with white and co lo ured-marble inlays and
blue tiles. They are also replete with o rnate o verhanging jharokh ās (balco nies) and are
to pped by pillared chatr īs (pavilio ns).
Ano ther impo rtant fort is Agra’s majestic Red Fo rt built by Empero r Akbar. It
co ntains numero us impressive structures like the Jah āngīr Mahal, Khās Mahal,
Dīwan-i-Kh ās, Dīwan-i- Ām, Macch ī Bhawan and Motī Masjid. This Agra fo rt is
enclo sed by a do uble battlemented massive wall o f red sandsto ne. Mo st o f the
buildings added later used marble as the chief constructio n material.
Delhi’s Lāl Quilā (Red Fo rt) and Agra’s Tāj Mahal built in the mid-17th century
by Empero r Shahjahan are the pinnacle o f Mughal architectural achievement. The Lāl
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Quilā, built o f red sandsto ne is o ctago nal in shape, with two lo nger sides o n the east
and west. The perimeter o f its stro ng ramparts is abo ut 2.4 km. The Red Fo rt rises to
a height o f 33.5 m o n the to wn side and 18 m alo ng the river. A wide mo at surro unds
the fort, which was o riginally co nnected with the Yamuna and was always filled with
water. The two main gateways, known as Lahori Gate and Delhi Gate (so named as
they face Laho re and Delhi respectively) are three-sto rey-high and flanked by semio ctago nal towers. The main entrance to the Lāl Quilā is thro ugh the Lahori Gate.
Beyo nd the gate, there is a roo fed passage, flanked by arcaded apartments leading to
the palaces, kno wn as Chatt ā Cho wk. So me o f the main buildings within the fo rt are:
the Dīwān-i- Ām (hall o f public audience) the Dīwān-i-Kh ās (hall of selective
audience), the Ham ām (bathroo m set), the perso nal mo sque o f Aurangzeb, Mo t ī
Masjid (Pearl Mo sque) and Mumt āz Mahal.
Delhi’s Red Fort
Go lco nda Fo rt, originally a mud fo rt fo unded by the Kākatiyā dynasty of
Warangal during the 13th century, was later reco nstructed into a massive fo rt by
vario us Qutb Shahi rulers during the 16th century, o n the o utskirts o f Hyderabad. The
72
fo rt, o n an iso lated granite hill, rises abo ut 120 m abo ve the surro unding plain. The
co nto urs o f the fo rt blend with tho se o f the hill. Nowadays the ruins have a deso late
majesty in the midst o f an arid plain.
Golconda Fort
The fo rt has eight gates ( darw āzās), the main gate being Fateh Darw āz ā (Gate
o f Victory). The doo r is 4 m wide and almo st 8 m high and studded with steel spikes
to pro tect it from charging elephants. The fo rt also includes a palace, a mo sque, a
parade gro und, and an armo ury besides many other buildings.
The famo us Srirangapatna fort, also
called Tipu’s palace, in Myso re,
Karnataka, was built in 1537 in Indo -Islamic style. This magnificent fo rt is co nsidered
to be the seco nd to ughest fo rt o f India. It has a palace, Lāl Mahal, which was the then
residence o f the mo st audacio us king o f Myso re, Tipu Sultan. The fort was built in a
do uble wall defence system and has fo ur entrances, namely Delhi, Bangalo re, Myso re
and Water and Elephant gates.
Mo st o f these fo rts had ingenio us water structures designed for harvesting
and sto rage, including step-wells, elabo rate reservo irs and channels. (See mo dule
Other Technologies fo r more details.)
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Mosques
A mo sque ( masjid), a place o f worship fo r the fo llo wers o f the Islamic faith, is
primarily decorated with geo metric shapes, fo liage and flo ral patterns, and
calligraphy. This usually includes a number o f distinctive elements: minb ār , m īnār ,
mehr āb , do mes and prayer hall. Minb ār is a raised platfo rm fro m which an Im ām
(leader o f prayer) addresses the co ngregatio n. Mīnār is the tall, slender to wer, usually
situated at o ne o f the co rners o f the mo sque structure. The to p o f the m īnār is always
the highest po int in a mosque that has o ne, and o ften the highest po int in the
immediate area. Mehr āb is semicircular niche in the wall o f a mo sque that indicates
the qiblā, that is, the directio n o f the Kaba in Mecca, which Muslims sho uld face when
praying. The do mes, which signify the vaults o f heaven and the sky, are o ften placed
directly above the main prayer hall. As time progressed, do mes grew, fro m o ccupying
a small part o f the ro o f near the mehr āb to enco mpassing the who le roo f abo ve the
prayer hall.
Altho ugh the do mes normally to ok o n the shape o f a hemisphere, the Mughals
in
India
po pularized
o nio n-
shaped do mes. So me mo sques
have
multiple,
o ften
smaller,
do mes in additio n to the main
large do me that resides at the
centre. The
prayer
hall, also
kno wn as the musallāh , is ano ther
impo rtant
So me
feature
mo sques
of
mo sque.
have
Islamic
Jāmā Masjid in Delhi
calligraphy and Quranic verses
74
o n the walls to assist wo rshippers in fo cusing on the Ko ran, as well as fo r decoratio n.
The Mecca mo sque in Hyderabad and the Jāmā Masjid in Delhi illustrate these
features o f Indian mo sques.
Mecca mosque in Hyderabad (source: Wikimedia)
The Mecca mo sque is a listed heritage building lo cated in Hyderabad.
Muhammed Quli Qutub Shah co mmissio ned bricks to be made fro m earth bro ught
fro m Mecca and inducted them into the co nstructio n o f the central arch o f the
mo sque, which explains its name. This mo sque is an awe-inspiring granite giant. Its
main hall is 23 m high, 67 m wide and 55 m lo ng, big eno ugh to acco mmodate 10,000
wo rshippers at a time. Fifteen graceful arches suppo rt the roo f o f the main hall, five
o n each o f the three sides. A sheer wall rises on the fo urth side to pro vide mehr āb.
The three arched facades have been carved from a single piece o f granite, which too k
five years to quarry. On the fo ur sides o f the roo f o f the main mo sque are ramparts
made up o f granite planks in the shape o f inverted co nches perched o n pedestals.
75
Mausoleums
So me o f the Mo ghul rulers built mauso leums (mo numental to mbs, maqbar ā in Arabic)
as lasting testaments to their legacy. Amo ng the impo rtant o nes are the Tāj Mahal,
the mauso leums o f Akbar (at Agra), Humayun (Delhi), Mo hammed Adil Shah (Bijapur;
it is also known as ‘Go l Gumbaz’), and the mauso leum o f the Lady (‘Bībī kā Maqbar ā’
at Aurangabad, built by Aurangzeb in memo ry of his first wife).
Left: Humayun’s tomb, Right: Taj Mahal
The famo us Taj Mahal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, has an extensive
co mplex o f buildings and gardens that co vers 22.44 hectares. The main chambers of
the Taj Mahal ho use the sarco phagi o f Empero r Shah Jahan and his wife Mumtaz
Mahal. Fo ur minarets frame the mauso leum, and in the centre o f the m īnār is the
large, white marble do me that enclo ses the to mb. The buildings are co nstructed with
walls o f brick and rubble inner co res faced with either marble or sandsto ne lo cked
to gether with iro n dowels and clamps. Twenty-eight types o f precio us and semiprecio us sto nes such as jasper, jade, crystal, turquo ise, lapis lazuli, sapphire and
carnelian were inlaid into the white marble.
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Colonial Architecture
With the advent o f the co lo nial era, Indian architecture saw the arrival o f diverse
Euro pean styles, whether o f churches (especially in Kerala, Go a and Ko lkata) o r o f
secular buildings, in particular tho se that symbo lized co lo nial authority: go vernment
buildings, co urts, central secretariat and headquarters o f the co lo nial go vernment.
Victoria terminal, Mumbai
Amo ng tho se are heritage buildings such as Mumbai’s GPO, Chhatrapati
Shivaji Terminus, Municipal Corporatio n o f Greater Mumbai, and Gateway o f India,
Ko lkata’s Victo ria Memo rial, Chennai’s Go vernment Museum and Ripo n Building,
Amritsar’s Khalsa Co llege, Indo re’s Daly Co llege, and many more. Interestingly, such
buildings were o ften influenced by earlier Indian architectural styles, fo r instance in
their genero us use o f do mes and arches.
77
Comprehension
1.
Which ancient text defines an ideal fortified city?
2.
Define durg and mentio n the types o f durg as referred to in Indian texts.
3.
‘Rajasthan is the land o f forts and palaces.’ Name five forts o f Rajasthan stating
the time when they were built and their builder(s).
4.
Name the o ldest fo rt in India.
5.
Name so me o f the forts built by Islamic rulers having perfect symmetry. Also
mentio n their architectural styles.
6.
What do yo u understand by Indo -Islamic architecture? Give examples.
7.
Outline the salient features o f a mo sque.
8.
Name so me heritage buildings o f co lo nial India.
Activity
 Co mplete the table with the required info rmation.
Nam e of the Fort
Place
Ruler/ Dynasty
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Unique features
Activities
 If yo u were to be a guide acco mpanying students to a heritage site in yo ur city,
what are the instructio ns yo u wo uld like them to fo llow when yo u co nduct the
trip to make it a memorable and meaningful experience.
 Ho ld a debate o n the to pic: ‘Develo pment sho uld not be at the co st o f lo sing o ur
tangible heritage.’
 ‘We are no ble citizens.’ Prepare a list o f do ’s and do n’ts which indicate that we are
sensitive and co ncerned fo r o ur cultural heritage.
Projects
 The United Natio ns Educatio nal, Scientific and Cultural Organizatio n (UNESCO)
seeks to enco urage the identificatio n, protection and preservatio n o f cultural and
natural heritage aro und the wo rld co nsidered to be o f o utstanding value to
humanity. Co llect info rmatio n abo ut UNESCO-designated Wo rld Heritage sites in
India, place them o n India’s map and co nduct a quiz co mpetitio n based upo n the
info rmatio n co llected by yo u.
 Study the forts o f India and evaluate them against the salient features explained
in Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra. Yo u may explo re the follo wing po ints:

Water system (rainwater harvesting and storage)

Measures taken to make the fort impregnable

Area used fo r habitatio ns and specificatio ns regarding the number o f
inhabitants.
 ‘Every mo nument has a sto ry to unfo ld.’ How exciting it wo uld be when yo u
disco ver the Red Fo rt narrating tales o f the Great Rebellio n o f 1857. Wo rk in pairs
to select a few fo rts, temples, to mbs and mo sques and co llect info rmatio n abo ut
79
the perio d, dynasty, reaso n behind the co nstructio n o f those mo numents,
materials used, design, chief architect, number o f builders and artisans, and the
time and mo ney spent to build them. Now present the histo ry o f tho se
mo numents thro ugh ro le play or as story narrato rs.
 Delhi — India’s capital — is impregnated with the histo rical remains o f seven
cities. Research and make a presentatio n o f yo ur findings.
Extended Activities
 Plan an exhibitio n o f hand-painted picture po stcards o n India’s ancient
architecture. Yo u may ho ld a three-day wo rksho p fo r the event and advertise it
creatively. Yo u may refer to the fo llowing steps fo r drafting:

Bring the best images o f vario us mo numents and distribute them amo ng the
participants.

Paint o r sketch a bird’s eye view o f each mo nument o n a picture postcard.
Pro vide informatio n abo ut the mo nument o n the reverse side o f the po stcard.
(Yo u may buy blank po stcards fro m the po st-o ffice.)

Put up yo ur creatio ns o n display.
No te: Yo u may also refer to the fo llo wing URL for ideas o n po stcards:
www.thedelhiwalla.co m/ 2011/ 09/ 05/ city-mo numents-%E2%80%93-h-a-mirzaso ns-po stcards-muslim-delhi/
 Organize a heritage walk to a nearby mo nument and either do cument it with
pictures or make a do cumentary o n behalf o f the scho o l. Make a diary entry of
this visit.
 To appreciate India’s magnificent architectural heritage and unique traditio ns,
many dance and music festivals are o rganized every year at vario us heritage sites.
Make a list o f such events held in the recent years.
80
Further Reading
1. Baig, Amita, and Joginder Singh. 2010. Forts & Palaces of India. Noida: Om Books
International.
2. Manchanda, Bindu. 2006. Forts & Palaces of India: Sentinels of History . New Delhi: Roli Books.
3. Nath, R. 2003–05.History of Mughal Architecture . New Delhi: Abhinav Publications.
Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in May 2013)
 Co lo nial Architecture in India:
www.indianmonumentsportal.com/ indian- architecture/ colonial-architecture.html
 Indian Fo rts: www.culturalindia.net/ indian-forts/
 Fo rts and Palaces o f India: www.incredibleindiatourism.in/ forts.htm
 Mo sques in India: www.archinomy.com/ case-studies/ 2076/ mosques-in-india
 Mughal architecture: http:/ / indiapicks.co m/ annapurna/ S_Mughal.htm
 An introductio n to Mughal architecture (PowerPo int presentatio n):
www.slideshare.net/ aziz_khan/ mughal-architecture

81
(A po em by a ninth-class student)
इमारत कु छ कहना चाहती ह
इमारत कु छ कहना चाहती ह
बीती बात हम सु नाना चाहती ह
लोग कहते ह उनके होते ह कान
म कहता हू ँ उनक होती है ज़ु बान
िजससे वे कु छ बताना चाहती ह
इमारत कु छ कहना चाहती ह
पास उनके खड़े हो जाओ तो आवाज़ आती ह
वह जीती ह जागती ह और साँसे भी लेती ह
य द सु नना चाहते हो इमारत क बात
तो एक बार अकेले बैठो उनके साथ
य क इमारत
बसर याद से धू ल हटाना चाहती ह
इमारत कु छ कहना चाहती ह
कहती इमारत
तु ह सु नाती हू ँ वीर क गाथा
और कहा नयाँ राजाओं क
फर भी
तु मने
त पहु ँचाई और मु झपे चोट क
तु हारे बड़े बू ढ जैसी हू ँ कु छ मेरा स मान करो
मेरा अि त व है खतरे म कुछ तो मेरा
इमारत यह बात हम समझाना चाहती ह
यान करो
इमारत कु छ कहना चाहती ह
गौरव भ , क ा नवम,(२००४)
राजक य
तभा वकास व यालय ,वस त कु ज, नई द ल
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Buildings want to tell something
Buildings want to tell something
Want to narrate things past
People say they have ears
I say they have a tongue
With which they want to say something
Buildings want to tell something
Stand near them and voices come
They live are awake and also breathe
If you want to hear what they say
Once just sit alone with them
Because buildings
Seek to wipe the dust off memories
Buildings want to say something
The building says
Let me narrate the tales o f the brave
And the sto ries o f kings
Yet
Yo u damaged me, and hurt me
Am like the o ld o f yo ur family
My being is endangered — do attend to me
Buildings want to make us understand just this
Buildings want to tell something.
Gaurav Bhat, 9th Standard (2004)
Natio nal Talent Develo pment Scho o l, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi
83
Dance: A Survey
(1) Classical Dance Forms
Dance has a lo ng histo ry in India. A large amo unt o f material related to dance, dating
fro m as early as the 2nd century BCE up to the 21st century CE, is available. Fo r
example we have a bro nze ‘dancing girl’ figurine fro m Mo henjo -daro and a broken
to rso fro m Harappa in a dance po se. Fo r co nvenience, we may divide the history o f
dance into three periods — classical, middle and mo dern.
Classical Period
The first still available classical manual o n dance is
Bharata Muni’s Nāṭyaśāstra (abo ut 2nd century BCE). It
gives a clear and detailed acco unt o f dance. It is said
that
apsar ās
perfo rm
in
(celestial
the
dancers)
earliest
drama
were
to
made
make
to
the
perfo rmance interesting fo r the audience. After
watching the first perfo rmance o f drama, Nāṭyaśāstra
narrates
that
Śiva wanted dance and dance
mo vements to be made a part o f drama, and fo r that
the sage Taṇḍu was requested to co mpo se and direct
a dance. Taṇḍu taught dance mo vements — c ārīs
(fo o t
and
leg
po sitio ns),
maṇḍalas
mo vements), karaṇas (mo vements o f
(circular
hands)
and
Śiva’s t āṇḍava
(Belūr temple, Karnataka)
aṅg āhāras (dance po stures) — to Bharata Muni who made them part o f the training o f
acto rs and dancers in a play. The dance came to be called t āṇḍava, a series o f body
po stures that form the basic language o f Indian dance. The parallel dance perfo rmed
by wo men is known as lāsya.
84
After the Nāṭyaśāstra, ano ther significant
available wo rk o n dance is Nandike śvar’s
Abhinaya Darpaṇa (2 century CE). These two
nd
manuals present the principles o f dance.
Indian dance has a grammar. Each dance
fo rm is a system o f structures at different
levels. Fo r instance, the minimal units in a
dance are (1) sth āna, standing po sitio n; (2)
c ārī, foo t and leg movements; (3) n ṛttahasta,
A karaṇa at the Chidambaram temple
hands in a dancing po sitio n. A co nfiguratio n
o f these co nstitutes a karaṇa. There are 108 karaṇas; o ne can see them sculptured at
the Chidambaram Naṭar āja temple. Any two karaṇas co nstitute a m ātrika; a
co mbinatio n o f two , three o r fo ur m ātrikas co nstitutes, in turn, an aṅgah āra, an
o rganized sequence o f po stures. Finally, an arranged sequence o f aṅgah āras
co nstitutes a dance.
Which periods do the
above two sculptures
belong to?
Dance is either m ārgī or de śī, the two catego ries that
apply to all arts. M ārgī is the standard, fo rmal traditio n;
deśi is fo lk, variable traditio ns. Another classificatio n o f
dance, as we have no ted, is t āṇḍava and lāsya in character.
In o ne sense t āṇḍava stands fo r the vigo ro us expressio n and actio ns and feelings
regardless whether the dance is performed by men or wo men. Lāsya, o n the other
hand, stands for elements o f grace and so ftness and gentle emo tio ns. These are
usually asso ciated with wo men because Pārvatī, Śiva’s co nso rt, taught it to Uṣā, sage
Bāṇa’s daughter, who then passed o n the art to the wo men o f India. However, since
lo ve is the predominant sentiment in lāsya, it is also danced by men when their dance
needs to express this sentiment. For example, Kṛṣṇa’s dance with gop īs is in lāsya
mo de .
85
There are three main co mpo nents — n āṭya, nṛtya and n ṛtta — which to gether
with other elements make up the classical dance. Nāṭya co rrespo nds to drama; it is
the dramatic element o f a stage perfo rmance. Bharata defines n āṭya as ‘a mimicry o f
the explo its o f gods, demo ns, kings, as well as o f ho useho lders o f this wo rld’. (See
mo dule Theatre and Drama fo r Class XI fo r mo re o n n āṭya.) Nṛtya is the rhythmic
mo vement o f the bo dy in dance co mbined with emo tio n o r rasa and bh āva. Nṛtta
stands for rhythmic mo vements and steps. On this basis, the technique o f dancing
can be catego rized under two clear heads, n ṛtta and n ṛtya.
Bo th rasa and bh āva are co nveyed thro ugh abhinaya o r dramatic expressio n —
āṅgika (gestures o f the bo dy), v ācika (verbal), āhārya (co stume and make-up) and
sāttvika (physical manifestatio ns o f mental and emotio nal states) — which go vern
n āṭya. The v ācikabhinaya o f the n āṭya is replaced by the music acco mpanying the
dance. The musical acco mpaniment invariably co nsists o f po etry o r lyric o r narrative
which is set to music and rhythm and strengthens the bh āva. The dancer also depicts
tho se emotio ns thro ugh sāttvika (vo luntary physical manifestatio ns o f mental and
emo tio nal states) like paralysis, perspiratio n, hair standing o n end, change o f vo ice,
change o f co lo ur, trembling, fainting and weeping and helps in the realizatio n and
experience o f rasa.
Indian classical dance fo rms were nurtured with a purpo se in the sacred
premises o f temples. Temple dancing was imbued with the idea o f taking art to the
peo ple and co nveying a message to the masses. The temple rituals necessitated the
physical presence o f mo rtal wo men (instead o f the o rnate, carved figures o f apsar ās to
pro pitiate the gods. The allego rical view o f dance,
used fo r the purpo se o f the pleasing the devas, was
A devadāsī
was a girl married to
a deity, who dedicated her life in
gradually transformed into a regular, service (with
service of the temple or deity.
deep religio us co nno tatio ns) in the temples o f the
Find out more about the history
medieval times. This was po ssibly the reaso n
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of devadāsīs.
behind the o rigin o f devadāsīs, the earliest perfo rmers o f the classical Indian dances.
They were suppo sed to pursue the dance fo rms devo tedly and excel in them. They
lived and danced o nly in the temple premises, their vo catio n enjo ying great religio us
prestige.
Middle Period
In the medieval perio d, tho ugh the Nāṭyaśāstra traditio n was alive, yet there were
departures and mo dificatio ns. Sāraṅgadeva, who in his Saṅgītaratn ākara intro duced
the co ncept o f paddhati (style) and the mo vements, spo ke o f basic mo vements under
two catego ries: śuddha (purely classical o r academic form) and de śī (regio nal
variants). The reco gnitio n o f regio nal styles co ntributed greatly to the further
develo pment o f the individual, distinctive, classical styles o f the vario us regio ns.
Fro m the 13th century o nward the impo rtant manuals o f different regio ns, which
include Nṛttyaratn āvalī o f Jayasen āpati fro m Andhra Pradesh, Saṅg ītopanīśat Sarodhara
o f Vacan ācārya, Śudh ākalaśa o f Gujarat, Hastamukt āvalī o f Assam, Govinda Saṅgita Lilā
Vilāsa o f Maṇipur, Abhinava Candrik ā
Dāmodar o f Raghun āth
of Maheśvara Mahāpātra fro m Orissa,
Saṅg īta
from Bengal, ‘ Ādi Bharatam’, ‘Bharatarnava’ and ‘Nṛtta
Addhy āya’ o f the Saṅg ītamakaranda fro m Tamil Nadu, Balar āma Bharatam and
Hastalāk ṣṇadīpik ā fro m Kerala, the Nṛtyaratnakośa by Kumbhakaraṇa fro m Rajasthan,
and the Saṇg ītamallikā o f Mo hammad Shah fro m no rth India attest to numero us
regio nal variatio ns.
The temples o f medieval India also show that the sculptors had co nsiderable
technical knowledge o f the art o f dance. The Bṛhadeśvara temple o f Thanjavur (o r
Tanjo re, 11th century) and, as we mentio ned earlier, the Naṭarāja temple o f
Chidambaram
depicted
karaṇas,
while
the
Orissan
temples o f
Parmeśwara and Rājarāni (9th–11th century) described c ārīs and
Vithal Deul,
sth ānas (po sitio ns) as
given in the Nāṭyaśāstra. The Khajur āho temples of the Candela kings (11th–13th
87
century) and the who le range o f medieval sculpture extending fro m Rajap ūtānā and
Saur āṣṭra to Odisha and fro m Kashmir to Thiruvananthapuram (11th–13th century)
po rtray a variety o f dance po ses and mo vements which are accurate illustratio ns o f
either the o riginal styles o r o f texts that were fo llo wed by the artists.
The different styles o f classical Indian dance were practised and perfected by
creative masters belo nging to different ghar ān ās (family traditio ns or scho o ls) in
different regio ns. These masters were the repo sito ries o f an invaluable oral traditio n.
They frequently co ntributed to the growth o f their art despite their lack o f basic
educatio n and academic kno wledge o f the Sanskrit language. No w the Indian classical
dances, which were limited to the temple premises, were perfo rmed in ro yal co urts,
in the presence o f the elite and the no bility.
Modern Period
In British India, the system o f educatio n did no t reco gnize the arts or crafts as a
subject o f educatio nal curricula. Even temple dancing was fo rbidden. Ho wever, the
masters o f this art co ntinued to practise it in the seclusio n o f their ghar ān ās (family
traditio ns o r scho o ls) . The recent revival o f interest in dance has helped the
develo pment and po pularity o f Indian dance styles which have spread beyo nd
bo rders. In the early 20th century, Uday Shankar laid the fo undatio n o f what may be
termed mo dern Indian dance as oppo sed to any o f the Indian classical fo rms; his style
came to be known as o riental dance. At the same time, art expo nents such as
Rukmani Devi, Menaka, Go pinath and Ragini Devi co ntributed to the revival o f dance
fo rms, which they presented in a manner easily received by spectato rs.
The presentatio n o f Indian dance in Hindi cinema has pro jected modern
dances to a glo bal audience. Dance in early Hindi cinema was primarily mo delled o n
classical Indian dance styles and particularly tho se o f histo ric North Indian dancing
girls o r o n fo lk dancers. Mo dern films o ften use a fusio n o f Indian dance styles with
88
Western dance styles. It co uld be a co mbination or inter-mixing o f Indian classical,
Indian fo lk dance, belly dancing, jazz, hip ho p and even fo lk fo rms.
Classical Dance Forms
Indian dance fo rms fall into two broad catego ries — classical and fo lk (for fo lk dance
fo rms, see this mo dule’s seco nd unit). The present-day fo rms o f classical Indian
dances are performed o n the stage o n vario us o ccasio ns. In po pular culture, the
adapted, o r ‘semi-classical’, fo rms o f these styles have been expo sed largely thro ugh
depictio n in po pular mo vies and televisio n programmes. These dance fo rms include
Bharatanāṭyam , Kathakali, Kathak, Oḍissī, Manipur ī, Mo hiniaṭṭam and Kucipud ī.
Bharatan āṭyam
Bharatanāṭyam is a classical dance fo rm fro m Tamil Nadu. It dates back to 1000 BCE.
Its inspiratio ns co me fro m the sculptures o f the ancient temple o f Chidambaram. In
ancient times Bharatan āṭyam was perfo rmed as sadiraṭṭam (co urt dance) by temple
devadāsīs. E. Krishna Iyer and Rukmini Devi Arundale renamed sadiraṭṭam as
Bharatanāṭyam in the 1930s.
Bharatanāṭyam was codified and do cumented as a
perfo rming art in the 19th century by the Tanjo re Quartet o f
Chinnayya, Ponniah, Śivanandam and Vadivelū o f the Tanjo re
Co urt, during the rule o f Maratha King Sarabo ji II (1798–1832).
The Tanjo re Quartet co mpleted the pro cess of re-editing the
Bharatanāṭyam pro gramme into its present shape with its
vario us items.
There have been several varieties o f Bharatan āṭyam co stumes in different
perio ds. Fro m the ancient texts and sculptures, o ne can see that the original co stume
did not co mpletely co ver the dancers’ bo dies. In the medieval times, however, the
89
devadāsīs to use a special, heavy sārī that severely restricted the dance mo vements.
The mo dern co stumes are deeply symbo lic, as their purpo se is to pro ject the dancer’s
sūkṣma
śarīra (subtle bo dy) into the material wo rld. Also different dances require
different kinds and nature o f dress.
Kathakali
Kathakali is a classical dance fo rm which o riginated in Kerala. Kath ā in Sanskrit
means sto ry and k ālī in Malayalam means play. So Kathakali is a play based o n a
sto ry. Kathakali, like o ther classical dances o f India, has its origins in Bharata Muni’s
Nāṭyaśāstra. It is an art which has evo lved fro m many so cial and religio us theatrical
art forms like Cakiarko ṭṭū, Kūdiaṭṭam, Kṛśṇaṭṭam, Rāmaṭṭam which existed in the
so uthern regio n in ancient times. The main custo dian o f Kathakali is the famo us po et
Vallatho l Narayana Meno n who established Kerala Kalaman ḍalam in 1930 fo r the
preservatio n o f this art fo rm.
Aspects of Kathakali (source: Wikipedia)
Kathakali, a stylised art form, is a blend o f dance, music and acting and
dramatizes sto ries mo stly adapted from the Indian epics. All the fo ur aspects o f
90
abhinaya — āṅgika, v ācika, āhārya, sāttvika — and the three co mpo nents o f the dance —
n āṭya, n ṛtta and n ṛtya — are unified flawlessly in this form. The abhinaya is presented
in three stages: (a) word-to -word synchro nizatio n; (b) interpretatio n o f the full line;
and (c) abhinaya o f the dancer fo llo wing the singer. The dancers express themselves
thro ugh organized mudr ās and facial expressio ns.
As far as the co stume o f this dance form is co ncerned, it is elabo rate and
designed to heighten the effect o f physical strength. The large o verco ats, the flowing
scarves, the bulging skirts, the antique o rnaments, the strikingly o pulent head
dresses with streaming hair flo wing down to the waist and co vering the back — all
create enlarged figures well befitting the sculptured facial
features
and
produce
tremendo usly
impressive
imperso natio ns. If the characters are sāttvika (a righteo us
Make a list of make- up
items
used
by
Kathakali performers.
character o r hero ), the basic make-up is pacca (green); if
the characters are r ājsika (a character with particular vices or anti-hero ), the basic
make-up is cu ṭṭi (white); and if the characters are t āmsika (an evil character o r
villain), the basic green make-up is bro ken up by red patches. Also , o n the basic green
make-up, an o val red and white design is made on the no se and o n the upper no se.
Kathak
Kathak originated in Uttar Pradesh, India. The name Kathak is derived again fro m the
Sanskrit wo rd kath ā (sto ry): kathaka means ‘he who tells a story, or has to do with
sto ries’. This dance form traces its origins to the no madic bards o f ancient no rthern
India, kno wn as kathakas (sto rytellers). Its fo rm to day co ntains traces o f temple and
ritual dances, and the influence o f the bhakti mo vement. Fro m the 16th century
o nwards it absorbed certain features o f Persian dance and Central Asian dance which
were imported by the ro yal co urts o f the Mughal era.
91
There are three majo r ghar ānās (scho o ls) o f Kathak fro m which performers
to day generally draw their lineage: the ghar ānā o f Benares (bo rn in the co urts o f the
Kachw āhā Rajput kings, the Nawāb o f Oudh, and Varanasi respectively), the ghar ānā
o f Jaipur and the ghar ānā o f Lucknow; there is also a less pro minent Raigarh ghar ānā
which amalgamated the technique fro m all three preceding ghar ānā but became
famo us fo r its own distinctive co mpo sitio ns.
Aside fro m the traditio nal abhinaya pieces perfo rmed to a bhajan, ghazal o r
ṭhumr ī, Kathak also po ssesses a particular perfo rmance style o f expressio nal pieces
called bh āva bat ān ā (sho wing moo d o r feeling). It is a mode where abhinaya
do minates, and aro se in the Mughal co urt. It is mo re suited to the mehfil or the darb ār
enviro nment, because o f the pro ximity o f the perfo rmer to the audience, who can
mo re easily see the nuances o f the dancer’s facial expressio n. Shambhu Mah ārāj was
kno wn to interpret a single line in many different ways fo r ho urs but all the Mah ārāj
family have fo und much fame fo r the naturalness and inno vativeness o f their
abhinaya.
Source: www.kathak.org
92
As this dance fo rm can be perfo rmed by a man o r a wo man, it has different
co stumes fo r them. Fo r wo men there are two types o f co stumes, traditio nal Hindu
and Mughal. The traditio nal Hindu co stume for wo men so metimes co nsists o f a sari,
whether worn in an everyday style, or tied up to allow greater freedo m o f mo vement
during dance. Ho wever, mo re co mmo nly, the co stume is a lehaṅg ā-colī co mbinatio n,
with an o ptio nal o ḍhn ī (veil). The traditio nal Mughal co stume fo r wo men co nsists o f
an aṅgarkh ā o n the upper bo dy. The design is akin to a c ūdīdār-kameez, but is
so mewhat tighter fitting abo ve the waist, and the ‘skirt’ po rtio n explicitly cut o n the
ro und to enhance the flare o f the lower half during spins. The traditio nal Hindu
co stume fo r men leaves them bare-chested; belo w the waist is the dhot ī, usually tied
in the Bāṅglā style that is with many pleats and a fan finish to o ne o f the ends. There
is the o ptio n o f wearing a men’s bandī to o . The Mughal co stume for men is kurt āc ūrīdār .
Kucipud ī
Kucipud ī is a dance form named after a village in the Krishna
district o f Andhra Pradesh. Renowned gurus like Ved āntam
Lakṣm ī Nārāyana, Cintā Kṛśṇāmūrthy and Tadepalli Perayya
bro adened the horizo ns o f this dance fo rm.
Kucipud ī is no n-narrative and abstract dancing. Usually
jātiswaram is perfo rmed as the n ṛtta number. Next is presented a
narrative
number
called
śabdam . One o f the favo urite
traditio nal śabdam numbers is the Daśāvatāra (the ten avatars
o f Viṣṇu). The śabdam is fo llowed by a n ātya number called
kalapam. Next in the sequence co mes a pure n ṛtyabhinay, a
number based o n literary-cum-musical forms like padam, jāvli,
Kucipud ī dancer
(source: Wikipedia)
ślokam, etc. In such a number each o f the sung wo rds is delineated in space thro ugh
dance i.e. visual po etry, dṛśya-kavit ā. A Kucipud ī recital is usually co ncluded with
93
taraṅgam. In earlier times, th e
themes were related to Śiva, but with the arrival o f the
Bhakti mo vement from the seventh century onwards themes linked to Kṛśṇa were
also enacted.
The Kucipud ī co stumes loo k similar to tho se o f Bharatanāṭyam. The impo rtant
characters have different make-up and the female characters wear ornaments and
jewellery such as rakudi (head o rnament), candravanki (arm ornament), addabh āṣā and
kasinasāra (neck o rnament) and a lo ng plait deco rated with flowers and jewellery.
Ornaments wo rn by the artists are generally made o f a lightweight wo od called
b ūrugū.
Maṇipur ī
Maṇipur ī dance is o ne o f the main styles o f Indian classical dances that originated in
the beautiful no rth-eastern state o f Manipur. The o rigin o f Maṇipur ī dance can be
traced back to ancient times. It is asso ciated with rituals and traditio nal festivals;
there are legendar y references to the dances of Śiva and Pārvat ī and other gods and
go ddesses who created the universe. The dance was perfo rmed earlier by maibas and
maib īs (priests and priestesses) who re-enact the theme o f the creatio n o f the world.
With the arrival o f Vaiṣṇavism in the 15th century, new co mpo sitio ns based on
Kṛṣṇa and Rādh ā in Rāsalīlā (source: http:/ / news.lib.uchicago.edu)
94
episo des fro m the life o f Rādhā and Kṛṣṇa were gradually introduced. It was in the
reign o f King Bh āgyacandra that the popular Rāsalīlā dances o f Manipur originated.
The r āsa co stume co nsists o f a richly embro idered stiff skirt which extends to
the feet. A sho rt fine white muslin skirt is worn o ver it. Patloi is the typical co stume o f
the female dancers. The lehe ṅg ā is called kumin with mirro rs and zari work intricately
wo ven into beautiful designs. The women also wear a tight-fitting co ne-shaped cap,
garnished with a bo rder o f synthetic pearls, under a thin white veil. A dark co lo ured
velvet blo use co vers the upper part o f the bo dy and a traditio nal white veil is worn
o ver a special hair-do which falls gracefully o ver the face. Kṛṣṇa wears a yellow dho ti,
a dark velvet jacket and a crown o f peaco ck feathers. The jewellery is very delicate
and the designs are unique to the regio n.
The k īrtan fo rm o f co ngregatio nal singing acco mpanies the dance which is
kno wn as saṅk īrtana in Manipur. The who le co mmunity celebrates childbirth,
upanayanam , wedding and
śrāddha with
saṅkīrtana perfo rmances. The male dancers
play the pu ṅg and kart āl while dancing. The thaṅg-ta is a martial dance which has its
o rigin in the days when man’s survival depended o n his ability to defend himself
fro m wild animals.
Oḍissī
Oḍissī is believed to be the o ldest fo rm o f Indian dance
fro m the state o f Odisha acco rding to
Did
you
know
that
the vario us
young
boys
learning
sculptural evidences available. Archaeo lo gical evidences o f
Oḍiss ī
are
called
this dance form dating back to the 2nd century BCE are
go ṭipuas and many of
the present-day gurus of
fo und in the caves o f Udayagiri and Khandagiri near
this dance form belong
Bhubaneswar. The dance mo vements, fro zen in sto ne,
to
co ntinue
to
inspire Oḍissī dancers even to day. For
centuries mah ārisa or devadāsīs (temple dancers) were the
95
the
tradition?
go ṭipua
chief repo sito ries o f this dance. Later, a class of bo ys called go ṭipuas were trained in
the art. They danced in the temples and also fo r general entertainment. Many of
to day’s gurus o f this style belo ng to the gotipua traditio n.
(Top) Gotipua (source: www.citizenside.com
(Left) Oḍissī dancer (source: www.ananyadancetheatre.org)
Oḍissī mo stly derives its theme fro m the 12th century Gīta Govinda by Jayadeva.
It is generally believed that the co mpo sers fixed the t āla and r āga o f each so ng after
the mo del o f Gīta Govinda.
Oḍissī clo sely fo llo ws the tenets laid down by the Nāṭyaśāstra and the Abhinaya
Darpaṇa. Facial expressio ns, hand gestures and bo dy mo vements are used to suggest a
certain feeling, an emotio n o r o ne o f the nine rasas.
The techniques o f mo vement are built aro und the two basic po stures o f the
cowk (a po sitio n imitating a square — a very masculine stance with the weight o f the
bo dy equally balanced) and the tribhaṅga (a very feminine stance where the body is
96
deflected at the neck, torso and the knees). There are a variety o f gaits fo r do ing
piro uettes and jumps and also certain po stures inspired by the sculptures.
The o pening item is maṅgalācaraṇa (invo cation) where the dancer slo wly
enters the stage with flowers in her hands and makes an o ffering to Mother Earth.
This is fo llo wed by an invo catio n to the deity o f the dancer’s cho ice. Generally,
Ganeśa is called upo n to grant an auspicio us beginning. The item ends with a nṛtta
sequence with salutatio ns to Go d, the guru and the audience.
An Oḍissī dancer is ado rned in elaborate Odiya silver jewellery. The dancer
wears a coker (a lo nger necklace), armlets, bracelets, a belt, anklets, bells, earrings,
each placed o n the bun, and a sīnthī (a piece placed o n the hair and fo rehead). She
spo rts an elaborate hair-do in a knot ado rned with the tahiya (part o f the crown) ,
which represents a temple to wer. Palms and so les are painted with āltā, a red dye.
The head o rnament is called maṭhami. The dancer also wears the ear co vers, bangles
o n the wrists, armlets and an elaborate belt. On her ankles are bells strung to gether
o n a single cord. A padaka-tilaka (a necklace with a lo cket) rests o n her chest.
Sattriya
Sattriya, recently included amo ng principal
classical Indian dance traditio ns, has been a
living traditio n in Assam since its creatio n by
the fo under o f Vaiṣṇavism in Assam, the great
saint Śrimanta Śaṅkaradeva in 15th-century
Assam.
This
mo nasteries
dance
and
form
then
originated
mo ved
to
in
the
metro po litan stage. Śaṅkaradeva introduced
Sattriya
this
dance
(source: musicaindiana.wordpress.com)
97
fo rm
by
integrating
different
elements fro m vario us treatises and lo cal fo lk dances with his o wn rare o utlo ok.
Co nventio nally, this dance form was performed o nly by bhokos (male mo nks) in
mo nasteries as part o f their daily rituals o r to mark special festivals. In the mo dern
days, Sattriya is perfo rmed o n stage by wo men and men. It is go verned by strictly laid
do wn principles in respect o f mudr ās, foo two rk, āhāryas (co stume), music etc. It is
perfo rmed with borg īt s (musical compo sitio n) which are usually based o n classical
ragas. For traditio n performance, the instruments that are used are khole (drums),
t ālas (cymbals) and the flute. So me o f the recent additio ns are the vio lin and the
harmo nium. The dress is typical o f Assam as the silk that are wo rn are pro duced in
Assam, wo ven with meticulo us designs.
***
Comprehension
1.
What is the significance o f abhinaya in dance?
2.
What are hand gestures called in dance? Are they co mmo n to all dances?
3.
Explain aṅg, up āṅg .
4.
Explain the fo ur kinds o f abhinaya.
5.
Describe the structural co mpo sitio n o f Bharatanāṭyam.
6.
What are the steps and body mo vements called in Maṇipur ī?
7.
What is the technique used to balance the mo vements in thang ta and
pungcholam to avo id any injury?
8.
Explain the basic technique in Oḍissī. Where in India do yo u find sculptures
depicting this style?
98
Activity 1

Identify the classical dance fo rms o n the Indian stamps.

Mentio n two eminent perfo rmers/ gro ups/ ghar ān ās related to each dance fo rm.
Activity 2

Identify the vario us po stures o f Kathak present in the co mpo site abo ve.
99
Activities

Try to imitate the mudr ās (hand gestures, illustrated below) with yo ur class.

Co llect so me video s o f c ārī and man ḍala mo vements o f vario us classical dance
fo rms o f India. Watch with the class and try to identify the name depicted in
Nāṭyaśāstra.

Co llect video s o f vandana / n ṛtta being performed in the initial part o f a classical
dance perfo rmance.
100
Project ideas

Visit a nearby museum/ heritage site and explo re the evidence o f dance in the
sculptures and vario us painting styles o f India. Act as a team o f jo urnalists and
click pictures. Prepare a report o f yo ur visit and present in fro nt o f yo ur class
like a team o f reporters.

Arrange a visit to the nearest cultural centre / amphitheatre / audito rium. Try
to understand the stage, curtain system, entry–exit for participants and
audience, light and so und system, capacity and seating arrangement. Do cument
all informatio n alo ng with photo graphs and sketches. Submit yo ur pro ject after
sharing with class.

Prepare a PowerPo int presentatio n with vario us mudr ās and facial expressio ns.
Let the students imitate the gestures while presenting in the class.

Sketch the jewellery / ornaments and vario us pro ps used in vario us dances;
label them and exhibit yo ur work.

Prepare a semi structured interview for a legend / a master perfo rmer in any
fo rm o f Indian dance. Present yo ur repo rt to yo ur class.

Co llect images as evidence o f dance fro m the traditio nal painting styles of
vario us states o f India. Pay attentio n to the co stume and jewellery wo rn by the
dancers and also the acco mpanying instruments illustrated in the painting.

Search and explo re the UNESCO wo rld heritage sites in India. Find the
sculptures that seem similar to any dance fo rm / features depicted by Bharata.
Get to kno w abo ut the place, perio d and dynasty when these marvels o f
architecture were built. Present a slide sho w in class with all the co llected
info rmatio n.
101
Extended activities

Create a tableau o f dances with all the flavo ur o f co lo ur, costumes, so unds,
music, beats and so ngs. Present in fro nt o f yo ur scho o l at yo ur annual functio n.

Identify the students o f yo ur scho o l who are learning vario us classical dances.
Invo lve them in yo ur gro up. Co llect the basic info rmatio n o n so me particular
dance form. Present all the info rmatio n in lecture cum demo nstratio n style in
fro nt o f the schoo l. Yo u may also present a self-cho reo graphed dance sho w on
so me event / celebratio n in the scho o l.

Study the bio graphy o f a reno wned dancer o f India. Fo cussing o n the early years
o f his / her life, try to find what made him / her a legend.

Arrange a visit to a nearest cultural centre to view a live dance show.

Interview a classical dance guru at his / her place and o bserve the lifestyle.
Share yo ur views with class.

Invite a master o f dance to scho o l fo r a lecture-cum-demo nstratio n class to
explain the nuances o f dance to the students o f yo ur scho o l.
Further Reading
1.
Bharata, The Nātyaśāstra, A Treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy and Histrionics.
Manmo han Gho sh, tr. Calcutta: Manisha Granthalaya, 2nd ed., 2 vo ls, 1967.
2.
Bhatkhande, V.N. The Hindut ānī Sang īt Paddhati: Kramik Putak Mallik ā. Allahabad:
Sang īta Sadan Pr ākāśana, 2003.
3.
Gautam , M.R. The Musical Heritage of India. Delhi: Abhinav Publicatio ns, 1980.
4.
Go uri Kuppuswami and Hariharan. Indian Music: A Perspective. Delhi: Sandeep
Prakashan, 1982.
5.
Nandikeśwara.
Abhinaya Darpaṇa. Tr. Manmo han Gho sh, Calcutta: Metro po litan
Printing & Publishing Ho use, 1934.
6.
Ranade, G.H. Hindust ānī Music. Delhi: S Lal & Co . 1989.
102
7.
V ātsayana, Kapila. Indian Classical Dance . New Delhi: Publicatio n Divisio n,
Ministry o f Informatio n and Broadcasting, Go vernment o f India, 1974.
8.
Viśṇudharmottarapur āṇa. Khaṇḍ III. Tr. Priyabala Shah. Delhi: Parimal
Publicatio ns, 2002.
Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in May 2013)

Demo nstratio n o f gaits o f animals and birds in Manipur dance traditio ns by
Guru Bipin Singh — a legend and maestro o f Maṇipur ī dance:
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=QD9rraCwI-Q

Maṇipur ī Dance by Rinku Bhattacharya Das (disciple o f Guru Bipin Singh):
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=RSogQYsFTnI

Pung Cho lam dance fro m Manipur: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ndPcNgupCdM

Kathak by Uma Sharma: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=jssQvY9INU

Kathak Surya Namaskar (Sho vana Narayan and gro up):
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=PG5-DTTykdk

‘Subhadraharanam’ (Kathakali) enacted by Kalamandalam Go pi:
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=MH5OTuGHWM8

Raudrabheeman (Dushasanavadham) Padmasree Kalamandalam Go pi Ashan, 2
parts: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=OkCJqaNqvcs &
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=V5kM1Ockjv8

Kucipud ī Dance Co ncert, part 1/ 8. Performed By Raja Radha Reddy
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=92qGxUj7sxw

Oḍissī Mangalacharan Sujata Mo hapatra :
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=1wX5yHh6DHc

Sattriya by Mahapurush Srimanta Sankaradeva the great Vaiśavite Guru o f
Assam in 15th-16th century: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=mcRQs7uy1U4

Sattriya: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=YJ15-lRx_dA

103
Primary Texts on Dance in India: A Selection
Nāṭyaśāstra (tr. Manomohan Ghosh)
Brahm ā writes the first play [Am ṛtamanthana, a samavak āra, a catego ry o f
play] and gets this performed.
Then all the [Bh ūtas] and Gaṇas were pleased to see actio ns and ideas
familiar to them, and Śiva too was pleased and said to Brahmā:
“ O the high-so uled o ne, this drama ( n āṭya) which is co nducive to fame,
welfare, merit and intellect, has been well-co nceived by yo u.
No w in the evening, while performing it, I remembered that dance made
beautiful by aṅgah āras [dance po stures] co nsisting o f different karaṇas
(the co mbined movement o f hands and feet). You may utilize these in the
p ūrvaraṅga (preliminaries) o f a play.”
... the preliminaries which yo u have [just] perfo rmed are called “ pure”
( śuddha). [But] when these dances will be added to
them [pure
preliminaries] they will he called “ mixed” . (4:11-16)
Note : Here a suggestio n fo r adding dance to a dramatic performance has been made
by Śiva to Brahmā.
Nāṭyaśāstra
One who will perfo rm well this dance c reated by Maheśvara (Śiva) will go [at his
death] free fro m all sins to the abo de o f this deity. (4:327)
Nāṭyaśāstra
The Class Dance ( taṇḍava) is mostly to accompany the adoratio n o f go ds
but its gentler fo rm ( sukum āra-prayoga) relates to the Ero tic Sentiment.
104
... [The Gentle Dance] sho uld be the pro cedure in perfo rming the āsārita
so ngs. Now co nsider [all] that relating to the adoratio n o f gods as the
Gentle Dance ( sukum āra).
The Gentle Dance with the Erotic Sentiment [relates to ] a dialo gue
between a man and a wo man when they are in love. (4:272,309-10)
Note : Here dance has been explained in terms o f class dance and gentle dance.
Nāṭyaśāstra
Experts sho uld apply dance when the principal wo rds o f a so ng [in a play]
as well as its [o rnamental adjunct kno wn as var ṇa co mes to a close o r
when any character attains goo d fortune [in a play].
And dance sho uld take place o n an o ccasio n in a play when something
co nnected with lo ve o ccurs between a married co uple, fo r it (the dance)
will be a so urce o f jo y.
Dance sho uld also take place in any scene o f a play when the lo ver is near
and a [suitable] seaso n o r the like is visible. (4:312-314)
Note : It is an acco unt o f o ccasio ns in plays when dance sho uld be introduced in the
co urse o f so ngs.
Nāṭyaśāstra
The co mbined [mo vement o f] hands and feet in dance is called the karaṇa:
Two karaṇas will make o ne m ātṛk ās, and two , three, o r fo ur m ātṛkas will
make up o ne aṅgah āra. Three karaṇas will make a kalāpaka, fo ur a śaṇḍaka,
and five a saṁgh ātaka. Thus the aṅgah āras co nsist o f six, seven, eight or
nine karaṇas. (4:30-34)
105
Nāṭyaśāstra
I shall now speak o f the hand and feet mo vements making up these
( karaṇa). The karaṇas are o ne hundred and eight in number. ...
[These karaṇas will be used in dance], fight, perso nal co mbat, walking as
well as mo vement in general. Foo t mo vements which have been
prescribed fo r the exercise o f sth ānas [standing postures] and c ārīs [fo o t
and leg po sitio ns], will apply also to these karaṇas. (4:55-56)
Nāṭyaśāstra
I shall no w describe the fo ur recakas [mo ving a limb ro und or drawing up
o r its mo vement o f any kind separately] … Amo ng the recakas the first is
that o f the foo t ( pada), the seco nd is that o f the waist ( kaṭi), the third is
that o f the hand ( hasta) and the fo urth is that o f the neck ( gr īvā). (4:246247).
Padarecaka [mo vement related to fo ot]: go ing fro m side to side with
wavering feet o r with differently mo ving feet, is called their recaka. (4:249)
Kaṭi-recaka [mo vement related to waist]: raising up the trika and the
turning o f the waist as well as its drawing back, is called the kaṭi-recaka.
(4:250)
Hasta-recaka [mo vement related to hands]: raising up, thro wing o ut,
putting forward, turning round and drawing back of the hand is called its
recaka. (4:251)
Gr īvā-recaka [mo vement related to neck]: raising up, lowering and bending
the neck sideways, and other mo vements o f it are called its recaka. (4:251)
Seeing Śaṁkara (Siva) dance with
recakas and aṅgahāras, Pārvatī
106
too
perfo rmed a Gentle Dance (lit. danced with delicate forms) and this dance
was fo llowed by the playing o f musical instruments ... (4:253-54)
Note: Nṛtta technique o f Indian dance is the law and metho do lo gy o f human
mo vement. It enco mpasses both the technique o f rendering t āla (rhythm) thro ugh
mo vements and the impo rtant features o f pro jecting specific po ses within a given
rhythmic cycle. The abo ve selectio ns fro m the Nāṭyaśāstra describe co mpo nents and
fo rms o f dance such as thirty two aṅgahāra [dance postures], o ne hundred eight
karaṇas [po stures /
mo vements o f hands], c ārī [fo o twork], maṇḍala [circular
mo vements].
Nāṭyaśāstra
As the c ār īs prescribed by rules and co nnected with [different] limbs relate
to ... o ne ano ther they co nstitute (lit. are called) a vy āyāma (system).
Cārī: the mo vement [mainly] with a single foo t, is called the c ārī.
Karaṇa: the two feet moving [to gether] is called the karaṇa.
Khaṇḍa: a co mbinatio n o f the [three] karaṇas is called the khaṇḍa. Three o r
fo ur khaṇḍas co mbine to make up the maṇḍala. ...
There fo llowing sixteen are the earthly ( bhaum ī) c āris: samap ādā,
sthit āvart ā. ...
Samap ādā: the two feet clo se together, the nails [o f the to es] meeting, and
standing o n the spo t.
Sthit āvartā: o ne agratalasañc āra fo ot drawn up to cross the remaining foo t
and this mo vement repealed with ano ther foo t after separating the two . …
The aerial ( ākāṣik ī) c ārīs are sixteen in number : atikr ānta, apakr ānta,
p ārśvakrānta. ...
Atikr ānta: a kuñcita foo t thrown up, put forward and caused to fall o n the
gro und.
107
Apakr ānta: the valana posture o f the two thighs, a kuñcita foo t raised and
thrown do wn sideways.
Pārśvakrānta: o ne foo t kuñcita and ano ther thro wn up and bro ught near
the side. (11:1-4, 8-14, 29-31)
Note : Here the mo vements o f c ārī (mo ving simultaneo usly feet, shanks and hip)
are explained.
Nāṭyaśāstra
… [No w] learn abo ut the maṇḍalas (circular movements) arising o ut o f a
co mbinatio n o f the c ārīs [the aerial maṇḍalas and the earthly maṇḍalas]
The aerial maṇḍalas
Atikr ānta: the right foo t [to be mo ved successively] in the janit ācārī and
[the śakaṭāsy āc ār ī in which the breast is] udv āhita, the left fo o t in the
alāt āc ār ī and the right fo ot in the p ārśvakrāntac ārī. …
The earthly maṇḍalas
Bhramara: the right fo ot [to be mo ved] in the janit āc ār ī and the left foo t in
the syandit āc ār ī, then the right fo o t in the śakaṭāsy āc ār ī and the left fo o t to
be stretched, (next) the right loo t in the bhramar īcar ī [by turning the
trika], again the left fo ot in the skandita ( askandita) can and the right fo o t
in the śakaṭāsy āc ār ī, then the left foo t in the apakrant ā ( apasarp ī) c ār ī and
the bhramar īc ār ī by turning abo ut the back. (12:6-9, 42-44)
Note: Here Bharata gives definitio ns o f the maṇḍala mo vements.
108
Comprehension
1.
What do yo u understand by maṇḍala mo vements?
2.
What is the significance o f dance in preliminary activities o f n ātya?
3.
Acco rding to Bharata when sho uld a gentle dance take place in n ātya? Do we
still find this traditio n in India? Yo u may quote so me beautiful dance pieces
fro m o ld movies.

109
Dance: A Survey
(2) Folk Dance Forms
Indian fo lk dances and the dances o f small fo rest and hill co mmunities are simple
dances, and are perfo rmed as a part o f so me co mmunity celebratio n or o bservance.
These dances are perfo rmed fo r every po ssible o ccasio n: to celebrate the arrival o f
seaso ns, the birth o f a child, a wedding and festivals, so cial activities such as hunting
and fo o d gathering.
There is a large bo dy o f no n-classical dance forms. The o nly thing co mmo n
amo ng these dance fo rms is their rural o rigins. Mo st o f them are extremely simple
with a minimum o f steps or mo vements. But they are very vigo ro us and energetic —
they burst with verve and vitality. Men and women perfo rm so me dances separately,
while in so me performances they dance to gether. On mo st o ccasio ns, the dancers
sing themselves, while being acco mpanied by artists o n the instruments. Each fo rm
o f dance has a specific co stume. Most co stumes are flambo yant with extensive jewels.
While there are numero us ancient fo lk and tribal dances, many are co nstantly being
impro ved. The skill and the imaginatio n o f the dances influence the perfo rmance.
Let us have sho rt glimpses o f so me po pular fo lk dance fo rms o f India.
Ch āū
Ch āū is a po pular fo lk dance o f Bihar. Since masks
There
are
three
kinds
of
Ch āū based on place of origin
fo rm an impo rtant feature o f this dance it is called
and development: Seraikella
Ch āū, which means mask. All the Ch āū performers
Ch āū, Mayurbhanj Ch āū and
ho ld swords and shields while performing. The stages
are deco rated and brightly lit by to rches, lanterns and
110
Purulia Ch āū. Find the states
to which these belong.
flickering o il lamps. The musical instruments used are the dhol (a cylindrical drum),
nag ārā (a huge drum) and
śehnai (reed pipes). This dance is performed by men and
bo ys. It is full o f energy and strength. It is interesting to no te that the entire bo dy o f
the dancer is engaged as a single unit. This body language o f the dancer has to be
po etic and powerful.
Ch āū (source: www.indianetzone.com)
Bih ū
Bih ū is a mo st co lo urful and gay fo lk dance from Assam. It is an integral part o f the
Bih ū festival which is celebrated in mid-April, during the harvesting time, and lasts
fo r abo ut a mo nth. Yo ung men and wo men take part and dance to the lilting music o f
the Bih ū so ngs which are o ften mildly erotic in impo rt. The so ngs co nsist o f sho rt
co uplets o f lo ve which are co nstantly repeated. Musical acco mpaniment includes the
dhol, the pati-tala (cymbals), taka o r takka (the bamboo clappers), gagana (a kind o f
jew’s harp) and a buffalo ho rn pipe. The dance begins in a circle, but so o n breaks up
into parallel lines. The dancers execute beautiful figures o f intertwined semi-circles.
111
The drummer is the natural leader; he o ften utters the bols (mnemo nics) first and
then plays them o n the drum, so metimes dancing with fantastic skill with his drum.
Bihū (source: www.assamspider.com)
Rauf
Rauf is also a simple fo lk dance o f
Kashmir. It is perfo rmed with a
cho rus by girls at spring time.
The
perfo rmers
divide
themselves into two rows facing
each o ther. Only o ne step o f the
swinging
co nstitutes
the
mo vement-co ntent o f the dance.
The girls ho ld each other by
putting arms aro und the necks o f
Group of Kashmiri girls performing Rauf
(source: http:/ / eastizeast.wordpress.com)
tho se standing next. The fo rmatio n glides fo rward and backwards. The to rso s are
lightly and delicately bent forward alo ng with the step.
112
Padayānī
Paday ānī is a po pular dance o f so uthern Kerala. It is asso ciated with
the festival o f certain temples, called Paday ānī o r Padden ī. Such
temples are in Alleppey, Ko llam, Pathanamthitta and Kottayam
districts. The main kolams (huge masks) displayed in paday ānī are
Bhairav ī (Kālī), Kalan (god o f death), Yakṣaṇī (fairy) and pak ṣī (bird).
Dollu Kunitha
Do llu Kunitha is a po pular drum
dance o f Karnataka. The so ngs
used in this dance usually have
religio us
and
battle
fervo ur.
Large drums are ado rned with
co lo ured
clo thes
and
hang
aro und the necks o f men. The
main emphasis is o n quick and
Dollu Kunitha (source: www.indianetzone.com)
light mo vement o f the feet and
legs. Do llu Kunitha fo rms a part
o f the ritualistic dances o f the dodav āsīs o f Karnataka
Dāndiyā
Dāndiy ā is an energetic, vibrant fo lk dance o riginating in the state o f Gujarat. The
dancers use po lished sticks. It represents a mock fight between the goddess Durg ā
and the mighty demo n- king Mahiśāsura.
113
Gh ūmar
Gh ūmar is a traditio nal wo men’s fo lk dance o f Haryana. It is perfo rmed by gro ups o f
wo men in swirling ro bes. This fo lk dance gets its name fro m gh ūmanā (the
piro uetting) which displays the spectacular co lours o f the flowing gh āgharā (the lo ng
skirt o f Haryanvi wo men). There is an amazing grace as the skirts flare slo wly while
the wo men twirl in circles, their faces co vered with the help o f the veil. They dance
in measured steps and graceful inclinatio ns o f bo dy, beating palms o r snapping
fingers at particular cadences, while singing some lilting so ngs.
114
Kālbeliā
Kālbeliā is performed by the wo men o f the Kālbeliā co mmunity. The main o ccupatio n
o f the community is catching snakes and trading snake veno m. Hence, the dance
mo vements and the co stumes bear resemblance to that o f the serpents. Dancers
attired in traditio nal black swirling skirts sway sinuo usly to the plaintive no tes o f the
b īn (the wo o den instrument o f the snake charmers).
Kālbeliā (source:
www.podarhavelimuseum.org)
Chauṅfl ā
Chauṅflā is o ne o f the important dances o f
Garhwal, Uttarakhand. It is a spinning
dance performed by all sectio ns o f the
co mmunity at night. This is perfo rmed by
bo th men and wo men standing o ppo site
each o ther. Here the mo vements o f men
and wo men fo rm separate circles, mo ving
Chau ṅflā (source: www.uttarakhand.ws)
in o ppo site directio ns. The dancers piro uette aro und their own axis, with a marked
mo vement o f the hip, as in a swing. Thus there is a marked ro tating mo vement o f
115
individual dancer, and a revo lving o f the entire fo rmatio n. In between, the dancers
clap each other’s hands. All dancers also sing and keep rhythm thro ugh clapping.
Bhaṅgrā
Bhaṅgr ā is the most popular and vigorous o f the co mmunity dances o f the villages o f
Punjab, clo sely linked with the ritual importance given to wheat. After the wheat
cro p is so wn, the yo ung men gather together in so me o pen field under the light o f
the full mo o n in respo nse to the beat o f the drum. The dancers begin to move in a
circle. The rhythm o f the dance is simple 2/ 4 and 3/ 4 and the so ng is also a simple
Bhaṅgr ā (source: www.bhavanaustralia.org)
melo dic tune. The words are co uplets fro m Punjab’s traditio nal oral po etry called bolī.
The dancers begin with a slo w rhythm, with an abrupt jerky mo vement o f the
sho ulders and a ho p step. This is fo llo wed by many vigoro us mo vements o f the who le
bo dy and the raising o f both hands to the sho ulders o r abo ve the head level. After the
circle has been well established and the tempo of the dance has accelerated, the main
dancers dance within the ring in a kind o f duet. The co stume is the usual dress o f the
Punjabi peasant, co mprising a lo wer tahmat or lung ī, a kurtā and a waist coat, and a
co lo urful pagdī (turban).
116
Giddh ā
Giddh ā is an exclusively women’s
dance o f Punjab, a co unterpart o f the
men’s Bhaṅgr ā. It is an ancient ring
dance
with
simple
graceful
mo vements witho ut crisp jerks and
abrupt
turns
and
twists
so
characteristic o f Bhaṅgrā. The dance
begins with a circle, which is then
Giddh ā (source: www.indiastudychannel.com)
bro ken up into two semi circles and
so metimes into gro ups o f fo ur o r six. Pairs emerge fro m the circle to perfo rm
different variatio ns o n a theme. The co uplet describes their daily cho res ranging
fro m cleaning o f the wheat to thrashing and to spinning, weaving and embro idery.
The so und o f the spinning wheel, the village well, the gurgling o f the water, the
beauty o f the fields, and the tensio n between the mo ther-in-law and daughter-in-law,
lo ve o f the bro ther-in-law fo r the sister-in-law are wo ven into the fabric o f the so ng.
The dance ends in wo men pairing to do a spin. Extend arm cro ss and ho ld the other
dancer and the two to gether a kikali.
Garb ā
Garb ā
is
customarily
wo men;
the
patterns
of
dance
performed
invo lves
mo vement
and
by
circular
rhythmic
clapping. It po pularly perfo rmed during
navar ātri.
The
wo rd
co mes
fro m
‘ garbh ādīpa’ which is translated as either
117
Garb ā (courtesy: Wikipedia)
light in the inner sanctum o f the temple o r lamp inside a perforated earthen po t
which is o ften used in the dance.
Lāvaṇī
Lāvaṇī is a genre o f music po pular in Maharashtra and a co mbinatio n o f traditio nal
so ng and dance, which particularly perfo rmed to the beats o f dholk ī, a percussio n
instrument. Lāvaṇī is no ted fo r its
po werful rhythm and ero tic sentiment.
It has co ntributed substantially to the
develo pment o f Marathi fo lk theatre.
In Maharashtra and so uthern Madhya
Pradesh, it is performed by the female
perfo rmers wearing
Lāvaṇī (source: www.thepunekar.com)
nine-yard
lo ng
saris. The so ngs are sung in a quick
tempo .
Bamboo Dance
Bambo o dance is the heart and so ul o f the Nāgās. It is a participato ry actio n
perfo rmed by bo th men and wo men, dressed in traditio nal attire. The dance invo lves
a gentle jump o ver bamboo sticks, placed horizo ntally in parallel spacing o ver the
vertically placed bamboo sticks to form interface. Two perso ns sit o n either side o f
the gro und and slide the sticks o ver the vertically placed bamboo sticks. The dance is
fo llo wed with a rhythmic music as ‘hih-hoh’ with the help o f which dancer adjust their
steps. The sliding o f the bambo o stripes jig the who le enviro nment and gives a
picture-perfect scene.
118
***
Comprehension
1.
Enlist o ccasio ns where fo lk dance plays a vital role in India.
2.
Describe the relevance o f Bih ū dance.
3.
Explain the technique used in Bhaṅgr ā.
4.
List down vario us musical instruments / acco mpanied in all the fo lk dances.
5.
Classical dances strictly fo llow the rules, technique and grammar o f dance, yet
the simplicity and spo ntaneity o f the music and so ngs o f fo lk dances attract
anyo ne to perfo rm naturally. Co mment.
6.
Co mplete the table:
FOLK DANCES IN INDIA
North
South
East
West
119
Project ideas

Co llect stamps related to fo lk and tribal dances of India.

Explo re and prepare a Po werPo int presentatio n o n the co stumes, jewellery and
make-up o f the fo lk dances co vered in this unit.

Invite fo lk dance artists o f yo ur lo cality to perfo rm in yo ur scho o l. Request
them to help yo ur class to prepare a fo lk dance perfo rmance.
Further Reading

Bharata. The Nātyaśāstra, A Treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy and Histrionics. Manmohan
Ghosh (ed.). The Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1950.


Gautam, M.R. The Musical Heritage of India. Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1980.
Anand, Mulk Raj (ed.). Classical and Folk Dances of India. Bombay: Marg Publications,
1965.

Ranade, G.H. Hindust ānī Music. Delhi: S. Lal & Co. 1989.

Vatsayana, Kapila. Traditions of Folk Dance . London: Faber & Faber, 1967.
Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in May 2013)

Puruliā Ch āū: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ojkj37wzOnc

Giddh ā-Bo liyan: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=fwYWRK5TRvE

Giddh ā (Fo lk): www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Sb_PRsqTjWM

Dāndiy ā Raas-Mer-Gujarat Fo lk Dance: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=BBvZKMFRECQ

Do llukuṇithago kula: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=U2C_zXejJzM

120
Education: Systems & Practices
A Survey
India has always had a well develo ped system o f educatio n. Scho lars fro m as far as
Tibet, Java, Sumatra, China, Mo ngo lia, Japan and Ko rea were attracted by it and
jo urneyed to study in Indian centres o f learning. The Chinese mo nk Fa-Hien (Faxian)
who travelled in India between 399 and 414 CE spo ke o f ho w the fame o f Indian
educatio n had spread far beyo nd India.
Goals of Indian Education
Indian educatio n aimed at bo th the inner and the o uter dimensio n o f a perso n. Truth,
patience, regularity, self-mastery, humility, self-denial, purity o f self ( sattvaśuddhi),
co gnitio n o f the underlying unity o f life, nature and enviro nment, reverence fo r all
beings were the inner values cultivated by Indian educatio n. Learners were taught to
grow by pursuing the realisatio n o f puruśārtha catuṣṭaya (fo ur ends o f life), dharma
( righteo usness) , artha (material well-being), k āma (enjo yment), and mok ṣa (liberatio n
fro m wo rldly ties) . Pupils were trained to guide their life in co nso nance with dharma,
the mo delling principle fo r the individual, the family and the so ciety. Dharma
required all, including students, to perfo rm their duties towards parents, teachers,
peo ple and gods. The o uter goal o f mastering a discipline, histo ry, art o f debate, law,
medicine etc., was also assiduo usly pursued but this ‘o uter goal’ o f gaining knowledge
co uld not be divorced fro m the inner dimension as all kno wledge in the traditio n is
ethically inflected.
Physical educatio n was impo rtant and students participated in kr īdā (games,
recreatio nal activities), vy āyāma prak āra (vario us types o f exercises), dhanurveda
121
(archery, swo rd play etc.) fo r acquiring martial skills, and yoga-sādhanā ( pr ānāyāma,
āsana, nāḍīśuddhi etc.) fo r develo ping co ntro l o ver the sense o rgans. Examinatio ns
had a different fo rm in the Indian system. In o rder to demo nstrate what they had
learnt, students engaged in the exercise o f learned debates ( śāstr ārtha) and defended
their po sitio n. Advanced students were o ften called upo n to teach beginners and in
the pro cess acquired so me valuable teaching experience as well.
Teaching and Learning
In Indian traditio n all knowledge is o ne but for the
purpo se o f educatio n is codified o r divided into
vario us disciplines. These disciplinary fo rmatio ns
can be described in a hierarchy. The first divisio n is
made between Ṥāstra (learned disciplines) and Kāvya
(imaginative literature). The śāstras are classified
into apaur ūṣeya (disciplines dealing with kno wledge
no t
co ntingent
on
individuals)
and
paurūṣeya
(disciplines who se kno wledge is co ntingent o n the
individual). Apaur ūṣeya texts are Vedas and Vedāṅgas.
Vedas also includes the Upaniṣads. The word ‘v edāṅga’
literally means limbs o f Vedas, sciences auxiliary to
Vedas. They are six:
śikṣā (pho netics),
kalpa (so cial
tho ught), vy ākaraṇa (grammar), nirukta (expo sitio n
of
wo rds, etymo logy), chanda (metrics), jy otiṣa
(astro no my) and alaṃk āraśāstra (study o f figures o f
speech) may also be enumerated as such.
Under
paur ūṣeya
there
are
at
A teacher instructing disciples, a
bas-relief at Konarak (source: R.K.
Mookerjee, Ancient Indian
Education)
least
nine
disciplines. This bo dy o f literature is also described as sm ṛiti literature in o ppo sitio n
122
to Vedas and Vedāṅgas that are called śruti literature. The paur ūṣeya disciplines are:
pur āṇa, including itih āsa (reco rd o f ancient events), anvik ṣīki (lo gic), mim āṃsā
(analysis/ interpretatio n), dharmaśāstra (so cio lo gy), k āvya vidy ā (literary theo ry),
k āmaśāstra
(ero tics),
śilpaśāstra (architecture),
arthaśāstra
(po lity)
and
v ārt ā
(agriculture, animal husbandry, trade and co mmerce). There is ano ther catego ry o f
discipline kno wn as upavedas – their status as kno wledge texts is between apaur ūṣeya
and paur ūṣeya as they all deal with applied knowledge. The disciplines o f itih āsaveda
(science o f histo ry), dhanurveda (science o f warfare), gandharvaveda (music) and
Ayurveda (medicine) fall under this catego ry. Teaching was teacher centred and text
centred and the pro cess o f teaching depended on the expo sitio n o f the kno wledge by
a learned teacher.
Learning had three distinct stages. In the Bṛhadāranyaka Upaniṣad we are to ld
that the path to knowledge co nsists o f three stages. In the first stage, śravana,
students listened intently to the teacher; in manana, they tho ught, reflected and
remo ved any do ubts that may arise. In the third stage, nidhidhy āsana, students
o bserved carefully, remembered minutely and meditated o n what they had acquired.
Teaching was in the oral mo de and students were also expected to gain
firsthand experience o f what they were taught in the class.
The Teacher and the Student
A given teacher-student relatio nship o btained in Indian culture. The teacher, the
guru , the
ācārya, was highly ho no ured and was seen as the guide who helped students
escape the darkness o f igno rance and attain the light o f kno wledge. The teacher’s
ho use was the centre o f the ācāryakula, the gurukula. The student and the teacher had
a symbio tic relatio nship and students were treated as members o f the teacher’s
family.
123
Teacher instructing students in an āśrama (bas-relief from Bharhut,
Madhya Pradesh, 2nd century BCE, colour added)
Students living with the teacher led a life o f self-co ntro l, abstinence, o bedience
and devo tio n and regulated their lives by adhering to yama (self-restraint) and
niyama (five o bservances), that is,
śauca — purity o f bo dy, mind, tho ught;
santo ṣa —
po sitive co ntentment; tapas — austerity; sv ādhyāya — self-study, intro spectio n; and
īśvarapraṇidhāna — faith in and surrender to the go ds.
Centres of Education
Educatio n in India started in the village itself in the ho me and in the temples. Fro m
there the aspiring student mo ved to gurukulas, centres o f learning aro und great
teachers and fro m there the aspiring scho lar went to vih āras and universities. After
that, the best o f them became teachers-in fact parivr ājakas who walked aro und the
co untry village to village, pro moting loksaṅgraha, general welfare, by imparting right
values and jñana.
124
Temples as First Schools
Temples, and later mo sques, in villages were the first scho o ls fo r children. Many
temples sustained educatio nal institutio ns and maintained students within their
precincts. The famo us Salto gi inscriptio n o f Bijapur district o f northern Karnataka
describes a temple during the reign o f the Rāṣtrakūṭa mo narch Kṛṣṇa III (939-97 CE)
that ho used a co llege with twenty-seven ho stels fo r students fro m different parts o f
the co untry. The inscriptio n also details ho w the temple suppo rted students, teachers
and how the centre was maintained by endowments. Ano ther inscriptio n o f the
perio d o f the great mo narch Rājendra Co lā I (1012-1044 CE) mentio ns how a village
made an endo wment for establishing an educatio n centre that wo uld provide free
bo arding and teaching to at least 340 students. Ho stels and educatio nal institutio ns
attached to temples were loo ked after by the peo ple and villages supplied daily
pro visio ns to ho stels while temples pro vided ghee, milk and curd.
Gurukulas
The secluded, o ften fo rested
areas, where gurukulas were
generally lo cated were known
as āśramas. These āśramas bo re
the name o f the guru. Ancient
texts
mentio n
many
such
āśramas where pupils gathered
and lived with the teacher.
Amo ng such centres were the
āśrama o f Ṛṣi Kaṇva, in the
Bharadv āja Āśrama (source: Wikipedia)
fo rest o f Nandana o n the banks o f the river Malini, in to day’s Uttarakhand, the famed
teacher Śaunaka’s āśrama in the Naimiṣa fo rest, the great teacher Agastya’s near the
125
river Go davari, and Bharadv āja’s on the banks of the Yamunā. Wo men had access to
educatio n; a few wo men savants o f the age, such as Garg ī, Maitrey ī or Lopāmudrā,
find mentio n in the Upaniṣads as leading ācāryās and dialecticians.
Vihāras and Universities
During
the
Buddhist
(mo nasteries)
emerged
perio d,
as
the
vih āras
chief
centres o f learning. Buddha enco uraged
the setting up o f vih āras, fo r mo nks and
nuns to meditate and the learned to
pursue their quest. Gradually the vih āras
grew into
centres o f educatio n that
attracted students from far and wide.
The great Indian universities o f Nālandā,
Vikramaśilā and Valabhi may
have
A partial view of the university of Taxila
(source: Wikipedia)
evo lved aro und vih āras and the initiative o f creating these came entirely fro m the
so ciety.
Taxila o r Takṣaśilā (c. 600 BCE–500 CE) near Rawalpindi in present-day Pakistan,
Nālandā (5th–12th CE) and Vikramaśilā (8th–12th CE) in present-day Bihar, and Valabhi
(5th–12th CE) in Gujarat were amo ng the wo rld’s first universities. Taxila University’s
different Scho o ls taught many subjects. Medicine was given special attentio n; there
were also scho o ls o f painting, sculpture, image-making, handicrafts and astro no my.
Traditio n has it that the legendary Indian grammarian Pāṇini (7th-6th cent BCE) was a
student there, as was Cāṇakya (c. 3rd cent BCE) the well-kno wn expo nent o f statecraft.
Jīvaka (5th BCE) o ne o f the mo st renowned physicians in ancient India, is also said to
have learnt medicine at Taxila.
126
The Chinese scho lars I-tsing (Yijing, left ) and Hsüantsang (Xuanzang, right ) visited Nālandā in the 7th century
CE. Acco rding to
them, the
university had eight separate
halls,
300
meditatio n
apartments,
halls
and
classroo ms, all surro unded by
lakes and parks. Educatio n was
free and there were mo re than
5,000
students
and
1,500
teachers. A hundred lectures
were co nducted every day and the practice o f learning
thro ugh debates and discussio ns was highly develo ped.
A view of the ruins of the ancient Nālandā University, Bihar (courtesy: Michel Danino)
127
Nālandā had an impo sing library called ‘Dharmagañja’ which co nsisted o f three
multi-storey buildings, ‘ Ratnasāgara’, ‘ Ratnarañjaka’ and ‘Ratnodadhi’, the last being
nine-sto rey high; it co ntained lakhs o f manuscripts. The university was set o n fire in
1193 by Bakhtiyar Khilji. By then, it had had great teachers such as Nāgārjuna,
Sthiramati, Śīlabhadra and Śāntarakṣita who se fame travelled as far as Tibet and
China.
Community- Supported Education
Educatio n in India was suppo rted by the co mmunity. A gift in suppo rt o f educatio n
was seen as the highest do natio n ( dāna). All members o f so ciety suppo rted the cause
o f educatio n by o ffering fo o d, gifts, shelter, etc. The wealthier sectio ns o f so ciety
substantially suppo rted educatio n by building ho stels and making educatio nal
endo wments ( adhy āyanavṛttis).
Educatio n was free and no fee was levied. It is reco rded that wealthy students
who came to study at the University o f Nadiā in Bengal supported themselves while
the university suppo rted tho se o f limited means. Kings supported the centres o f
learning thro ugh grants. In the So uth, who le villages, kno wn as agrah ārams, were
dedicated to learning and teaching.
The Continuing System
The Indian educatio n system had such resilience that it co ntinued to functio n till the
pre-co lo nial age. British administrato rs do cumented the wide netwo rk o f scho o ls and
institutio ns o f higher learning in vario us parts o f India. William Adam’s repo rts o n
indigeno us educatio n, co llated between 1835 and 1838, reco rd ho w the system was
even then suppo rted by lo cal reso urces, including vo luntary do natio ns fro m
interested and wealthy citizens, with even illiterate peasants pitching in their bit.
128
An Indian school, Agra, 1871 (source: British Library Online Gallery).
These reco rds reveal that in Bengal and Bihar alo ne, indigeno us village scho o ls
numbered between 100,000 to 150,000. In the 1820s, the Co llecto r o f Cuddapah
(Kadapa in Andhra Pradesh) noted how villagers supported students who came to
study under teachers in the vicinity. There were many institutio ns o f higher learning
in mo st districts o f Bengal and so uthern India: the district o f Co imbatore alo ne had
o ver 700 indigeno us scho o ls. Significantly, in many districts o f so uth India 78% to
80% o f the students in such village scho o ls were fro m the disadvantaged sectio ns o f
so ciety.
In summary, the Indian co ncept o f educatio n was no t fo cused o n the intellect
alo ne: it fo cused o n the students’ inner as well as o uter develo pment and prepared
them to face the vicissitudes o f life. In many ways, the wide and decentralized
netwo rk o f educatio n
centres was the
foundatio n o f India’s rich
co ntributio ns in intellectual, artistic and spiritual spheres.
***
129
cultural
Comprehension
1.
What were the goals o f educatio n in ancient India? Co mplete the visual below
with info rmatio n fro m the text.
puruśartha
catustaya (fo ur
ends o f life)
_______________
dharma
2.
_______________
_______________
Examine the fo llo wing table highlighting aspects o f physical educatio n. Yo u
may need to mo dify the chart. After yo u have co mpleted the table, discuss the
merits o f physical educatio n.
Physical
Educatio n
kriḍā (games
recreatio nal
activities)
_______________
_______________
Co mplete the table belo w listing the 5 niyama / observances o f brahmac ārins:
5 niyama
śauca
purity o f
---------------
---------------
---------------
130
---------------
---------------
3.
What pro cesses did the guru use to teach his students? Make a list and co mment
o n the appro priateness o f these pro cesses.
4.
It is o ften said that ro te learning is the bane o f educatio n to day. Was rote
learning the fo undatio n o f learning in ancient India? Give evidence fro m the
text to support yo ur argument.
5.
Reflect upo n yo ur o wn educatio n right fro m the initial stages to the co mpletio n
o f class 10, i.e. seco ndary level. Co mplete the table belo w by jo tting do wn ideas
abo ut each o f the two perio ds (yo u may like to add to the list o f features).
Features of education system s
ancient
m odern
objectives / motto
curriculum
pedagogy (teaching methodology)
teacher-student relationship
process of teaching-learning

Co mpare and co ntrast the two systems o f educatio n. Do yo u think so me
features o f the ancient educatio n system co uld be inco rpo rated into the
existing mo dern educatio n systems? Think o f specific po ints.

During this stage yo ur Gro up Repo rter will make yo ur presentatio n in
fro nt o f the who le class. Yo u may like to make a co llaborative multimedia
presentatio n wherein each member gets an o ppo rtunity to participate
actively.
131
Activities

Make a list o f mo tto s o f vario us scho o ls / universities / educatio nal institutes.
Yo ur gro up has been given the task o f designing a mo tto co mplete with the lo go
fo r a new mo del schoo l yo u are setting up. The new scho o l will use features o f
the ancient Indian educatio n system as well as o f the mo dern educatio n beliefs
and systems.

Do yo u have a Ro ll o f Ho no ur in reco gnitio n for deserving students / alumni?
What is the criterio n for selectio n? Who were the eminent scho lars o f the
ancient Indian universities? In what ways was their co ntributio n remarkable?

Name a few o f the dignitaries and fo reign visito rs to ancient Indian universities.
Find o ut more abo ut their life and work and findings abo ut the India.

Imagine that so me o f the ancient education traditio ns o f the guru- śiṣya
parampar ā are to be integrated in today’s system. Yo u have been given the
respo nsibility o f framing two sets o f suggestio ns: o ne for the Student’s
Handboo k and o ne fo r the Teacher’s Handbo ok. These will be inco rpo rated as
valuable advice for students and teachers. Using the info rmatio n fro m the
survey article to write the two sets o f suggestio ns.
Extended Activity

What were the findings o f the British repo rts on the existing Indian educatio n
system? List three main features. Do they have relevance o r co nnect with the
issues that we face in educatio n today?

What co nsideratio ns led the British to intro duce the English educatio n system
in the 19th–20th centuries?

In yo ur o pinio n what have been the lo ng-term implicatio ns o f the British
system o f educatio n in India?
132
Project Ideas

Find o ut abo ut so me majo r po licy decisio ns o n educatio n taken by the Indian
go vernment from 1980. Ho w far have they been successful? Give reaso ns fo r
their success o r failure. Make co nstructive suggestio ns o n ho w the situatio n can
be impro ved. Yo u may like to co nsider so me o f the fo llo wing:

New Educatio n Po licy

Value-based educatio n (inner dimensio n / o uter dimensio n)

Sarva Shiksha Ando lan

Oppo rtunities fo r the eco no mically disadvantaged sectio ns / girl child /
wo men.

Organize a seminar o n ‘Indian Educatio n Today: The Ro ad Ahead’.

An Internatio nal Summit o n Educatio n in the 21st century is being held. Leading
educatio nists are to present their views o n educatio n. Find o ut mo re abo ut
o ther leading educatio nal philo so phies.

Yo u are a representative o f o ne o f the fo ur ancient Indian universities.
Highlight the salient features o f yo ur university: its philo so phy, goals, etho s,
faculty,
student
pro file,
infrastructure
etc.
Explain
yo ur
university’s
co ntributio ns to the so ciety aro und.
Further Reading
1.
A.S. Altekar, Education in Ancient India, Nand Kishore & Bros., Benares, 1944.
2.
Radha Kumud Mookerjee, Ancient Indian Education, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 4th edn,
1969.
3.
D.G. Apte, Universities in Ancient India, Maharaja Sayaji Rao University, Baroda, undated.
4.
J. Takakusu & Friedrich Max Müller, trs, A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised
in India and the Malay Archipelago, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1896.
133
5.
Thomas Watters, On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India, vol. 2, Royal Asiatic So ciety, London,
1905.
6.
7.
H.D. Sankalia, The University of Nālandā, B.G. Paul & Co., Madras, 1934.
Kapil Kapoor, ‘Women and the Dharmaśāstras’ in Chandrakala Padia, ed.,
Dharmaśāstras, Rawat Publication, Jaipur, 2009.
Women in
8.
Kapil Kapoor, ed., Encyclopedia of Hinduism , vols. IV, VI, VII, Rupa & Co., New Delhi, 2010.
9.
Pranati Ghoshal, ‘Women’s Education in Vedic India’ in Chandrakala Padia, ed., Women
in Dharmaśāstras, Rawat Publication, Jaipur, 2009.
10.
S.H. Deshpande, Physical Education in Ancient India, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, Delhi,
1992.
11.
Dharampal, The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century ,
Collected Writings, vol. III, Other India Press, Mapusa, 2000.
12.
Dharampal, Archival Compilation, vol. 9, Ashram Pratishtan, Sevagram, 2000.
13.
Joseph DiBona, One Teacher, One School: The Adam Reports on Indigenous Education in
19th Century India, Biblia Impex, New Delhi, 1983.
Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in April 2013)

A.S. Altekar, Education in Ancient India,
http:/ / ia700300.us.archive.org/ 21/ items/ educationinancie032398mbp/ educationinanci
e032398mbp.pdf

D.G. Apte, Universities in Ancient India
http:/ / ia600407.us.archive.org/ 34/ items/ cu31924005633130/ cu31924005633130.pdf

Dharampal, The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century
www.samanvaya.com/ dharampal/

H.D. Sankalia, University of Nālandā
www.new1.dli.ernet.in/ scripts/ FullindexDefault.htm?path1=/ data2/ upload/ 0058/ 951&
first=1&last=344&barcode=4990010204799

134
Primary Texts on Education in India:
A Selection
Two Types of Knowledge and the Right Pupil
Śaunaka, the great householder, approached Angiras in the pro per
manner and said: Revered sir, what is that by the kno wing o f which all
this beco mes kno wn?
To him he said: Two kinds o f knowledge must be kno wn — that is
what the kno wers o f Brahman tell us. They are the higher kno wledge and
the lo wer knowledge.
Of these two , the lo wer knowledge is the Rig Veda, the Yajurveda,
the Sāmaveda, the Atharvaveda, śikṣh ā (pho netics), kalpa (rituals),
vy ākaraṇa (grammar), nirukta (etymo lo gy), chandas (metre) and jyotiṣ
(astro no my); and the higher kno wledge is that by which the Imperishable
Brahman is attained.
To that pupil who has duly appro ached him, who se mind is
co mpletely serene and who se senses are co ntro lled, the wise teacher
sho uld indeed rightly impart the Kno wledge o f Brahman, thro ugh which
o ne kno ws the immutable and the true Purusha. ( Mu ṇḍaka Upaniṣad, 1.3.
4.5.13, tr. Swami Nikhilananda)
***
Mere Intellectual Knowledge Is Not Enough
A mere intellectual apprehensio n o f truth, a reaso ned co nvictio n, is no t
sufficient, tho ugh it is necessary as the first stage as a so rt o f mark at
135
which to shoo t. ( Mu ṇḍaka Upaniṣad, II.2.24, tr. Radha Kumud Moo kerjee,
Ancient Indian Education )
***
The Link between Teacher and Pupil
With reference to knowledge — the preceding wo rd is the teacher, the
fo llo wing wo rd is the pupil, their unio n is kno wledge, and their link is
instructio n. ( Taittir īya Upaniṣad I. 3, tr . Patrick Olivelle , Early Upaniṣads)
***
Teachers Invite Students to Come to Them
May brahmac ārins (students) co me to me vario usly!
May brahmac ārins co me to me!
May brahmac ārins practise self-co ntro l!
May brahmac ārins enjo y peace!
As waters flow downward, as the mo nths merge in the year, so may
brahmac ārins co me to me fro m all directio ns! ( Taittir īya Upaniṣad IV, 2, 3, tr.
Swami Nikhilananda)
***
Controlling the Mind and the Senses: the Goal of Indian Education
When a man lacks understanding, and his mind is never co ntro lled;
His senses do not o bey him, as bad ho rses, a chario teer.
But when a man has understanding, and his mind is ever co ntro lled;
136
His senses do o bey him, as go o d horses, a chario teer.
( Katha Upaniṣad III 5, 6, tr . Patrick Olivelle , Early Upaniṣads)
***
Teacher’s Directives to Students on their Completion of Study
After the co mpletio n o f … study, the teacher admo nishes his resident
pupil:
“ Speak the truth. Fo llo w dharma. Do no t neglect yo ur private recitatio n o f
the Veda. After yo u have given a valuable gift to the teacher, do no t cut
o ff yo ur family line. ... Do not neglect the truth. Do not neglect the
dharma. Do no t neglect yo ur health. Do no t neglect yo ur wealth. Do not
neglect yo ur private and public recitatio n o f the Veda. Do no t neglect the
rites to gods and ancesto rs. ... Treat yo ur mo ther like a go d. Treat yo ur
father like a go d. Treat yo ur teacher like a go d. Treat yo ur guests like
go ds. ...
“ Yo u sho uld give with faith, and never witho ut faith. Yo u sho uld give with
dignity. Yo u sho uld give with modesty. Yo u should give with trepidatio n.
Yo u sho uld give with co mprehensio n.”
(adapted fro m Taittir īya Upaniṣad, I. 11, 1, 2, 3,
tr . Patrick Olivelle , Early Upaniṣads)
***
What Is a Useful Life?
[One who leads a useful life is o ne] who in all his lifetime thinks o f the
well-being o f o thers, co nsiders o thers’ wealth as o f no co nsequence
137
( tuccha), is po ssessed o f ackno wledged virtues ( sadgu ṇa), such as truthtelling, acts tho ughtfully, respects tho se who are wo rthy o f respect, is
indifferent ( udasīna) to o thers, serves, devo tedly the learned and the aged,
co ntro ls his passio ns, is co nstantly invo lved in sharing his knowledge, his
wealth, sees all beings in his o wn self, accepts goo d advice.” ( Cāraka
Saṃhita, 1.30.23, 26)
***
Hsüan- tsang’s (Xuanzang) Impressions of Indian Education
To educate and enco urage the yo ung, they are first taught [led] to study
the bo ok o f twelve chapters [ siddhavastu ].
After arriving at the age o f seven years and upwards, the yo ung are
instructed in the five vidy ās, sāstras o f great impo rtance. The first is called
the elucidatio n o f so unds [ śabdavidyā]. This treatise explains and
illustrates the agreement [co nco rdance] o f wo rds, and it pro vides an
index fo r derivatives.
The seco nd vidy ā is called kiau-ming [ śilpasthana vidyā]; it treats o f the
arts, mechanics, explains the principles o f the Yin and Yang and the
calendar.
The third is called the medicinal treatise [ cikitsāvidyā]; it embraces
fo rmula for pro tectio n, secret charms, [the use o f] medicinal sto nes,
acupuncture, and mugwo rt [a medicinal plant].
The fo urth vidy ā is called the hetuvidy ā [lo gic]; its name is derived
fro m the character o f the wo rk which relates to the determinatio n o f the
true and false, and reduces to their last terms the definitio n o f right and
wro ng.
138
The fifth vidy ā is called the science o f adhy ātmavidyā [“ the interio r” ];
it relates to the five vehicles, their causes and co nsequences, and the
subtle influences o f these. ...
[Ro le o f the Teachers:] The teachers [o f these wo rks] must
themselves have clo sely studied the deep and secret principles they
co ntain, and penetrated to their remo test meaning. They then explain
their general sense, and guide their pupils in understanding the words
which are difficult. They urge them o n and skilfully co nduct them. They
add lustre to their po o r knowledge and stimulate the despo nding. ... When
they have finished their educatio n, and have attained thirty years o f age,
then their character is fo rmed and their kno wledge ripe. When they have
secured an o ccupatio n they first o f all thank their master for his
attentio n. There are so me, deeply versed in antiquity, who devo te
themselves to elegant studies and live apart fro m the wo rld, and retain
the simplicity o f their character. These rise abo ve mundane presents, and
are as insensible to reno wn as to the co ntempt o f the world. Their name
having spread afar, the rulers appreciate them highly, but are unable to
draw them to the co urt. (Fro m: Hsüan-tsang (Xuanzang), Buddhist Records
of the Western World, Vo l. I. Translated by Samuel Beal. Lo ndo n: Kegan Paul,
Trench, Trübner, 1906)
***
Hsüan- tsang’s (Xuan Zang) Description of Nālandā
University
The who le establishment is surro unded by a brick wall, which enclo ses
the entire mo nastery fro m witho ut. One gate o pens into the great co llege,
fro m which are separated eight other halls, standing in the middle (o f the
Saṅgh ārāma). The richly ado rned to wers, and the fairy-like turrets, like
139
po inted hilltops, are co ngregated to gether. The o bservatories seem to be
lo st in the vapo urs (o f the mo rning), and the upper ro o ms to wer above the
clo uds. Fro m the windows o ne may see ho w the winds and the clo uds
(pro duce new fo rms), and abo ve the soaring eaves the co njunctio ns o f the
sun and mo o n. And then we may add how the deep, translucent po nds,
bear o n their surface the blue lo tus, intermingled with the Kie-ni ( kanaka)
flo wer, o f deep red co lo ur, and at intervals the Āmra gro ves spread o ver
all, their shade.
All the o utside co urts, in which are the priests’ chambers, are o f fo ur
stages. The stages have drago n pro jectio ns and co lo ured eaves, the pearlred pillars, carved and o rnamented, the richly adorned balustrades, and
the ro o fs co vered with tiles that reflect the light in a tho usand shades,
these things add to the beauty o f the scene. The saṅgh ārāma (mo nasteries)
o f India are co unted by myriads, but this is the mo st remarkable fo r
grandeur and height. The priests, belo nging to the mo nastery, o r
strangers (residing therein) always reach to the number o f 10,000, who all
study the Great Vehicle (a majo r Buddhist sect), and also (the wo rks
belo nging to ) the eighteen sects and no t o nly so , but even o rdinary wo rks,
such as the Vedas and other boo ks, the hetuvidy ā (lo gic), śabdavidyā
(grammar), the cikitsāvidyā (medicine), Atharvaveda (the wo rks o n Magic),
the Sāṅkhya (a majo r system o f philo so phy); besides these they tho ro ughly
investigate the “ miscellaneo us” wo rks. There are 1,000 m en who can
explain twenty co llectio ns o f sūtrās and śāstras; 500 who can explain thirty
co llectio ns, and perhaps ten men, including the Master o f the Law, who
can explain fifty collections. Śīlabhadra alone has studied and understood
the who le number. His eminent virtue and advanced age have caused him
to be regarded as the chief member o f the co mmunity. Within the Temple
140
they arrange every day abo ut 100 pulpits fo r preaching, and the students
attend these disco urses witho ut any fail, even fo r a minute (an inch
shadow o n the dial). The priests dwelling here are, as a bo dy,
spo ntaneo usly dignified and grave, so that during the 700 years since the
fo undatio n o f the establishment, there has been no single case o f guilty
rebellio n against the rules. (Adapted fro m The Life of Hiuen Tsang by the
Shaman Hwui Li, Samuel Beal, ed., Kegan Paul, Trench & Trübner, Lo ndo n,
1911)
***
Narratives of Indian Education
in the 17 th , 18 th and 19 th Centuries
An Italian Explorer’s Record of Indian Education in the 17 th Century
They [Indians] are particularly anxio us and attentive to instruct their
children to read and to write. Educatio n with them is an early and an
impo rtant business in every family. Many o f their wo men are taught to
read and write. The Brahmans are generally the scho o lmasters, but any o f
the castes may, and o ften do , practice teaching. The children are
instructed witho ut vio lence, and by a pro cess peculiarly simple. The
pupils are the mo nito rs o f each o ther, and the characters are traced with
a ro d, or the finger o n the sand. Reading and writing are acquired at the
same time, and by the same pro cess. This mode o f teaching however is
o nly initial. If the pupil is meant to study the higher branches o f learning,
he is remo ved fro m these primary scho o ls, where the arts o f reading,
writing and acco unts are acquired, and placed under mo re scientific
141
masters. It is to these elementary scho o ls that the labo uring classes in
India owe their educatio n. ...
I entertained myself in the po rch o f the temple, beho lding little bo ys
learning arithmetic after a strange manner, which I will here relate. They
were fo ur, and having all taken the same lesso n befo re the master, to get
that same by heart, and repeat likewise their fo rmer lesso ns, and not
fo rget them, o ne o f them singing musically with a certain co ntinued to ne
(which has the fo rce o f making a deep impressio n in the memo ry) recited
part o f the lesso n; as fo r example, “ o ne by itself makes o ne” ; and whilst he
was thus speaking, he wrote down the same number, no t with any kind o f
pen, no r in paper, but (no t to spend paper in vain) with his finger o n the
gro und, the pavement being for that purpose strewed all o ver with fine
sand; after the first had wro te what he sung, all the rest sung and wrote
do wn the same thing to gether. Then the first bo y sung, and wro te down
ano ther part o f the lesso n; as, fo r example, two by itself makes two , which
all the rest repeated in the same manner; and so fo rward in o rder. When
the pavement was full o f figures, they put them o ut with the hand, and if
need were, strewed it with new sand fro m a little heap which they had
befo re them wherewith to write further. And thus they did as lo ng as
exercise co ntinued; in which manner likewise they to ld o ne, they learnt to
read and write witho ut spo iling paper, pens or ink, which certainly is a
pretty way. I asked them, if they happen to fo rget o r be mistaken in any
part o f the lesso n, who corrected and taught them, they being all scho lars
witho ut the assistance o f any master; they answered me, and said true,
that it was no t po ssible fo r all fo ur to forget o r mistake in the same part,
and that they thus exercised to gether, to the end, that if o ne happened to
142
be o ut, the o ther might co rrect him. Indeed a pretty, easy and secure way
o f learning.
Note: Fro m Pietro Della Valle’s acco unt o f educatio n and literature in Malabar. Pietro
Della Valle (1586-1652) was an Italian explo rer who travelled in India between 1623
and 1624 and visited Surat, Go a, and the Malabar coast. So urce: Dharampal, The
Beautiful Tree.
A Description of Indian Education in the 18 th Century
The educatio n o f yo uth in India is much simpler, and not near so
expensive as in Euro pe. The children assemble under the shade o f a
co co nut tree; place themselves in rows o n the gro und, and trace o ut o n
the sand, with the fore finger o f the right hand, the elements o f their
alphabet, and then smo o th it with the left when they wish to trace o ut
o ther characters. The writing master ... who statio ns himself o pposite to
his pupils, examines what they have do ne; po ints o ut their faults, and
sho ws them ho w to co rrect them. At first, he attends them standing; but
when the yo ung peo ple have acquired so me readiness in writing, he
places himself cro ss-legged o n a tiger’s o r deer’s skin, o r even o n a mat
made o f the leaves o f the co co nut-tree, o r wild ananas [pineapple], which
is called Kaida, plaited to gether. This metho d o f teaching writing was
intro duced into India two hundred years befo re the birth o f Christ,
acco rding to the testimo ny o f Megasthenes, and still co ntinues to be
practised. No peo ple, perhaps, o n earth have adhered so much to their
ancient usages and custo ms as the Indians.
143
The Teacher’s Subsistence
A scho o lmaster in Malabar receives every two mo nths, fro m each o f his
pupils, fo r the instructio n given them, two Fano n o r Panam. So me do no t
pay in mo ney, but give him a certain quantity of rice, so that this expense
beco mes very easy to the parents. There are some teachers who instruct
children witho ut any fee, and are paid by the overseers o f the temple, o r
by the chief o f the caste. When the pupils have made to lerable pro gress in
writing, they are admitted into certain scho o ls, called Eutupalli, where
they begin to write o n palm leaves (Pana), which, when several o f them
are stitched to gether, and fastened between two bo ards, fo rm a Grantha,
that is, an Indian boo k. If such a bo ok be written upo n with an iro n style,
it is called Granthavari, o r Lakya, that is, writing, to distinguish it fro m
Alakya, which is so mething no t written.
Respect for the Teacher
When the Guru, o r teacher, enters the scho o l, he is always received with
the utmo st reverence and respect. His pupils must throw themselves
do wn at full length befo re him; place their right hand o n their mo uth, and
no t venture to speak a single wo rd until he gives them express
permissio n. Tho se who talk and prate co ntrary to the pro hibitio n o f their
master are expelled fro m the scho o l, as bo ys who canno t restrain their
to ngue, and who are co nsequently unfit fo r the study o f philo so phy. By
these means the precepto r always receives that respect which is due to
him: the pupils are o bedient, and seldo m o ffend against rules which are so
carefully inculcated.
144
Physical Education and Sports
The management o f the lance, fencing, playing at ball and tennis, have
been intro duced into their educatio n o n goo d gro unds, to render their
yo uth active and robust, There are particular masters fo r all these
exercises, arts and sciences; and each o f them, as already mentio ned, is
treated with particular respect by the pupils. Twice a year each master
receives a piece o f silk, which he emplo ys fo r clo thing; and this present is
called Samanam.
Note: Extracts fro m Fra Pao lino Da Barto lo meo’s Voyages to the East Indies (1796). Da
Barto lo meo (1748-1806), an Austrian Carmelite missio nary and autho r o f the first
Sanskrit grammar published in Euro pe, came to Malabar in India in 1774 and spent
the next fo urteen years there. (From Dharampal, The Beautiful Tree )
Description of the University at Navadveep (Nuddeah) in Bengal in 1791
The grandeur o f the fo undatio n o f the Nuddeah University is generally
ackno wledged. It co nsists o f three co lleges — Nuddeah, Santipore and
Go pulparrah. Each is endo wed with lands fo r maintaining masters in
every science. When ever, the revenue o f these lands, pro ve to o scanty fo r
the suppo rt o f pandits, and their scho lars, the Rajah’s treasury supplies
the deficiency: fo r the respective masters have no t o nly stated salaries
fro m the Rajah, fo r their o wn suppo rt; but also an additio nal allo wance fo r
every pupil they entertain. And their reso urces are so ample, there are at
present eleven hundred students, and o ne hundred and fifty masters.
Their numbers, it is true, fall sho rt o f tho se in fo rmer days. [Earlier] …
there were at Nuddeah, no less than fo ur tho usand students, and masters
in pro po rtio n.
145
The students that co me fro m distant parts, are generally o f a
maturity in years, and pro ficiency in learning, to qualify them fo r
beginning the study o f philo so phy, immediately o n their admissio n; but
they say, that to beco me a real pundit, a man o ught to spend twenty years
at Nuddeah, in clo se applicatio n.
Any man that cho o ses to devo te himself to literature will find
maintenance at Nuddeah, fro m the fixed revenues o f the university, and
the do natio n o f the Rajah. Men in affluent circumstances, ho wever, live
there at their o wn expense, witho ut burdening the fo undatio n. By the
pundits system o f educatio n, all valuable wo rks, are co mmitted to
memo ry; and to facilitate this, mo st o f their co mpo sitio ns, even their
dictio naries are in metre. But they by no m eans trust their learning
entirely to this repo sito ry: o n the co ntrary, those who write treatises, or
co mmentaries o n learned to pics, have at Nuddeah, always met with
distinguished enco uragements and rewards.
Their metho d o f teaching is this; two o f the masters co mmence a
dialo gue, or disputatio n o n the particular to pic they mean to explain.
When a student hears anything advanced, o r expressed that he do es no t
perfectly understand, he has the privilege o f interro gating the master
abo ut it. They give the yo ung men every enco uragement, to co mmunicate
their do ubts, by their temper and patience in so lving them.
It is a pro fessed and established maxim o f Nuddeah, that a pundit
who lo st his temper, in explaining any po int to a student, let him be ever
so dull and vo id o f memory, abso lutely forfeits his reputatio n, and is
disgraced.
(Fro m Dharampal, Archival Compilations, vo l. 9)
***
146
Love of Learning and Support for Education among Indians
Respect fo r learning has always been the redeeming feature o f ‘the East’.
To this the Panjab has fo rmed no exceptio n. To rn by invasio n and civil
war, it ever preserved and added to educatio nal endo wments. The mo st
unscrupulo us
chief,
the
avaricio us
mo ney-lender,
and
even
the
freebo o ter, vied with the small landowner in making peace with his
co nscience by fo unding schoo ls and rewarding the learned. There was not
a mo sque, a temple, a dharmasala that had not a schoo l attached to it, to
which the yo uth flo cked chiefly fo r religio us educatio n. … There was no t a
single villager who did not take pride in devoting a po rtio n o f his produce
to a respected teacher. … The lowest co mputatio n gives us 3,30,000 pupils
(against little more than 1,90,000 at present [1882]) in the scho o ls o f the
vario us deno minatio ns who were acquainted with reading, writing, and
so me method o f computatio n.
No te: Extract from G.W. Leitner’s repo rt, History of the Education in Panjab since
Annexation, 1882. G.W. Leitner (1840-1899), a British Orientalist appo inted principal o f
the Laho re Go vernment Co llege in 1864, was invo lved with Indian educatio n and
studied Indian culture until his retirement fro m service in 1886. (Fro m Dharampal,
The Beautiful Tree )
***
A Widespread Pre- Colonial Network of Indigenous Schools
The estimate o f 100,000 such schoo ls in Bengal and Bihar is co nfirmed by a
co nsideratio n o f the number o f villages in tho se two Pro vinces. Their
number has been o fficially estimated at 150,748 o f which, no t all, but mo st
have each a scho o l. If it be admitted that there is so large a pro po rtio n as
147
a third o f the villages that have no scho o ls, there will still be 100,000 that
have them. … The system o f village scho o ls is extensively prevalent; that
the desire to give educatio n to their … children must be deeply seated in
the minds o f parents even o f the humblest classes. (Extracts from William
Adam’s repo rt o n the State o f Educatio n in Bengal 1835-38, in Dharampal,
The Beautiful Tree )
***
I need hardly mentio n … that there is hardly a village, great or small,
thro ugho ut o ur territo ries, in which there is no t at least o ne scho o l, and
in larger villages mo re; many in every town, and in large cities in every
divisio n, where yo ung natives are taught, reading, writing and arithmetic,
upo n a system so eco no mical fro m handful o r two o f grains, to perhaps a
rupee per mo nth to the scho o l master, according to the ability o f the
parent, and at the same time so simple and effectual, that there is hardly a
cultivator or petty dealer who is no t competent to keep his o wn acco unts
with a degree o f accuracy, in my o pinio n, beyond what we meet with the
amo ngst the lo wer o rders in o ur o wn co untry; whilst the more splendid
dealers and bankers keep their bo o ks with a degree o f case co nciseness,
and clearness I rather think fully equal to tho se o f any British merchants.
(No te by G.L. Prendergast, senior co uncil member o f the Bombay
Presidency, Ho use o f Co mmo ns Paper: 1831-32, vo l. 9. Fro m Dharampal,
The Beautiful Tree )
***
148
Comprehension
1.
What were the virtues that Indian students were enco uraged to inculcate and
ado pt in ancient times?
2.
What are the chief features o f India’s schoo l systems reco rded by Euro pean
travellers / o fficials befo re or at the start o f the co lo nial era?
Extended Activity
1.
Based o n yo ur reading o f the primary texts, highlight the fundamental
principles o f educatio n in ancient India thro ugh the use o f drama and
Po werPo int presentatio ns.
2.
Wo rk in gro ups. Each gro up must:

have a sūtradh āra or narrato r;

intro duce the theme / event / situatio n;

pro vide a co mmentary o n individual episo des;

give a suitable co nclusio n.
Suggestions for dramatization:

Teacher’s farewell speech to students o n completio n o f their study

Tapping Hsüan–tsang’s impressio ns fo r an impro visatio n; situatio n: a
principal / headmaster addressing parents o n the educatio n o ffered to the
student

A B.Ed. teacher’s valedicto ry address highlighting the ro le o f a teacher

Po werPo int presentatio ns o n reco rds o f Indian educatio n in the 17th, 18th
and 19th centuries.

149
Ethics: Individual and Social
Ethics ( n ītīśāstra) is a branch o f philo so phy that deals with moral values. The wo rd
‘ethics’ co mes fro m the Greek ethikos, which means a set o f moral principles. The
wo rd is so metimes used to refer to the mo ral principles o f a particular so cial o r
religio us gro up o r an individual. It studies human character and co nduct in terms o f
go o d and bad, right and wro ng. What are the attributes o f goo d character? What type
o f human behavio ur is evil o r bad? How sho uld o ne act in life? These are so me o f the
fundamental questio ns o f ethics.
The mo ral co de o f the peo ple is an indicato r o f their so cial and spiritual ways o f
life. The true essence o f human life is to live amidst wo rldly jo y and sorro ws. Ethics is
primarily co ncerned with the mo ral issues o f the wo rld. True religio n lays stress o n
mo ral virtues. Peo ple are required to discharge their duties acco rding to the moral
co de o f ethics. A true kno wledge o f ethics would be attained if o ne practices and
imbibes these mo ral values. Ethics is o f two kinds, individual and so cial. Individual
ethics is indicative o f the goo d qualities that are essential fo r individual well-being
and happiness. So cial ethics represents the values that are needed fo r so cial o rder
and harmo ny.
In the kno wledge traditio ns o f India, ethics has an ancient o rigin in
philo so phical thinking. Fro m time immemorial, vario us religio us faiths have
flo urished here. Every religio n and every philo so phical system o f India has a
pro minent ethical co mpo nent. Ethics is the co re o f all these systems. In every
religio us traditio n, go od moral co nduct is considered essential fo r a happy and
co ntented life. Witho ut fo llowing the path o f righteo usness no o ne can attain the
supreme go al ( mok ṣa) o f life. Fo r this, o ne has to perform goo d deeds and avo id
wro ng-do ing.
150
The Cosmic Order
India has a very ancient histo ry o f thinking abo ut ethics. Its central co ncepts are
represented in Ṛgveda, o ne o f o ldest knowledge texts no t o nly o f India but o f the
entire wo rld. In Ṛgveda, we co me acro ss the idea o f an all-pervading co smic order
( ṛta) which stands for harmo ny and balance in nature and in human so ciety. Here
ṛta is described as a power o r force which is the co ntro ller o f the forces o f nature and
o f mo ral values in human so ciety. In human so ciety, when this harmo ny and balance
are disturbed, there is disorder and suffering. This is the po wer o r force that lies
behind nature and keeps everything in balance.
In Indian traditio n, the co ncept o f ṛta gave rise to the idea o f dharma. The term
dharma here do es no t mean mere religio n; it stands fo r duty, o bligatio n and
righteo usness. It is a who le way o f life in which ethical values are co nsidered
supreme and everyo ne is expected to perfo rm his o r her duty acco rding to his or her
so cial po sitio n and statio n in life. In Buddhism, fo r ethics the wo rd dhamma is used,
which is the Pāli equivalent o f the Sanskrit word dharma. The guidelines and rules
regarding what is co nsidered as appro priate behavio ur fo r human beings are
prescribed in the Dharma Śāstras. These are so cio lo gical texts that tell us abo ut o ur
duties and obligatio ns as individuals as well as members o f so ciety.
In the Hindu way o f life, every individual is expected to perfo rm his o r her duty
appro priate to his o r her caste ( var ṇa) and stage o f life ( āśrama). This divisio n o f o ne’s
life into the fo ur āśramas and their respective dharmas, in principle, pro vides
fulfilment to the perso n in his so cial, mo ral and spiritual aspects, that wo uld lead to
harmo ny and balance in the so ciety. The fo ur āśramas are: (1) brahmacarya, stage o f
studentship; (2) g ṛhastha, stage o f the ho useho lder; (3) vanaprastha, life in the fo rest;
and saṁny āsa, renunciatio n.
151
Apart fro m āśrama, the co ncept o f fo ur ends of life ( puru ṣārthas) is also very
impo rtant. These fo ur ends o f life are the go als which are desirable in them and also
needed fo r fulfilment o f human aspiratio ns. These are (1) righteo usness ( dharma); (2)
material well-being ( artha); (3) fulfilment o f desires ( k āma); and (4) liberatio n fro m all
wo rldly ties ( mok ṣa). The fulfilment o f all o f these fo ur ends o f life is impo rtant fo r
man. In this classificatio n, dharma and mok ṣa are most impo rtant fro m the ethical
po int o f view. They give right directio n and purpo se to human life. Fo r instance,
acquiring wealth ( artha) is a desirable o bjective, pro vided ho wever it is in co nfo rmity
with dharma, that is, the welfare o f the so ciety.
mokṣa
dharma
kāma
artha
One possible mutual relationship of the puruṣārthas:
artha and kāma within dharma, and mokṣa beyond.
In the Bhagavad-Gīt ā, selfless actio n ( niśkāma karma) is advo cated. It is an actio n
which is required to be performed witho ut co nsideratio n o f perso nal co nsequences.
It is an altruistic actio n aimed at the well-being o f o thers rather than fo r o neself. In
Hinduism this do ctrine is known as karma yoga.
152
A depiction on cloth of Kṛṣṇa’s discourse to Arjuna in the Gīt ā.
The co ncept o f right and wro ng is the core o f the Mah ābhārata which
emphasizes, amo ng others, the values o f no n-vio lence, truthfulness, absence o f
anger, charity, fo rgiveness and self realizatio n. It is o nly by perfo rming o ne’s
righteo us duties or dharma that o ne can ho pe to attain the supreme path to the
highest go o d. It is dharma alo ne that gives bo th prosperity ( abhyudaya) and the
supreme spiritual go o d ( niśryas).
Similarly, the impo rtance o f ethics and ethical values is highlighted in epics and
philo so phical texts like, Upaniṣads, Rāmāyaṇa, darśana- śāstras and dharma- śāstras. The
darśana śāstras are philo so phical texts, which pro vide ratio nal explanatio ns o f the
ethical issues; the universal mo ral pro blems faced by man in daily life are placed in a
philo so phical co ntext. In the dharma- śāstras, emphasis is o n the so cial ethics. In these
153
texts the inter-perso nal and so cial relatio ns are placed in an ethical framework fo r
guidance. In these texts the ethical pro blems are discussed in an indirect manner.
Apart fro m these so me o f the texts directly deal with ethical issues:
1.
Viduran ītī: Attributed to Vidura, the great Mah ābh ārata character. A rich
disco urse o n po lity and dharma- śāstra.
2.
Kamandak īya Nītisāra: A Sanskrit wo rk belo nging to c. 700-750 CE.
3.
Nītivākyamṛtam : Literally the ‘nectar o f science o f po lity’ co ntains thirty-two
disco urses in simple Sanskrit pro se by a Jain scho lar, So madeva Suri.
4.
Ḷaghu
Arhann īti: A small manual in Prakrit verse (c. 1088-1172 CE) o n civil and
criminal laws by Hemachandra, a Jain scho lar.
5.
Śukranītisara: An abridged Sanskrit text o n po lity which is attributed to
Śukr āc ārya but believed by scho lars to be a wo rk o f the early mediaeval perio d
o f histo ry.
6.
Nītikalpatar ū: A Sanskrit treatise attributed
to King Bho ja, available in
manuscript o nly.
7.
Nīti Śatakam: Bhart ṛhari’s hundred verses o n ethics.
Buddhist Ethics
Buddhism also gives primary impo rtance to ethics. So metimes it is called an ethical
religio n as it do es no t discuss or depend o n the existence o f Go d (the Supreme Being
with form and attributes) but instead believes in alleviating the suffering o f
humanity. The ethical values in this faith are based o n the life and teachings o f
the Buddha.
These mo ral instructio ns are included in Buddhist scriptures o r handed do wn
thro ugh traditio n. Acco rding to Buddhism, the fo undatio n o f ethics is the pañcaśīla
(five rules), which advo cates refraining fro m killing, stealing, lying, sexual
misco nduct and into xicants. In beco ming a Buddhist, a lay perso n is enco uraged to
take a vow to abstain from these negative actio ns.
154
A fresco depicting Buddha addressing the people.
In Buddhism, the two mo st impo rtant ethical virtues are co mpassio n ( karu ṇa)
and friendliness ( maitr ī). One sho uld have deep sympathy and goo dwill fo r the
suffering peo ple and sho uld have the qualities o f a go od friend. The mo st important
ethical value is no n-vio lence o r no n-injury to all living beings. Buddhist ethics is
based o n Fo ur Noble Truths. These are: (1) life is suffering, (2) there is a cause for
suffering, (3) there is a way to remo ve it, and (4) it can be remo ved (thro ugh the
eight-fo ld path). It advo cates the path o f righteo usness ( dhamma). In a way this is the
crux o f Buddhist mo rality.
Jain Ethics
Jainism is ano ther important religio n o f this land. It places great emphasis o n three
mo st impo rtant things in life, called three gems ( triratna). These are: right visio n
( samyaka dṛṣṭī), right knowledge ( samyaka jñ āna) and right co nduct ( samyaka c āritra).
Apart fro m these, Jain thinkers emphasize the need fo r reverence ( śraddh ā). There
are o ther moral principles go verning the life o f Jains. Mo st impo rtant o f these are
ideas o f pu ṇya (m erit) and p āpa (demerit). Merito rio us deeds are very impo rtant fro m
155
the ethical po int o f view. Pāpa is the result o f evil deeds
generated by vice and pu ṇya is the result o f good deeds and
virtuo us co nduct. One sho uld take up the path of a virtuo us
life to lead the way to spiritual growth. Ultimately, o ne
transcends bo th virtue and vice. Right co nduct is necessary
fo r the spiritual pro gress o f man. The mo st important thing
in Jainism is the practice o f no n-vio lence ( ahimsā), o r
abstaining fro m inflicting injury o n any being. It is
required that the principle o f ahimsā sho uld be fo llo wed in
tho ught, wo rd and deed. In Jainism, the o ther cardinal
virtues
are:
fo rgiveness,
humility,
simplicity,
no n-
A hand with the word
ahimsā inside a wheel: a
symbol for the Jain vow
co veto usness, austerity, restraint, truthfulness, purity,
of non-violence.
renunciatio n and celibacy.
Sikh Ethics
Sikhism, the mo st recent faith in
Indian traditio n, also lays great
stress o n ethics in human life. In
the wo rds o f its fo under, Guru
Nanak, “ Truth is higher than
everything else, higher still is
truthful co nduct.” The cardinal
virtues acco rding to Guru Granth
Sahib, the Sikh scripture, are:
co mpassio n
During the battle of Anandpur Sahib in 1704, Bhai Kanhaiya,
a follower of Guru Gobind Singh, was often seen carrying a
mashka of water to quench the thirst of the wounded,
whether they were Sikhs or soldiers of the Mughal army.
This exemplifies the values of non-enmity, service and
compassion.
156
( day ā),
charity
( dāna), co ntentment ( santokha),
no n-enmity ( nirvair ) and selfless
service ( sev ā). In additio n to these o ne is also mo rally o bliged to practise the general
and eternal virtues.
The Bhakti Movement
During the middle ages, the Bhakti mo vement arose in India. It was an all-India
mo vement o f so cial reform and spiritual awakening. It played a very important part
in reawakening the mo ral co nscio usness in India. Jayadeva, Nāmdev, Tulsīd ās, Kab īr,
Ravid ās and Mīra are so me o f the pro minent saints o f this mo vement. Most o f these
saints came fro m the do wntrodden sectio ns o f so ciety. Rejecting the distinctio ns o f
caste, co lo ur and creed, they spread the message o f human equality. They were saint
po ets. In their v āṇī (po etic co mpo sitio ns) they pro pagated the ideals o f lo ve,
co mpassio n, justice and selfless service. These are the ethical values which we need
even to day.
Comprehension
1.
What are the two main elements necessary for a co ntented life?
2.
Define dharma in terms o f the co smic o rder.
3.
What do es o ne need to do to attain the supreme go al [ mok ṣa]?
4.
What are the fo ur ends o f life ( puru ṣārthas) required fo r fulfilling human
desires?
5.
What are the differences between individual and so cial ethics?
6.
One o f the no ble truths o f Buddhism is that all human suffering has a ‘cause’.
What is the cause o f suffering?
7.
Explain the triratnas o f Jainism.
8.
What are the important so urces o f ethical tho ught in India?
157
Activity 1
While the co ncept o f right and wro ng is the co re o f the Mah ābh ārata, the epic
emphasizes, amo ng others, the values o f no n-vio lence, truthfulness, charity, absence
o f anger, fo rgiveness and self realizatio n. Select a value, discuss it in peer gro ups and
then perfo rm it in fro nt o f the class thro ugh:

ro le plays

miming o ut a real life situatio n

singing a so ng

acting o ut a scene or scenes fro m the Mah ābhārata relevant to those values.
Activity 2
Indian traditio ns o ffer vario us styles o f narratives. Use any o ne fo rm to depict a sto ry
o n honesty. The selectio n o f sto ries co uld be fro m different faiths/ religio ns. The
fo llo wing can be used to highlight yo ur presentatio n: painting, pro ps, sūtradh āra,
music, co stumes o r any other visuals.
Activity 3
Co llect info rmatio n o n Bhakti po ets and extracts o f their po etry in audio fo rm. Listen
in the class and have a discussio n o n the virtues / values being sung in their po etry.
Activity 4
Read the fo llo wing Jātaka kath ā:
The Starving Tigress
A Tale of Compassion, Selflessness, and Generosity.
158
Bo rn into a family o f Brahmans reno wned fo r their purity o f co nduct and
great spiritual devo tio n, the Bo dhisattva became a great scho lar and
teacher. With no desire fo r wealth and gain, he entered a fo rest retreat
and began a life as an ascetic. There, o ne day he enco untered a tigress
who was starving and emaciated fro m giving birth. She was abo ut to die
and her own newbo rn
cubs were also o n the
verge o f death due to
starvatio n.
With
no
o ther po ssible fo o d in
sight, the Bo dhisattva,
o ut
of
infinite
co mpassio n, o ffered his
o wn body as foo d to the
tigress,
selflessly
fo rfeiting his o wn life fo r
the sake o f the tigress
and the two cubs.
A 19th -century painting from Mongolia narrating the
story of the starving tigress (source: Shelley & Donald
Rubin Foundation, Himalayan Art,
www.himalayanart.org/ image.cfm/ 50191.html)
Key events in the story:
 The Bo dhisattva sees a starving tigress.
 The tigress is abo ut to die and so are the cubs.
 The Bo dhisattva o ffers his o wn bo dy.
No w think o f a sto ry that yo u have heard in yo ur childho od which left an impressio n
in yo ur mind. Share it with yo ur partner.
159
Activity 5
Have a discussio n o n any o f the fo llowing to pics, justifying yo ur stand with
appro priate examples:

Mo ral values are irrelevant in today’s wo rld.

Truthfulness and humility make a perso n successful.

Killing o f animals is ethical.
Project ideas
1.
Visit a matha / vih āra [mo nastery] and make no tes o n ho w early educatio n is
imparted in the making o f mo nks. Elucidate yo ur pro ject with pictures.
2.
Prepare a wall magazine depicting at least fo ur virtues fro m amo ng the
fo llo wing: selfless service, no n-enmity, forgiveness, truthfulness, humility,
simplicity,
righteo usness,
austerity,
restraint,
no n-co veto usness,
purity,
co ntentment, co mpassio n.
3.
Co llect stories fro m vario us faiths / religio ns that illustrate Indian ethics. Yo ur
presentatio n must co ntain a bio graphical sketch o f the autho r and related
pictures / paintings.
Extended activities
1.
Visit the nearest gurudw āra and o bserve how the fo ur cardinal virtues are
practised there. Offer yo ur seva in the langar (community kitchen).
2.
Our traditio nal performing arts have always been a medium o f entertainment as
well as educatio n and so cial refo rms. Attend a perfo rmance o f fo lk theatre like
Rāmalīlā, Jātr ā, Yak ṣag āna, Nautaṅk ī, Sw āṅg, puppet sho ws, etc. Identify the
ethical values depicted in the perfo rmance.
160
3.
Create a tale treasure o f yo ur own for yo ur junio r classes / siblings, keeping the
fo llo wing in mind:

sto ries that have a message / mo ral value;

sto ries that are a part o f any Indian literature;

Yo u may refer to sto ries fro m Jātaka takes; Hitopadeśa; Pañcatantra;
Kath āsaritsāgara; Singhasan Battisi.
4.
Find so me co ntempo rary Indians — fro m India’s freedo m struggle to to day —
who were / have been able to bring abo ut changes in the so ciety thro ugh ethical
values. Read their life sto ry and identify the values practised by them which
made them embo diments o f Indian ethics. Yo u co uld also explo re examples
aro und yo u.
Further Reading

Kathopaniṣad

Mah ābh ārata (especially Vana Parva)

Bhagavad-Gītā (especially chapter 16)

Rām āyaṇa (especially Uttarkhand)

Tiruvalluvar’s Kural (especially first two parts)

Jātaka Kathayein

Pañcatantra

Kab īr’s Doh ās

Carakasamita, 4.2

The edicts of Aśo ka
161
Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in April 2013)

Kath āsaritsāgar / Bṛhatkath ā:
http:/ / archive.org/ details/ oceanofstorybein01somauoft

Hitopadeśa: Sanskrit text & English translatio n, W. Ainapure, ed., & B.T.
Dravid (1908): http:/ / archive.org/ details/ hitopadesaofnr00vasuuoft

Tales o f Hitopadeśa: www.chandiramani.com/ tohe.html

Tales o f Hitopadeśa: www.culturalindia.net/ indian-folktales/ hitopadesha-tales/

Sto ry o f Dadhici: http:/ / en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Dadhichi

Jātaka tales: http:/ / www.himalayanart.org/ image.cfm/ 50191.html

Jātakamālā or “ Garland o f Birth” stories:
www.buddhanet-de.net/ ancient-buddhist-texts/ English-Texts/ Garland-of-BirthStories/ 01-The-Story-of-the-Tigress.htm

English translatio n o f Pañcatantra by Arthur W. Ryder (1925):
http:/ / archive.org/ details/ ThePanchatantraEnglish-AwRyder

Pañcatantra tales:
http:/ / www.culturalindia.net/ indian-folktales/ panchatantra-tales/

162
Primary Texts on Ethics: Individual and Social
A Selection
From Jain Granthas
An o ld man is fit for neither laughter, o r playing, no r pleasure, nor sho w.
So a man sho uld take to the life o f piety, seize the present, be firm, and
no t let himself be deluded an ho ur lo nger, fo r yo uth and age and life itself
all pass away. ... ( Āc ār āñga Sūtra, 1.2.1)
*
If a man kills living things, o r slays by the hand o f another, o r co nsents to
ano ther slaying, his sin go es o n increasing. ( Sutrak ṛt āñga, 1.1.1.1-5)
He who carelessly destro ys plants, whether sprouted or full grown,
Pro vides a rod fo r his o wn back.
He has said, “ Their principles are igno ble
Who harm plants fo r their o wn pleasure.” ( Sutrak ṛt āñga, 1.1-9)
*
Co ws are o f many different forms and co lors;
Their milk is always white.
The path o f virtue, like milk, is o ne.
*
The sects that teach it are manifo ld. (Naladiyar, 1118)
*
Hero es detached and strenuo us, subduing anger and fear,
163
Will never kill living beings, but cease fro m sin and are happy.
( Sutrak ṛt āñga, 1.2.1)
*
Witho ut neglecting the virtues o f tranquility, indifference, patience, zeal
fo r salvatio n, purity, uprightness, gentleness, and freedo m fro m care,
with due co nsideratio n he sho uld declare the Law o f the Mo nks to all that
draw breath, all that exist, all that have life, all beings whatever. …
( Āc ārāñga Sūtra, 1.6.5)
***
From Buddhist Granthas
Gautama has given up injury to life … has given up taking what is no t
given … has given up unchastity … has given up false speech … has given
up slander … has given up harsh speech … has given up frivo lo us talk …
( Dīghanikāya, 1.4 ff)
*
But by charity, go o dness, restraint, and self-co ntro l man and wo man alike
can sto re up a well-hidden treasure — a treasure which canno t be given to
o thers and which ro bbers canno t steal. A wise man sho uld do goo d — that
is the treasure which will no t leave him. (Khuddakapatha, 8)
*
As a mo ther cares fo r her so n,
Her o nly so n, all her days,
So towards all things living
A man’s mind sho uld be all-embracing.
Friendliness fo r the who le wo rld,
164
All-embracing, he sho uld raise in his mind,
Abo ve, belo w, and acro ss,
Unhindered, free fro m hate and ill-will. ( Sutta Nipata, p. 143 ff)
*
Never in this wo rld is hate
Appeased by hatred;
It is o nly appeased by lo ve —
This is an eternal law ( sanatana-dhamma). ...
*
Abo ve victory o r defeat
The calm man dwells in peace. ( Dhammapada, 3-5, 201)
*
The friend who is a helper,
The friend in weal and wo e,
The friend who gives go od co unsel,
The friend who sympathizes — these the wise man sho uld kno w
As his fo ur true friends,
And sho uld devote himself to them. … ( Dīghanikāya, 3.180 ff)
*
He will give up his bo dy and his life … but he will no t give up the Law o f
Righteo usness.
He bo ws humbly to all beings, and do es not increase in pride.
He has co mpassio n o n the weak and do es no t dislike them.
He gives the best fo od to tho se who are hungry.
He pro tects tho se who are afraid.
165
He strives for the healing o f tho se who are sick.
He delights the po o r with his riches.
He repairs the shrines o f the Buddha with plaster.
He speaks to all beings pleasingly.
He shares his riches with tho se afflicted by po verty.
He bears the burdens o f tho se who are tired and weary. ( Tath āgataguhya
Sūtra, Śiksāsamuccaya, p. 274)
From Aśoka’s Edicts
Father and mo ther sho uld be
o beyed,
teachers
sho uld
be
o beyed; pity … sho uld be felt fo r
all creatures. These virtues o f
Righteo usness
sho uld
be
practiced. ... This is an ancient
rule,
co nducive
to
lo ng
life.
(Fro m a mino r Ro ck Edict, Maski
versio n)
*
This wo rld and the o ther are
hard to gain witho ut great lo ve
of
Righteo usness,
examinatio n,
great
great
great
self-
o bedience,
circumspectio n,
great
effo rt. (From the First Pillar Edict)
***
166
From the Kural (tr. P.S. Sundaram)
Always aim high — failure then
Is as go od as success. (596)
The wo rld gives up tho se who give up:
Stick to yo ur task. (612)
To the persistent belo ngs the pride
Of do ing goo d to others. (613)
A weakling’s philanthro py is a swo rd
In a eunuch’s hand. (614)
Do no t do what yo u will regret; and if yo u do ,
Do no t regret. (655)
Do no t do what the wise co ndemn
Even to save yo ur starving mo ther. (656)
Go o ds gained with o thers’ tears are lost with o ne’s o wn:
Well-go t, even when lo st, help hereafter. (659)
To sto ck ill-go t wealth is to sto re
Water in unburnt clay. (660)
Do n’t despise by loo ks: the linchpin ho lds
The huge wheel in place. (667)
Ho wever great the hardship,
Pursue with firmness the happy end. (669)
In pro sperity, bend lo w;
In adversity, stand straight. (963)
167
Comprehension
1.
Select a piece o f primary text fro m abo ve. Identify the value depicted and
co rrelate it with the preceding survey article.
2.
“ Values are caught no t taught.” How far do yo u agree with this statement?
Reflect o n some values yo u have acquired fro m yo ur
3.

family

friends

scho o l

surro undings / so ciety

any other so urce.
What message do yo u draw fro m the extracts belo w:

If a man kills living things, or slays by the hand o f ano ther, o r co nsents to
ano ther slaying, his sin go es o n increasing.

He who carelessly destro ys plants, whether spro uted o r full grown,
pro vides a rod fo r his own back.

4.
Abo ve victory o r defeat, the calm man dwells in peace.
Read the text fro m Tath āgataguhya Sūtra, Śiksāsamuccaya, and co mplete the
fo llo wing table:
What to do
What no t to do
168
5.
Study the picture given belo w. If yo u were to write a sto ry based o n the
picture, which values wo uld yo u emphasize? Why?

169
Martial Arts Traditions: A Survey
‘Martial Arts’, as the name suggests, are po pular art forms that give training in
different kinds and dimensio ns o f fighting — fighting with a spear o r a sword,
physical co mbat, resisting cavalry attack, single co mbat o r co mbat with many, etc. As
such, the martial arts apart fro m being so urces o f po pular entertainment also
pro vide training in skills required by pro fessio nals, including so ldiers.
India has an ancient traditio n in diverse martial arts. Nearly every part o f
India has evo lved o ne or the o ther fo rm o f a popular martial art.
The Japanese and the Chinese trace the o rigins o f their po pular martial arts,
karate and kung-fu, to India. No tably, acco rding to Chinese texts and traditio n, an
Indian sage, Bo dhidharma (5th or 6th century CE), who travelled fro m so uth India to
no rth China and settled at the Shao lin Mo nastery in the Sung Mo untain, meditated
there fo r nine years and imparted some early techniques o f Indian martial arts to his
fo llo wer mo nks.
Texts
Ancient Indian texts and the epics describe vario us martial arts that were then
po pular in the subco ntinent. The Dhanurveda, an ancient treatise o n the science o f
archery and the art o f warfare, enumerates the rules o f archery, rules o f bo w- and
arro w-making, and describes the uses o f weapons and the training o f the army. The
treatise also discusses martial arts in relatio n to the training o f warriors, charioteers,
cavalry, elephant warrio rs, infantry and wrestlers.
The Yajurveda highlights the importance o f the science o f archery and praises
tho se who are well versed in it. Sectio ns o f the Mah ābhārata describe wrestlers and
wrestling and bo xing bo uts, such as Bh īma’s famo us fights with Jarāsaṅdha and with
170
Duryo dhana. According to the Harivaṃśa Purāṇa, bo th Sri Kṛṣṇa and his bro ther
Balar āma were masters o f the art o f wrestling. Śarira bala (physical strength) was
gained thro ugh vario us kr īḍa (games) including the martial arts. Vario us disciplines
such as śastravidyā, knowledge o f arms, dhanurvidy ā, archery, khaḍgavidyā, aśvārohaṇa,
ho rse riding and fighting o n ho rseback, and gajarohaṇa, fighting o n elephant back,
were widely practised. The gadā o r mace was also used during these bo uts.
A depiction of the battle between Bh īma and Duryodhana
(source: Gorakhpur Geeta Press & Wikipedia)
Mallayuddha o r wrestling was acco rded the status o f a respectable spo rt,
pastime and metho d o f warfare with a set o f rules prescribed by the Mallas, a warrior
clan mentio ned in the Mah ābhārata and the Buddhist texts. Mallayuddha enjo yed ro yal
patro nage and was o ne o f the sixty-fo ur arts that all co uld learn. So po pular was
171
wrestling that a treatise, Mallapur āṇa, which was pro bably co mpo sed in Gujarat, listed
vario us types and techniques o f wrestling, besides giving detailed informatio n o n the
arena, rules o f engagement o r the wrestlers’ diet and training regime. Martial arts in
India were perfected between the 6th and 11th century CE when the Gurjara-Pratihāra,
a warrior dynasty, ruled much o f no rth India. Cālukyan king Someśvara III in his 11thcentury treatise M ānasollāsa, an encyclo paedic work in Sanskrit, gives detailed
info rmatio n abo ut vario us types o f wrestlers and their training metho ds.
Practice of Martial Arts
There were specific arenas fo r the practice o f each martial art. The Dhanurveda
describing the gro und for weapo ns training says that such a gro und sho uld be free
fro m ash, bo nes, dust, sto nes, thorns and thorny bushes and sho uld be spacio us and
sufficiently broad in dimensio n and surro unded with a compo und wall.
The wrestling arena was kno wn as the m allaśālā. The Manasollāsa gives a
detailed descriptio n o f the wrestling pit and says that it sho uld be filled with smo oth
village so il free fro m pebbles and o ther hard o bjects and sho uld be levelled and kept
slightly wet. The gro und for co mbat was known as khalaka; it was to be high, ro und,
even
and
stro ng
and
surro unded
by
a
v īkṣaṇamaṇḍapa
(visito r’s
gallery).
Mallakr īḍāmahotsava o r grand wrestling festivals were po pular and perio dically
o rganized.
Apart fro m wrestling there were o ther exercises that were reco mmended in
o rder to increase physical strength as a preparatio n to the mastering o f martial arts.
These exercises were, bh āraśrama o r weightlifting bo th by hands and feet,
bhramaṇaśrama, walking and running and taking brisk walks in the mo rning,
salilaśrama, swimming in a tank, lake o r river,
b āhupellanakaśrama was do ne to
increase the strength o f the grip o f hands thro ugh frictio n by co ntacting the arms
with the arms o f a partner. Stambhaśrama was perfo rmed o n a woo den po le ( stambha)
172
firmly fixed o n the gro und; the pillar had to be smo oth and sliding, sufficiently thick
fo r grasping and as high as the raised arm o f the wrestler. The wrestler wo uld grasp
the pillar with his arms and legs, lift his bo dy and encircle the pillar with twisting
mo vements. This pillar exercise is prevalent even today and is kno wn as mallakhamba.
There were o ther martial exercises that were po pularly practised such as
śastr āśrama, performed with vario us weapo ns o r
dhanuh śrama, perfo rmed with the
bo w: pulling the bo w string several times, bending the heavy bow and fixing the
string to the bo w were all co nsidered heavy exercises (remember the sto ry o f Rama
shattering the mighty Ṥiva bow?). The o ther exercises perfo rmed with weapo ns were
asiśrama (with a heavy swo rd), śaktiśrama (with sho rt spears), cakraśrama (with a
weapo n called cakra), sellakalā (with heavy lances) and parśuśrama (with an axe,
parśu).
Varanasi was kno wn since ancient times as a centre fo r wrestling and mu ṣṭiyuddha, a traditio nal fo rm o f bo xing. Aṅkavinoda, duel o r combats, were also po pular
martial spo rts in India. A perso n fighting another who carried the same weapo n was
kno wn as aṅka. The fights in this catego ry were at times fierce, leading to bloo dshed.
Several warrio r clans in India were adepts at martial art. Thus the
Jye ṣṭhīmallas (‘great fighters’) of medieval India were experts in a style of w restling
called vajra-mu ṣṭi, which was performed with knuckle-dusters; they were spread
mainly o ver Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra. The Paikas o f Odisha were fierce
warriors who develo ped a particular martial technique called the paika ākhādā. The
Meitis o f Manipur practised a distinct martial technique called thang-ta, which
remains a po pular martial art in Manipur and in which a spear and a swo rd are the
primary weapo ns.
173
A few weapons and postures used in traditional Indian wrestling
(source: Vaidya V.B. Mhaiskar, Vyayam Jnan Kosh)
174
Living traditio ns o f wrestling and co mbat
survive in kuśti (also called pehlwani), which has
inputs
fro m
mallayuddha
as
well
as
Persian
wrestling. Kuśti remains widely practised in no rth
India.
(Right) An Indian
kuśti wrestler exercising with
clubs near Varanasi (source: John Hill & Wikipedia)
(Below) Kuśti wrestlers training in a gymnasium,
Maharashtra (source: Peter Adams & National
Geographic)
175
Stick Combat
Lāthi khela, stick play, is a very po pular martial art, especially in no rth India. A
po lished stick typically six to eight feet lo ng and at times metal-tipped is used to
ward o ff the enemy thro ugh vario us wielding techniques, steps and po sturing. At o ne
time very po pular in the Bihar and Bengal (including what is no w Bangladesh), the
spo rt has seen a decline o ver the years. The wielder o f the lāthi is known as a lethel o r
lāthiāl. In Nāṭyaśāstra (Chapter 1), there is a reference to jarjar ā, a staff used to co ntro l
unruly sectio ns o f an audience.
Similar to lāthi khelā is silambam , literally ‘bambo o fight’, a po pular martial art
o f so uth India. Silambam was o riginally practised with bambo o sticks and later with
steel swo rds and shields. The bambo o staff used is usually 5 feet in length and is
swirled while attacking the enemy. It is also o ne kind o f training in javelin o r spear
fighting.
Ano ther po pular martial spo rt o f the regio n is kuru ṇṭāḍi, which is played with
sho rt bamboo sticks ro ughly o f two -palm length. Kuru ṇṭāḍi is perfo rmed to the
acco mpaniment o f drums and music and each stro ke is aimed at a particular var ṇam
o r vital spots o f the human bo dy. It is an art that gives training in physical co mbat.
Valari v īcu uses a kind o f bo o merang made o f wo od, ivo ry o r iro n. It is a
training in remote resistance o f o r attack o n an enemy. It was very po pular in the
medieval perio d in the so uthern districts o f Tamil Nadu and co ntinued to be
practised till the late 18th century. This particular weapo n was very useful in resisting
medieval cavalry charges.
Gatk ā is o ne o f the mo st po pular and ancient martial art in the regio n o f
Punjab. A woo den stick and a shield are usually used in the sparring match and
po ints are scored when vital spo ts in the bo dy are to uched. Swo rds and shields are
also used in gatk ā which is in fact a training in the pro fessio nal use o f swo rds. The
176
Sikh Gurus, many o f who m were pro po nents o f martial training, enco uraged the
growth o f vario us martial arts techniques. Guru Go bind Singh was an adept at martial
arts and established the martial traditio n amo ng the Sikhs. The Mughal Empero r
Akbar, it is said, practised gatk ā with swo rd and shield.
Kaḷarippay aṯṯu
Kaḷarippayaṯṯu is believed to be o ne o f the o ldest martial arts in existence and to have
o riginated in Kerala, where it flo urished.
A kaḷari o r ‘gymnasium’ is actually an undergro und training hall (o f abo ut 13 x
6.5 m). Its entrance is fro m the east with a prayer area co nsisting o f seven steps in
the so uth-west co rner; students are initiated thro ugh a ceremo ny in fro nt o f this area
kno wn as pūttaṟa. All the postures and exercises include o ffering prayers at this
place. Payaṯṯu m eans to fight, exercise o r practise. Therefo re, kaḷarippayaṯṯu means
the co mbat that is practised inside the traditio nal gymnasium called kaḷari.
In Kerala, three styles o f kaḷarippayaṯṯu developed in different regio ns, the
no rthern, so uthern and central styles, with distinct beliefs, practices and metho ds.
The no rthern style traces its origin to Paraśurāma and its experts are called
Gurukkaḷ. The southern style traces its origin to Agastya; its experts are referred to
as Āśāns. The central style is practised o n flo o r paths kno wn as kaḷams.
The practice o f kaḷarippayaṯṯu takes place in at least five stages. In the first, the
fo cus is o n bo dy fitness. In the seco nd, the student is trained in stick co mbat. In the
third stage, the student is taught how to handle weapo ns. A student is initiated into
the fo urth stage o nly after he has been tested and proved to be trustworthy; this
stage co nsists o f training in hand co mbat. The final stage o f training invo lves
Ayurvedic treatments fo r bo dy and mind, techniques o f marma (vital po ints) and
therapeutic massages. The student learns how to treat injuries and diseases resulting
177
fro m trauma. After the training, the kaḷari expert also beco mes a healer. Oiling the
bo dy is a prerequisite o f kaḷari training, especially in phases that invo lve physical
exercises.
Kaḷarippayaṯṯu fighters. Note the pūttaṟa or the seven-step prayer area in the corner
behind them (courtesy: Arya Vaidya Pharmacy, Coimbatore).
Kaḷarippayaṯṯu brings tremendo us flexibility to the bo dy and fine tunes o ne’s
reflexes to such an extent that it is believed that the entire bo dy o f the trained
perso n beco mes his eyes, as it were ( meikkaṇṇu). The practice o f kaḷari invo lves
training with sharp and dangero us weapo ns such as dagger, mace, swo rd, spear, fist
dagger, deer ho rn dagger and the like. Uṟumī o r the curling sword is worth a special
mentio n: this flexible lo ng swo rd made o f steel is sharp eno ugh to cut flesh but at the
same time thin eno ugh to be ro lled into a co il. The training in wielding this weapo n is
given o nly in the end co nsidering the danger invo lved to both the wielder and the
o ppo nent.
178
Kaḷarippayaṯṯu is no t merely physical co mbat for self-defence. It is a co mplete
perso nal develo pment pro gramme that aims to develo p goo d physical and mental
health and enhance agility, reflexes and skills for self-defence. The kaḷari training is a
discipline fo r bo th bo dy and mind, the go al being to gain co ntro l o ver o ne’s
aggressive tendencies and remo ve o ne’s defects ( kuttam th īrkkal). The master o f kaḷari
is o ne who can withdraw at will even when he can strike a helpless o ppo nent.
Often kaḷarippayaṯṯu was a preparatio n fo r advanced training in art fo rms like
Kathakali. The flexibility gained fro m kaḷarippayaṯṯu wo uld enable the student to
develo p the subtle skills required in o ther disciplines. It was also co mmo n for medical
practitio ners to train in kaḷarippayaṯṯu. In fact, there has been a vigo ro us exchange o f
medical
knowledge,
especially
co ncerning
marmas,
massage
and
trauma
management, between the traditio ns o f Ayurveda and kaḷarippayaṯṯu.
Interestingly, kaḷarippayaṯṯu was not co nfined to men; wo men were also
admitted for training and fo lklo re tells sto ries o f acco mplished wo men warrio rs.
Scho o ls o f kaḷarippayaṯṯu still exist in Kerala altho ugh the po pularity o f this
ancient system o f physical co mbat is o n the decline. It is an iro ny that o ther martial
art fo rms like karate and judo have beco me mo re popular in Kerala, the land o f
kaḷarippayaṯṯu. On the o ther hand, kaḷari experts o ffer medical treatments fo r sprains
and sports injuries in different parts o f Kerala even to day. There is great sco pe fo r
pro mo ting kaḷarippayaṯṯu in the field o f spo rts. The great flexibility o f the bo dy,
agility and sharp reflexes that are develo ped thro ugh its practice can make an
individual excel in any kind o f spo rts.
*
India’s rich martial arts traditio ns lend weight to the view that Indians have been a
martial peo ple who evo lved martial arts as po pular sports besides being a part o f the
training o f pro fessio nal players and so ldiers.
179
Further Reading
1.
Balakrishnan P. Kalarippayattu: The Ancient Martial Art of Kerala. Trivandrum CVN
Kaḷari, 1995
2.
Elgo o d, Ro bert. Hindu Arms and Ritual: Arms and Armour from India 1400-1865.
Eburo n Publishers, 2005
3.
Majumdar, D.C. Encyclopaedia of Indian Physical Culture: A comprehensive survey of
the physical education in India profusely illustrating various activities of physical
culture, games, exercises, etc., as handed over to us from our forefathers and practised
in India. Baro da: Sree Ram Vijaya Printing Press, 1950
4.
Tilak, Mo ses. Kalaripayat and Marma Adi (Varmam). Madras: Neil Publicatio ns,
1982
5.
Zarilli, Philip B. When the Body Becomes All Eyes. New Delhi: Oxfo rd University
Press, 2000
Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in September 2013)

Extracts and images fro m D.C. Mujumdar’s Encyclopedia of Indian Physical Culture :
www.sando wplus.co .uk/ India/ IndianClubs/ clubs01.htm etc.

Do cumentary o n pehlwani in Punjab: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=9ZURev5VAT4

Kuśtidangal : www.youtube.com/ watch?v=nWhbBLC2XX0

Kuśti exercises: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Km2Y4oVZipE

Mallakhamba (Malkhamb):
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=R1yp89VKPXQ&list=TL45ffyCvDamfUAnN0TexdcyPtWRj8_1J
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=6FTBrtifKYQ

Kaḷarippayaṯṯu (Do o rdarshan): www.youtube.com/ watch?v=CvOYtq3FaFw

Kaḷarippayaṯṯu: Unique martial art of Kerala (Kerala To urism):
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=DCmcw5nynmQ
180
Comprehension
1.
Which ancient treatise mentio ns the rules o f the art o f warfare? Enumerate
so me o f tho se rules.
2.
In the Mah ābh ārata, who are the two individuals co nsidered to be the masters in
the art o f wrestling ( śarira bala)?
3.
List o ut the names o f famo us Indian bo xers and wrestlers.
4.
Which were the po pular physical disciplines practised in classical times?
5.
If yo u wanted to be a wrestler, which treatise would yo u refer to and why?
6.
What are the basic rules to be fo llowed while preparing a training gro und for
martial arts?
7.
To master the art o f dhanuhśrama, name any two heavy exercises to be
perfo rmed with the bo w.
8.
Define kaḷarippayaṯṯu. Explain the three types o f kaḷarippayaṯṯu and list their
differences.
9.
Define the fo llo wing śramas:

salilaśrama

bh āraśrama

b āhupellanakaśrama

stambhaśrama

śastrāśrama

dhanuhśrama

śaktiśrama

cakraśrama

sellakalā

parśuśrama

aṅkavinoda
181
Activities

Co mplete the table by pro viding the required info rmatio n / details:
Sport

Rules and key features
Eminent personalities
Brief history (origin, state etc.)
List a few warrior clans in India and discuss their respective techniques/ styles
o f dual fights. Examine the changes that have set in the sporting traditio n.

Ho ld a debate o n the topic: Age-o ld traditions o f vario us martial arts are
o bso lete / relevant in present times.

Make a table o f vario us italicized terms used in the Survey text. Define them
and try to figure o ut their syno nyms in yo ur mother to ngue.
Projects

Lathi, a po lished bambo o stick is used to ward o ff the enemy thro ugh vario us
wielding techniques, steps and po sturing. Do cument ho w wielding this staff has
been used as a distinct martial art in different parts o f India.

Make a pro ject o n kaḷarippayaṯṯu. Co llect pictures o f vario us stages o f training
and prepare a presentatio n. Yo u may also do wnlo ad video s to share the
info rmatio n with yo ur class.

The ro o ts o f mallakr īḍa are fo und in villages. Have yo u ever visited any
mallakr īḍamahotsava / ku śtidangal fair? Make field visits to get first-hand
182
info rmatio n. Prepare a pro ject o n śarira bala and investigate what effo rts are
being made by the Sports Autho rity o f India to pro mo te this spo rt.

Many traditio nal games and sports are still practised today. Select any o ne such
game and co llect info rmatio n for yo ur pro ject using the fo llo wing hints:


training gro und

kits o r material used

famo us Indians asso ciated with it

elabo rate yo ur pro ject with pictures and interviews.
Make a pro ject o n awards and ho no urs fo r achieving the highest standards in
the field o f spo rts and games in India o r elsewhere. Apart fro m name, fame and
mo netary gains, what o ther facilities do the spo rts perso ns enjo y with their
high-achiever pro files? Elabo rate yo ur pro ject with vario us examples and case
studies.
Extended Activities

Explo re the po tential o f martial arts to po pularize fitness, physical strength and
self-defence skills amo ng the yo uth. Make a po ster highlighting the advantages.

Identify well-kno wn experts o f vario us martial arts in yo ur lo cality. Invo lve
them and create a martial arts club in yo ur scho o l o r nearby community centre
to learn and pro mo te the ancient traditio nal activities o f fitness and strength.

183
Martial Arts Traditions:
A Selection from Prim ary Texts
Wrestling in the Mahābhārata
The Mah ābhārata has several lo ng descriptio ns o f physical co mbat. Here is the fight
between Bh īma, o ne o f the Pāṇḍavas, and Jar āsaṅdha, the po werful king o f Magadha:
… Then the mo narch po ssessed o f terrible pro wess, addressing Bh īma,
said, “ I will fight with yo u. It is better to be vanquished by a superio r
perso n.” And saying this, Jar āsaṅdha rushed with great energy at
Bh īmasena … And the mighty Bh īmasena, o n who se behalf the go ds had
been invo ked by Kṛṣṇa, that co usin o f his, advanced to wards Jar āsaṅdha,
impelled by the desire o f fight. Then tho se tigers amo ng men, those
hero es o f great pro wess, with their bare arms as their o nly weapo ns,
cheerfully engaged themselves in the enco unter, each desiro us o f
vanquishing the o ther. And seizing each other’s arms and twining each
o ther’s legs, they slapped their arm-pits, causing the enclo sure to tremble
at the so und. And frequently seizing each o ther’s necks with their hands
and dragging and pushing it with vio lence, and each pressing every limb
o f his bo dy against every limb o f the o ther, they co ntinued to slap their
arm-pits. And so metimes stretching their arms and so metimes drawing
them clo se, and now raising them up and now dro pping them do wn, they
began to seize each o ther. And striking neck against neck and fo rehead
against fo rehead, they caused fiery sparks to co me o ut like flashes o f
lightning. And grasping each o ther in vario us ways by means o f their
arms, and kicking each other with such vio lence as to affect the innermost
nerves, they struck at each o ther’s breasts with clenched fists. With bare
arms as their o nly weapo ns, ro aring like clo uds, they grasped and struck
184
each o ther like two mad elephants enco untering each o ther with their
trunks. Incensed at each o ther’s blo w, they fo ught o n dragging and
pushing each o ther and fiercely loo king at each o ther like two wrathful
lio ns. And each striking every limb o f the o ther with his o wn and using his
arms also against the o ther, and catching ho ld o f each o ther’s waist, they
hurled each o ther to a distance. Acco mplished in wrestling, the two
hero es clasping each other with their arms and each dragging the o ther
unto himself, began to press each o ther with great vio lence. The hero es
then perfo rmed those grandest o f all feats in wrestling called p ṛṣṭabhanga,
which co nsisted in throwing each o ther do wn with face towards the earth
and maintaining the o ne kno cked down in that positio n as lo ng as
po ssible. And emplo ying his arms, each also perfo rmed the feats called
samp ūr ṇa-murccha and p ūr ṇa-kumbha. At times they twisted each o ther’s
arms and o ther limbs as if these were vegetable fibres that were to be
twisted into cho rds. And with clenched fists they struck each o ther at
times, pretending to aim at particular limbs while the blo ws descended
upo n o ther parts o f the bo dy. It was thus that tho se hero es fo ught with
each o ther. The
citizens co nsisting o f tho usands, o f Brahmanas,
Kshatriyas and Vaisyas and Sudras, and even women and the aged, O tiger
amo ng men, came o ut and gathered there to beho ld the fight. And the
cro wd became so great that it was o ne so lid mass o f humanity with no
space between bo dy and bo dy. The so und the wrestlers made by the
slapping o f their arms, the seizing o f each o ther’s necks fo r bringing each
o ther down, and the grasping o f each o ther’s legs fo r dashing each o ther
to the gro und, became so lo ud that it resembled the roar o f thunder o r o f
falling cliffs. Bo th o f them were fo remo st o f mighty men, and bo th too k
great delight in such enco unter. Desiro us o f vanquishing the o ther, each
185
was o n the alert fo r taking advantage o f the slightest lapse o f the o ther.
And the mighty Bh īma and Jarāsaṅdha fo ught terribly o n in tho se lists,
driving the cro wd at times by the mo tio ns o f their hands like V ṛtra and
V āsava o f o ld. Thus two hero es, dragging each other fo rward and pressing
each o ther backward and with sudden jerks thro wing each other face
do wnward and sideways, mangled each other dreadfully. And at times
they struck each o ther with their knee-jo ints. And addressing each o ther
lo udly in stinging speeches, they struck each o ther with clenched fists,
the blo ws descending like a mass o f sto ne upon each o ther. With broad
sho ulders and lo ng arms and bo th well-skilled in wrestling enco unters,
they struck each other with those lo ng arms o f theirs that were like maces
o f iro n. That enco unter o f the hero es co mmenced o n the first (lunar) day
o f the mo nth o f Kārttika (Octo ber) and the illustrio us hero es fo ught o n
witho ut intermissio n and foo d, day and night, till the thirteenth lunar
day. It was o n the night o f the fo urteenth o f the lunar fo rtnight that the
mo narch o f Magadha desisted fro m fatigue. …
... Kṛṣṇa, desiring to enco urage that hero to acco mplish the death o f
Jar āsaṅdha witho ut any delay, answered, “ O Bh īma, exhibit to day upo n
Jar āsaṅdha the strength yo u have luckily derived, the might yo u have
o btained fro m (yo ur father), the god Māruta.” Thus addressed by Kṛṣṇa,
Bh īma, that slayer o f fo es, ho lding up in the air the powerful Jar āsaṅdha,
began to whirl him o n high. And, O bull o f the Bh ārata race, having so
whirled him in the air full hundred times, Bh īm a pressed his knee against
Jar āsaṅdha’s backbo ne and bro ke his bo dy in twain. And having killed him
thus, the mighty V ṛko dara [Bh īma] uttered a terrible ro ar. And the ro ar o f
the Pāṇḍavas mingling with that death knell o f Jar āsaṅdha, while he was
being bro ken o n Bh īma’s knee, caused a lo ud upro ar that struck fear into
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the heart o f every creature. ( Mah ābhārata, adapted fro m tr. K.M. Ganguly,
Sabha Parva, sectio ns 23-24)
***
Mallapur āṇa
The Mallapur āṇa co ntains a wealth o f info rmatio n o n the wrestling traditio ns o f the
Jye ṣṭhīmallas (see Survey text). The fo llo wing extracts fro m the intro ductio n by the
edito rs o f this Sanskrit text give the gist o f śramas o r exercises, co mbat techniques as
well as details o f diet, training regime, etc.
Raṅgaśrama
This is the wrestling pro per and o ccurs in all the lists. It is co nsidered to
be the highest type o f exercise as it leads to glo ry and wealth. Wrestling
indeed is difficult and in traditio nal Indian Gymnasium far more weight is
placed o n the pro ficiency in this art, which requires co urage, strength,
skill and stamina. ...
Sthambhaśrama
It is the type o f exercise o n smo o th woo den pillars o f a number o f
varieties. To -day the sthambhas are either fixed in the gro und o r are left
hanging. The hanging stambhas have abo ut fo ur varieties. One is similar to
that fixed o n the gro und. Other is a very small size stambha almo st like a
bato n. Its variant has two pairs hanging near each o ther. The fo urth type
is a lo ng cane o n which exercises are perfo rmed.
The mallasthamabha exercises are many but the Mallapur āṇa summarises
them under the title Stambh ādhirohaṇam. It takes place in three ways—
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first by the strength o f the arm, seco nd by twisting the body and third by
means o f legs. (X. 16 ff.)
Exercise o n mallasthamabha requires strength and stamina. It lays great
emphasis o n the turning and twisting o f bo dy and develo ps to ughness.
Mallapur āṇa no tes that it develo ps the strength o f the bo dy, specifically
sho ulders, hands, arms, thighs, waist, leg-jo ints and makes the bo dy to ugh
and slim. ...
Goṇitaka
... Go ṇitaka is divided in two varieties, the large and the small. ... This
traditio nal sto ne ring o ccurs in two varieties. ... It requires to be lifted,
swung, put o n head etc. This large go ṇitaka is useful in develo ping thigh,
neck and the who le bo dy. (XI. 16 ff.)
Pramadā
... The heavy gadā, mudgara, k ārelā and o ther types o f clubs are used for
exercising arms, sho ulders, wrists.
Jalaśrama
... Swimming is a go od fo rm o f exercise, but it was no t develo ped to a
highly co mpetitive stage to which it has reached to -day. It was mo re or
less a co mplimentary exercise which develo ped chest and arms. This idea
seems to exist as o nly the underwater breast-stro ke, do g paddle, o r the
o ver-arm trudgen and back strokes were kno wn. ...
Ku ṇḍakāvartana
This seems to be a fo rm o f exercise in which circular mo vements are
entailed. The vajramu ṣṭī exercises have a number o f calisthenics in which
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circular movements, tumbling etc. are invo lved and these exercises seem
to have been no ted here as their effects such as develo pment o f thighs,
waist, building up wind-power and strengthening o f heart are specially
mentio ned. The vajramu ṣṭī circular mo vements are quite fast and they are
so mething like the circuit exercises that are recently develo ped.
Sv āsapreraṇikāśrama
This do es no t seem to be any specific exercise, but it suggests the quality
o f exercises which develo p stamina. These are running, skipping and
related types that induce heavy breathing and train an individual to work
hard under the co nditio ns o f ‘o xygen debt’.
Uhāpohaśrama
This is no exercise at all. It is o nly at the mo st discussio n, planning and
thinking. Even tho ugh this activity do es no t require any gymnastic o r
athletic ability, it is an extremely impo rtant part o f the preparatio n.
Instructio ns are given and plans are drawn for success in a meet. This
activity includes a major part o f theo ry and coaching hints.
Āmardakīśrama
This exercise seems to indicate the effects o f massage o n the massagist.
This inference is made po ssible because massage is noted as mardan ā and a
derivative from it may be the āmardakīśrama. It is well-kno wn to the
massagists that giving massage is quite a strenuo us fo rm o f exercise. It
might also mean the passive fo rm o f exercises felt while undergo ing
massage.
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Any atkṛtakaraśrama
This seems to indicate the exercises in pairs. They are different fro m
wrestling pro per and include pulling, pushing and other mo vements. ...
Physical exercises are no t suitable at all times and in so me cases may
endanger health and life. The mallas have, therefo re, enjo ined, the
fo llo wing perso ns not to take exercise: pinasa (perso ns having nasal
disease), sofav ān (having swelling), k āsa (having dry co ughing), śvāsa
(having heavy breathing), k ṣudhātura (hungry), bhuktav ān (o ne who has
eaten), ak ṣam (weak), k ṣīṇa (emaciated), vyagra, cint ātura (wo rried),
ajir ṇavāna (dyspeptic), durbala (witho ut strength), strisuk ṣiṇa (weakened
by sexual relatio n), madapiḍita (into xicated), sirorog ārta (tro ubled by
disease o f head), bhr ānta (mad), kshudh āviṣṭo (very hungry). So me o f these
disabilities are tempo rary and o thers o f lo nger duratio n.
Alpaśrama
Alpaśrama is no ted as light exercise and it is defined as that fo rm which
do es no t lead to perspiratio n or heavy breathing. This definitio n suggests
the amo unt rather than the type o f exercises.
Such alpaśrama leads to the develo pment o f strength, improves
digestio n, feeling o f lightness and enthusiasm, sto ps o ld age, keeps
muscles firm and leads to general develo pment (b ṛhaṇa).
This is reco mmended for children, o ld peo ple, perso ns weakened be
fever, wo unded peo ple, man with eye-disease, sick, weak and suffering
fro m weak digestio n, v āta, heat and o verwo rk. It is also reco mmended fo r
perso ns, who have insufficient blo o d, who have o bserved fast and have
defo rmed bo dy ( kuśarīra).
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Ardhaśrama
Ardhaśrama is mo re strenuo us than alpaśrama. It is defined as the exercise
which leads to perspiratio n o n the neck, face, armpits, hand and leg-jo ints
and develo ps rather hard breathing.
Ardhaśrama develo ps pleasant mind ( saumanasa), strength, no urishment,
enthusiasm, jo y, happiness and builds up strength and stamina. It
remo ves fainting, fat, bile etc.
Pūrṇaśrama
This fo rm leads to heavy perspiratio n all o ver the bo dy and the eyes
beco me red. It causes heavy breathing and may result in parching o f
throat, giddiness, fainting, thirst, lo ss o f strength, vo miting, bleeding,
burning in heart and even fever.
The go o d effects o f this fo rm o f exercise is health, strength, destructio n
o f diseases o f heart, bile, wo rms, ku ṣṭa. It leads to co urage, endurance,
go o d appetite and destructio n o f diseases. ...
Time of exercise
Daily exercises are reco mmended to be taken in the mo rning. The
seaso nal variatio ns are also
no ted in Mallapur āṇa. The winter is
reco mmended fo r Pūrṇaśrama (December-April). In the summer (MayJune-July) o nly Ardhaśrama is reco mmended, whereas in mo nso o n light
exercises are reco mmended.
So me days o f rest are also enjo ined. Specially A ṣṭamī, Caturdaśī; the lo st
tith ī, the days o f Sutaka, Mah āṣṭamī, Srāddhapakṣa
(Pitṛpakṣa), Akṣaya navamī,
eclipses, Ak ṣayatṛtiyā. These specificatio ns generally mean that at least
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o nce a week the rest day was observed and some times mo re days were
o bserved as rest days, depending upo n the situatio n.
Arena
The arena is also described in the Mallapur āṇa. It is no t the mat as is used
to -day. The arena is kno wn as ākh āḍhaka. It is high, levelled and low. Its
dimensio ns are three devam āna (101 hastas or cubits), daityam āna (50
hastas) and martyam āna (21 hastas). It is square, triangular and circular.
The earth with kankar, iro n, wo od, sto ne, tho rn etc. sho uld be avo ided. It
appears that the general dimensio n was 21 hastas which is equal to abo ut
30 feet, and the devam āna and daityam āna seem to be more fo r rheto rics
rather than actual use.
The earth must be pleasing to see and as so ft as that required fo r seedlaying and sho uld be a hand high and levelled. It sho uld be wo rshipped
and Hari sho uld be placed there and a b ījap ūraka be placed in the centre o f
the arena. After wo rshipping ‘Go vinda’ the king sho uld see the wrestling.
Wrestling
The wrestlers sho uld put o n the āyudha o n the fingers. It sho uld be knitted
with thread. When the o ppo nent is bro ken (defeated) the malla beco mes
victo rio us.
The vajramu ṣṭī wrestling is free fight which includes kicking, pressing
with knee, bo xing o n head, temple etc., but a hit belo w the chest is a fo ul
game.
The wrestling is divided in fo ur types (1) dharaṇīp āta, (2) āṣura, (3) nara,
(4) yuddha.
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Dharaṇīpāta
Dharaṇīpāta is getting the o ppo nent do wn o n the earth. It is achieved by
the fo rce o f palm, arm o r by thro wing o ne’s self do wn and then bringing
do wn the enemy. The fallen enemy is defeated.
Dharaṇīpāta type o f wrestling seems to be the co mmo n wrestling where
victo ry and defeat co nsists in turning the o ppo nent o n the back. The
wrestling types such as bh īmsen ī and hanumanti seem to be o f this variety.
Āṣura
This type is fiercer and seems to be a free-fight which includes injury to
ear and no se, felling o f teeth, biting, pulling o f hair, throwing earth,
scratching with nails, catching the neck, breaking o f fingers, etc.
This type o f wrestling is noted as mathara, masura also , it seems to be
equivalent to the jar āsandh ī variety kno wn to -day. Such type leads to the
fall o f the malla, but he sho uld no t be killed. That is dharmayuddha. If a
malla dies the king is respo nsible. Once a malla falls o n the gro und the
wrestling is sto pped. ...
Diet
It is interesting to no te that the vajramu ṣṭi wrestlers o f the present day are
vegetarians. They take cereals, wheat, rice, bajri o r jowar acco mpanied by
pulses and green vegetables. They sho w special preference fo r milk, curds,
ghee and o ther milk products. They used to consume large quantities o f
dry fruits bo th raw and as co ndiments in the fo od. Mo lasses are co nsumed
with fo o d or even as a drink by adding it in water. Similarly they use sugar
and citrus fruits specially lemo n.
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The Mallapur āṇa ho wever clearly indicates their no n-vegetarian diet by
describing the qualities o f a variety o f meat. It is no t kno wn when the
transitio n to pure vegetarian fo od habit too k place.
They did no t take either liquo r o r to bacco , and co nsidered them
injurio us. (Fro m Introductio n to Mallapur āṇa: A Rare Sanskrit Text on Indian
Wrestling especially as practised by the Jye ṣṭhīmallas, Bho gilal Jayachandbhai
Sandesara and Ramanlal Nagarji Mehta, (eds), Baro da: Oriental Institute,
1964. Co urtesy Pro f. Siddharth Wakankar.)
***
Marmaśāstram
Marmaśāstram or the science o f marmas, i.e., the bo dy’s vital po ints, is an integral part
o f kaḷarippayaṯṯu. This text describes an impo rtant marma and how it will react to a
blo w given in combat.
Tilamarmam
After the Uccimarma (cro wn o f head, the anterio r fo ntanelle), the next
mo st impo rtant marma is Tilamarmam . The lo catio n o f this marma is in the
po int where Ājñ ācakra is lo cated in the science o f Yo ga. This is the seco nd
marma lying in the straight line drawn fro m the Uccimarma. Kno wn by
vario us names like Sthapati, Po ṭṭumarmam, Tilamarmam and Tilasakk ālam.
Lo catio n: This marma is lo cated at a distance o f o ne rice grain below the
po int o f intersectio n o f the centre o f the eyebro ws and the centre o f the
fo rehead. Abo ve and below this po int are the M ūrtikkāla and M īnveṭṭi
marmas. And o n either side are the Mantrakk āla
marmas. The
Piṅgaḷā
Nāḍī
o riginates fro m the po int o f Uccimarma and after reaching the Tilasakk āla
co nnects with the marmas o n the fo ur sides.
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Injury: If the impact is very stro ng, then the mo uth o f the victim o pens
wide and the eyes lo o k upwards and the eyeballs beco me fixed. There will
be shivering in the bo dy and cramps in the sides o f the rib cage. Within
three and three fo urth n āḍikās [o ne n āḍikā is equal to 24 minutes], death
may o ccur.
One must assess the pulse, breath and eyes to co nfirm whether the
victim is alive and if there are signs o f life, then treatment may be do ne.
Mano euvre: The physician sho uld keep the victim in the sitting po sitio n
and then hit hard o n the Uccimarma with the left hand. The ears and neck
sho uld be massaged so ftly. The Cuziy āḍimarma located o n the o pposite side
o f the Tilasakk ālam sho uld be pressed hard with the thumb. The lo wer jaw
sho uld be pressed upward and held.
Chewing dry ginger, o ne must blo w in to the ears o f the patient
repeatedly. Gruel prepared o ut o f o ld rice grains sho uld be given mixed
with dry ginger.
Treatment: The galangal ro ot, dry ginger, lo ng pepper, celastrus seeds,
khus khus and loban sho uld be made into a deco ctio n and taken twice a day
fo r fo ur days. This will give relief fro m the pain. (Fro m Marmaśāstram by
Gaṅgādharan Āśān, 8th ed., Thiruvananthapuram, pp. 88-91, translated
fro m the Malayalam by P. Ram Mano har)

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Language and Gram mar
It is said that fo r the great Greek civilizatio n, Geo metry was the core science. Fo r the
o lder Indian civilizatio n, Grammar ( vy ākaraṇa) is the co re science. It was the first
science to develo p because it was needed to maintain and to understand the large
bo dy o f intellectual texts such as the fo ur kno wledge texts, the Vedas, the numero us
philo so phical Upaniṣads, the pro se Br āhmanas, the sociological Dharmaśāstras and
the pho netic-linguistic Prat iśākhyas.
India has been a kno wledge so ciety since the beginning, and fo r the Indian
peo ple jn āna, kno wledge, is superio r to actio n ( karma) and worship ( bhakti) and is
co nsidered as the great purifier. However, ano ther important view is that kno wledge
and actio n are equally impo rtant. As the Yoga-V āśiṣṭha no tes, for human beings
kno wledge and actio n are like the two wings o f a bird, both indispensable.
As India has always attached the highest value to kno wledge and as all
kno wledge is co nstituted in language ( jn ānam sarvam śabdena bhāsate — Bhart ṛhari’s
V ākyapadīya) , great value has been attached to the study o f language in all its
dimensio ns: so unds, words, sentences, metres, etymo lo gy and meaning. As the
wo rld’s first text, the Ṛgveda, avers:
gaur īrmimāya salilāni takṣaty ...
‘language cuts forms in the o cean o f reality ...’ (1.164.41)
It is not surprising, given this primacy o f language bo th as o bject and as
means o f kno wledge, that there is a lo ng-attested traditio n o f texts and grammarians
in India.
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1.
Languages of India
Indian languages may be gro uped into two majo r language families: Indo -Aryan and
Dravidian (see the map belo w). The largest one is that o f Indo -Aryan languages
spo ken mainly in the no rthern part o f India. The seco nd largest is the Dravidian
language family that includes languages spo ken in the so uthern part o f India, the
chief o nes being Tamil, Kannada, Telugu and Malayalam. Languages spo ken by small
co mmunities in the North-East, the no rthern Himalayan regio ns and also in different
small areas o f Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Andaman etc. belo ng to the Austro -Asiatic
family while Kashmiri belo ngs to the Dardic group.
Languages of India and neighbouring countries
While there are almost 1,600 languages spo ken in India, the Eighth Schedule o f
Indian Co nstitutio n accepts twenty-two as the o fficial languages o f India.
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India’s languages use a number o f scripts, tho ugh o nly abo ut 30 o f the 1,600
languages are written do wn. So me o f the majo r scripts used in Indian languages,
including inscriptio ns, are Brahmi, Kharo shthi, Sharada, Devanagari, Dravida, Old
Tamil, Perso -Arabic.
Table showing the main letters of Indian languages, written in different scripts, starting
with the first Indian script, Brahmi. (IAST stands for International Alphabet of Sanskrit
Transliteration.) (Adapted from Wikipedia.)
2.
Study of Language in India
2.1. In
Ṛgveda, language is described as a revealer o f true knowledge. Bhartṛhari (5th
century CE), the great grammarian, says that kno wledge and language are
interwo ven. J.F. Staal has rightly o bserved that the Indian mind is o bsessed with
language and philoso phy.
And indeed language has been studied since ancient times, aspects and issues
such as:
(i)
what is language,
(ii)
speech-so unds ( var ṇam ālā) and so und patterns (dhvani karma),
(iii)
fo rmatio n o f wo rds ( pada-racan ā),
(iv)
classificatio n o f wo rds ( pada-jāti),
(v)
pro cess o f derivatio n o f a grammatical fo rm o f wo rds,
(vi)
meaning and interpretatio n o f wo rds and texts,
(vii)
language o f literary co mpositio ns,
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(viii)
meaning in / o f a literary work,
(ix)
relatio n between a word and the o bject it deno tes, and
(x)
śabda as the creative principle.
The study o f language aro se fro m the need to understand the kno wledge texts
such as the Ṛgveda. These texts have been transmitted o rally from teacher to disciples
fo r millennia. Tho ugh India had a scientific pho netic script (see table o n Sanskrit
co nso nants further belo w), still knowledge was stored and transmitted o rally. Six
disciplines kno wn as vedāṅgas develo ped to articulate and interpret texts: śikṣā
(pho netics), nirukta (etymo lo gy), vy ākaraṇa (grammar), chanda (pro sody), kalpa
(ritualistic performances) and jyotiṣa (astro nomy). Out o f these six disciplines, the
first fo ur pertain to language, its so unds, wo rds and fo rms, etymo lo gy and metre.
These fo ur are to day part o f mo dern linguistics.
What is the Indian definitio n o f language? Three features o f language are:
(i)
It is primarily speech. Co nsider o ur wo rds fo r language: bh āṣā, vāk, vāṇī,
bolī etc. All assert that language is speech (writing is seco ndary as it
represents speech).
(ii)
It is the means o f tho ught — thinking is no t po ssible witho ut language.
(iii)
It co nstructs fo r each o f us things, experiences, emo tio ns and ideas by
naming them. With these we know things that are no t present
physically. So meo ne utters the wo rd ‘cow’ and we see in o ur mind the
picture o f a particular animal and can describe it at length.
2.2. Many statements have been made abo ut language in the early texts. The
Ṛgveda
distinguishes between o rdinary language ( bh āṣā) and go o d speech (use o f language)
that sho uld be used to speak the truth (5.44.6) and to say what o ne sees (10.35.8;
9.95.2; 8.59.3). A go o d speech is characterised by o riginality and creativity (no t just
imitative) (6.76.12). It is sweet to hear (1.182.4; 2.21.6; 8.59.3), lucid, fluent
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( prav āhamaya) and clearly articulated (4.58.6; 10.98.35; 5.63.6). It sho uld be used
purpo sefully (1.164.10) and sho uld be rich in meaning (4.58.6). It sho uld be tho ughtful
and capable o f ensuring welfare o f the peo ple (8.100.11). Language is ‘a great gift o f
go ds to men’ and hence sho uld be emplo yed with care (7.18.1).
In the Br āhmaṇa texts, speech is ro oted in the mind: ‘Speech is preceded by
the mind because speech expresses what is comprehended by the mind’ ( Pañcaviṁśa
Br āhmaṇa). In the Upaniṣads, there are references to language abo ut both the
meaningful co mbinatio n o f speech-so unds (words) and the meaning asso ciated with
them. In many places, the Upaniṣads discuss the relatio nship o f o ne’s o wn self and
language: ‘The wise sho uld merge the speech in the mind (mana), and that (mind) in
the intellect ( buddhi), the intellect in the Great Self ( mah āpuruṣa), and that (Great Self
again) in the Self o f peace ( śānta- ātman).’
3.
Disciplines of Language Studies in India
Let us discuss in brief the fo ur o f the six vedāṅgas that deal with language: śikṣā
(pho netics), vy ākaraṇa (grammar), nirukta (etymo lo gy) and chanda (proso dy).
3.1
Ṥik ṣā (Phonetics)
Pho netics, the science o f speech-so unds, develo ped in respo nse to the need to
preserve and articulate accurately the Vedic hymns ( mantras) in the o ral traditio n.
Yāska refers to this in his Nirukta. Pho netic study produced a brilliant understanding
and a highly so phisticated analysis o f the speech-so und structure and so und patterns
o f human languages. Fo ur aspects o f the speech-so unds have been studied:
(i)
ho w speech-so unds are pro duced,
(ii)
listing and classificatio n o f speech-so unds ( varṇam ālā, garland o f letters or
speech-so unds, the alphabet),
(iii) so unds in co ntext ( sandhi), and
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(iv) ho w a so und changes when it is spo ken alo ng with other so unds.
The diagram below sho ws the places o f articulatio n o f speech-so unds in the
o ral and nasal cavities alo ng with the articulato rs (active and passive):
The Pāṇin īya Ṥik ṣā describes the pro cess o f speech pro ductio n invo lving bo th
the mental and the physical faculties. When there is a desire to speak, a measured
amo unt o f the life breath ( pr āṇa) is retained in the lungs. Then this breath mo ves
upwards in the form o f air stream, passes through the vo cal cords ( kaṇṭha) and sets
them vibrating. This vibratio n makes the so und audible. In the articulatio n o f a vo wel
so und, the air stream is allowed to flow witho ut any o bstructio n thro ugh the oral and
nasal cavities. Different vo wels are articulated thro ugh lowering or rising o f the
to ngue and also thro ugh ro unding or un-ro unding o f the lips. A co nso nant so und
( vyañjana) is articulated by the co ntact o f the active articulator (such as to ngue and
lips) and the passive articulato rs (marked abo ve).
a) Places of articulation
Acco rding to Indian linguistic traditio n, the places o f articulatio n (passive) are
classified as five. They are (see the table belo w fo r examples):


kaṇṭhy a: velar
t ālavya: palatal
201



m ūrdhanya: retro flex
danty a: dental
oṣṭhya: labial
Apart from that, other places are co mbinatio ns o f the abo ve five places. They
are:



dantoṣṭhy a: labial-dental (fo r example, / v/ )
kaṇṭhat ālavya: diphtho ngs (fo r example, / e/ )
kaṇṭhosthy a: labial-velar (fo r example, diphtho ng / o / )
The articulato rs (active) are fo ur:




jihv āmūla: to ngue ro ots, fo r velar
jihv āmadhya: middle o f the to ngue, fo r palatal
jihv āgra: tip o f the to ngue, fo r cerebral and dental
adhoṣṭa: lo wer lip, fo r labial
b) Efforts of articulation
Effo rt o f articulatio n ( ucc āraṇa prayatna) is o f two types for co nso nants:
(i) Bāhya pray atna: external effort

spṛṣṭa: plo sive, i.e. a so und pro duced by the sudden release o r air after
a co mplete blo ck (fo r instance, pa, ka),

īshatspṛṣṭa: appro ximant, i.e. when the to ngue (articulato r) is bro ught
very clo se to the place o f articulatio n (fo r instance, ja),

īshatsaṃv ṛta: fricative, when the articulator and the places o f
articulatio n are bro ught clo se to gether and the air is fo rced thro ugh
(fo r instance, va).
(ii)
Ābhy antara pray atna: internal effo rt
 alpa- prāṇa: unaspirated or slight aspiratio n (for instance, ba)
 mahā- prāṇa: aspirated (for instance, bha)
 śv āsa: unvo iced (for instance, ka)
 nāda: vo iced (for instance, ga)
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c) Articulation of consonants
Articulatio n o f co nso nants will be a logical combinatio n o f co mpo nents in the two
prayatnas, effo rt. The table belo w gives a view upo n articulatio n o f co nso nants.
Sanskrit Consonants
Pray atna niy am āvalī
kaṇṭhy a
t ālāvya
(jihv āmūla) (jihv āmadhya)
m ūrdhanya
danty a
(jihv āgra)
(jihv āgra)
oṣṭy a
dantoṣṭy a
(adhosta)
ka
ca
ṭa
ta
—
pa
kha
cha
ṭha
tha
—
pha
sparśa, nāda, alpaprāna
ga
ja
ḍa
da
—
ba
sparśa, nāda, mahāprāna
gha
jha
ḍha
dha
—
bha
sparśa, nāda, alpaprāna,
anun āsika, drava, avy āhata
ṅa
ña
ṇa
na
—
ma
antastha, n āda, alpaprāṇa,
drava, avy āhata
—
ya
ra
la
va
—
ūṣman, śvāsa, mahāprāṇa,
avy āhata
visarga
śa
ṣa
sa
—
—
ūshman, nāda, mahāprāna,
avy āhata
ha
—
—
—
—
—
sparśa, śvāsa, alpaprāna
sparśam, śvāsa, mahāprāna
Classification of Speech- Sounds
Ṥivasūtra (also known as
Praty āhārasūtra) is believed to have o riginated from
Ṥiva’s
dance. A text called Nandīkeśvara-k āśīkā o f Nand īkeśvara begins with the following
verse:
n ṛtt āvasane naṭar ājrajo nan ādaḍhakk āṃ navapañchav āram |
uddharttuk āmosanak ādisiddh ān etadvimar śe
śivasūtrajālam ||
At the end o f His Co smic Dance,
Ṥiva, the Lo rd o f Dance,
with a view to bless the sages Sanaka and so o n,
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played o n His ḍamar ū [do uble-sided drum] fo urteen times,
fro m which emerged the fo llo wing fo urteen sūtras.
The table belo w is a classified list o f Sanskrit speech-so unds that forms the
first part o f Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī. So unds are grouped to gether (into sets) acco rding to
their properties and are referred to / summarized by the first so und and the last. Fo r
example, the three so unds o f the first gro up are referred to as aṇ — such terms as aṇ
are called praty āhāras and are an eco no mical way o f referring to a large number o f
so unds.
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Phonetic Transcription
Devan āgarī
1.
aiuṇ
अइउण ् |
2.
ṛḷk
ऋऌक् |
3.
eoṅ
एओ |
4.
ai au c
ऐऔच ् |
5.
ha ya va ra ṭ
हयवर |
6.
la ṇ
लण ् |
7.
ña ma ṅa ṇa na ṃ
ञमङणनम ् |
8.
jha bha ñ
झभञ ् |
9.
gha ḍha dha ṣ
घढधष ् |
10.
ja ba ga ḍa da ś
जबगडदश ् |
11.
kha pha cha ṭha tha ca ṭa ta v
खफछठथचटतव ् |
12.
ka pa y
कपय ् |
13.
śa ṣa sa r
शषसर् |
14.
ha l
हल ् |
3.2. Nirukta (Etymology)
Nirukta is the science o f study o f the meaning o f wo rds used in texts. It was co mpo sed
by Yāska (9th century BCE). It is a co mmentary o n Nighaṇṭu , a classified list o f Vedic
wo rds co mpiled by Yāska himself. The text is co mpo sed in the form o f a discussio n.
By the time o f Yāska, the language o f the Vedas had beco me difficult to understand
because many wo rds had go ne o ut o f use and their meanings were no lo nger clear. So
so me scho lars, such as Kautsa, argued that Vedic hymns are meaningless. So Yāska
prepared a list o f such difficult wo rds ( Nighantu ) and then explained their o rigin and
meaning (in Nirukta).
Yāska classifies all words into four classes: n āma (no uns and pro no uns),
ākhyāta (verbs) , upasarga ( prefixes) and nip āta (indeclinables).
205
Method of explaining the meaning of words: Yāska takes a wo rd and derives it
fro m a verb roo t ( dh ātu) o n the basis o f its pho netic and semantic similarities. For
example, the wo rd p āka, ‘a co oked dish’, is made fro m the roo t  pac, ‘ to co o k’ . He
gives examples o f such meanings by quo ting examples o f use fro m vario us wo rks.
3.3. Vy ākaraṇa (Grammar)
Grammar is valued as the most impo rtant discipline fo r the study o f all o ther
kno wledge disciplines.
The first attested study o f language is a kind o f lexico graphy, list-building —
there are many pada-paṭha, enumeratio ns o f the Vedic wo rds. It is no t po ssible to do
this witho ut a knowledge o f the grammar o f language. These are lists o f verb ro o ts,
prefixes etc. This breaking-do wn o f a co ntinuo us text into its parts such as sentences
and wo rds is no t po ssible witho ut so me kno wledge o f vy ākaraṇa, literally ‘an
instrument o f divisio n o r analysis’. The scho lars who prepared these lists o f no uns or
verbs were the first grammarians. In Sanskrit, several such lists have been made for
bo th co mpositio nal / written ( vaidik ī) and spo ken language ( laukik ī).
The traditio n ho lds that there was a lo ng traditio n o f grammatical thinking
befo re Pāṇini. Pāṇini (7th century BCE) in the Aṣṭādhyāyī refers to the wo rks o f ten
grammarians such as Āpiśali, Kāśyapa, Gārgya and others. Eighty-five grammarians
befo re Pāṇini are kno wn to us by name.
Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī is a grammar o f bo th the spoken language ( laukik ī) and the
co mpo sitio nal language ( vaidikī). It is co mpo sed in the sūtra (abbreviated and exact)
style and co ntains aro und 4,000 sūtras. As these sūtras are arranged into eight
chapters, hence the text is called Aṣṭādhyāyī ( aṣṭa-adhy āyī, ‘eight chapters’). Then each
chapter co ntains fo ur subsectio ns called p āda (so a total o f 32 subsectio ns). It is the
o nly co mplete, rule-bo und and co mprehensive descriptio n o f a natural human
206
language. Fo r the later grammarians this grammar became a mo del fo r the analysis o f
many o ther languages.
Indian grammar analyzes language as a structure o f five levels. The first level
is o f var ṇa, so und; the seco nd level is ak ṣara, syllable. The third level is o f śabda, wo rds
that are made o f syllables. As in Yāska, in Pāṇini’s grammar also , all wo rds belo ng to
fo ur classes: nama (substantive, i.e., no uns and adjectives), ākhyata (verbs), upasarga
(prefixes), nipata (indeclinables). Upasargas are wo rds such as pra-, pari-, which are
used in the beginning o f so me o ther wo rd, a verb or a verbal derivative o r a no un, to
make a new word that means some activity. Thus ‘anti-God’ means ‘not believing in
Go d’. And nip ātas such as iva, na, ca etc., are particles which po ssess no gender and
number and do not change their fo rm, wo rds such as adverbs, co njunctio ns in English
The next level o f o rganisatio n is pada (inflected wo rds such as ‘bo ys’ which
means ‘boy + plural’). Formatio n o f pada fro m śabda is in the sco pe o f grammar. A
pada is formed by a co njunctio n o f prakṛti (base) and pratyaya (affix).
Wo rd fo rmatio n includes derivation . All padas are divided into two sets: those
that are like no uns and tho se are like verbs. Fro m verbs no uns can be fo rmed and
fro m no uns verbs can be formed with the help o f affixes that are called in grammar
derivatio nal affixes, such as, –er in English which is used to change verbs into no uns:
drive > driver. Thus in Sanskrit, fro m the verb ro ot  pac (to coo k), the no un p ācak
(co o k) is derived by adding the affix - ak .
Sentences that meet the rules o f Pāṇini’s grammar are accepted as siddha,
literally ‘ripe’ or ‘mature’. In English grammar, we say the sentence is ‘grammatical’.
Pāṇiṇi’s grammar has influenced mo dern linguistics via Ferdinand de Saussure, who
was a pro fesso r o f Sanskrit at Geneva in the late 19th century. This grammar has also
served as a mo del fo r grammars o f many languages: Persian, Tibetan, Tamil, Prakrit,
besides many Indian and central Asian languages. On acco unt o f its appro priateness
207
fo r co mputatio nal grammar, the Aṣṭādhyāyī has co me to be studied in the
departments o f Linguistics and Co mputer Science.
Leo nard Bloo mfield in his celebrated bo o k Language ackno wledged the
co ntributio n o f Pāṇini in the advancement o f human knowledge: ‘The Aṣṭādhy āy ī o f
Pāṇini is o ne o f the living mo numents o f human intelligence.’ (p. 11)
Depictions of Pāṇini (left) and Patañjali (right) (source: Wikipedia). Note that Patañjali’s
lower body is in the form of a snake, which stands for Śe ṣan āga, the mythical guardian of
treasure: Patañjali guarded knowledge, which is regarded as the highest treasure.
After Pāṇini, there was a successio n o f thinkers o f language, grammar and
philo so phy o f language: Kātyāyana (4th century BCE) who co mmented o n Pāṇini’s
rules, Patañjali’s (2nd century BCE) who co mposed Mah ābhāṣya (literally, ‘The grand
co mmentary’), a co mmentary o n Aṣṭādhyāyī, and Bhart ṛhari (5th century CE) who se
V ākyapadīya is a celebrated wo rk o f philo so phy o f language and grammar. Grammar
influenced bo th philoso phy and literary theo ry; thinkers such as Bharata (2nd century
BCE), Bh āmaha (6th century CE), V āmana (7th–8th century) and Abhinavagupta (9th
century) co mpo sed works o n language and the philo so phy o f literature. Buddhists
and Jainas were also deeply influenced by Paṇini’s grammar and co mpo sed Cāndra
Vy ākaraṇa (4
th
century CE) and Jainendra Vy ākaraṇa (5th century CE) respectively. In
208
the lo ng traditio n o f grammars and grammarians co mes Nāgeṣh Bhaṭṭa (1670-1750),
who wrote three bo o ks o n the philo sophy o f grammar and is accepted as the final
autho rity.
Theory of Grammar
Patañjali distinguishes between the principal purpo se and the ancillary purpo ses o f
the science o f grammar. The chief purpo se is to attain a mastery o f the language.
Other purpo ses are: understanding the texts, ability to argue and debate and
articulate accurately the hymns and sacred verses. He also makes a distinctio n
between widely acceptable linguistic fo rms, standard usage, and fo rms acceptable
o nly in a specific regio n, dialectal usage. He accepts loka ( the wo rld o f usage) as
autho rity and accepts all varieties o f usage. Acco rding to Patañjali, the goal of
grammar is to lay do wn dharma-niyama, to show the standard usage. It restricts the
cho ice to the best o f the available po ssibilities. Just as furniture can be made o f all
kinds o f woo d but teak is to be preferred and hunger can be assuaged by eating the
flesh o f any animal but the flesh o f o nly so me animals is to be eaten and all water is
water but o nly Ganga water is auspicio us, in the same way, the intended meaning
may be co nveyed best by o ne o f the forms.
The ‘desired result’ in language transactio n is the successful transfer o f
meaning: this is the dharma o f language and to wards the attainment o f this dharma it
is the functio n o f grammar to lay down niyama — dharma-niyama, restrictio n fo r an
efficacio us transfer o f meaning. He also refers to (a) mleccha-prayoga, the usage o f the
no n-native speakers, (b) apaśabda, any o f the dialectal variants, and (c) du ṣṭaśabda, an
inaccurate usage due to physical infirmity o r igno rance.
Grammar thus establishes sādhu wo rds as siddha and asādhu words as asiddha,
no t accepted as standard.
209
After Patañjali co mes the age o f prakriy ā, re-o rdering the rules o f Pāṇini’s
grammar to simplify it. The Siddh ānta-Kaumudī of Bhaṭṭo jidikṣita (17th century CE) is a
prakriy ā text.
Sanskrit grammar is also accepted in India’s intellectual traditio n as a
philo so phy. Ṥr ī Mādhavācārya (13th century) in his Sarvadarśanasaṃgraha has a
chapter o n ‘Pāṇini Dar śana’, Pāṇini’s philo so phy, o ne o f the sixteen philo so phies
explained in that impo rtant boo k. Bhart ṛhari’s V ākyapadīya (5th century) is the
landmark work in the do main o f philoso phy o f language. Apart fro m this, many
grammarians such as the Buddhist Chandragomin, the Jain Hemachandrac ārya, Pali
and Prakrit grammarians and Tamil grammarians (To lkāppiyar and his Tolk āppiyam )
have immensely enriched the traditio ns o f language studies in India.
To day, Sanskrit Grammar is an impo rtant subject o f study in mo st the majo r
wo rld universities.
3.4. Chanda (Prosody)
The Vedas are also India’s first literary co mpo sitio ns and the Vedic seers are the first
po ets. A major po rtio n o f the Vedic co mpo sitio ns is metrical. So the science o f
pro so dy also develo ped in India in very early times. In oral traditio ns, pro so dy also
helps to maintain the text as it is. A change o ccurring in a versified text in co urse o f
time can be easily traced as it disturbs the rhythm (flo w) o f the text. Sage Piṅgala,
suppo sed to be a co ntempo rary o f Pāṇini, had co mpo sed a pro so dy text called
Piṅgala-sūtra or Chanda-sūtra. Of the many metrical arrangements, anu ṣṭubh is the
mo st frequently emplo yed metre in the classical Sanskrit literature and the epics
Rāmāyaṇa and Mah ābhārata have used this metre. Tamil metres are described in the
Tolk āppiyam. Apart fro m these, there are vario us lo cal metres in different Indian
languages.
***
210
Comprehension
1.
Discuss in yo ur gro up the reaso ns for pho netics being a key aspect o f language
study in ancient India
2.
What is the meaning o f lexico n? Frame mo re wo rds using ‘lexis’ as the root
wo rd.
3.
What is the term given to o ne who wo rks o n compiling wo rds?
4.
Refer to the abo ve image sho wing places o f articulatio n o f speech-so unds in the
o ral and nasal cavities: which o f the six vedāṅgas do they represent?
Activity 1

Co mplete the table with fo ur key statements about Pāṇini:
Nam e
1.
Meaning / Function
Varna
2.
3.
4.
5.
Activity 2

What are the principles which co nvert Language units into structures?
Principle
1.
Meaning
Sequence and order
2.
3.
4.
5.
211
Activity 3

Co mplete the visual below with the correct terms fo ur classes o f śabda:
nama(......)
....
.........
upsarga
Activity 4

What are the two aspects that complete a pada?
prakrit i
........
pada
Activity 5

What are the two sets o f padas? Co mplete the visual given.
padas
...........
verbal
affixes
212
Activities
 Make a list o f twenty words fro m yo ur mo ther to ngue and any o ther Indian
language, which have nearly the same meanings / roo ts.
 Use the Internet to list the major
stages o f develo pment between the
fo llo wing scripts (yo u may refer to
the fo llowing diagram as a general
guide):


Br āḥmī and Devanāgar ī
Br āḥmī and Tamil script
 Fo r the fo llowing pairs o f co ncepts,
list wo rds from yo ur mother to ngue
and
at
least
two
mo re
Indian
languages:



happiness — so rrow
success — failure
birth — death
 Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī explains grammar in a systematic manner. For example
o ne o f Pāṇini’s sūtras o n the places o f articulatio n says, akuhavisarjan īyānāṃ
kanthaḥ, which means letters a, kavarg (i.e. ka, kha, ga, gha,
ṅa ), ha and
visarga, are called kaṇṭhya o r articulated in the throat). No w work in pairs o r
speak in fro nt o f the mirror to understand Pāṇini’s sūtra. Refer to the table o f
Sanskrit co nso nants in the abo ve article.
213
Project Ideas
1.
Prepare a multimedia presentatio n o n the language families in use in India. Find
o ut ho w many languages are spoken by each student o f yo ur class; work o ut the
to tal number, and use this reso urce to make your presentatio n co me alive with
the diversity and richness o f the Indian language scenario . What do es it tell yo u
abo ut India and its peo ple? Ho w is the Indian linguistic scenario different fro m
western co untries?
2.
3.
Discuss the fo llo wing questio ns with yo ur class:
a)
Ho w many languages do yo u learn at schoo l?
b)
Ho w many languages classified as ‘mo ther to ngues’ exist in India?
c)
What is referred to as the ‘three-language fo rmula’?
Lo o k at the abo ve map o f India (‘Languages o f India and neighbo uring
co untries’) and make a list o f the languages and, wherever po ssible, dialects
spo ken in different states o f India. Yo u may fo rm gro ups fo r different states; at
the end, co mpile informatio n fro m all gro ups and draw yo ur co nclusio ns.
Extended Activities

Yo u have invited Pāṇini and Yāska to preside over the Inauguration Ceremony
o f a debating so ciety. As Secretary, write yo ur speech intro ducing yo ur guests o f
ho no ur to the gathering. Make sure to highlight their co ntributio n to the world
o f linguistics. At the same time, speak abo ut the o bjectives o f yo ur debating
so ciety. Highlight the ro le o f the so ciety in pro viding o ppo rtunities to train
learners in mo dels o f desirable speech as highlighted in the Ṛgveda.
214
Further Reading
1.
Yudhishthir Mimamsak, Sanskrit Vyakaraṇaśāstra Kā Itihāsa (Students’ edition in Hindi),
Varanasi: Chowkhamba Publishers, 1998.
2.
Suniti K. Chatterji, (ed.), The Cultural heritage of India, vol. 5: Languages and Literature .
Kolkata: Ramakrishna Institute of Culture, 1978
3.
The Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini, tr. Rama Nath Sharma, 6 vols, Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal,
2002-2003.
4.
Kapil Kapoor, Dimensions of Pāṇini Grammar, Delhi: DK Printworld, 2005.
Internet Resources

Languages and scripts o f India: www.cs.colostate.edu/ ~malaiya/ scripts.html

Brahmi alphabet : www.omniglot.com/ writing/ brahmi.htm

Majo r Indian languages: http:/ / theory.tifr.res.in/ bombay/ history/ people/ language/

Indian languages: http:/ / indiansaga.com/ languages/ index.html

215
Primary Texts on Language:
A selection
In the extracts below, references have been co llected fro m Vedas, Upaniṣads,
Br āḥmaṇas, grammatical and philo so phical and o ther fo undatio nal so urces. They
dwell upo n the nature o f language, levels and states o f language, relatio nship o f
language and the wo rld and tho ught, co mpo nents o f speech, purpo se and functio n o f
vy ākaraṇa (literally, instrument to analyse language, grammar).
Reflections on Language from Vedic Sources
(In this the go ddess o f V āk speaks in the first person:)
Thro ugh me alo ne all eat the fo o d that feeds them — each man who sees,
breathes, hears and the words o utspo ken.
They kno w it no t, but yet they dwell beside me. Hear o ne and all the truth
as I declare it.
... I make the man I lo ve exceedingly mighty, make him a sage, a ṛṣi and a
br āhmaṇa. ( Ṛgveda, 10.125.4-5)
We shall discuss alphabet (letters-vowels and co nso nants), syllables,
speech pro ductio n, pitch and into natio n — [all in this chapter] śikṣā.
( Taittriyopaniṣad, 1.2)
These are … apar ā sciences — the six Vedas, Ṛk -, Yaju -, Sāma- & Atharva-,
the six auxiliary disciplines o f Vedas, Phonetic, Ritual, Grammar,
Etymo lo gy, Metrics and Astro no my. These disciplines are no t para
kno wledge which is the means fo r moksha, the ultimate liberatio n.
( Mu ṇḍakopaniṣad, 1.5)
216
Sthavira Sākalya says that breath is a beam, and as the other beams rest
o n the main beam o f the ho use, the eye, the ear, the mind, the speech, the
senses, the bo dy, the who le self rests o n this breath. Of this self, the
breath is like the sibilants, the bo nes … the mutes, the marrow … the
vo wels and flesh and blo od, the fo urth part, the semi-vo wels, so says
Harsva Mandukya. ... The human bo dy is the divine lute. ( Aitareya
Āraṇyaka, III, 2, 1)
***
In the extracts belo w, culled fro m vario us Vedic so urces, first the fo ur phases o f
language are identified ( Ṛgveda 1.164.45). The subsequent three passages (ii–iv),
describe the ro le o f breath and mind in language. The fifth passage fro m
Ch āndogyopaniṣad identifies speech as an index o f life and describes how speech
merges in breath in the dying mo ments. In the sixth passage, there is a prayer
therefo re that speech be preserved and the text go es o n to identify speech as a means
o f kno wledge.
(i) Speech hath been measured o ut in fo ur divisio ns; the Br āhmaṇas who
have the understanding kno w them. Three kept in clo se co ncealment
cause no mo tio n; o f speech, men speak o nly the fo urth divisio n.
Here are these fo ur divisio ns o r structures o f the language:
(a) Par ā: speech as unitary tho ught
(b) Paśyantī: co llecting breath sufficient for pro jected utterance
(c) Madhyam ā: sequencing o f speech and pushing the air co lumn up
(d) Vaikhar ī: manifest / articulated. ( Ṛgveda 1.164.45)
(ii) Lo rd! May my speech rest in my mind and mind merge into my speech!
O Lo rd, be visible and bring kno wledge to my mind and speech. May the
acquired kno wledge never leave me and with self-study I bridge this day
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and night. I will speak truth o nly. May the Lo rd defend me and my
Teacher. ( Aitareyopaniṣad, 1)
(iii) He created Prāṇa, fro m Pr āṇa faith, sky, air, fire, water, earth, senses,
mind and foo d strength, penance, mantras, karma and wo rlds and in the
wo rld names also . ( Praśnopaniṣad, 4)
(iv) Thus the substantial part o f the later foo d is transfo rmed and gains
the fo rm o f speech; mind originates from fo od, vital force from water,
speech fro m the tejas. Thus what have I said is true. ( Ch āndogyopaniṣad,
VI.4.5)
(v) A dying perso n reco gnizes the wo rld until his speech merges into his
mind; when his speech merges into mind, mind into vital fo rce, the vital
fo rce
into
five
and
lastly
this
fire
into
the
Supreme
Deity.
( Ch āndogyopaniṣad, VI.15.1.2)
(vi) O Lo rd, preserve my life, preserve my pr āna, guard my ap āna, guard
my vy āna. Presume my dyes, preserve my ears. Strengthen my speech
with goo d instructio ns. Satisfy my mind … vo uchsafe me light o f
kno wledge. ( Yajurveda 13.54)
***
May o ur speech, the giver o f pure foo d that enables us to acquire
kno wledge, po ssessing practical wisdo m born o f all sciences, be a purifier.
May it desire and manifest the glo ry o f arts and crafts and no ble actio ns,
helping us to asso ciate o urselves with pure and righteo us deeds. ( Ṛgveda,
1.3.10)
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O men, just as a lady do cto r well-versed in the science o f medicine ...
having mastery o ver Āyurveda ... stretches o ut the healing sacrifice, fo r
pro sperity with [her] speech, so sho uld no t ye do ! ( Yajurveda, 19–12)
O adorable and learned teachers and preachers as tho u lead us o n the path
with no bility o f thy mind, teach us exertio n with thy sweet and jo yful
wo rds, give us kno wledge ... lay befo re us ... the no ble arts perfo rmed by
the sages thro ugh wisdo m and truthful speech, hence tho u art wo rthy o f
respect by us. ( Yajurveda, 8.45)
O fair-to ngued, preserver o f vario us o bjects, make pleasant fo r all, the
co mmendable paths o f rectitude, with thy sweet sermo n and excellent
expo sitio n. Develo p the so ciety and philo so phical subjects with thy ho ly
tho ughts and strengthen o ur inno cuo us wo rship thro ugh learned perso ns.
( Yajurveda, 29.26)
O Vedic speech, sho w us the path, so that observing the principle o f
unificatio n, we may thrive. ( Atharvaveda, 6.94.3)
Kauntharavya says speech is united with breath, breath with blowing air,
the air with the all-gods, all-go ds with the wo rld o f heaven, the world o f
heaven with Brahman. This is the gradual union ... By speech are Vedas
co mpo sed, by speech these metres are strung. By speech friends are
united. ... Now when we speak, breath is in speech — speech then swallo ws
breath. When we are silent or in sleep, speech is in breath — breath then
swallows the speech. They swallow each o ther. Speech indeed is the
mo ther, breath the so n. He, who kno ws this unio n o btains ... fame, glo ry.
( Aitareya Āraṇyaka, III.1.6)
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Phonetics
Pāṇiṇīya
Śikṣā, (tr. & ed., Manmohan Ghosh)
A text o n general pho netics describes the pro cess o f articulatio n o f speech
so unds.
Ātmā (the self) with
buddhi (intellect) perceives things and sets the mind
to an intentio n o f speaking; the mind (then) gives impetus to the fire
within the bo dy, and the later drives the breath o ut. (6)
(The breath which is thus) sent upwards and is checked by the roo f o f the
mo uth attains to the mo uth and pro duces speech so unds ( var ṇas), which
have a five-fo ld classificatio n — according to their pitch, quantity, place o f
articulatio n, the primary effort ( prayatna i.e. adjusting the articulator) and
seco ndary effo rt ( anupradāna, i.e. stiffening o r lo o sening the vo cal cords) .
So said tho se who were versed in (pro no uncing) speech so unds. Learn this
carefully. (9-10)
Nirukta (Etymology)
The twin texts Nighaṇṭu and Nirukta o f Yāska (9th century BCE) are the o ldest extant
wo rk o n dictio nary and expo unding its meaning. The fo llo wing extracts are fro m
Nirukta that tell abo ut parts o f speech and ho w a word is derived fro m its roo t
(verbal).
The Nighaṇṭu and the Nirukta of Ṥr ī
Yāskācārya (tr. & ed., Lakshman Sarup)
A traditio nal list [o f Vedic words] has been handed do wn to us. It is to be
(here) explained. This same list is called Ni-ghaṇṭavas. Fro m what (roo t) is
(the wo rd) Ni-ghaṇṭavas derived? They are wo rds quo ted fro m the Vedas
( ni-gam āh). Having been repeatedly to gether fro m the Vedic hymns, they
220
have been handed do wn by traditio n …
No w what are the fo ur classes fo r wo rds? They are the fo llo wing: no un
and verb; and prepo sitio ns and particles. … The verb has beco ming as its
fundamental no tio n, no uns have being as their fundamental no tio n. But
bo th are do minated by beco ming …
… there are six modificatio ns o f beco ming: genesis, existence, alternatio n,
growth, decay, and destructio n.
He is the bearer o f a burden o nly, — the blo ckhead who , having studied,
do es no t study the meaning o f the Veda. But who kno ws the meaning
o btains all go o d fo rtune and, with wro ng act ( p āpa) purged o ff by
kno wledge, attains heavens.
Whatever is learnt witho ut its being understo od is called mere cramming;
like dry lo gs o f wo o d o n an extinguished fire, it can never illuminate. (1:15)
No w (we shall deal with) etymo lo gy.
With reference to this, the wo rds, the accent and the grammatical forms
o f which are regular and are acco mpanied by an explanatory radical
mo dificatio n, sho uld be derived in the o rdinary manner.
But the meaning being irrelevant, the explanato ry radical modificatio n
being no n-existent, o ne sho uld always examine them with regard to their
meaning, by analo gy o f so me co mmo n co urse o f actio n.
If there be no such analo gy, o ne sho uld explain them even by the
co mmunity o f a (single) syllable or letter;
But o ne sho uld never (give up the attempt at) derivatio n. (2:1-4)
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4.
Patañjali’s Mahābhāṣy a (adapted from S.N. Dasgupta’s translation)
No w co mmences the science o f wo rds.
1. Which wo rds are meant here?
2. Bo th the current as well as the archaic.
3. No w, what co nstitutes the wo rd in gau ḥ? Is the wo rd go that which
co nstitutes the o bject (viz. the animal) po ssessed o f a dewlap, a tail,
hump, ho o fs and ho rns.
4. No , says the Grammarian; it is verily the dravya i.e. the o bject.
5. Well, then, is the wo rd go that which co nstitutes becko ning, mo ving
and winking?
6. No , says the Grammarian; it is verily the actio n.
7. Well, now, is that, which co nstitutes the white o r the blue, or the
grayish o r the brown, the word?
8. No , says the Grammarian; it is the quality, in fact.
9. Well, no w, is the word that general feature, which remains unbroken
altho ugh the things are bro ken or which remains uncut altho ugh the
things are cut?
10. No ; says the Grammarian, that is, in fact, the genus o r the co mmo n
fo rm.
11. Well, what is the wo rd in gauh then? Word is that which, when
uttered, gives rise to the knowledge o f o bjects po ssessed o f dewlaps,
tails, humps, ho o fs and horns. Or, in o ther words, wo rd is that so und
fro m which there arises the kno wledge o f things in the affairs o f the
wo rld. Fo r instance, a perso n producing so und by mo uth is addressed
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as fo llo ws: go o n with yo ur words, o r, do no t talk words, o r this bo y is
speaking wo rds. It fo llows, therefo re, that ‘wo rd’ means so und o r
utterance o f letters.
12. No w, what are the advantages o f learning this Grammar o f Science o f
wo rds?
13. The advantages are: preservatio n o f Veda, ability to change the case
and gender affixes, the study o f Veda, facility o f kno wing the
sense o f wo rds, and lastly, remo val o f any ambiguity o f sense.
14. Kno wledge o f changing the case-inflectio n, is also an advantage: the
hymns o f the Vedas are not uttered ... in all genders and cases. ... A
man who do es not kno w grammar is no t able to use their fo rms with
changed gender and case-affixes where necessary. Now ... there is a
text that says that a Brahmin sho uld, witho ut any motive, devo te
himself to knowledge. ...
15. Grammar has also to be studied ... to kno w wo rds with eco no my o f
effo rt.
16. Grammar has also to be studied for the remo val o f do ubts .... If o ne is
no t a grammarian, o ne canno t determine the sense fro m the accents
.... A Brahmin therefore sho uld not speak incorrect words; an incorrect
wo rd is a bad wo rd; we sho uld study grammar so that we sho uld no t be
utterers o f incorrect words. ...
17. The sentence beginning with du ṣṭaḥ śabda [the translator is referring
to the Sanskrit sentence in the o riginal text] means: a wo rd with an
inco rrect accent or an impro per letter, beco mes impro perly used, and
do es no t therefo re co nvey the required sense; such a word ...ruins the
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speaker.... Grammar sho uld be studied so that we sho uld no t emplo y
wro ng accents.
18. The sentence beginning with yadadhitam means: wo rds studied
witho ut the knowledge o f their sense, being o nly mechanically uttered
by the mo uth, do no t ... pro duce their effect, just as dry fuel do es not
burn unless it is put into fire. ... A man who , in his dealings, uses wo rds
in their co rrect sense, being co gnizant o f the nice distinctio ns in
sense, is always victo rio us ... as he kno ws verily the pro per use o f
wo rds; if he, ho wever, used inco rrect words, he meets failure. ...
19. The stanza beginning with saktumiva means: at the place where
learned thinkers with their intelligence purify speech as men sift
barley fro m corn with a sieve, friends behave with a spirit o f
friendship having the blessed fo rtune staying inside their speech. ...
20. Which is the place referred to ?
21. The place where they study Vedic speech and o btain kno wledge.
22. Who are tho se learned thinkers?
23. Of co urse, the grammarians.
24. Ho w do yo u say that they beco me fast friends?
25. Because blessed fo rtune dwells in their speech. The wo rd lak ṣm ī
(fo rtune) is derived fro m the roo t laks to shine. Lakṣm ī is called so, as
by her shining she is able to remo ve ignorance.
26. No w the expo sitio n o f the Science o f wo rds has to be given. ... Ho w
that expo sitio n has to be given — whether by expo unding inco rrect
wo rds, o r co rrect wo rds or bo th ..., which is the better metho d o ut o f
the two ? ... Of co urse, the expo sitio n o f co rrect wo rds o n acco unt o f
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their small number. The expo sitio n o f correct wo rds can be do ne with
a small effo rt; the expo sitio n o f inco rrect words is a difficult task, as
every o ne o f the correct words can have many inco rrect fo rms. ...
27. Well now, in giving the expo sitio n o f [co rrect] wo rds, in o rder to know
the co rrect wo rds, sho uld each word be taught individually?...
28. No , it is no t necessary to do so , say the Grammarian. ...
29. Then ho w are these correct words to be taught?
30. There sho uld be fo llo wed the metho d o f laying do wn general
principles and exceptio ns so that with a co mparatively small effo rt, a
man wo uld learn bigger and bigger co llectio ns of words.
31. What co uld that metho d be?
32. Of co urse, the metho d o f laying down general rules and exceptio ns.
There sho uld be first given a general rule and then its exceptio n
sho uld be stated.
33. What kind o f general rule sho uld there be stated? So also what kind o f
exceptio n sho uld be given?
34. There sho uld be stated a general rule with a wide applicatio n, ... then a
specific exceptio n to the rule sho uld be given.
35. Well, now, what do es a wo rd mean? Do es it mean the universal or
particular?
36. Bo th, says the Grammarian, are po ssible.
37. Ho w can it be kno wn?
38. Because the precepto r Pāṇini has recited sūtras o f both the kinds: He
has laid do wn the aphorism[s] ‘general fo rm’ as the sense o f a word
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[and] has written the aphorism[s] having in his mind ‘an individual
o bject’ as the sense o f a word.
39. Well, is wo rd permanent or is it pro duced [at the time o f utterance]?
40. The questio n whether word sho uld be loo ked upo n as permanent or
pro duced, has been pro minently discussed in his work Saṃgraha by the
teacher Vy āḍi. The faults o f bo th the views have been sho wn there as
also the advantages o f both the views. The decisio n given there, after
all, is that in the Science o f Words, Grammar has to be written either
way, whether the word be assumed to be permanent o r pro duced.
41. But, ho w is this Grammar o f the great teacher Pāṇin ī co mpo sed? Is it
co mpo sed by the grammarian with permanence o f word in his mind o r
tempo rariness o f wo rd in his mind?
42. The V ārttikakāra [i.e., Kātyāyana, a 3rd-century BCE co mmentator o f
Pāṇini] ... lays do wn:
43. With wo rd, its sense and their co nnectio n already given [the science o f
Grammar pro ceeds].
44. A word is not inco rrect simply because it has gone o ut o f use ....
45. All such unused wo rds are fo und in so me area o f language use ... words
[which are no t used in a particular pro vince] are in use in o ther
pro vinces ... o r in Vedic Literature ....
46. A man who uses wo rds after studying the rules of the Science o f Wo rds
viz. Grammar, gains merit. ... Rules and examples together co nstitute
Grammar — usages o r words that are to be explained, and rules that
explain them.
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Grammar, Language and Knowledge
Bhart ṛhari’s V ākyapadīya, Brahmakāṇḍa, tr. K.A. Subramania Iyer
An ādinidhanam Brahma śabdatattvam yadakṣaram
Vivartate’rthabh āvena prakriyā jagato yataḥ (I.1)
The Brahman who is witho ut beginning o r end, who se very essence is the
wo rd, who is the cause o f the manifested so unds, who appears as the
many o bjects, from who m the creatio n o f the world pro ceeds.
4. In the wo rds which are expressive , the learned discern two elements:
o ne is the essential wo rd in the mind which, the o ther, is used to co nvey
the meaning.
45. That there is an essential difference between them is the view o f so me
fo llo wers o f traditio n. Other hand, some think that they are o ne but
appear to be different o wing to difference in the po int o f view.
46. Just as the fire which is within the churn sticks is the cause o f the
o ther fire [which is kindled], similarly, the word which is in the mind [o f
the speaker] beco mes the cause o f the different expressive wo rds.
48. Just as a reflectio n, fo und elsewhere [as in water] seems to have
mo vement because o f the mo vement o f water, such is the relatio n
between the word in the mind and the wo rds actually spo ken and heard.
49. Just as the mind o f the speaker first turns to wards the wo rds, in the
same way, the attentio n o f the hearers also is first directed to wards them.
50. Just as light has two po wers, that o f being revealed and that o f being
the revealer, similarly, all wo rds have two distinct powers.
227
51. No meaning is co nveyed by words which have no t themselves beco me
the o bjects o f knowledge.
Comprehension
1.
Elabo rate o n the metaphor used by Sthavira Sākalya to describe centrality
o f breath.
2.
What acco rding to the Ṛgveda are the fo ur divisio ns or structures o f the
language?
3.
What are the o bjectives o f studying grammar, acco rding to Patañjali?
4.
XYZ has to appear for a co mpetitive examination. The vo cabulary section
has a list o f 600 words. XYZ has memo rized the meanings o f the 600 wo rds,
but has no t learned to use them in actual co ntext. Refer to yadadhitam in
Patañjali’s Mah ābhāṣya and comment .
References
1.
K.V. Abhyankar & Jayadev Mohanlal Shukla, (eds.), Patañjali’s Vyakārana-Mahābhāṣyam,
Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1975.
2.
Dasgupta, S.N. (tr. & ed.), The Mahābhāṣya of Patañjali (with Āhnika I-IV), (ed.), New Delhi:
Indian Council of Philosophical Research, 1991.
3.
Subramania Iyer, K.A., (ed. & tr.), The V ākyapadīya of Bhartṛhari, vol. 1, Poona: Deccan
College, 1965

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Other Technologies: A Survey
When we deal with humanity’s early stages, the wo rd ‘techno lo gy’ applies to any
man-made mo dificatio n o f the natural enviro nment — fro m a sto ne to o l to a wo ven
piece o f clo thing o r a co nstructio n. The modules Chemistry in India, Metallurgy in
India (bo th in class XI) and Agriculture (class XII) co ver several impo rtant
techno lo gies o f ancient India. Here, we explo re a few mo re.
Harappan Technologies
One mainstay o f the Indus or Harappan civilizatio n (2600–1900 BCE for its urban o r
“ Mature” phase) was agriculture. Alo ng with it, ceramic techno lo gy develo ped and
pro duced fine fired bricks as well as pots, which are required to carry water, sto re
seeds and grain, and o f co urse to coo k fo o d. Harappans produced wheel-turned pots
in vario us shapes and sizes, so me o f them glazed o r painted. Their pottery was
generally co vered with a red slip (produced from red o chre, that is, iro n o xide), while
flo ral, animal or geo metric designs were painted in black. The black pigment was the
result o f mixing iro n o xide with black manganese.
A few examples of classical Harappan pottery (courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India).
229
Harappan fired bricks had pro po rtio ns o f 1 x 2 x 4 (width equals two heights;
length equals two widths) and, besides, were o f such quality that tho se who first
enco untered them at Harappa and Mo henjo -daro tho ught they co uld not be more
than two o r three centuries o ld! There was a practical reaso n fo r the abo ve
pro portio ns, as they permitted alternating co urses and therefo re stro nger walls with
the least quantity o f bricks — the so -called “ English bo nd” o f maso nry. Baked o r mud
bricks were not the o nly building material: at Dho lavira, in the Rann o f Kachchh,
sto ne was also used o n a huge scale. Harappan cities generally fo llo wed a grid plan
and bo asted a sanitatio n system that co llected used waters fro m individual
bathro o ms into municipal drains; tho se were regularly inspected and cleaned, which
testifies to a high level o f civic order.
Massive stone work at Dholavira, northern gate of the ‘Castle’
(courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India).
While so ft-sto ne beads are repo rted from many Neo lithic sites (fro m abo ut
7000 BCE), Harappan craftsmen to o k bead-making to a different level and perfected
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techniques o f po lishing, co lo uring, glazing, drilling and bleaching. Their favo urite
semiprecio us sto nes were carnelian, agate and jasper, but they o ccasio nally made
beads o ut o f bo ne, terracotta o r synthetic faience. The lo ng perfo rated carnelian
beads, in particular, were highly prized in ro yal families o f Meso po tamia (see the
large necklace below ); their length-wise drilling with special drill bits represented a
techno lo gical feat. So did the still mysterio us manufacture o f micro -beads o f steatite
(o r so apsto ne), measuring just o ne millimetre in length and diameter (see just abo ve
the large necklace below ).
A sampling of Harappan jewellery, including gold and semiprecious beads, micro-beads,
gold bangles and fillets, and long carnelian beads (source: J.M. Kenoyer).
India’s love fo r bangles is traceable to the Harappans’ manufacture o f large
numbers o f go ld, bro nze, co nch-shell, glazed faience o r humble terraco tta bangles.
Weavers used wheel-spun thread and, besides widely used co tto n, evidence o f silk has
recently co me to light at two sites. Other crafts included sto ne and ivory carving,
carpet making and inlaid woo dwork.
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Later pottery
After the Harappan age, major inno vatio ns in po ttery
shifted to the Ganges valley. The Painted Grey Ware
(PGW, see an example right ), fro m abo ut 1200 BCE, is
asso ciated with iro n-based cultures. A few centuries later,
fro m aro und 700 BCE o nward, the No rthern Black-Po lished
Ware (NBPW), first fo und in today’s Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar, is fo und in the first cities o f the Ganges valley. Bo th
po ttery types were produced o n fast-spinning wheels using fine clay and fired to a
high temperature in kilns under co ntro lled co nditio ns.
Other regio ns o f India eventually pro duced many o ther types and styles o f
po ttery, and pottery sherds remain a major so urce o f info rmatio n for archaeo lo gists,
who have meticulo usly do cumented all tho se types and tried to wo rk o ut their
chro no lo gies and regio nal spreads.
Glass
The first appearance o f glass o bjects in India, acco rding to current knowledge, is
fro m the upper Ganga-Yamuna regio n and datable to the last centuries o f the 2nd
millennium BCE, co inciding with the abo ve-mentio ned PGW phase. At sites such as
Bhagwanpura (Haryana), Ko pia (U.P.), glass beads and bangles were fo und. In the
fo llo wing centuries, glass techno lo gy spread all o ver India. At Taxila (ancient
Takṣaśila, now in no rthern Pakistan), the Bhir mo und yielded numero us glass beads
o f several shapes and co lo urs dated to the 5th century BCE or so . Glass o bjects and
o rnaments have also co me to light at places like Ujjain, Nasik, Ahichchhatra, Sravasti,
Ko lhapur, Kaundinya, Brahmagiri, and at several sites o f Tamil Nadu (such as
Arikamedu). The early Indian glass-makers were skilled
at co ntro lling the
temperature o f fusio n, mo ulding, annealing, blotching and exquisite go ld-fo iling.
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Water Management
Water co nservatio n and management is an area o f great importance, and the great
variety and so phisticatio n o f water structures in ancient India testify to the care with
which peo ple harvested and co nserved water and managed its distributio n.
Dholavira: the eastern reservoir, with the “ Castle” in the background
(courtesy: Michel Danino; next two photos: courtesy ASI).
Harappans invented trapezo id bricks to co nstruct
wells that wo uld not co llapse inward under the pressure
o f undergro und infiltratio ns. Dho lavira, being lo cated in
an arid regio n, had to ensure eno ugh water sto rage fo r its
tho usands o f inhabitants to survive thro ugh the year.
This was achieved by co nstructing a series o f small dams
acro ss two nearby seaso nal channels to divert their
waters to the city’s huge reservo irs; tho se were also fed
233
by
large-scale
channelling
water
rainwater
harvesting
thro ugh
undergro und drains ( left ). The largest
reservo ir ( above ), to the east o f the
“ Castle” ,
measured
73 x 29 m
and
co ntained at least 20,000 m 3 o f water
when full. In additio n, a step well (right )
dug at the bo tto m pro vided fo r extended
sto rage by recharging the water table during the mo nso o n.
Series of interconnected reservoirs at Sringaverapura (source: Dying Wisdom,
Down to Earth, and Prof. B.B. Lal)
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In later perio ds, we find such netwo rks o f reservo irs spreading to o ther parts
o f India. In the Ganges valley, excavatio ns at Sringaverapura (ancient Śṛṅgaverapura,
see above ) bro ught to light a simple but effective series o f interco nnected reservo irs,
so me o f them with a well dug at the bo tto m. The reservo irs were fed by a channel
fro m the Ganges, and the level o f the last reservo ir’s overflo w was so adjusted that
any excess water wo uld be returned to the Ganges.
Wells have been made in many shapes — circular,
square, vertical o r ho rizo ntal — and sizes, and with
bricks, sto ne or terraco tta rings. There is a lo ng way fro m
Dho lavira’s mo dest step well to tho se o f classical times,
especially in Gujarat and Rajasthan, which are no t o nly
engineering marvels but wo rks o f art. ( Right: a step well at
Chand Bao ri in Rajasthan, built in the 9th century; it has
3500 narro w steps in 13 levels. .)
The Rani Ki Vav step well of Patan, Gujarat (courtesy: Michel Danino)
India also experimented with vario us kinds o f dams, the simplest being the
earthen embankment meant to co ntain a reservo ir o r divert a stream. In Tamil Nadu,
so me 1,800 years ago King Karikāla Cōḻa built a much mo re ambitio us dam, the
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Kallaṇai o r Grand Anicut o n the Kāveri
(Cauvery) river, downstream of the Srirangam
island. Still visible to day (in resto red form), at 320 m lo ng and 20 m wide, it is an
ingenio us device which sto ps the Kāveri fro m emptying itself into its o wn no rthern
distributary, the faster and steeper Ko llidam (or Co leroo n), preserving much o f the
river’s water for irrigatio n in the Kāveri’s lower delta.
The Kallaṇai or Grand Anicut in its restored form (above) ; a map highlighting its role in
keeping the Kāveri and the Kollidam separate ( above courtesy: Michel Danino; below
courtesy: Chitra Krishnan & Srinivas Veeravalli).
236
The humblest but perhaps mo st impo rtant water structure was the village
po nd or reservo ir. What made it impo rtant was no t so much its ability to recharge
gro und water, but also its being co nnected to many neighbo uring po nds — so metimes
in netwo rks extending o ver hundreds o f kilometres, as in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Such netwo rks, which enabled water-rich areas to co ntribute to less favo ured o nes,
were maintained by village co mmittees, which disappeared when the co lo nial
administratio n too k o ver — and so did mo st o f the reservo irs in their care.
Textile Technology
The Vedas refer to vario us types o f garments as well as fabrics such as woo l ( avi,
śāmulya) o r silk ( t ārpya), also to weaving and lo oms. Later o n, co tto n appears ( karp āsa)
and we get so me info rmatio n o n weaving skills fro m Buddhist literature: fo r instance,
when Āmrap āli, a co urtesan fro m the kingdom o f Vaiśalī, go es to meet Gautama
Buddha, she is said to have wo rn a richly wo ven semi-transparent sari. The Ajanta
paintings (see Painting mo dule), amo ng others, are also a rich so urce o f informatio n
o n clo thes worn so me 2,000 years ago and o n the techniques o f weaving, including
different dyes, which have been related to vegetal as well as mineral pigments.
By the time trade with the Ro man Empire reached its peak (see Trade
mo dule), India was a major expo rter o f textiles,
specially cotto n and silk. Such evidence has come, fo r
instance, fro m recent excavatio ns at Berenike, an
Egyptian port o n the Red Sea where go o ds from India
were
unlo aded
to
be
carried
o verland
to
the
Mediterranean port o f Alexandria fo r further sea
transpo rt. A little later (fro m the 5th century CE), ho ards
o f fragments o f co tto n material fro m Gujarat were
fo und in Egyptian to mbs at Fustat ( left ). India expo rted
237
co tto n to China, silk to Indo nesia and all the way to the Far East. Indeed, until the
co lo nial era, textile pro ductio n was o ne o f the chief so urces o f India’s wealth.
So me o f India’s specialties in the field have been the fo llo wing:
 Muslin : this thin, loo sely wo ven co tto n fabric is highly suitable fo r ho t
climates. It was introduced into Euro pe fro m Bengal in the 17th century, and
o ne way to test its fineness was to pass a piece o f it thro ugh a finger ring.
 Calico is a plain-wo ven textile made fro m unbleached co tto n; it was originally
fro m Kozhikode or Calicut (in Kerala), hence its name.
 Chintz ( right ) is a fo rm o f
Calico printed with floral
and other co lo ur patterns.
Fro m the 17th century, when
it
was
first
bro ught
to
Euro pe by Po rtuguese and
Dutch
traders,
chintz
became so po pular — the
so -called “ Calico craze” —
that so me Euro pean mills
suffered; as a result it was
banned
in
France
(1686)
and England (1720).
 India also pro duced large
quantities o f co arser but
very useful fabrics fro m fibres such as hemp ( bh āṅga in early texts, extracted
fro m the bark o f cannabis), flax o r linen ( k ṣauma, a plant widely cultivated for
its linseed o il), and jute (cultivated especially in Bengal).
238
 Fabrics — especially co tto n
and silk — o ften pro vided
suppo rts for much painted,
printed
or
embro idered
artwork (see an example
left , fro m Gujarat), whether
the resulting piece was to
(Source for above three photos: Wikipedia)
be wo rn as a sari o r bro cade
o r hung as tapestry.
Two
important daughter
techno lo gies o f textile deserve a
brief
mentio n:
techno lo gy,
which
weaving
saw
the
develo pment o f co mplex lo oms,
with
different
characteristics,
and
regio nal
dyeing
techno lo gy, with dyes extracted
fro m bo th vegetal and mineral
so urces: blue usually from indigo ,
red fro m vario us plants such as
madder, yello w from turmeric,
po megranate rind o r mango bark,
black fro m iro n acetate. With
such a variety o f textiles, it may
appear surprising that relatively
few types o f dresses were wo ven,
but that is because Indians learned the art o f wearing simple dresses in myriad ways.
239
The sari, a case in po int, is archaeo logically attested a few centuries BCE, such as in
this sto ne relief ( right ) from Vaiśalī.
A sketch of a p āṭolā loom used in many parts of India. Its parts are: (1) pole for fastening the
loom; (2) warp beam; (3) ditto; (4) stick; (5), (6), (7) cross-mechanism with indented stick; (8)
shed rod; (9) pressure bar with handle; (10) heddle rod mechanism and heddles; (11) sword;
(12) breast beam; (13) shuttle. (Adapted from Lotika Varadarajan and Krishna Amin Patel.)
Writing Technology
India even no w possesses a wealth o f manuscripts running into many millio ns.
Traditio nally, they were written o n materials such as birch bark ( bh ūrja pattra) and
palm leaves. Birch bark was mainly used fo r no rth Indian scripts, and the writing was
do ne with ink made o f finely gro und charco al po wder in a medium o f gum, o r soo t
fro m o il lamps. With palm leaves, there was no ink; rather, a sharp po int was used to
tear the leaf’s surface film; it wo uld then be smeared with a paste o f charco al powder
mixed in o il, and wiped o ff, leaving the charco al to adhere to the incised characters.
In bo th cases, co nsiderable skills were develo ped to preserve manuscripts fro m
insects and fungi. Even then, manuscripts co uld rarely be preserved for more than a
240
few centuries; as a result, scho lars regarded it as a duty to co py o ld manuscripts
afresh every few generatio ns.
(Left) A palm-leaf manuscript with its wooden protective cover (source: D. Udaya Kumar et al.);
(Right) A manuscript from Kashmir, in Sharada script, painted on birch bark (source: Wikipedia).
The art o f paper-making was introduced into India by the eleventh century CE,
perhaps fro m China thro ugh Nepal. The earliest extant Indian paper manuscript (in
the Ashuto sh Museum, Ko lkata) is datable to 1105 CE; it was made fro m the fibres o f a
mo untain plant. By the latter half o f the 15th century, Kashmir was pro ducing paper
o f attractive quality fro m the pulps o f rags and hemp, with lime and soda added to
whiten the pulp. Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad
and Mysore were amo ng the well-kno wn centres o f paper pro ductio n. A British
traveller to Surat in 1689, J. Ovingto n, described lo ng scro lls o f paper, 3 m in length
and 30 cm in width, which were “ smo oth, slick and shining” . Several other Euro pean
visito rs fro m the 15th to the 18th century testify that Indian paper was o f high quality
and expo rted to co untries like Persia. However, in the 19th century, productio n o f
hand-made paper declined with the emergence o f paper mills.
241
A manuscript of the Rig-Veda inked on Indian paper, early 19th century
(courtesy: Wikipedia)
Pyrotechnics
Pyro technic practices, o r firewo rks, appear to have been current in India in the 13th
o r 14th century. Gunpowder became an article of warfare at the beginning o f the 16th
century: the Indian craftsmen were quick to learn the technique fro m the Mughals
and to evo lve suitable explo sive co mpo sitio ns. A 16th- o r 17th-century Sanskrit treatise
co ntains a descriptio n o f ho w the gunpo wder can be prepared using saltpetre,
sulphur and charco al in different ratio s for use in different types o f guns.
Fro m the 16th century o nward, ro ckets to o began being used in wars waged in
India, as testified by military annals o f the perio d. Fo r instance, the Mahrattas are
242
repo rted to have fired ro ckets at the 1761 Battle o f Panipat which they lost to the
Afghans. Hyder Ali, the 18th-century ruler o f Myso re, and his so n and successor, Tipu
Sultan, used ro ckets to great effect in the Anglo-Myso re Wars against the British East
India Co mpany, with a “ ro cket co rps” o f tho usands o f men. The ro ckets co nsisted o f a
tube o f so ft hammered iro n abo ut 20 cm lo ng and 4 to 8 cm in diameter, clo sed at o ne
end and strapped to a shaft o f bambo o abo ut 1 m lo ng, with a swo rd o ften fitted at
the o ther end. The iro n tube co ntained well-packed black powder pro pellant. Tho ugh
no t very accurate, when fired en masse they co uld cause damage as well as panic
amo ng the troo ps. The British lo st no time in taking a few ro ckets to England fo r
clo ser study, which ended up boo sting ro cket techno lo gy in Euro pean warfare.
A painting by Charles Hubbell depicting Indian rockets raining down on East Indian Company
soldiers in the 1780 Battle of Guntur (source: http:/ / history.msfc.nasa.gov/ rocketry/ 11.html).
243
Cosmetics and Perfumes
Co smetics and perfumes were an article o f trade with the Romans (alo ng with
textiles, spices and timber) and are described at so me length in Var āhamihira’s Bṛhat
Saṁhit ā: scented water fo r bathing, scented hair o il, perfume fo r clo ths, fo r the
mo uth, scented too th sticks are amo ng the described items. Var āhamihira also
created a mathematical table (based o n the same principle as Pascal’s triangle) to
co mbine fundamental scents in vario us ways, resulting in 1,820 co mbinatio ns!
Var āhamihira’s list of 16 fundamental perfumes, to be systematically
combined in various proportions (from Bṛhat Samhit ā).
Perfume making became increasingly po pular and o ften catered to the needs
o f religio us ceremo nies and ro yal baths, the latter particularly during the Mughal
perio d. The Āin-i-Akbarī speaks o f the “ Regulatio ns o f the Perfume Office o f Akbar” ;
the āttar o f ro ses was a po pular perfume, the disco very o f which is attributed to the
mo ther o f Nurjehan.
***
244
The abo ve is just a small sampling o f techno lo gies perfected in India. They are
part o f India’s traditio nal kno wledge systems. So me o f them may no lo nger be
applicable to day, but even those remain important to understand the evo lutio n o f
ideas and techniques. On the o ther hand, several traditio nal techno lo gies remain
relevant
even
to day,
for
instance
metallurgical
techniques,
eco lo gical
and
agricultural traditio ns, water management, Ayurveda and vario us lo cal health
traditio ns. Besides, there remains co nsiderable sco pe fo r do cumenting, testing,
assessing and sometimes streamlining India’s eno rmo us wealth o f traditio nal
kno wledge systems.
***
Further Reading

Anil Agarwal & Sunita Narain, (eds), Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India’s
Traditional Water-Harvesting Systems, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi,
1997

D.P. Agrawal, Harappan Technology and its Legacy, Rupa & Infinity Foundation, New Delhi,
2009

A.K. Bag, (ed.), History of Technology in India, Vol. 1: From Antiquity to c. 1200 AD, Indian
National Science Academy, New Delhi, 1997

Arun Kumar Biswas, Minerals and Metals in Ancient India, D.K. Printworld, New Delhi,
1996

Kalyan Kumar Chakravarty, Gyani Lal Badam, & Vijay Paranpye, (eds), Traditional Water
Management Systems of India, Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya, Bhopal, and
Aryan Books International, New Delhi, 2006

Dharampal, Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century, Academy of Gandhian
Studies, Hyderabad, 1971, republ. Other India Bookstore, Goa, 2000

K.V. Mital, (ed.), History of Technology in India, v ol. 3: From 1801 to 1947 AD, Indian National
Science Academy, New Delhi, 2001
245
Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in September 2013)

“ What the Ancients Did fo r Us: India” , BBC TV series
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=mSiuO-OzaKc

“ What The Ancients Knew: India” , Disco very Channel Do cumentary
https:/ / www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ONX15cz5124

Centre fo r Indian Kno wledge Systems: www.ciks.org

Indian Jo urnal o f Traditio nal Kno wledge:
www.niscair.res.in/ sciencecommunication/ ResearchJournals/ rejour/ ijtk/ ijtk0.asp

Traditio nal Knowledge Digital Library:
www.tkdl.res.in/ tkdl/ langdefault/ common/ Home.asp?GL=Eng
Comprehension
1.
Mentio ning a few techno lo gies o f ancient India, define the term ‘techno lo gy’ in
yo ur words.
2.
Where do we find the earliest evidence o f glass in India?
3.
Write a no te o n each o f the fo llowing findings fro m the Harappan civilizatio n:

ceramics

po ttery

beads

jewellery
4.
Write a few sentences o n water management in Harappan cities.
5.
Prepare a brief note o n the design and use o f water reservo irs and dams in
ancient India.
6.
Naming a few fabrics, describe India’s textile techno lo gy.
7.
What do yo u understand by pyro technics?
246
Activities

List a few techno lo gies o f Harappan period that yo u find are still in practice in
vario us parts o f India.

Co llect images o f Harappan pottery and put up a display. Pay attentio n to the
details o f their sizes, shapes, co lo urs and designs. No w work in gro ups, fo cusing
o n the fo llowing po ints:

Why are these pots in the shapes they are?

In what ways co uld tho se po ts have been used in that period?

If yo u were to change their designs, shapes, sizes o r uses, what wo uld it be
and why?

Sketch o ut similar o r alternative designs.
Projects

Prepare a presentatio n o n manuscripts and develo pment o f writing techno lo gy
in India.

Do cument the textile heritage o f India. Elucidate yo ur pro ject with images o f
traditio nal weaves and prints o f vario us parts o f India. Co llect info rmatio n o n
the fading and dying textile traditio ns and also the sco pe o f Indian textile
treasure in the internatio nal market.
Extended Activities

Dipping water levels are matter o f co ncern fo r all. Visualize the effects o n
future generatio ns. Interact with senio r citizens to ascertain the number o f
extinct wells and o ther water bodies in the surro unding area. Yo u may also visit
so me po nds and baories to understand the rainwater storage system in yo ur
area. Do cument yo ur informatio n and prepare an actio n plan sho wing ho w the
co mmunity can be invo lved and authorities be appro ached to restore the
dilapidated water bodies o f yo ur area. Share yo ur informatio n with the schoo l.
247

In a gro up, visit a traditio nal craftsman in yo ur area, for instance a traditio nal
metal worker, handloo m weaver or bead maker. Do cument his or her
techniques, raw materials, finished goo ds as well as living co nditio ns. In yo ur
repo rt, include so me tho ughts o n the future prospects o f this particular craft.

248
Other Technologies:
A Selection from Prim ary Texts
Gemmology
Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra attached great importance to the qualities and pro perties o f
vario us gems and minerals as a so urce o f wealth fo r the state. Here are so me
examples o f listed semiprecio us sto nes:
The Superintendent o f the treasury shall, in the presence o f qualified
perso ns, admit into the treasury whatever he ought to , gems ( ratna) and
articles o f superio r o r inferior value. …
Oyster-shells, co nch-shells, and o ther miscellaneo us things are the
wo mbs o f pearls. … That which is big, circular, witho ut bo tto m ( nistalam ),
brilliant, white, heavy, so ft to the to uch, and pro perly perforated is the
best. …
That which is characterised with blue lines, that which is o f the co lo ur o f
the flo wer o f kalāya [a kind o f bean], o r which is intensely blue, which
po ssesses the co lo ur o f jambu fruit [ro se apple], or which is as blue as the
clo uds is the indran īla gem, nandaka [pleasing gem], sravanmadhya [that
which appears to po ur water from its centre], sītavṛṣṭi [that which appears
to po ur co ld shower], and sūryakānta [sunsto ne] are other forms o f gems.
Gems are hexago nal, quadrangular, or circular po ssessed o f dazzling
glo w, pure, smoo th, heavy, brilliant, transparent ( antargataprabha) and
illuminating; such are the qualities o f gems.
Faint co lo ur, sandy layer, spo ts, ho les, bad perforatio n, and scratches are
the defects o f gems.
249
Vimalaka [pure], sasyaka [plant-like], anjanam ūlaka [deep dark], pittaka
[like the bile o f a cow], sulabhaka [easily pro curable], lohitaka [red],
am ṛt āṁśuka [o f white rays], jyot īrasaka [glowing], maileyaka, ahicchattraka
[pro cured
in
the
co untry
sugandhik ūrpa, k ṣīrapaka,
of
Ahicchattra],
k ūrpa,
p ūtikūrpa
and
śukticūrnaka [like the po wder o f an o yster shell],
śilāpravālaka [like coral], pulaka, sūkrapulaka are varieties o f inferio r gems.
The rest are metallic beads ( k ācamaṇi). ( Arthaśāstra, 2.11, tr. R.
Shamasastry.)
***
Water Management
In this brief extract fro m a lo ng series o f increasingly merito rio us acts, culminating
in the practice o f truth, the Mah ābhārata views the digging o f water reservo irs as far
mo re impo rtant than that o f wells. Indeed, a tank resto res water to the earth, while a
well draws fro m it.
… The dedicatio n o f a tank is mo re merito rio us than that o f a hundred
wells. … ( Mah ābhārata, Ādi Parva, sectio n 74, tr. K.M. Ganguli)
*
The Śiva Purāṇa has a lo ng descriptio n o f the evils awaiting us in the kali yuga. Amo ng
them, this o ne reflects the attentio n that was paid to water structures and nature
co nservatio n:
[In the kali yuga, the merchant class has] “ abando ned ho ly rites such as
digging wells and tanks, and planting trees and parks.” ( Śiva Purāṇa,
II.1.23)
*
Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra pays great attentio n to water management and irrigatio n
techniques. Interestingly, and unlike to day, access to water thro ugh public or private
250
waterworks was no t free; it was taxed at various rates. Vario us penalties were also
prescribed for o bstructing o r diverting a water co urse, causing fields to be floo ded,
building a well or a dam o n so meo ne else’s land, fo r no t maintaining waterwo rks, o r
fo r ailing to co o perate in the building o f an irrigatio n tank. A few extracts:
Fo r building o r impro ving irrigatio n facilities the fo llo wing exemptio ns
fro m payment o f water rates shall be granted:

New tanks and embankments:
five years

Reno vating ruined o r abando ned water wo rks:
fo ur years

Clearing water works o ver-gro wn with weeds:
three years
Waterworks such as reservo irs, embankments and tanks can be privately
o wned and the o wner shall be free to sell o r mo rtgage them. The
o wnership o f tanks shall lapse, if they had no t been in use for a perio d o f
five years, except in cases o f distress.
Anyo ne leasing, hiring, sharing o r accepting a waterwork as a pledge,
with the right to use them, shall keep them in goo d co nditio n. Owners
may give water to o thers (by dredging channels o r building suitable
structures), in return for a share o f the pro duce grown in the fields, parks
o r gardens. In the absence o f the owner, either charitable individuals or
the peo ple o f a village acting to gether, shall maintain waterwo rks. (3.9 &
3.10)
The fo llo wing are the taxes to be paid fo r use o f water for cultivatio n:

Fro m waterworks built by the King: manually transported: o ne-fifth
o f the pro duce; carried by bullo cks: o ne-fo urth; lifted by mechanism
into channels: o ne-third.
251

Fro m natural reservo irs: irrigated fro m rivers, lakes, tanks and
springs: o ne-fo urth o f produce. (2.24)
No o ne irrigating his field fro m a reservo ir or tank shall cause danger to
the plo ughed o r so wn field o f ano ther. The water from a lo wer tank shall
no t submerge a field fed fro m a higher tank built earlier. A higher tank
shall not prevent the filling up o f a lo wer tank, except when the latter has
no t been in use fo r three years.
No o ne shall: (a) let water o ut o f dams o ut o f turn; (b) o bstruct, thro ugh
negligence, the [rightful] use o f water by o thers; (c) o bstruct a custo mary
water co urse in use; (d) make a custo mary water co urse unusable [by
diverting the water]; (e) build a dam o r a well o n land belo nging to
so meo ne else o r (f) sell o r mortgage, directly or indirectly, a bund o r
embankment built and lo ng used as a charitable public undertaking
except when it is in ruins o r has been abando ned. (3.9 & 3.10, tr. L.N.
Rangarajan)
*
Strabo , a 1st-century BCE Greek geo grapher, reco rded the fo llowing, which matches
Kauṭilya’s abo ve descriptio n:
Amo ng [the o fficials], the first keep the rivers impro ved and the land remeasured, as in Egypt, and inspect the clo sed canals fro m which the water
is distributed into the co nduits, in o rder that all may have an equal use o f
it. (Strabo , Geography, 50, excerpt fro m R.C. Majumdar (ed.), The Classical
Accounts of India. Calcutta: Firma KLM. 1981)
*
252
In the Tamil epic Shilappadik āram by Iḷaṅg ō Aḍigaḷ (see Literatures module), Kaṇṇagi
and her husband Kōvalan travel to Madurai. On the way, they cross the Kāveri river
in full flow. The autho r notes:
But finding her mo vement arrested by the barrier — the anicut with its
do orway — she no isily leaps beyo nd it in the spo rtive mo od natural to her
first freshes. No so und other than this can be heard. We can hear there
neither the so und o f the bucket, no t o f the water-lift; neither the usually
lo ud pecottah [a water-lifting mechanism], no t the palm-leaf basket used in
irrigatio n. (Cilappatikaram , canto X, tr. V.R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, 1939,
republ. Internatio nal Institute o f Tamil Studies, Chennai, 2004).
This is a reference to the Grand Anicut mentio ned in the abo ve Survey. Its
“ doo rway” pro bably refers to the dam’s sluices. No te the existence o f water-lifting
mechanisms with buckets and baskets for irrigatio n.
*
Finally, numero us inscriptio ns reco rd co nstructio ns o f tanks ( tat āka) and po nds
( v āpi), also their maintenance: desilting, repair o f embankments, sluices, irrigatio n
channels.... Water diviners are so metimes mentio ned as paying taxes. In so me
inscriptio ns, care was taken (as mentio ned in the Arthaśāstra, abo ve) that a new dam
sho uld not affect an o lder o ne, which sho uld be allo wed to fill first; the new dam was
designed to sto re water in times o f excess.
***
Textiles and Garments
The acco unts o f classical Greek and Roman geo graphers and histo rians have so me
useful info rmatio n o n Indian textiles and dress styles.
253
They co ver their perso ns down to the feet with fine muslin, are sho d with
sandals, and co il ro und their heads clo ths o f linen (co tto n). They hang
precio us sto nes as pendants fro m their ears, and perso ns o f high so cial
rank, o r o f great wealth, deck their wrist and upper arm with bracelets o f
go ld. … (Quintus Curtius Rufus, 1st century CE, History of Alexander the Great,
VIII.9)
*
The dress worn by the Indians is made o f co tto n, as Nearchus tells us …
But this cotto n is either o f a brighter white co lo ur than any cotto n fo und
elsewhere, o r the darkness o f the Indian co mplexio n makes their apparel
lo o k so much the whiter. They wear an under-garment o f co tto n which
reaches belo w the knee half-way down to the ankles, and also an upper
garment which they thro w partly o ver their sho ulders, and partly twist
aro und their head. (Arrian, 2nd century CE, Indika, XVI)
*
Co ntrary to their simplicity in general, [Indians] like to adorn themselves,
fo r they wear apparel embro idered with go ld and use ornaments set with
precio us sto nes, and wear gay-co lo ured linen garments, and are
acco mpanied with sun-shades. Fo r, since they esteem beauty, they
practise everything that can beautify their appearance. (Strabo , 1st
century BCE, Geography, 54, abo ve excerpts taken fro m R.C. Majumdar (ed.),
The Classical Accounts of India. Calcutta: Firma KLM. 1981)
*
This testimo ny is by the 7th-century CE Chinese pilgrim Xuansang (o r Hsüan-tsang o r
Hiuen Tsiang):
254
Their clo thing is no t cut o r fashio ned; they mo stly affect fresh-white
garments; they esteem little those o f mixed colo ur or o rnamented. The
men wind their garments ro und their middle, then gather them under the
armpits, and let them fall do wn acro ss the bo dy, hanging to the right. The
ro bes o f the wo men fall down to the gro und; they co mpletely co ver their
sho ulders. They wear a little kno t o f hair o n their cro wns, and let the rest
o f their hair fall lo o se. … On their heads the peo ple wear caps (crowns),
with flo wer-wreaths, and jewelled necklets. Their garments are made o f
Kiau-she-ye [ kauśeya, silk] and o f cotto n. Kiau-she-ye is the pro duct o f the
wild silkwo rm. They have garments also o f Ts’o -mo ( k ṣauma), which is a
so rt o f hemp; garments also made o f Kien-po-lo ( kambala) which is wo ven
fro m fine goat-hair; garments also made fro m Ho-la-li. This stuff is made
fro m the fine hair o f a wild animal: it is seldom this can be wo ven, and
therefo re the stuff is very valuable, and it is regarded as fine clo thing.
(Xuansang, Buddhist Records of the Western World, Bo o k II, 7, tr. Samuel Beal.
Lo ndo n: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1906)
***
Perfumes and Cosmetics
Var āhamihira explains the preparation of various perfumes and co smetics:
A scented water fit fo r the washing o f a king’s head is prepared with equal
quantities o f wo o dy cassia, costus ( Saussurea lappa), re ṇuk ā ( Piper
aurantiacum ), nalik ā ( Hibiscus cannabinus), sp ṛkk ā ( Bryonopsis laciniosa?), rasa
o r bola ( Commiphora myrrha), tagara ( Valeriana wallichii), v ālaka ( Aporosa
lindieyana), n āgakesara ( Mesua ferrea) and pattra (Laurus cassia).
255
A hair o il having the perfume o f the campaka flo wer ( Michelia champaca)
is made by mixing to gether equal quantities o f the po wders o f mañjiṣṭh ā
( Rubia cordifolia), vy āghranakha (a tree o r cuttlefish bo ne), nakha (shell
perfume), wo ody cassia, co stus ( Saussurea lappa) and bola ( Commiphora
myrrha) and the who le thing being mixed with the o il o f Sesamum indicum,
being heated by the sun’s rays. …
Take o ne part each o f śatapuṣp ā ( Pimpinella anisum ), kunduruka ( Boswellia
serrata), sandalwoo d and priyaṅgu ( Aglaia roxburghiana), and two each o f
nakha (shell perfume) and turu ṣka ( Tagetes erecta?), and fumigate the
mixture with jiggery and nakha. This beco mes a go o d scent.
Many delightful perfumes are made fro m har ītakī ( Terminalia chebula),
śaṅkha ( nakha),
ghana ( Cyperus rotondus?), bola, v ālaka, jaggery, co stus,
benzo in and mustaka bulbs by mixing them in pro po rtio ns indicated by
multiples o f 1/ 9th. …
Take equal quantities o f wo ody cassia, uśīra (Vetiveria zizanioides) and
pattra ( Laurus cassia) and a half o f the above o f small cardamo ms ( Elettaria
cardamomum ) and po und them together into fine po wder, which sho uld be
mixed (reinfo rced) with musk and camphor. This will make an excellent
to ilet po wder [perfume fo r clo thes].
The gandh ārṇava [o cean o f perfumes] is prepared fro m the fo llo wing
sixteen substances, if every fo ur o f them are permuted vario usly at will
and that in o ne, two , three o r fo ur parts. The substances are Cyperus
rotondus, Aporosa lindieyana, benzo in, campho r, Vetiveria zizanioides, Mesua
ferrea, cuttlefish bo ne, Bryonopsis laciniosa, Aquilaria agallocha, Randia
dumetorum,
shell perfume, Valeriana wallichii, co riander, Hedychium
spicatum, Scirpus articulates and candana.
256
In no perfume sho uld mo re than o ne part o f co riander be used, as its
smell is too stro ng. Camphor, being stro nger still in smell, sho uld be used
in a still lesser pro po rtio n. These two , therefore, o ught no t to be mixed in
two , three or fo ur parts.
All the abo ve-named products sho uld be fumigated separately, and not
in a mixture, with turpentine, resin, jaggery and shell perfume; then they
sho uld be mixed with musk and campho r.
Out o f the gro up o f 16 substances, the number o f perfumes that can be
prepared by selecting any fo ur at a time will be 1820. ( Bṛhat Saṁhit ā, ch.
77, tr. M.R. Bhat)
Comprehension
1.
Name a few gems as mentio ned in Arthaśāstra.
2.
Ho w can yo u identify the defects in gems?
3.
Name so me varieties o f inferio r gems.
4.
Write a no te o n Indian perfumes and co smetics.
5.
‘The dedicatio n o f a tank is mo re merito rio us than that o f a hundred wells’ —
explain.
Activities

‘Water is life’. Organize a water co nservatio n campaign in yo ur scho o l
presenting info rmatio n o n o ur ancient wisdo m o f water management, storage,
distributio n, and the rules and regulatio ns regarding use / misuse o f water.

Read the primary text o n garments and textiles. Wo rk in gro ups to
257

sketch the garments as do cumented by historians and travellers and put up
a display;

ho ld a fashio n show o f the garments and jewellery with o ther accesso ries as
explained in the text.

258
Painting: A Survey
Painting, citra kalā in Hindi and anciently called var ṇana, evo lved in India thro ugh a
fusio n o f vario us cultures and traditio ns o ver centuries, if no t millennia.
The earliest paintings in India are ro ck paintings o f prehisto ric times, fo und
all o ver India, especially in places like the Paleo lithic Bhimbetka ro ck shelters in
Madhya Pradesh who se almo st 10,000-year-o ld ro ck paintings display the co ncerns o f
early man — foo d, survival in a difficult enviro nment and struggle in subduing
animals. The co lo urs used are mo stly o f mineral o rigin and have survived because the
paintings were deep inside the caves or o n inner walls. Bhimbetka was declared a
Unesco Wo rld Heritage Site in 2003.
Various scenes on a few of the rock shelters of Bhimbetka (courtesy: Wikimedia).
259
Bhimbetka drawings and paintings can be classified under different perio ds:
 Upper Paleolithic: in green and dark red, o f huge figures o f animals
such as biso n, tigers and rhino cero ses.
 Mesolithic: smaller figures, with linear decoratio ns o n the body o f both
animals and human figures and o f hunting scenes and co mmunal
dancing.
 Chalcolithic: drawings o f the hunting cave dwellers, exchanging go ods
with fo od-producing co mmunities.
 Early historic: figures painted mainly in red, white and yellow o f ho rse
riders and o f religio us symbo ls, figures o f yak ṣas (supernatural beings),
and sky chario ts.
 Medieval : linear and more schematic paintings that show a certain
degeneratio n and crudeness o f style in co lo urs prepared by co mbining
manganese, hematite and woo den coal.
Classical Texts
Early literary co mpo sitio ns o f India such as Rāmāyaṇa and Mah ābh ārata, Kālid āsa’s
Śakuntalā and Daṇḍin’s
Daśakum ārcarita make many references to art galleries o r
c itraśālās. The śilpa śāstra texts o f art and architecture deal with the art o f mural and
miniature painting and also paintings executed o n wo od and clo th. The mo st
co mprehensive
text
is
the
Viṣṇudharmottara
Pur āṇa,
which
deals
with
the
interdependence o f dance, music and the visual arts. It is o ne o f the eighteen
Upapur āṇas. Chapters 35–43 describe the metho ds and ideals o f painting, dealing not
o nly with its religio us aspect but also “ pro claiming the jo y that co lo urs and fo rms
and the representatio n o f things seen and imagined produce.”
260
V ātsy āyana, author o f Kāmasūtra, a text dated to the 2nd century CE,
enumerates the ṣaḍaṅga or “ six limbs” o f painting. The ṣaḍaṅga evo lved into a series
o f cano ns that laid do wn the principles o f painting. They are:
1. r ūpabheda, the perceptio n o f difference in appearance;
2. pram āṇa, valid perceptio n, measure and structure;
3. bh āva, feelings expressed in forms;
4. lāvaṇya yojana, infusio n o f grace in artistic representatio n;
5. sādṛśya, similarities;
6. var ṇikabhaṅga, identificatio n and analysis o f co lour and hue.
These “ six limbs” were the basis o f the Indian art o f painting. Indian paintings
can be bro adly classified as murals and miniatures. Murals are large works executed
o n walls o f so lid structures. These may be cave walls, as in Ajanta (Maharashtra), o r
walls o f temples, as in the Kailāsanātha temple of Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu).
Mural Painting
India’s literature is replete with texts that
describe palaces o f the aristo cratic class
embellished
with
paintings,
but
the
paintings o f the caves o f Ajanta are the
mo st significant.
The sto ry o f Indian mural painting
starts in the 2nd century BCE. There are
several lo catio ns aro und India, the best
kno wn
being
Ajanta
and
Ello ra
in
Maharashtra, Bagh in Madhya Pradesh and
261
A rare 7th century Sittanavāsal
painting in Tamil Nadu
(courtesy: Wikipedia).
Panamalai and Sittanav āsal in Tamil Nadu, all o f them either natural caves o r ro ckcut chambers. The paintings have bo th religio us and o ther themes.
The Ajanta caves co nsist o f 30 ro ck-cut Buddhist caityas and vih āras which date
fro m the 2nd century BCE to the 7th century CE and include paintings and sculptures
described as “ the finest surviving examples o f Indian art, particularly painting” , with
depictio ns o f the Buddha and the Jātaka tales. The Ajanta Caves are a Unesco Wo rld
Heritage Site.
Like o ther ancient Buddhist mo nasteries, Ajanta was also a centre o f learning.
The layo ut o f the caves with co mmo n exterior pathway shows this. Diṅn āga, the
celebrated Buddhist lo gician and philoso pher, lived here in the 5th century CE,
acco rding to Xuanzang (o r Hsuan-tsang), a Chinese scho lar who visited India in the
7th century.
Left: Depictions of Buddha in a cave at Ajanta (source: Wikimedia).
Right: An apsara, cave 17 (source: www.indian-heritage.org).
262
Caves of the First or Sātavāhana Period
Caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A make up the earliest gro up o f caves built between
100 BCE and 100 CE pro bably under the patro nage o f the Sātavāhana (230 BCE–220 CE)
who ruled the regio n. Caves 9 and 10 are caitya halls with st ūpas, while caves 12, 13,
and 15A are vih āras.
Caves of the Second or V ākāțaka Period
The seco nd phase began in the 5th century and is o ften called the Mah āyāna
phase. Caves o f the seco nd period are 1–8, 11, 14–29; so me may be earlier caves
extended o r remo delled. Caves 19, 26, and 29 are caitya halls, while the rest are
vih āras, many o f them with a sanctum in the rear. In the caves o f the seco nd perio d
the o verwhelming majo rity o f images represent the Buddha alo ne o r scenes o f his
previo us lives as well. Fo ur o f the later caves have large and relatively well-preserved
mural paintings which “ have co me to represent Indian mural painting to the no nspecialist” .
The Ajanta murals were painted o n a co at o f plaster applied o n the wall o f the
caves. The paintings were executed after the plaster dried up. The paintings survive
to this day because the painting material ho lds to gether the pigment and the plaster.
All the paintings were o bvio usly the wo rk o f painters used to deco rating palaces and
temples, and indicate their familiarity with and interest in details o f co urt life. But
so me paintings in Cave 1 depict Jātaka tales which sho w previo us lives o f the Buddha
as a king.
The Ajanta Caves, o nce abando ned, were o verwhelmed by the advancing
jungle and were lost and fo rgo tten, until their accidental redisco very in 1819 by a
British o fficer o n a hunting party.
263
Bagh Caves
Similar to Ajanta’s, beautiful fresco es were
fo und at Bagh Caves, 150 km north o f Ajanta.
These paintings depict so me aspects o f Buddhist
life and rituals besides scenes fro m o rdinary life.
One o f the mo st famo us paintings depicts a
pro cessio n o f elephants, while another depicts a
dancer and wo men musicians. The influence o f
Ajanta is very apparent at Bagh.
Bagh Cave painting
Badami
Very little survives in the 6th-century Western Cālukyan cave temples, but the
stamp o f Ajanta remains unmistakeable.
Pallava
The Pallavas were great patro ns o f art. Mahendravarman I, who lived in the 7th
century CE, was known as “ Citrak āra puli” , o r “ tiger amo ng painters” . The
Talagiriśvara temple at Panamalai in the Villupuram district o f Tamil Nadu is o ne o f
two shrines that bear testimo ny to Pallava painting. A small shrine to the north has a
small sectio n o f a mural painting o f an exquisite female figure, her leg bent, standing
against a wall and with an umbrella abo ve her. The Kailāsanātha temple at
Kanchipuram co ntains nearly fifty cells aro und the inner co urtyard, with traces o f
paintings in red, yellow, green, and black vegetable co lo urs.
Pāṇḍya
Sittanav āsal in Puduko ttai district is the lo cation o f a Jain mo nastery o f the 7th
century. Its walls and ceiling have been painted with mineral co lo urs in the fresco -
264
secco technique. The themes include a beautiful lo tus po nd and flo wers, peo ple
co llecting lo tuses fro m the po nd, dancing figures, lilies, fish, geese, buffalo es and
elephants. The ceiling o f the ardhamaṇḍapa is deco rated with murals and sculptures
o f Jaina t īrthaṅkaras. Originally, the entire cave temple, including the sculptures, was
co vered with plaster and painted o n the theme o f the Jaina samavasaraṇa, the “ mo st
attractive heavenly pavilio n” .
Cōḻa
Cōḻa fresco es were disco vered within the circumambulatory corrido r o f
Tanjavur’s Bṛhad īśvara temple. The walls o n either side o f the narro w and dark
passage o f the inner vim āna, abo ve the sanctum sancto rum, were painted between
1008 and 1012 CE. The paintings celebrate Lo rd Śiva. Each fresco , 4.5 metres tall and 3
metres wide, depicts Śiva: as Dakṣiṇām ūrti; being wo rshipped by the Tamil Shaivite
saint Sundarar; as Tripur āntaka; and as Naṭar āja at the Chidambaram temple,
wo rshipped by Rāja Rāja Cōḻa and his family.
Vijayanagara
There is a wealth o f Vijayanagara paintings all o ver So uth India but the best
examples are to be seen in the V īrabhadra temple at Lepakshi, o n the ceilings o f the
Virup ākṣa temple at Hampi and Ranganathaswamy temple o f Srirangam, and o n the
walls o f the Varadar āja temple at Kanchipuram. While the subjects are primarily
religio us, we learn a lot fro m the paintings abo ut the life and times o f the
Vijayanagara co urt.
265
A 15th century, painted ceiling of Virup ākṣa temple, Hampi
(courtesy: Wikimedia commons).
Nāyaka Painting
After the fall o f the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, the Nāyakas ruled fro m the
16th to the 18th century and left behind a pro lific co llectio n o f mural and wall
paintings whose best example is the painted ceiling o f the Thiruvarur temple in
Tamil Nadu, depicting the story o f Mucukunda, a legendary Cōḻa king.
Miniature Painting
Miniature paintings are executed o n bo o ks and albums, and o n perishable material
such as paper and clo th. The Pālas o f Bengal were the pio neers o f miniature painting
in India. The art reached its zenith during the Mughal period and was pursued by the
painters o f different Rajasthani Schoo ls o f painting, like Bundi, Kishangarh, Jaipur,
Marwar and Mewar. The Rāgam āla paintings also belo ng to this schoo l, as do the
Co mpany paintings pro duced during the British Raj.
266
Top: Manuscript page including a painting of Maitreya Bodhisattva on his throne. Sanskrit
A ṣṭasāhasrika Prajñ āpāramitā Sūtra, manuscript written in the Ranjana script in India, in early 12
th
century (source: Wikimedia). Bottom : Manuscripts with miniatures (courtesy: Michel Danino &
Guwahati State Museum).
Unfo rtunately, early miniatures in woo d and clo th have been co mpletely lo st.
The earliest extant, belo nging to the late 8th o r mid 9th century o f the Pāla period in
eastern India, are representatio ns o f Buddhist yantras, graphic symbo ls which were
visual aids to the mantras and the dh āraṇīs (types o f ritual speech). Co nfo rming to the
cano ns o f ico no graphy, these Buddhist miniatures po rtray Buddhist deities such as
267
Prajñ āpāramitā, who , as the mo ther o f all the Buddhas, was the perso nificatio n o f
eso teric kno wledge. The Buddhist paintings were drawn in red and white, forming
co lo ur planes. The inspiratio n came fro m the metal images, giving an illusio n o f
relief. Miniatures were painted acco rding to the rules o f mural painting, the rule o f
pro portio ns being regulated by strict codes o f measurement. Effects such as
fo resho rtening were derived fro m the study o f sculpture rather than fro m reality.
The earliest extant miniatures are fo und in the manuscript Aṣṭasāhasrika
Prajñ āpāramitā, dated to the rule o f Mahip āla (fro m c. 988). This style disappeared
fro m India by the late 12th century. Miniature painting develo ped in western India in
the 10th century in the state o f Gujarat. These paintings are seen in mini-bo o ks o f the
Vaiṣṇavas and Jains. Subsequent Jain miniatures moved away fro m flat, two dimensio nal
co mpo sitio ns:
images
became
animated
and
all
co nventio nal
representatio ns o f perspective were no lo nger in vo gue. The human figure was
represented in the simplest and mo st visible manner. Against a backgro und o f rich
co lo ur, stoo d o ut thick, bo ldly drawn figures. The paintings were harmo nized with
the enclo sing script. The o rnamentatio n was increased to result in heavy stylizatio n.
The Jain painters preferred three-quarter pro files, displacing o ne o f the eyes to avo id
fo resho rtening, while fro ntal images had eyes set near the bridge o f the no se.
The Jain paintings gave rise to the Gujarat Scho o l, fro m where it spread
further to Rajasthan and Malwa. This evo lved into Rajput painting and the
subsequent fusio n o f the Indian and Persian styles in Mughal art.
Mughal Paintings
The Mughal Scho o l o f miniature painting reached its zenith under Akbar and
Jehangir. The Ain-i-Akbari shows the importance the art had attained during this
perio d. Basically Persian in style, the subjects depicted were scenes o f warfare,
hunting and trials o f strength. The Mughal Scho o l saw an amalgamatio n o f many
268
influences: landscape details o f Far Eastern art; clo uds o ut o f Chinese paintings;
mo untains and water o f Central Asian art. In Akbar’s perio d, there was a greater
attempt to po rtray reality as well as distance and horizo ntal perspective. Bo th Akbar
and
Jehangir enco uraged
the illustratio n o f epics and
histo ries, Rāmāyaṇa,
Mah ābhārata, Akbarn āma and Hamzan āma.
The finale o f the Mughal Scho o l is seen in the Deccan style, which differs by its
preference fo r rigid, stylized and deco rative forms, more Indian than Persian. The
Mughal Schoo l saw a return to naturalism and a total lack o f interest in threedimensio nality and vo lume. In its two -dimensio nality, objects were o ften seen fro m
two different po ints o f view. Characters, animals and buildings were seen no rmally,
while carpets, ro o fs, rivers and other details were seen fro m abo ve. Besides the
Chinese and Central Asian influences, Euro pean influences came in with the Italians
to the Mughal co urt. The European element in Mughal painting bro ught a fusio n
between Indian and Euro pean styles.
Left: Abul Fazl presenting Akbarn āma to Akbar. Right : The spy Zambur leads Mahiya into the city
of Tawariq, folio from Hamzanāma, c. 1570 (courtesy: Wikipedia).
269
Rajput School and the Kṛṣṇa Cult
The Rajput Scho o l o f miniature painting was spo ntaneo us and vital in
o ppo sitio n to the heraldic co urt style o f the Mughal Scho o l. Rajput paintings depicted
festivals, mytho lo gical subjects and the impo rtant episo des fro m the life o f Lord
Kṛṣṇa. This co incided with the spread o f the Kṛṣṇa cult as a part o f the Bhakti
mo vement in medieval no rthern India. Derived fro m the Gujarat Schoo l o f painting,
Rajput miniatures are based o n drawings with bright splashes o f co lo ur.
This scho o l is divided into two main branches: Rajasthani and Pah āṛi. Amo ng
the Rajasthani Scho o ls, Mewar stoo d o ut with its po rtrayal o f Kṛṣṇa legend
characterised by a naiveté and freshness, recalling the rural origins o f the artists, and
are singularly appro priate fo r the pastoral scenes o f the Kṛṣṇa līlā which they po rtray.
Related schoo ls o f Bikaner and o thers generated the Amber Scho o l. Other important
scho o ls include Bundelkhand, Marwar and Bundi. The last is notable fo r its brilliant
co lo uring, and almo st an impressio nist style. Finally, the Bihar Schoo l, co ming at the
end o f the Rajasthani movement, pro duced interesting paintings with Mughal
influence in their wealth o f details and heraldic character and yet po ssessing the
freshness o f the Rajasthani miniatures.
An 18th -century Rajput painting by the artist Nih āl Chand (courtesy: Wikipedia).
270
The Pahāṛi School
The impo rtant centres o f the Pah āṛi Scho o l were at Basho li, Jammu, Guler and
Kangra. The Pah āṛi Schoo l was lively and ro mantic, technically superio r with so ft
to nal shading, exquisitely created backgro unds that merged with the theme, and
attitudes and po stures highly evo cative o f the moo ds they were to co nvey. The
Kangra paintings are as romantic as Kālidāsa’s descriptions of the mountains. In the
Kangra Scho o l, Indian miniature paintings reached the zenith in the depictio n o f the
Kṛṣṇa and Śiva legends. The co lo urs were extracted fro m minerals, plant so urces,
co nch shells, and even by pro cessing precio us sto nes; go ld and silver were also used.
The preparatio n o f desired co lo urs is a lengthy pro cess, so metimes taking weeks.
Left: Folio from a Rāmāyaṇa manuscript: Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa defend sage Viśvamitra from
demons, Basohli, early 19th century. Right: Kṛṣṇa lifting the Govardhana mountain, illustration
to the Bhāgavata Pur āṇa, Tira-Sujanpur, early 18th century.
Tanjore and Mysore Painting
The artists o f Vijayanagara turned up in two great co urts o f late medieval India and
created a new genre o f painting, inspired by the great Vijayanagara traditio ns.
Tanjo re paintings are o f po pular Hindu deities and scenes fro m Hindu epics.
271
Myso re painting is ano ther impo rtant legacy o f classical Vijayanagara
painting. The themes for mo st o f these paintings are also Hindu deities and epic
sto ries. With the help o f a thin brush, all the jewellery and architectural features are
painted o ver chalk paste, to give a slightly raised effect o f carving, and then allo wed
to dry. A thin go ld fo il is pasted o n this. The rest o f the drawing is then painted using
water co lo urs.
Left : Mysore Painting of goddess Sarasvatī (courtesy: Wikimedia). Right: Kṛṣṇa in Tanjore
painting (source: www.sandhyamanne.com).
Folk painting
There are many schoo ls o f Indian fo lk painting, a few o f which are mentio ned here.
272
Madhubani
Madhubani painting is practised in the
Mithila regio n o f Bihar. Themes revo lve aro und
Hindu deities and epic tales, especially tales o f
Lo rd Kṛṣṇa, and scenes o f so cial events like
weddings. No space is left empty: gaps are filled
in with paintings o f flo wers, animals, birds and
geo metric designs. Artists use natural dyes and
pigment
extracted
fro m
leaves, herbs and
flo wers.
Padma Shri Mahasundari Devi working
at a Madhubani painting
Paṭṭacitra
(source: www.vidushini.blogspot.in).
Paṭṭacitra (meaning “ clo th painting” ) is a fo lk style o f Odisha clo sely linked
with the wo rship o f Lord Jagannath o f Puri. While there is evidence o f painting in the
Khaṇḍagiri and Udayagiri caves, the earliest indigeno us paintings from Odisha are
the Paṭṭacitra do ne by the Chitrakars (a co mmunity o f painters). The themes, centred
Pattachitra painting depicting Gane śa and Śiva (courtesy: Wikipedia).
273
aro und the Vaiṣṇava cult, Lo rd Jagannath and Lo rd Kṛṣṇa, are the majo r so urces o f
inspiratio n. The painters still use vegetable and mineral co lo urs and prepare their
o wn paints. The o ld traditio n o f Oriya painting survives amo ng the artists o r
Chitrakars o f Puri, Raghurajpur, Paralekhamundi and So nepur.
Kalamkāri
Kalamkāri or “ pen craft”
o f Srikalahasti, is executed with a
kalam o r pen, used for free hand
drawing o f the subject and filling
in the co lo urs, entirely by hand.
Paintings
painted
are
or
usually
hand-
blo ck-printed
on
co tto n textile. This style grew
aro und
distinctly
temples
and
religio us
had
identity
a
—
scro lls, temple hangings, deities
A kalamkāri depiction of Arjuna’s quest for
enlightenment (source: www.exoticindia.com).
and scenes fro m the great Hindu
epics. The Machilipatnam style tends to have mo re blo ck printing. Ho wever, bo th use
o nly vegetable co lo urs.
*
There are several scho o ls o f tribal painting such as the Warli, Go nd, Bhil and
Kurumba, amo ng o thers.
Painting like mo st Indian art reflects the religious passio n o f the peo ple, their
jo ys and aspiratio ns. It is also a do cumentation o f the life and times, o f kings and
co urts, nature, plants and animals. It is a celebratio n o f co lo ur, o f festivals and all
274
that is beautiful. India’s heritage o f painting is a reco rd o f happy times and happy
peo ple who expressed their ho pes and faith through their works o f art.
Left : Gond art (source: www.crazygallery.info). Right : Warli art (courtesy: Uma Sharma).

Comprehension
1.
Where do we find evidence o f the earliest ro ck paintings in India?
2.
What are the changes in the co lo ur used in paintings fro m the earlier paintings
to the medieval perio d?
3.
Name the different subjects that Viśnudharmottara Pur āṇa deals with.
4.
What are the main principles o f painting?
5.
What are the Ajanta murals called? Ho w did they survive to this date? Mentio n
the pro cess.
6.
Describe the themes painted in the Ajanta caves. Who do think must have
painted them?
7.
Establish a co nnectio n between the Ajanta paintings o f those in the Bagh Caves.
8.
Co mment o n the co lo ur scheme used by the Pallava dynasty artists.
9.
Make a co mparative study o f the themes and co lo urs used by the painters o f the
Pāṇḍyas and Cōḻa dynasties.
275
10.
What do yo u understand by miniature painting? Where did it start in India?
Name vario us schoo ls o f this art.
11.
Mentio n the characteristic features o f Jain paintings.
12.
Describe the Persian style o f painting and co mpare it with o ther schoo ls.
Activities

Design a card for vario us o ccasio ns using fo lk o r tribal art. Yo u co uld use
Madhubani, Warli, Go nd, Paṭṭacitra and Kalamkāri or any o ther such art form to
depict the richness o f this traditio n.

Study vario us painting styles o f India to find o ut if there are any rituals and
traditio ns fo llowed befo re starting any painting. Yo u may loo k up Phad and
Nathdwara painting fo r reference.

Debate o n the to pic “ Techno -savvy man today has replaced the artist” .

Select and o bserve a painting o f yo ur cho ice and develo p yo ur own sto ry o ut o f
it. Yo u may:

place yo urself in the painting and write appro priate dialo gues;

let yo ur imaginatio n go beyo nd the painting;

fo cus o n the theme and enrich / enhance it with so und sequences.
Projects

Wo rk in gro ups and make a pro cess do cument o f a painting traditio n. Use the
fo llo wing hints:

Name o f the style o f painting

Regio n

Histo ry behind the traditio n

Patro nage when the traditio n flo urished
276


Base

Co lo urs

Po pular themes

Changes o ver the centuries

Ho w has the painting traditio n adapted to the needs o f the market to day.
‘Akbar
and
Jehangir
enco uraged
the
illustratio ns o f epics and
histo ries.’ Make a pro ject
explo ring
the
miniature
their
style
painting
time, the
use
of
in
of
fo rm, co lo ur, mo tifs and
nature.
Mentio n
o riental
and
influences.

the
Euro pean
Left : Jehangīr. Right : Akbarn āma (courtesy: Wikipedia).
Co inciding with Bhakti mo vement, the Kṛṣṇa cult o f miniature painting
flo urished in Rajasthan and Pah āṛi styles. Study and research further the
po rtrayal o f the Kṛṣṇa legend which bro ught freshness to this miniature style of
paintings.
Left : Rādh ā celebrating holi, Pah āṛi School of miniature.
Right : Kṛṣṇa, Mewari School of miniature. (Courtesy: Wikipedia)
277

Write an article for a newspaper / magazine o n a case study o f traditio nal
painters / artists. Examine and take no te o f the changing trends. In what ways
have they impacted the individual artist, his works and so ciety?

Rangoli, mandana and alpana (flo o r and wall decoratio ns) are practised by wo men
in mo st parts o f India even to day. Co llect patterns o f several regio ns mentio ning
the rituals, o ccasio ns and the materials used fo r the art.
Left : Rangoli. Right : Mandana painting (for the festival of ahoi aṣṭam ī).
Extended Activity

Create an awareness campaign under the auspices o f yo ur scho o l’s eco -club
abo ut the substitute eco -friendly co lo urs that can be used in paintings, rangolis
etc. Then co nduct a competitio n between gro ups promo ting the use o f natural
co lo urs o n different o ccasio ns.
Further Reading
1.
Brown, Percy. 1927. Indian Painting . Calcutta: The Association Press & London: Oxford
University Press
2.
Chakraverty, Anjan. 2005. Indian Miniature Painting . New Delhi: Lustre Press
278
3.
Cummins, Joan. 2006. Indian Painting: From Cave Temples to the Colonial Period. Boston:
MFA Publications
4.
Gupta, Charu Smita. 2008. Indian Folk and Tribal Paintings. New Delhi: Roli Books
5.
Rawson, Philip S. 1961. Indian Painting . Paris: Pierre Tisné & New York: Universe Books
6.
Sivaramamurti, C. 1996. Indian Painting. New Delhi: National Book Trust
Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in July 2013)

Mughal painting, www.britannica.com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 396178/ Mughal-painting

Miniature painting www.britannica.com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 383990/ miniaturepainting

Different fo rms o f Indian paintings, like cave painting, Miniature, Mughal,
Myso re, Pah āṛi etc. www.culturalindia.net/ indian-art/ paintings/ index.html

Different fo rms o f paintings. www.myindianculture.com/ 2011/ 12/ indian-folk-arttribal-art-paintings.html

Histo ry o f Indian paintings www.itasveer.com/ artsmart/ articles/ analysis-of-indianpaintings/ history-of-indian-paintings

Analysis o f Indian paintings www.itasveer.com/ artsmart/ articles/ gallery/ analysisof-indian-paintings

Wall paintings o f India http:/ / ccrtindia.gov.in/ wall%20paintings.html

Miniature paintings http:/ / ccrtindia.gov.in/ miniaturepainting.htm

Mo dern Indian paintings http:/ / ccrtindia.gov.in/ modernindianpainting.htm

Miniature paintings http:/ / ngmaindia.gov.in/ sh-miniature-painting.asp

Tanjo re and Myso re Traditio n http:/ / ngmaindia.gov.in/ sh-tanjore.asp

Myso re painting http:/ / wiki.indianfolklore.org/ images/ d/ d3/ Mysore.pdf

Ajanta caves paintings www.indian-heritage.org/ painting/ ajanta/ ajanta.html#links

279
Painting:
Excerpts from Primary Texts
Eulogizing the art of painting for its functions and extraordinary
qualities
He who paints waves, flames, smoke and streamers fluttering in the air,
acco rding to the mo vement o f the wind, sho uld be co nsidered a great
painter.
Painting is the best o f all arts, co nducive to dharma, pleasure, health, and
emancipatio n. It gives the greatest pleasure, when placed in a ho use.
Painting is the best o f all arts, co nducive to dharma, and emancipatio n. It
is very auspicio us when placed in a ho use. As Sumeru is the best o f
mo untains, Garuda, the chief o f birds, and a lord o f the earth, the mo st
exalted
amo ngst men, so
is painting the best o f all arts. ( The
Vish ṇudharmottara, tr. Stella Kramrisch, III.43)
*
Preparation of the principal colours
(Oh) king, I shall no w speak to yo u abo ut the preparatio n o f the principal
co lo urs. (Oh) best o f kings, there are five principal co lo urs, viz., white
( śveta), red ( rakta), yellow ( p īta), black ( kṛṣṇa) and green ( harit ). It wo uld be
impo ssible to enumerate the mixed co lo urs in this wo rld (which are
pro duced by) the mixture o f two o r three (primary co lo urs) and thro ugh
inventio n o f vario us states o r co nditio ns (i.e., shades o r to nes). (Oh) best
o f kings, now I shall speak to yo u abo ut the divisio n o f dark ( śyāma) and
white (gaura), which is due to the great suitability fo r getting mixed, o f
280
different co lo urs o f this world, fro m which the two -fo ld co lo ur o f all is
explained (i.e., the light and dark shade o f every co lo ur).
Amo ng these (co lo urs), the white (i.e., the light shade) sho uld be o f five
kinds and the dark o f twelve kinds. Bright (go ld), light (white), to o thwhite, pure-sandal white, autumn-clo ud-white and autumn-mo o n-white
— these five traditio nally are called the five-fo ld white (light shade).
(The varieties o f śyāma) sho uld be: reddish-dark, mudga (brownish) dark,
dūrv ā spro ut (greenish) dark and grayish dark to o , (o h) king, tawny dark
and to paz dark, priyangu -creeper dark and mo nkey dark. Then come bluelo tus ( n īlōtpala) dark and blue as the n īlakaṇṭha bird and purple-lo tus
( raktotpala) dark and clo ud-dark. Their applicatio n is said to be in
acco rdance with the co lo urs o f (the respective) o bjects and they gain in
beauty by intermixture o f co lo urs. ( The Vish ṇudharmottara, III.27, verses 726.)
*
Process of preparation of colours for base plaster
Brick po wder o f three kinds has to be mixed with clay, o ne third part (in
amo unt o f the brick po wder), having mixed saffro n with o il, (o ne) sho uld
mix (lit. place) (with it) gum resin, bees’ wax, liquo rice, mo lasses and
mudga ( phaseolus munga) preparatio n in equal parts. One-third part o f
burnt yellow-myro balan sho uld be added therein. Finally the astringent
made o f the Bel-tree ( Feronia elephantum ) destructive (o f all injurio us
agents) mixed in pro po rtio n o f two to o ne sho uld be added by an
intelligent artist and also a po rtio n o f sand, propo rtio nate to the amo unt
o f the who le. Then the artist sho uld drench (this mixture) with mo ist split
pulse disso lved in water. The who le o f this moist preparatio n has to be
kept in a safe place fo r o ne mo nth o nly. (After) the mo isture has
evapo rated within a mo nth, a skilful (artist) sho uld put (this) dried (yet
281
still damp) plaster o n the wall, having carefully co nsidered (everything).
It sho uld be plain, even, well distributed, without ridges o r ho les, neither
to o thick no r too thin. Sho uld it (loo k) ill do ne after having beco me (quite)
dry (due to shrinkage), then it o ught to be carefully smo othed by co atings
o f plaster (made) o f that clay (as mentio ned befo re) mixed with resin o f
the Śāla-tree ( Shorea robusta) and with o il. (It is further made) smo o th by
(repeated) ano inting, co nstant sprinkling with water and by careful
po lish. (Oh) lord, when this wall has pro mptly dried, it do es no t go to
ruins
anywhere
even
at
the
end
of
a
hundred
years.
( The
Vish ṇudharmottara, III.40, verses 1-30.)
*
Order followed by the painter before he starts painting
By this means vario us jewelled flo ors can be made o f variegated mixture
in two fo ld co lo urs. In painting with care o n a wall, dry, brilliant and
smo oth, an artist devoted to the master, should begin his wo rk o n an
auspicio us day, with his face, to wards east, thinking o f Go d, having
wo rshipped and bo wed down to Brahmins and precepto rs who know this
(i.e., painting) well, uttering Svasti (Success!), clad in a white garment and
restrained in his so ul. Then the learned artist sho uld draw (o utlines) with
uno o zing black and white brushes in due o rder and fix them o n the duly
measured gro und. These then sho uld be filled with co lo urs in appro priate
places. ( The Vish ṇudharmottara, III.40, verses 1-30.)
*
Preparation of base colours and qualities of a good painting
Primary co lo urs are said to be five — white, yello w, the co lo ur o f the
myro balan, black and blue. (Oh) best o f kings, intermediate (co lo urs) are
traditio nally said to be hundred-fo ld. (But an artist) sho uld mix (lit.
282
divide) the primary (lit. full) co lo urs according to his own logic and
imaginatio n and make tho usand fo ld (what is hundred fo ld). If the blues
are transfo rmed a great deal, green co lo ur is pro duced. It is either pure,
with an admixture o f white o r blue-predo minating. One o r more (o f these
shades) are (used) as it is suitable to the (special) painting. Blue, (too ,) is o f
three kinds: with white predo minating, with very little white o r with bo th
in equal parts. Thus it is vario usly transformed by being co nnected with
anything applied as an astringent.
Thus beautiful (lit. auspicio us) paintings sho uld be made yellowish like
the dūrvā spro uts, green like the woo d apple and dark like the kidneybean. Blue tinged with yello wish-white (beco mes) changed in co lo ur and
o f vario us kinds acco rding as either o f the two (co nstituents) is (present)
in greater o r smaller degree or in equal parts. Fo r that reaso n the bluelo tus-co lo ur ( n īlotpalanibha) appears beautiful when partly shaded dark
like the m āsa. By pro per selectio n and distributio n o f co lo urs paintings
beco me delightful. A painting in red and dark like the red lo tus
( raktotp āla) beco mes beautiful when co mbined with white lac, co vered by
a coating o f lac and resin. The latter also transforms vario us o ther
co lo urs.
(Oh) king, co lo uring articles are go ld, silver, co pper, mica, deep co lo ured
brass, red lead, tin, yellow orpiment, yello w myro balam, lac, vermillio n
and indigo , o h best o f men. There are many o ther similar co lo uring
substances, o h great king, in every co untry; they sho uld be prepared with
an astringent. A fluid sho uld be made o f iro n leaves. A mica defile placed
in iro n sho uld serve as a distiller. In this way iro n beco mes suitable fo r
painting. In the (work called) surasendrabh ūmija a deco ctio n o f hides was
said to be a distiller o f mica. ... In the case o f all co lo urs, the exudatio n o f
the Sindūra tree is desirable. A painting, firmly drawn with a magnificent
hairy brush (lit. tail) o n a canvas dipped in the juice o f the best dūrv ā grass
283
canno t be (destro yed and remains (intact) for many years tho ugh washed
by water. ( The Vish ṇudharmottara, III.40, verses 1-30.)
*
Four kinds of paintings
Mārkaṇḍeya said: Painting is said to be o f fo ur kinds — (1) “ true to life”
( satya), (2) “ o f the lute player” ( vaiṇika), (3) “ o f the city” o r “ o f co mmo n
man” ( n āgara) and (4) “ mixed” ( miśra). I am go ing to speak abo ut their
characteristics (now). Whatever painting bears a resemblance to this
earth, with pro per pro po rtio n, tall in height, with a nice bo dy, ro und and
beautiful is called “ true to life.” That is called vaiṇika which is rich in the
display o f po stures, maintaining strict pro portio ns, placed in an exactly
square field, no t phlegmatic, not (very) lo ng and well finished. That
painting sho uld be kno wn as n āgara, which is ro und, with firm and well
develo ped limbs with scanty garlands and o rnaments. (Oh) best o f men,
the miśra derives its name from being co mpo sed (o f the three categories).
( The Vish ṇudharmottara, III.41, verses 1-15.)
*
Representation of various themes
No w I am go ing to speak abo ut the appearance o f things actually seen. A
learned (artist) sho uld sho w the sky witho ut any special co lo ur and full o f
birds, (o h) king. Similarly (the artist) sho uld show the firmament ado rned
by stars and the earth with its vegetatio n in all its variety (lit. with all its
distinctive attributes). (Oh) best o f kings, (an artist) sho uld sho w a
mo untain by a cluster o f ro cks, peaks, (with) metal (-vein) trees, waterfalls
and snakes. A learned (artist) sho uld show a fo rest by vario us sorts o f
trees, birds and beasts. (He sho uld sho w) water by innumerable fishes and
to rto ises, by lotuses and other aquatic animals and plants. A learned
(artist) sho uld sho w a city by beautiful temples, palaces, sho ps, ho uses and
284
lo vely ro yal ro ads. An artist sho uld show a village by its bo undaries
co ntaining
sparingly
gardens.
Fortresses
sho uld
be
sho wn
with
battlements, ramparts, high mo unts and entrances in their enclo sures.
Markets sho uld be sho wn; co ntaining articles o f merchandise; drinking
places sho uld be represented full o f men engaged in drinking, and tho se
engaged in gambling sho uld be drawn devo id o f upper garments, — the
winners merry and the lo sers full o f grief. The battlefield has to be shown
as co ntaining fo ur divisio ns o f the army (i.e., elephant co rps, cavalry,
chario t co rps and infantry), with so ldiers engaged in fighting, strewn with
co rpses and besmeared with bloo d. The burning gro und sho uld be
represented with funeral piles and dead bodies. (A painter) sho uld
represent a ro ad, with caravans co nsisting o f camels and o ther (animals)
carrying burdens. The night sho uld be shown — with moo n, planets and
stars, with appro aching thieves and men (fast) asleep and o thers engaged
in wo rldly pleasures (lit. sho wing what is o f the wo rld). In the first part o f
the night women are to be shown go ing o ut to meet their lo vers. The
(breaking o f the) dawn is to be sho wn) by the rising sun, the lamps
(lo o king) dim and cro wing co cks, or a man sho uld be drawn as if ready fo r
wo rk. The evening is to be sho wn by its red glo w and by Brahmins
engaged in co ntro lling their senses. The (setting in) o f darkness has to be
sho wn by men approaching their abo des. That the mo o n is shining sho uld
be shown by the kumuda flo wer in full bloo m, while the many petals o f the
lo tus flower sho uld be closed. When, depicting a sho wer o f rain, (that it is)
raining sho uld be sho wn by a man well co vered. That the sun is shining
sho uld be shown by (drawing) creatures suffering fro m heat. (An artist)
sho uld represent spring with merry men and wo men, by “ laughing”
vernal trees, with bees swarming abo ut and cucko o s.
The summer has to be shown with dried poo ls, with languid men, with
deer seeking the shade o f trees, and buffalo es burying themselves in mud.
An artist sho uld show the rainy seaso n by flashes o f lightning, beautified
285
by rainbo ws, acco mpanied by heavily laden clo uds, birds perched o n
trees, and lio ns and tigers sheltered in caves. A painter sho uld paint the
autumn with trees heavy with fruits, the earth (co vered) with ripe corn (fields) and with tanks beautified by lo tuses and swans. The “ dewy” seaso n
( hemanta, the approach o f winter), a learned artist sho uld sho w by fro st o n
the horizo n, with the earth lo pped (o f her cro ps) and the gro und co vered
by dew-dro ps. A learned (painter) sho uld paint the winter with the
ho rizo n-shro uded in ho ar-fro st, with shivering men and delighted cro ws
and elephants.
(Oh) lo rd o f men, seaso ns sho uld be represented by trees in flo wers and
fruits and creatures delighted (o r o therwise) and loo king at nature.
Sentiments and expressio ns sho uld be represented as already spo ken o f.
(An artist) sho uld also suitably emplo y herein what was said abo ut
dancing. A painting in which an o bject is devoid o f shading ( varttan ā) is
called ‘medio cre’ ( madhyama).A picture which in so me parts is shaded and
in o thers remains witho ut shading is ‘bad’ ( adhama). A picture shaded all
o ver is go od ( uttama). A painting, in which everything is drawn in an
acceptable (form) in its pro per po sitio n, in its pro per time and age,
beco mes excellent, while in the o ppo site case it beco mes (quite) different.
A painting drawn with care, pleasing to the eye, tho ught o ut with
supreme intelligence and remarkable by its executio n, beauty, charm (lit.
amo ro us pastime), taste, and such o ther qualities, yields the desired
pleasure. (III.42, verses 1-84.)
*
Nature of the Art of Painting
Weakness o r thickness o f delineatio n, want o f articulatio n, impro per
juxtapo sitio n o f co lo urs are said to be defects o f painting. (Pro per
po sitio n,
pro portio n
and
spacing,
gracefulness
and
articulatio n,
resemblance, decrease and increase i.e., fo reshortening) these are kno wn
286
as the eight (go od) qualities o f painting. Painting which has not (the
pro per) po sitio n, devo id o f (the appro priate) rasa, empty to lo ok at, hazy
with darkness and devo id o f life-mo vement (chetan ā) — is said to be
inexpressive. One that seems as if dancing by its po sture or appears to
lo o k frightened, laughing or graceful, thereby appears as if endo wed with
life, as if breathing. These pictures are (co nsidered) o f an auspicio us type.
(A painter) sho uld make his (painting) to be witho ut darkness and
emptiness. No (painting depicting a) figure with defective limbs, co vered
all o ver with hair, overwhelmed with fear due to internal disease, o r
smeared with a yellow pigment (o ught to be executed) . An intelligent
artist paints what loo ks pro bable (lit. what commands trust), but never
what transcends it. (Oh) lo rd o f men, a painting (by) the skilled, the
righteous and those (who are) versed in the Śāstras brings o n pro sperity
and remo ves adversity very so o n. A painting cleanses and curbs anxiety,
augments future goo d, causes unequalled and pure delight, kills the evils
o f bad dreams and pleases the ho useho ld deity. The place where a picture
is firmly placed do es no t lo o k empty ( The Vish ṇudharmottara, III.43, verses
1–39).
***
Eight Limbs of Painting
Samar āṅgaṇasūtradhāra, an 11 -century treatise o n architecture prescribes ‘Eight
th
Limbs o f Painting’: bhūmibandhanam (preparatio n o f surface), vartika (crayo n wo rk),
rekh ā- karm āṇi (o utline work), lak ṣaṇam (features o f face), varna- karma (co lo uring),
vartan ākramaḥ (relief by shading), lekha- karaṇaṁ (co rrectio n) and dvicakarma (final
o utline).
vartika prathama ṁ teśā
drit īyaṁ bhūmibandhanam
lekhyaṁ t ṛt īyaṁ sy ād rekhā-
287
karm āṇi vartalemiha lak ṣaṇam
pañcamaṁ kar ṣakarmacca
ṣaṣṭham sy ād vartanākramaḥ
saptamaṁ lekhanaṁ lekhakaraṇaṁ dvicakarma tath āṣṭaman
***
Comprehension
1.
Acco rding to the given text, who is co nsidered as an acco mplished painter?
2.
Write briefly abo ut the ceremo nial start o f a painting.
3.
Read the pro cess given in the text o n preparatio n o f base plaster, research and
co mpare it with the co ntempo rary metho ds, also list examples. Lo o k at the two
paintings below and discuss the vario us stages of a painting.
Left: Orchha (M.P.). Right : Ajanta cave painting
4.
What are the qualities o f a go od painting?
5.
List the eight limbs o f painting and describe their relevance to present-day
painting.

288
Society State and Polity: A Survey
Indian civil po lity is almo st as o ld as that o f Babylo nia and has lasted, like that o f
China, lo nger than any o ther. It is fo unded o n the dictum enunciated by Rāmad āsa in
his Dāsabodha (I.10.25) that ‘man is free and canno t be subjected by fo rce’.
We have discussed so ciety, state, ruler and po lity with this vo cabulary —
sam āja, rājya, rājā and r āja tantra ( p ālana vyavasthā o r go vernance) .
When a large number o f human beings live to gether, there is need fo r some
rules and regulatio ns because human nature is such that matsya ny āya, ‘the big fish
eats the small fish’, prevails, i.e., it is in the nature o f things that the stro ng will
explo it the weak. So since early days, there is a realizatio n in India that there has to
be a ‘so ciety’ go verned by so me co mmo nly agreed rules and regulatio ns. Ho wever,
such a ‘so ciety’ is o nly loo sely regulated — it is governed by custo ms and practices,
no t by laws. Therefo re, so me mo re rigo ro us organizatio n is needed, a system called
‘state’ in po litical tho ught, a po litical system with a legal sanctio n and fo undatio n, a
system ruled by law.
A ‘state’, r ājya, has several dimensio ns — the duties / rights o f the ruled and
the rulers, the rules o f go vernance and the rules that go vern the rulers and the ruled.
In the same way, a ‘so ciety’, sam āja, has its co mpo nents, the different jātis o r
co mmunities, and functio nal units that we may call var ṇas or castes. A so ciety has its
structural units such as family, institutio ns such as marriage, and customs and
practices such as inheritance, rituals o f marriage and mo urning, and finally a
framework o f individual and so cial life as fo r example the āśrama vyavasthā laid down
in the Hindu so ciety as an ideal organizatio n o f an individual’s life.
Indian so ciety is amo ng the o ldest so cieties in co ntinuo us existence with
bro adly the same ancient so cial system co dified in the lo ng co ntinuo us, cumulative
289
attested
textual
traditio n
of
so cio lo gical
texts
kno wn
as
Dharmas ūtras,
Dharmaśāstras and Nibandhas.
Plurality of Indian Society
The Indian so ciety has always been pluralistic in that this land has been since time
immemo rial inhabited by many jātīs or ethnic co mmunities (there are o ver 4,700 jātīs
acco rding to the Anthro po lo gical Survey o f India), ethnic gro ups big and small,
co mmunities pro fessing different religio ns and faiths, speaking different languages,
wearing different dresses, eating different foods, fo llo wing different o ccupatio ns,
different so cial norms, custo ms and practices. Add to this hundreds o f paṅthas (sects)
and tho usands o f pro fessio ns and pro fessio nal gro ups such as po tters, iro nsmiths,
weavers, farmers etc., each with its own norms and values, and the picture co nfo unds
the so cio lo gists and culture-thinkers alike.
Panels at Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh) depicting facets of society:
Left: acrobats making a human pyramid. Right: gamblers.
290
But this plurality has never hindered a
harmo nio us so cial life at the grassro o ts. So me panIndian shared so cial features have evo lved over
time to make the Indian so ciety a reco gnizable
Indian system. For example in marriage and
wo rship, there are commo n elements in the
institutio ns o f most co mmunities which at the
same time retain features specific to the religio us
o r ethnic co mmunity. Thus in the case o f marriage
as an institutio n, the rituals vary fro m o ne religio n
to another and fro m o ne ethnic gro up to ano ther,
but the sanctity o f this institutio n is shared mo re
o r less by all co mmunities. In the same way,
‘family’ remains a co re institutio n o f the so cial life
o f all co mmunities. Further, certain so cial attitudes
— for example respect fo r age, knowledge and
renunciatio n,
restraint
in
public
co nduct
in
matters o f language, dress and eating / drinking —
Different styles of sari and clothing.
There are more than 80 ways to drape
a sari (courtesy: Wikipedia).
are pan-Indian. In belief system o r in what o ne may call intrinsic ‘rural’ values also ,
in being god-fearing and ho spitable for example, there is a pan-Indian commo nalty.
To day the Indian so ciety under the impact o f the techno lo gical, co nsumerist
co ntempo rary civilizatio n, particularly the urban so ciety is in great flux. So me o f its
time-ho no ured values and virtues including tho se that we have enumerated in the
preceding paragraph are under stress. But the co untry is so large and the Indian
so ciety has, by virtue o f its historical experience o f turmo il, beco me so resilient that
it is difficult to say what will be the final shape. In the meantime we o bserve what is
happening.
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Underlying Principles of Indian Society
Such diversity no do ubt defies generalizatio ns and yet there is an underlying system
that binds the co mplex so ciety into a who le. First o f all the vast po pulatio n o f this
majo r segment o f the Indian so ciety is structured into and reduced to just fo ur
gro ups by the much-discussed var ṇa vyavasth ā, which the Portuguese first described
as ‘caste system’. These are fo ur functio nal divisio ns to be identified in any so ciety —
intellectuals / thinkers, warrio rs / defenders, traders and the service class. The
difference fro m o ther so cieties is that in India this functio nal divisio n was co dified
into a so cial o rganizing principle, so mething that for all its unifying purpo se
degenerated into a hereditary system. Each var ṇa is structured downwards in a
hierarchy o f expanding crisscro ss o f parameters o f ethnicity, subgro ups, geo graphic
area, village, gotra (relatio nal sub-subgro up), language, pro fessio n, religio n. This is a
highly intricate so cial o rganizatio n, which bo th separates an individual o r a
co mmunity fro m others, and at the same time makes all a part o f each o ther.
A scene from one of the gateways to
the Sanchi stūpa: the king emerges
from the city gate, on his way to
meet the Buddha. Note the depiction
of urban society, with workers,
drummers, mahouts, and ladies
watching the scene from their highperched balconies (source:
Archaeological Survey of India).
This segment o f India’s so cial life is knitted, amo ng o thers, by the shared
o bligatio ns that flo w from two networks, the network o f identity and the network o f
familial relatio nships. Beyo nd these identities, the so ciety as a who le sets befo re
itself, as an organizing principle, the clearly defined fo ur ends o f human life, kno wn
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as puru ṣārthas: duty / righteo usness, material well-being, fulfilment o f (righteo us)
desires and ultimately freedo m fro m the wo rldly imperatives. These go als o r ends do
no t depend o n religio n o r co mmunity, o r o n whether o ne believes in Go d o r no t.
Whatever o ne believes in whatever is o ne’s pro fessio n, everyo ne in this human life
has to necessarily perform o ne’s duties, wo rk hard for material well-being, try to
fulfil o ne’s righteo us desires and at the end of it all, at a late stage in o ne’s life,
everyo ne is tired and wants to be free o f these wo rldly pursuits.
The rubric o f duty, dharma, first o f the fo ur ends, is crucial as the Indian
so ciety is a duty-centred so ciety — everyo ne has his duty, an enjo ined dharma, bo th
the king and the vagabo nd. Duty is a harmo ny principle as when everyo ne performs
his o r her duty, the ‘rights’ o f o thers are naturally taken care o f. When the line o f
duties is laid do wn, o ne starts with duty towards o ne’s co untry, then to o ne’s larger
co mmunity, then to o ne’s own bir ādari, the sub-co mmunity / gro up, to o ne’s family
and then at the end, to wards o neself.
Family
Family is the keysto ne o f the
so cial arch: marriage is the
instrument o f family and the
mo ther/ wife is the custodian
of
marriage.
Family
is
sacro sanct and that invo lves
an elabo rate co de o f duties fo r
each member o f the family.
Family is also the eco no mic
unit and as such it takes care
Marriage of Rāma and his brothers
(source: www.exoticindia.com)
o f all members regardless o f
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ho w much they earn and co ntribute individually to the ‘family inco me’. It is a
pro tectio n against adversity and a stro ng instrument o f so cial security, so mething
that co sts Western natio ns huge amo unts o f public mo ney to pro vide to its citizens.
Because ‘family’ results fro m marriage, marriage is also sacro sanct. It is irrevo cable
and the Ṛgvedic marriage hymn states, “ I take yo ur hand in mine for happy fortune
that yo u may reach o ld age with me yo ur husband.” (10.85.36) Marriage custo ms and
rituals vary acco rding to co mmunities and o ther subgro ups.
The family life is o rganized aro und the co ncept o f fo ur well-marked stages,
āśramas, in the co urse o f o ne life: the stage of educatio n, that is studentship and
preparatio n fo r a ho useho lder’s life; the seco nd stage o f ho useho lder’s life devo ted to
building up and suppo rting a family and earning for that; the third stage o f retreat
fro m direct invo lvement in worldly affairs, after the children have gro wn up and
beco me ho useho lder’s themselves, to devo te o neself to study fo r o ne’s mind and self,
and the fo urth and the last stage o f renunciatio n o f all activity, go ing to live in
so litude and devo te o neself to matters o f spirit and wo rship.
Not many peo ple are able to fo llo w this literally for any number o f reaso ns
but it always remains an ideal and is o ften practised in o ne fo rm or the o ther because
it is a psycho lo gically and so cially relevant system.
The seco nd āśrama, g ṛhastha, the lo ng stage o f married life devo ted to raising a
family, is acknowledged by all thinkers as the mo st impo rtant and also the mo st
arduo us o f the fo ur āśramas. It invo lves all-ro und respo nsibilities, o f parents to wards
children, o f children towards each other and towards parents, o f the mother and the
father towards all, including the larger family. This stage in life is at the same time
the mo st full, rich and co lo urful — innumerable festive rituals and ceremo nies, in
particular those called solah saṁsk āras o r ‘ sixteen ceremo nies’, acco mpany an
individual all thro ugh his or her life — birth, initiatio n into study, co mpletio n o f
educatio n,
engagement,
marriage,
birth
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of
children,
marriage
of
children,
particularly o f the daughter, death o f the parents and memo rial ceremo ny fo r them,
the entire pro cess ending in o ne’s death (see table below ).
saṁsk āra
Meaning
1
garbh ādhāna
Conception
2
pu ṃsavana
Protection of the child in mother’s womb
3
s īmantonnayana
Fulfilling the pregnant mother’s wishes
4
jātakarman
Rituals at childbirth
5
n āmakaraṇa
Naming the child
6
niṣkr āmaṇa
Taking the child outdoors
7
annaprāśana
Giving the child solid food
8
c ūḍākaraṇa
9
kar ṇavedha
10
vidy āraṃbha
Commencement of studies
11
upanayana
Initiation into adulthood
12
sam āvartana
Completing education
13
vivaha
Marriage
14
sarvasaṁsk āras
Preparing for renunciation
15
saṁny āsa
Renunciation
16
antye ṣṭi
Last rites
Shaving of the head
Ear piercing
List of the solah saṁskāras or ‘ sixteen ceremonies’ .
These ceremo nies are co mmunity affairs and at each ceremo ny, even the
funeral ceremo ny, all relatio ns and friends gather fo r co mmunity eating. It is also the
duty o f the ho useho lder to share his mo ney / wealth with the po or, give o fferings to
go ds and spend a part o f what he has earned on building scho o ls and ho spitals, fo r
bo th human beings and animals. The trading class has the ambitio n to build at least
o ne temple as well. Taking the family, including o ne’s parents, o n pilgrimage is also a
sacred duty o f all ho useho lders. This structure makes an individual’s life meaningful
and also imparts so cial respo nsibility to family life.
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In the Indian so ciety both the patrilineal and matrilineal systems are in
existence in different parts o f the co untry and amo ng different co mmunities. These
differ in family relatio nships, marriage laws and inheritance. Thus the Namboo diris
o f Kerala and so me o f the Northeastern small co mmunities such as the Garo s are
matrilineal. In patrilineal co mmunities, the eldest so n inherits the family pro perty; in
matrilineal co mmunities the yo ungest daughter inherits the pro perty.
Indian Society and Reform
Finally, Indian so ciety has shown itself to be amenable to refo rm by law and has been
keeping pace with the changes in life co nditio ns. In this the intrinsic multiplicity and
plurality o f the Indian so ciety is a blessing as the availability o f ideas, custo ms and
practices in Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Hinduism and Judaism has enabled cro ssfertilizatio n and co nsequent refo rm. Take the case o f wo men in Indian so ciety. Even a
curso ry examinatio n o f recent histo ry makes it clear that the rights o f woman, fo r
example, have been co nstantly redefined thro ugh a series o f legislatio ns that have in
effect altered the so cial and individual co nditio n o f wo men. Tho ugh many o f these
have addressed the imbalances o f Hindu so ciety, their healthy effect has permeated
acro ss cultures. Beginning with the 1856 Hindu Wido ws’ Remarriage Act, there has
been a series o f legislatio ns that have in effect altered the so cial, and individual,
co nditio n o f Hindu wo men: Child Marriage (Restraint) Act (1929), Special Marriages
Act (1954), Hindu Marriage Act (1955), Hindu Marriage (Amendment) Act (1976),
Hindu Successio n Act (1956), Hindu Ado ptio ns and Maintenance Act (1956), Dowry
Pro hibitio n Act (1961), Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act (1956) and Hindu
Widows Pro perty Act (1997). Co nstitutio nally, Hindu law applies to Hindus, Sikhs,
Buddhists and Jains.
There have been, besides these and o ther enactments, abo ut 2,000 judicial
decisio ns in suits co ncerning wo men’s rights. As a result, Indian wo men today are the
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mo st vibrant sectio n o f the Indian so ciety. Whichever field they enter, and no ne is
barred to them, they equal or even excel men. The parents take pride in educating
their daughters. Studies have sho wn that the rate o f growth in the number o f girls
go ing to schoo ls is twice that o f the bo ys. Of course the effect is uneven. The pattern
o f life o f rural wo men remains bro adly what it was but it is changing fast with rural
girls go ing to scho o l in increasing numbers.
With all this diversity and differences and with differing so cial pro scriptio ns
and prescriptio ns co mbined with eco no mic facto rs and changing external co nditio ns,
co nflicts are to be expected even within the same co mmunity. Interco mmunity
co nflicts are even mo re likely. And then the very basic avaricio us and explo itative
human nature is a perennial cause o f so cial and individual suffering. As we said at the
beginning, matsya ny āya, ‘the big fish eats the small fish’. So me o f Indian so ciety’s
age-o ld institutio ns o ften degenerated and became instruments o f o ppressio n and
inequality. Ho wever, Indian so ciety also always had fro m within reformers who
co mbated such evils — fro m Mah ātma Buddha to Iravati Karve — just as to day laws
are being framed to co ntro l criminality particularly against wo men.
The Indian State
To ensure a just o rder, rule o f law and peace, every so ciety needs a State and
surrenders so me o f its rights to the State that transcends differences and diversity o f
the so ciety and treats all its citizens as equal.
So cial laws that regulate a so ciety are o f the nature o f directive principles and
their vio latio n entails no punishment and therefo re do not guarantee co mpliance
with enjo ined practices. Fo r maintaining public o rder and peace, o n the o ther hand,
mo re rigoro us laws equally applicable to all communities in all regio ns and a system
o f punishments, daṇḍa n īti is needed. This is a majo r ratio nale fo r a State.
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The State is based o n same rights and duties fo r all and a co mmo n set o f laws.
It is the duty o f the State in return to pro tect the dignity, life and pro perty o f the
citizens and defend the culture and integrity o f the so ciety.
States, by co mmo n sense and by historical experience, are basically o f three
kinds: rule by o ne perso n (kingship); rule by a small gro up o f perso ns (o ligarchy), and
representative rule o f the peo ple (demo cracy). Each o f these has sub-types — thus
kingship fo r example, can be hereditary or by electio n, that is where the co mmunity
elects o ne perso n as the king. Similarly, the small gro up o f perso ns in an o ligarchy
can be (a) aristo crats, (b) philo so phers / the wise, o r (c) elected representatives.
A State is co nstituted by its several ‘limbs’. Thus Kauṭilya (3rd century BCE),
the reno wned Indian theo retician o f po lity, says that a State has seven limbs: the
king, the ministers, the co untry, the forts, the treasury, the army, and the allies. This
list can vary acco rding to the fo rm o f go vernment.
Bro adly there are two kinds o f go vernance — republican and mo narchy. In
India, the fo llo wing fo ur kinds o f go vernments are attested since ancient times:
1. self-go verning gaṇas (‘direct demo cracy’);
2. saṅghas ruled by no minated elders (a kind o f o ligarchy);
3. gaṇas ruled by a no minated (‘elected’) leader/ king; and
4. co nsultative hereditary mo narchy in which the king is advised by a samiti.
In India, a kind o f participative go vernance, governance by discussio n with a
cro ss-sectio n o f peo ple had been practised since the first half o f the first millennium
BCE. Republican forms ‘expressed thro ugh po pular assemblies and institutio ns’
existed in India at the same time as, if not earlier than, the Greek republics. The
assemblies, which were attended by all the members o f the co mmunity, perfo rmed
vario us legislative and executive functio ns including nominating the king o r the
representatives, where the co mmunity was too large to allow everyo ne to be present.
298
There was a hierarchy o f assemblies, samitis, beginning with the village and go ing up
thro ugh a who le gro up o f villages, that is the who le co mmunity, to finally all the
co mmunities to gether janapadas. The wo rd samiti co ntinues to be used in this
meaning in all mo dern Indian languages. Pāṇini, the celebrated 7th century BCE
Sanskrit grammarian, uses the wo rd janapada and refers by name to eighteen
janapadas spread acro ss no rth India. Republican forms o f go vernment were well
established in ancient India. At the time o f the invasio n o f Alexander o f Macedo nia
(4th century BCE), there existed a large number o f independent gaṇas (republics) like
the Kambo jas o r Gandharas in the west, the Panc ālas in the north, the Vangas in the
east o r the Asmaka in central India. The Pāli Cano n (a standard co llectio n o f texts o f
early Buddhism) gives a much fuller, if so mewhat indirect, depictio n o f demo cratic
institutio ns in India, co nfirming and extending the picture fo und in Pāṇini.
Goal of a State
The go al o f a State — law and go vernance are its instrument and functio n — in the
Greek philo so pher Aristo tle’s tho ught and wo rds that have an affinity with classical
Indian tho ught is the happiness o f the peo ple, which he describes as ‘the co mmo n
go o d o f all’: ‘No w it is evident that the fo rm of go vernment is best in which every
man, who ever he is, can act best and live happily’ ( Politics VII: 2). This is the loka
saṁgraha (welfare o f the peo ple) o f the Bhagavad-Gīt ā (3.25), and not just the goo d o f
o ne sectio n o f the co mmunity. And that means justice and ‘justice’ implies ‘just
distributio n’, equality — justice is not the will o f the majo rity o r o f the wealthier, but
that co urse o f actio n which the moral aim o f the state requires ( Politics VI: 10). As
such, the true o bject o f the State is ‘virtue’ (VI: 9), dharma o f Hindu tho ught.
Which fo rm o f go vernance ensures the realizatio n o f this goal? ‘Demo cracy’
says the 19th-century Euro pean po litical tho ught; ‘Po lity’ (‘co nstitutio nal go vernment
... a fusio n o f o ligarchy and demo cracy’) says Aristo tle (IV: 8); and Rāma r ājya say
299
Dharmaśāstra thinkers from Manu to Kauṭilya to Yājñavalkya and Kamandaka. But
what is the essence o f demo cracy? It is a fo rm o f governance in which every vo ice,
the vo ice o f the ‘many’ as well as o f the ‘few’ co unts witho ut denying justice to the
few — ‘where the poo r rule, that is a demo cracy’ (VI: 9).
The do ctrine o f the State’s dharma as justice and its dignity has been declared
by Manu in these terms: ‘If justice is vio lated, it destro ys the State; if preserved, it
preserves the State’ ( Manusm ṛti VIII.15). The fo ur great kings o f the fo ur yugas (aeo ns)
— Māndhātā, Rāma, Yudhiṣṭhira and Vikram āditya — are celebrated in Hindu
traditio ns as great upho lders o f justice.
The laws are co nventio ns built up as a surety o f justice to o ne ano ther and
mo des o f go vernance are set up to ensure the vo ice and participatio n o f the poo r and
o f the ‘many’ and to ensure justice. Ho w is the vo ice o f the peo ple to be given weight?
This is the subject matter o f po lity o r go vernance.
Polity
Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra (4th century BCE) is o ne o f the mo st influential treatises o f
po litical science. It visualizes a huge bureaucratic structure, a co mplex tax structure,
and an intricate intelligence system fo r effective go vernance.
Soldiers going to war and fighting (from a frieze at Khajuraho)
300
Arthaśāstra is divided into sixteen bo o ks dealing with virtually every to pic
co ncerned with the running o f a state: taxation, law, diplo macy, military strategy,
eco no mics, bureaucracy etc. It advo cates ratio nal ethics in the co nduct o f the affairs
o f the state and emphasises the codificatio n and uniformity o f the law thro ugho ut
the state. The basis o f goo d go vernance, according to Kau ṭilya, is kno wledge and
Arthaśāstra classifies the knowledge needed to run a State into fo ur classes.
1. anv īkṣki (philoso phy and lo gic). This is co nsidered to be the ‘lamp o f all
sciences’;
2. tray ī (the three Vedas, Sāma, Ṛg and Yajur ). These texts establish the fo ur
classes ( var ṇas) and the fo ur o rders ( āśramas);
3. v ārta (eco nomics, specifically agriculture, cattle breeding, and trade);
4. dan ḍan īti (law and go vernance).
The institutio n o f State is created to enable the individual to practise his o r
her dharma. The co nditio n o f ar ājakatā (lawlessness) was viewed with distaste as it
o bstructs a life o f righteo usness. The breakdown o f so cial o rder is described in the
ancient epic Mah ābhārata, as fo llo ws:
... Then foo lishness or stupidity ( moha) seized their minds. Their
intelligence thus being eclipsed, the sense o f justice ( dharma) was lost.
Cupidity o r temptatio n ( lobha) o verpowered them next. Thus aro se the
desire ( k āma) for po ssessing things no t po ssessed. And this led to their
being subjugated by an affectio n (r āga) under which they began to igno re
the distinctio n between what sho uld and what sho uld not be do ne.
Co nsequently there appeared sexual license, libertinism in speech and
diet, and indifference to mo rals. When such a revo lutio n set in amo ng
men, Brahman (the idea o f Godhead) disappeared, and with it, law
( dharma).
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Next to the king came the mantri pariṣad (co uncil o f ministers). The king was
enjo ined to discuss every matter with his Co uncil o f Ministers, which had two levels,
inner and o uter. The inner cabinet had fo ur members: the Chief Minister, the Chief
Priest, the Military Commander and the Crown Prince. The membership o f the o uter
cabinet was no t fixed in number; invariably the heads o f the pro minent guilds were
co -o pted in this bo dy. Unlike the basic principle o f Western mo narchy, the ‘Divine
Right o f Kings’, the king was to regard himself as an agent o f the peo ple and had to
abide by his dharma as laid o ut in the Śāstras. Kauṭilya (1, 16) described the fo llo wing
ideal fo r the king: ‘The mo narch sho uld seek happiness in the happiness o f his
citizens, his welfare is in their welfare, and his go o d is not in what pleases him but in
what pleases the citizens.’ Great value was therefo re attached to a rigo ro us and
co ntinuo us educatio n o f the king who was to acquire a thoro ugh co mmand o f the
different branches o f knowledge and to display ātma vrata (self-co ntro l), and fo r this
he had to abando n the ‘six enemies’: k āma (lust), krodha (anger), lobha (greed), m āna
(vanity), mada (haughtiness), and har ṣa (o verjo y) (1, 7).
Kauṭilya realized the critical ro le o f the tax system fo r ensuring the eco nomic
well-being o f the so ciety. The hallmark o f his tax system was ‘certainty’ — o f time,
rate and mo de o f payment. Stability in the tax regime was an important facto r in
ensuring active trade and co mmerce in the Mauryan empire. This in turn
strengthened the revenue base o f the state and enabled it to maintain a huge
standing army and the welfare apparatus.
Fo r
Kauṭilya
laws
were
derived
from
four
so urces:
dharma
(mo ral
righteo usness), vyavh āra (accepted practices), carita (histo ry and custo m), and
r ājaśasana (the fo rmulatio ns made by the state). In case o f co nflict amo ngst the
vario us laws, dharma, moral righteo usness, was supreme. The o rdering o f the other
laws was case specific.
302
Arthaśāstra o utlines a system o f civil, criminal, and mercantile law. Fo r
example the fo llo wing were co dified: a pro cedure fo r interro gatio n, torture, and trial,
the rights o f the accused, what co nstitutes permissible evidence, a pro cedure fo r
auto psy in case o f death in suspicio us circumstances, what co nstitutes defamatio n
and pro cedure fo r claiming damages (Kau ṭilya, 4, 7 & 8).
Bureaucracy
Kauṭilya has pro po sed a network o f bureaucracy to manage the State. Bureaucracy
had thirty divisio ns each headed by Chiefs, adhyak ṣas. An important and large part o f
bureaucracy dealt with the necessity o f state pro visio n fo r strengthening trade and
co mmerce. The bureaucracy was invo lved in o rganizing the quality co ntro l
machinery, the system o f currency, and the system o f weights and measures. As a
mark o f quality, merchandise had to be marked with the abhijñy āna mudr ā (state
stamp) in sindūra (vermilio n). Co unterfeiting was strictly punished. Bureaucrats
received a fixed pay and were also eligible fo r state subsidized ho using. The
bureaucratic tenure was no t hereditary.
A State also needs an intelligence apparatus. Kauṭilya suggests mass
participatio n in intelligence gathering thro ugh institutio ns such as religio n. Spies
co uld be under the fo llowing guises — kapaṭika ch ātra (fraudulent disciple), udasthita
(recluse), grihap ālaka (ho useho lder), vaidehaka (merchant), tapas (an ascetic practising
austerities), satri (a classmate), t īkṣṇa (a fireband), rasada (a po iso ner) and a bhik ṣuki (a
mendicant wo man) (Kauṭilya, 1, 11).
Legal System
India has a lo ng textual traditio n o f legal thinking that has been acco mpanied by an
institutio nal system fro m the village co uncil, pancayata to the king (and now the
President o f India) where justice has been dispensed in acco rdance with textual law
303
( dharmaśāstras),
co mmo n
practice
( vyavah āra), co nduct o f respected peo ple
( śiṣṭas), and in the absence o f any or all o f
these, the co nscience o f the judge(s). The
texts deal with all aspects o f the legal
system. They discuss the qualificatio ns o f
judges, o f witnesses, the nature o f valid
testimo ny / evidence,
the
nature
of
crime(s), and the appro priate punishment.
A village scene showing a gathering of people
for a meeting similar to a pancayata from
Sanchi
To keep the pro cess o f justice free
(source: http:/ / diwancheruvu.webs.com/ )
fro m the influence o f the ruler, it was laid
do wn that the king was not allo wed to decide cases by himself alo ne. However, as is
the mo dern practice, the co urts functio ned o n behalf o f the highest autho rity. It was
the practice to keep reco rds o f all the decided cases. Further justice was administered
in o pen co urts and not away from the public gaze. The use o f fo rmer judgement as an
example was also well reco gnized.
Great value has always been attached by Indians to equality and justice. Rulers
such as Vikram āditya who dispensed unqualified justice live in the memory o f the
peo ple. Fo lk memo ry also remembers Rāja Hariścandra who wo uld no t vio late the law
even to facilitate his dead so n’s crematio n.
A lo ng-attested traditio n o f legal texts acco mpanies this primacy o f justice.
Kauṭilya no tes that ‘It is ... po wer ( daṅḍa) alo ne which, o nly when exercised by the
[ruler] with impartiality and in pro portio n to guilt either o f his so n o r his enemy,
maintains both this wo rld and the next.’
Much o f India’s widespread custo mary law prevalent amo ng peo ple is based
o n the wo rk o f the sm ṛitik āras, thinkers o f judiciary, who se injunctio ns are deeply
304
embedded in the co mmo n traditio ns and practices o f the so ciety. As far as civil law is
co ncerned, the British also based co lo nial India’s legal system o n this custo mary law
itself. In the Bengal Regulatio n o f 1780, Sectio n 27 pro vided that ‘... in all suits
regarding inheritance, marriage and caste and o ther religio us usages o r institutio ns,
the law ... o f the śāstras with respect to Gentus [Hindus] shall be invariably adhered
to .’ The Regulatio n o f 1781 added ‘successio n’ o r inheritance to the list. The Indian
law evo lved gradually with the changing needs of so ciety.
To capture the changing diverse custo mary practices o f a changing so ciety,
Indian laws have been co ntinuo usly adapted and extended thro ugh co mmentaries,
bh āṣyas
and nibandhas. Their authors introduced
inno vatio ns, co llected
and
harmo nized the diverse texts and mo dified and supplemented the rules in the sm ṛtis
‘in part by means o f their o wn reaso ning and in part in the light o f usages that had
grown up.’ For example, Baudh āyana, one of the Dharmaśāstrakaras, has no ted that
the practices amo ng the peo ple o f the no rth and the so uth differ fro m each o ther.
To sum up, the knowledge-centred Indian civilizatio n has elabo rate so cial,
po litical and legal tho ught and institutio ns that are motivated to secure the highest
ideals o f equality and justice. Thus the Greek Diodo rus Siculus, 1st century BCE, no ted:
Of several remarkable custo ms existing amo ng the Indians, there is o ne
prescribed by their [Indian] ancient philo so phers which o ne may regard
as truly admirable: for the law o rdains that no o ne amo ng them shall,
under any circumstances, be a slave, but that, enjo ying freedo m, they
shall respect the principle o f equality in all perso ns: for tho se, they
tho ught, who have learned neither to do mineer o ver no r to cringe to
o thers will attain the life best adapted fo r all vicissitudes o f lo t: since it is
silly to make laws o n the basis o f equality of all perso ns and yet to
establish inequalities in so cial interco urse.
305
Over time, all so cieties develo p infirmities but o ne must no t fo rget to loo k at
the ideals it upho lds — fo r the Himalayas are to be judged not by the valleys but by
the peaks.
Comprehension
1.
Why is there a need for po lity? What expression co nveys the reaso n why po lity
is essential to man’s existence?
2.
What are the co mpo nents o f so ciety?
3.
The wo rld today is in the grip o f the menace o f terrorism. What kind o f advice
wo uld Kauṭilya have given to the bureaucrats today?
4.
Make a graphic organizer describing the hierarchical structure o f o fficials who
assisted the king.
5.
What was the primary o bjective underlying the var ṇa vyavasth ā?
6.
With yo ur partner discuss the meaning o f the fo llo wing:
7.
a)
sam āja
b)
r ājya
c)
r ājā
d)
r āja tantra (p ālana vyavasthā).
In gro ups discuss what is meant by the fo llo wing:
a) Dharmasūtrās
b) Dharmaśāstrās
c) Nibandhas
Activity 1

What were the fo ur so urces o f law according to Kau ṭilya? Co mplete the
fo llo wing visual using the correct so urce.
306
Kauṭilya:
4 so urces o f laws
dharma
……………
(………………..)
(……………)
..…………
(…………….&
custo m)
Activity 2

What do yo u understand by the expressio n ‘so ciety in flux’? Discuss what
aspects o f Indian life and culture are in flux. Fill in the table below to highlight
key aspects o f Indian life which acco rding to yo ur gro up are in flux.
Values/ virtues/ features
of Indian life and
culture
Under flux
Analysis / comm ents / measures
to preserve or check
Activity 3

What do yo u understand by the co ncept o f ho mogeneity and pluralism?

Appo int a Gro up Repo rter to repo rt yo ur findings to the class.

Survey o f ho mo geneity: pan-Indian co mmo nality
307
Nam e
Marriage
Rituals
cerem ony
Social
Belief
attitudes
system s
Cuisine
toward elders
Activity 4

Sit in gro ups o f five. Find o ut details abo ut yo ur gro up in terms o f state, mo ther
to ngue, music, dance and cuisine. Plan a class survey and find o ut the fo llowing
info rmatio n abo ut yo ur classmates.

In what way is each member different?

Underlying these differences, what are the co mmo nalities amo ng yo u? Make
a list.

Appo int a gro up representative to tell the class abo ut the gro up. What are
its singularities in terms o f language, custo ms, practices, apparels and fo od?

Nam e
Survey o f Gro up Singularities
State
Religion
308
Mother
Folk m usic
tongue
and dance
Cuisine
Activity 5

What is the ideal o rganizatio n o f an individual’s life? Co mplete the table below
with the names o f the co rrect stages o f the āśrama vyavasth ā.
āśrama
vyavasthā
a)
In gro ups o f fo ur, each o f yo u take up the fo ur stages o f an individual’s life.
Examine its key aspects and characteristics? Is there any advice given o n
ho w best to co nduct o neself in each o f these stages?
b)
Next, design a presentatio n o n the fo ur stages. Yo u may use any medium
to describe it. Fo r example, yo u may like to express the gṛhastha āśrama
with its myriad co lo ur thro ugh a dance, o r visual, co llage o r a multimedia
presentatio n alo ng with a running co mmentary etc.
Project Ideas

The Ṛgvedic marriage hymn go es, “ I take yo ur hand in mine fo r happy fortune
that yo u may reach o ld age with me yo ur husband.” Basing yo urselves o n this
dictum, discuss the fo llowing in yo ur gro up:

the institutio n o f marriage

the changes taking place

their impact o n so ciety to day.
Prepare a spoo f, skit, dramatic presentatio n highlighting yo ur views o n:

Marriage: Indian style; o r

Marriage: Then and Now.
309

Make a list o f the legislatio ns that have been passed to impro ve the rights o f
wo men. And

in gro ups discuss whether the legislatio n has in actuality altered the
co nditio n o f wo men.

Yo u may like to express yo ur views thro ugh a multimedia presentatio n
using newspaper repo rts, clippings, TV news items, etc

Organize an address by Kau ṭilya to the leaders o f the 21st century. Examine the
advice given by Kau ṭilya to the ruler or king. Imagine yo u are Kau ṭilya; yo u have
been transported into the 21st century. Address the leaders o f the co untry.
Assess them and evaluate their performance. Inspire and advise them abo ut
their ro le and duty.

Sit in gro ups. Each o f yo ur gro ups has to send a team to represent yo ur gro up in
an impo rtant seminar o n the fo llowing to pic: ‘The Hindu family, particularly,
the jo int family is a unique institutio n which is the chief reaso n for the survival
o f Hindu so ciety and culture in the face o f tho usands o f years o f o nslaught.’
Further Reading

Altekar, A.S., (1949) 2001. State and Government in Ancient India. Delhi: Mo tilal
Banarsidass.

Kau ṭilya’s
Arthaśāstra, tr. R. Shamasastry. 1905.

Pande, G.C. (ed.). 2001. Life, Thought and Culture in India (from c. 600 BC to c. AD 300) ,
vo l. 1, part 2 in Pro ject o f History o f Indian Science, Philo so phy and Culture.
New Delhi: Centre fo r Studies in civilizatio ns.

Sircar, D.C. (1974) 1995. Studies in the Political and Administrative Systems in Ancient
and Medieval India. Delhi: Mo tilal Banarsidass.

Tiruvalluvar: The Kural, tr. P.S. Sundaram. 1990. New Delhi: Penguin Bo o ks,)
Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in July 2013)

Solah saṁsk āras: www.religiousportal.com/ 16sanskars.html
310

Po sitio n o f wo men in Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra:
www.asiaticsociety.org.bd/ journals/ June_2009/ contents/ Protiti%20shirin.htm

Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra translated by R. Shamasastry:
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Arthaśāstra

“ Demo cracy in Ancient India” by Steve Muhlberger:
http:/ / faculty.nipissingu.ca/ muhlberger/ HISTDEM/ INDIADEM.HTM

311
Primary Texts on Society State and Polity:
A Selection
State and Polity
A Ruler’s Dharma
In V ālmiki’s Rāmāyaṇa, Bharata go es and meets his bro ther Rāma at the Citrakūṭa
hill as soo n as he learns o f the latter’s exile. Witho ut waiting to hear Bharata’s news
(o f their father’s death), Rāma gives Bharata detailed advice o n how to rule the
kingdo m o f Ayo dhy ā. This brief discourse encapsulates the dharma o f a ruler.
Have yo u appo inted ministers who are self-restrained and brave, who are
well-bo rn, trustworthy and skilled in the arts o f diplo macy? Decisio ns
taken after due co nsideratio n by ministers who are learned in po lity as
well as reliable are very important fo r the success o f the kings. I trust that
yo u do no t sleep to o much, that yo u wake at the appro priate time and
spend the early ho urs o f the mo rning thinking abo ut ho w yo u can achieve
yo ur ends.
Do no t take advice fro m o nly o ne man o r either fro m to o many and
make sure that yo ur innermo st tho ughts are no t spread all o ver the
kingdo m. Do yo u act quickly and witho ut delay so that yo u can achieve
yo ur ends by simple means? Do yo ur tributary kings know abo ut yo ur
plans o nly after they have been implemented o r do they hear abo ut them
while they are in pro cess? No o ne sho uld know abo ut the pro cess o f yo ur
deliberatio ns unless yo u have taken that perso n into co nfidence.
Cho o se o ne learned and intelligent man as your adviso r instead o f a
tho usand foo lish men, fo r the learned can do a great deal o f goo d and
312
achieve all yo ur go als. A tho usand foo lish men can do nothing fo r a king,
but o ne adviso r who is skilled, o bservant, brave and intelligent can bring a
king great glo ry.
Give the best o f yo ur retainers the mo st important tasks to perform the
less impo rtant wo rk to the middling retainers and the least impo rtant
wo rk to tho se who rank the lowest. Trust the significant affairs o f state to
men who are pure in tho ught, to tho se who have been tested and fo und
true and to tho se who are hereditary ho lders o f o ffice. Do no t let yo ur
subjects think badly o f yo u. Yo u must quickly get rid o f a brave and skilled
man who has co nspired against yo u and aspires to power, o r yo u will be
killed by him.
Have yo u appo inted a brave, reso lute, wise, skilled and no bly-bo rn man
as the co mmander o f yo ur army? The men who lead yo ur army are stro ng
and skilled in the arts o f war. Do yo u ho no ur and praise them
appro priately? Do yo u supply yo ur army with pro per foo d and pay each
man his due? Yo u must do this witho ut any delay at the appo inted time.
Fo r if foo d and wages are delayed, the army will rise against its master in
anger.
Are all the princes and yo ur retainers devo ted to yo u? Will they calmly
give up their lives fo r yo ur sake? Have yo u cho sen a man who is elo quent,
wise, skilled and learned as yo ur perso nal messenger? Do yo u keep the
impo rtant men in other kingdo ms and in yo ur o wn under co nstant watch
by three spies each, unknown to each other and to the world? Do yo u keep
a special watch o ver yo ur exiled enemies who have returned? Never think
o f them as weak o r ineffectual. ...
313
Child, the city ruled by o ur fo refathers that is filled with ho rses,
elephants and chario ts, inhabited by tho usands o f no ble peo ple and
Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas who are all enthusiastic, disciplined
and devo ted to their duty, do yo u protect that city o f Ayo dhya such that
its name which means “ impregnable” stands true? It is a king’s duty to
pro tect his peo ple with dharma. Do yo u reassure the wo men and make
sure that they are safe? Do yo u ensure that yo u do no t co nfide in them nor
trust what they say?
Do yo u wake up early in the mo rning and show yo urself to the peo ple,
fully adorned, in the assembly hall and in the main street? Are all yo ur
fo rts well supplied with grain and water, with weapo ns and machines,
wo rkmen and archers? Is yo ur inco me greater than yo ur expenditure? Do
no t waste yo ur mo ney o n inco nsequential things. Spend yo ur mo ney o n
wo rshipping the go ds and the ancesto rs and in ho no uring Br āhmins,
Kṣatriyas and yo ur allies.
If a no ble man who is pure in spirit and deed is accused o f theft by
co nspirato rs, he must be questio ned by experts befo re his wealth is
attached o ut o f greed. If a thief is caught and questio ned and evidence is
fo und against him, he sho uld no t be set free fo r reaso ns o f greed. And
when a man is in tro uble, be he rich o r po o r, do yo ur learned ministers
inquire into the matter? The tears o f a man unjustly accused can destro y
the pro geny and wealth o f a king who rules fo r selfish pleasures.
Do yo u keep the elders happy by giving them what they want? And
children happy by giving them affectio n and scho lars happy by speaking
with gratitude? Do yo u ho no ur the elders and the teachers, ascetics, go ds
and guests, brahmins and tho se who have acco mplished their ends?
314
Do no t pursue dharma at the expense o f material gain or power at the
co st o f dharma o r neglect them both o ut o f a desire fo r pleasure. Bharata,
yo u know the appro priate time for all these things and, therefore, pursue
each at the right time. Do the brahmins and the co mmo n peo ple pray
to gether for yo ur welfare? Avo id the flaws that mar the perso nality o f a
great
king, including atheism, untruth, anger, licentio usness and
pro crastinatio n. Do no t taste yo ur fo od yo urself and give genero usly to
yo ur friends and tho se who need help. (Tr. Arshia Sattar, Penguin Bo o ks,
2000)
***
The Ideal King
Fo llo wing are extracts fro m a Jain text, Nectar of Aphorisms on Polity (in Sanskrit pro se)
o f So madeva, a Digambara teacher o f the 10th century. This is a co llectio n o f gno mic
sentences o n po litics and goo d co nduct, written in Sanskrit pro se.
A true lord is he, who is righteo us, pure in lineage, co nduct and asso ciates,
brave, and co nsiderate in his behavio ur.
He is a true king who is self-co ntro lled whether in anger o r pleasure, and
who increases his o wn excellence.
All subjects are dependent o n the king. Tho se witho ut a lo rd canno t
fulfil their desires.
Tho ugh they be rich, subjects witho ut a king canno t thrive. Ho w can
human effo rt be o f any avail in cultivating a tree witho ut roo ts?
If the king do es no t speak the truth all his merits are wo rthless. If he
deceives, his co urtiers leave him, and he do es not live lo ng.
He is dear to the peo ple who gives o f his treasure.
He is a great giver who se mind is not set o n frustrating the ho pes o f
suppliants.
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Of what use is the barren cow, which gives no milk?
Of what use is the king’s grace, if he do es no t fulfil the ho pes o f
suppliants?
Fo r an ungrateful king there is no help in tro uble. His frugal co urt is like
a ho le full o f snakes, which no o ne will enter.
If the king do es no t reco gnize merit the cultured will no t co me to his
co urt.
The king who thinks o nly o f filling his belly is abando ned even by his
queen.
Laziness is the doo r thro ugh which all misfo rtunes enter....
A king’s o rder is a wall which no ne can climb. He sho uld not to lerate
even a so n who diso beys his co mmands....
He sho uld never speak hurtfully, untrustworthily, untruthfully, o r
unnecessarily.
He sho uld never be impro per in dress o r manners.
When the king is deceitful, who will no t be deceitful? When the king is
unrighteo us who will no t be unrighteo us? …
He sho uld perso nally loo k into the affairs o f his peo ple….
Bribery is the doo r thro ugh which co me all manner o f sins. Tho se who
live by bribery cut o ff their mo ther’s breasts....
The king is the maker o f the times. When the king rightly protects his
subjects all the quarters are wishing — co ws, Indra rains in due seaso ns,
and all living things are in peace. ( Nītivākyāmṛta, 17.180-84, Sources of
Indian Tradition , Stephen N. Hay & William Theo do re De Bary, Delhi:
Mo tilal Banarsidass, 1988, pp. 88-89)
*
316
So madeva o n practical gro unds advises war only as a last resort, unlike the many
Hindu po litical theorists who lo o k o n it as a no rmal activity o f the king.
The fo rce o f arms canno t do what peace do es. If yo u can gain yo ur desired
end with sugar, why use po iso n? ...
What sensible man wo uld abando n his bale (o f merchandise) for fear o f
having to pay to ll o n it?
Fo r when the water is drained fro m the lake the cro co dile gro ws as thin
as a snake.
A lio n when he leaves the forest is no mo re than a jackal.
And a snake who se fangs are drawn is a mere rope.
In unio n is strength: Even a mad elephant will trip o n a twisted clump o f
grass. And the elephants o f the quarters are held by ro pes o f twisted
fibres.
But what is the use o f o ther means when the enemy can o nly be put
do wn by fo rce? Such expedients are like a libatio n o f ghee po ured o n the
fire (which makes it burn more fiercely). (Fro m Nitiv ākyāmṛta, 344-56,
Sources of Indian Tradition, p. 90)
***
The Ideal of Government, and the Decay and Growth of Civilization
In the past there was a king called Dalhanemi. He was a Universal
Empero r a king o f Righteo usness, a co nqueror o f the fo ur quarters, a
pro tector o f his peo ple, a po ssessor o f the Seven Jewels-the Wheel, the
Elephant, and Ho rse, the Gem, the Wo man, the Ho useho lder, and the
General. He had o ver a tho usand so ns, all heroes brave o f body, crushers
317
o f enemy armies. He co nquered the earth from ocean to o cean and ruled it
no t by the rod o r by the swo rd, but by the Law of Righteo usness.
No w after many tho usands o f years King Dalhanermi ordered o ne o f his
men thus: “ When yo u see that the Divine Wheel has sunk or slipped fro m
its place, co me and tell me.” ... And after many tho usand years more the
man said that the Divine Wheel had sunk ... and went and to ld the King. So
King Dalhanemi sent for his eldest so n, and said: “ Dear bo y, the Divine
Wheel has sunk, and I’ve been to ld that when the Wheel o f a Universal
Empero r sinks he has not lo ng to live. I have had my fill o f human
pleasure — no w the time has come for me to lo o k for divine jo ys. Co me,
dear bo y, yo u must take charge o f the earth....” So King Dalhanemi duly
established his eldest so n o n the thro ne, shaved his hair and beard, put o n
yello w ro bes, and left his ho me for the state o f ho melessness. And when
the ro yal sage had left his ho me seven days the Divine Wheel co mpletely
vanished.
Then a certain man went to the King, the ano inted warrio r, and to ld him
that it had vanished. He was beside himself with so rrow. So he went to the
ro yal sage his father and to ld him abo ut it. “ Don’t grieve that the Divine
Wheel has disappeared,” he said. “ The Divine Wheel isn’t an heirlo om, my
dear boy! Yo u must fo llo w the no ble way o f the Universal Empero rs. If yo u
do this and keep the fast o f the full mo o n o n the upper terrace o f yo ur
palace the Divine Wheel will be seen again, co mplete with its tho usand
spo kes, its tire, its nave, and all its other parts.”
“ But what, yo ur Majesty, is the no ble way o f the Universal Emperors?”
“ It is this, dear bo y, that yo u sho uld rely o n the Law o f Righteo usness,
ho no ur, revere, respect, and wo rship it. Yo u sho uld be yo urself the
318
banner
of
Righteo usness,
the
emblem
of
Righteo usness,
with
Righteo usness as yo ur master. Acco rding to Righteo usness yo u sho uld
guard, pro tect, and watch o ver yo ur o wn family and peo ple, yo ur armed
fo rces, yo ur warriors, yo ur o fficers, priests and ho useho lders, to wnsmen
and co untry fo lk, ascetics and br āhmaṇas, beasts and birds. There sho uld
be no evil-do ing thro ugho ut yo ur do mains, and who ever is po o r in yo ur
land sho uld be given wealth.... Avo id evil and fo llo w go od. That is the
no ble way o f the Universal Empero rs.” (From Digha Nik āya, 3.58 ff, Sources
of Indian Tradition, pp. 136-37.)
***
Conditions’ of the Welfare of Societies
The fo llowing passage o ccurs in the Disco urse o f the Great Passing-away , which
describes the last days and death o f the Buddha. It is fo llo wed by a lo nger passage in
which the Buddha is purpo rted to have adapted the list o f the seven co nditio ns o f the
welfare o f republics to the circumstances o f the Buddhist Order. Acco rding to the
Hindu tho ught the purpo se o f go vernment was no t to legislate, but o nly to
administer the eternal law ( sanātanadharma).
Once the Lo rd (Buddha) was staying at Rājagaha [mo dern Rajgir in
so uthern Bihar] o n the hill called Vulture’s Peak ( Gṛdhrak ūṭa Parvata) …
and the Venerable Ānanda was standing behind him and fanning him. And
the Lo rd said: “ Have yo u heard, Ānanda, that the Vajjis [or Vrijjis, a
Mahajanapada lo cated to the no rth o f to day’s Patna] call frequent public
assemblies o f the tribe?” “ Yes, Lord,” he replied.
“ As lo ng as they do so ,” said the Lo rd, “ they may be expected no t to
decline, but to flo urish.”
319
“ As lo ng as they meet in co ncord, co nclude their meetings in co nco rd,
and carry o ut their po licies in co nco rd; ... as lo ng as they make no laws no t
already promulgated, and set aside no thing enacted in the past, acting in
acco rdance with the ancient institutio ns o f the Vajjis, established in o lden
days; ... as lo ng as they respect, esteem, reverence, and support the elders
o f the Vajjis, and loo k o n it as a duty to heed their words; … as lo ng as no
wo men o r girls o f their tribes are held by force o r abducted; ... as lo ng as
they respect, esteem, reverence, and suppo rt the shrines o f the Vajjis,
whether in town or co untry, and do not neglect the pro per o fferings and
rites laid do wn and practised in the past; ... as lo ng as they give due
pro tectio n, deference, and suppo rt to the perfected beings amo ng them so
that such perfected beings may co me to the land fro m afar and live
co mfo rtably amo ng them, so lo ng may they be expected no t to decline,
but, to flo urish.” ( Digha Nik āya, 2.72 ff., Sources of Indian Tradition, pp. 142143)
***
Birth Is No Criterion of Worth
The divisio n o f the fo ur classes was believed to be a functio nal o ne, with no divine
sanctio n. The Buddhist view is summed up in this verse:
No brahman is such by birth.
No o utcaste is such by birth.
An o utcaste is such by his deeds.
A brahman is such by his deeds. ( Sutta Nipiita, verse 136)
***
320
Dharma as the Supreme Authority
The regulatio n o f this o rdered universe was established by cosmic law o r o rder, ṛta o r
dharma. Hence, the perfo rmance o f duty in accordance with this law bro ught abo ut a
state o f harmo ny with the ordered universe ( sat ) and was regarded as satya (truth). In
this way, co smic law was identified with truth and was regarded as the ultimate
autho rity to which even the king was o bliged to yield. This supremacy o f dharma is
the basic co ncept o f ancient Indian so cial and political tho ught.
Verily, in the beginning this (wo rld) was Brahman, being o nly o ne. That
Brahman, being o ne, did not pro sper. It therefo re bro ught fo rth an
excellent
fo rm, k ṣatra, such as tho se amo ng the
go ds who
are
embo diments o f k ṣatra, namely Indra, Varuṇa.… Therefo re, there is
no thing higher than k ṣatra. Therefore, the br āhmaṇa sits belo w the k ṣatriya
at the co ro natio n ( rajasuya) sacrifice. Thereby, indeed, Brahman co nfers
ho no ur o n k ṣatra. The so urce o f k ṣatra, however, is this very Brahman.
Therefo re, even tho ugh the king attains supremacy, finally he has to
reso rt to Brahman, which is, indeed, his o wn so urce. So a king who injures
Brahman, attacks his own so urce. He becomes more sinful as do es o ne
who injures his superio rs.
... That Brahman bro ught fo rth an excellent fo rm, dharma (law). This
dharma is the so vereign power ruling o ver k ṣatra itself. Therefo re, there is
no thing higher than dharma. Thereby, even the weak can overco me the
stro ng with the help o f dharma as with the help o f a king. Verily, that
which is dharma is truth ( satya). Therefo re, they say o f a man who speaks
dharma, that he speaks the truth, for, verily, these two are o ne and the
same. (Fro m Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, 1.4.11-14)
***
321
The Origin of Kingship
The Mah ābhārata, an encyclopaedic epic composed by Sage Vedavyāsa , co ntains a
number o f sectio ns dealing with state, po lity and ethics.
Yudhiṣṭhira said: “ This wo rd ‘king’ (r āja) is so very current in this wo rld, O
Bh ārata; how has it o riginated? Tell me that, O grandfather.”
Bh īshma said: “ Certainly, O best amo ng men, do yo u listen to everything
in its entirety — how kingship originated first during the go lden age ( k ṛtayuga). Neither kingship no r king was there in the beginning, neither
sceptre ( daṇḍa) no r the bearer o f a sceptre. All peo ple protected o ne
ano ther, by means o f righteo us co nduct ( dharma). Thus, while pro tecting
o ne ano ther by means o f righteo us co nduct, O Bh ārata, men eventually
fell into a state o f spiritual lassitude. Then delusio n o vercame them. Men
were thus o verpo wered by infatuatio n, O leader o f men, o n acco unt o f the
delusio n o f understanding; their sense o f righteo us co nduct was lo st.
(Mah ābhārata, 12.59.5, 13-30, 93-94)
“ When understanding was lost, all men, O best o f the Bh āratas,
o verpowered by infatuatio n, became victims o f greed. Then they so ught to
acquire what sho uld not be acquired. Thereby, indeed, O lo rd, another
vice, namely desire, o vercame them. Attachment then attacked them, who
had beco me victims o f desire. Attached to o bjects o f sense, they did no t
discriminate between right and wro ng actio n, O Yudhiṣṭhira. They did not
avo id, O king o f kings, pursuing what was no t worth pursuing, nor,
similarly, did they discriminate between what sho uld be said and what
sho uld no t be said, between the edible and inedible, and between right
and wro ng. When this world o f men had been submerged in dissipatio n,
322
all spiritual kno wledge ( brahman ) perished; and when spiritual knowledge
perished, O king, righteo us co nduct also perished.
“ When spiritual knowledge and righteo us co nduct perished, the gods
were o vercome with fear, and fearfully so ught refuge with Brahm ā, the
creato r. Go ing to the great lo rd, the ancesto r of the wo rlds, all the go ds,
afflicted with so rrow, misery, and fear, with fo lded hands said: ‘O Lo rd,
the eternal spiritual kno wledge, which had existed in the wo rld o f men
has perished because o f greed, infatuatio n, and the like, therefo re we have
beco me fearful. Thro ugh the lo ss o f spiritual kno wledge, righteo us
co nduct also has perished, O Go d. ...
“ Then the go ds appro ached Viṣṇu, the lo rd o f creatures, and said:
‘Indicate to us that o ne perso n amo ng mortals who alo ne is wo rthy o f the
highest eminence.’ Then the blessed lo rd go d Nār āyaṇa reflected, and
bro ught fo rth an illustrio us mind-bo rn so n, called Virajas (who became
the first king).” (Fro m Mah ābhārata, pp. 243-245)
***
The Science of Polity
The Arthaśāstra o f Kauṭilya (the teacher and mah āmantrī o f the great Mauryan
empero r Chandragupta Maurya) is a seminal work o n Indian po lity and go vernance.
Philo so phy, the Veda, the science o f eco no mics, and the science o f po lity
— these are the sciences….
Agriculture, cattle-breeding, trade, and co mmerce co nstitute the main
to pics dealt with in the science o f eco no mics; it is helpful o n acco unt o f its
making available grains, cattle, go ld, raw material, and free labo ur.
323
Thro ugh the kno wledge o f eco nomics, a king brings under his co ntro l
his own party and the enemy’s party with the help o f treasury and army.
The sceptre ( daṇḍa) is the means o f the acquisitio n and the preservatio n
o f philo so phy, the Veda, and eco no mics. The science treating with the
effective bearing o f the sceptre is the science o f po lity ( daṇḍanīti) . It
co nduces to the acquisitio n o f what is not acquired; the preservatio n o f
what has been acquired, the growth o f what has been preserved, and the
distributio n amo ng worthy peo ple o f what has grown. It is o n it (the
science o f po lity) that the pro per functio ning o f so ciety (lit., the wo rld)
depends….
Of the three ends o f human life, material gain is, verily, the mo st
impo rtant. So says Kauṭilya. On material gain depends the realizatio n o f
dharma and pleasure ( k āma).” (From Kau ṭilya’s
Arthaśāstra, 1.2, 3, 4, 7)
*
Co mpo sed by the sage Śukrācārya, Śukranīti (lit. the mo ral and po litical disco urse o f
Sage Śukr ācārya) is a major text o n po lity, ethics and go vernance.
The science o f po licy co nduces to the fulfilment o f all desires and is,
therefo re, respected by all peo ple. It is quite indispensable even to a king,
fo r he is the lo rd o f all peo ple. ( Śukranīti, 1.4-19)
The primary duty o f a king co nsists o f the protectio n o f his subjects and
the co nstant keeping under co ntro l o f evil elements. These two canno t
po ssibly be acco mplished witho ut the science o f po licy.
Absence o f the kno wledge o f the science o f po licy is, verily, the weakest
po int o f a king — it is ever dangero us, it is said to be a great help to the
324
growth o f the enemy and to the diminutio n o f o ne’s o n po wer. ( Śukranīti,
quo ted in Sources of Indian Tradition, p. 246)
[Abo ut the State administratio n:] The chaplain, the deputy, the premier,
the co mmandant, the co unsello r, the judge, the scho lar, the eco no mic
adviser, the minister, and the ambassadors — these are the king’s ten
primary o fficers. ( Śukranīti, 2.69, 70, 77-103, p. 255)
***
Duties of a King
Only if a king is himself energetically active, do his o fficers fo llow him
energetically. If he is sluggish, they to o remain sluggish. And, besides,
they eat up their wo rks. He is thereby easily o verpo wered by his enemies.
( Kau ṭilya’s Arthaśāstra, 1.19)
*
The Seven Limbs of the State
The state o r so vereignty was regarded as an o rganic who le made up o f seven
co nstituents, which are called the “ limbs” o f the bo dy po litic — the mo narch being
just o ne o f tho se co nstituents. The state can functio n effectively o nly if these
co nstituents remain pro perly integrated with one ano ther. Mo dern po litical theo rists
mentio n, territo ry, po pulatio n, and central go vernment as to gether co nstituting the
state. It is interesting to no te the additio nal co nstituents mentio ned by Kauṭilya, who
is first amo ng ancient Indian writers to advance the theory o f the seven co nstituents
o f the state. ( Sources of Indian Tradition, p. 249)
The king, the ministers, the co untry, the fo rts, the treasury, the army, and
the allies are the co nstituents o f the state.
325
Of these, the perfectio n o f the king is this: born o f a high family; no nfatalistic; endo wed with stro ng character; lo o king up to (experienced) o ld
men (fo r guidance); religio us, truthful in speech; no t inco nsistent (in his
behavio ur); grateful; having liberal aims; full o f abundant energy; not
pro crastinating; co ntro ller o f his feudatories; o f determined intellect;
having an assembly o f ministers o f no mean quality; intent o n discipline
these are the qualities by means o f which peo ple are attracted toward
him. Inquiry, study; perceptio n; retentio n; analytical knowledge; critical
acumen; keenness fo r the realizatio n o f reality — these are the qualities o f
the intellect. Valo ur; impetuo sity; agility; and dexterity — these are the
qualities o f energy. Of pro fo und knowledge; endo wed with stro ng
memo ry,
co gitative
faculty,
and
physical
strength
exalted
easily
co ntro lling himself; adept in arts; rid o f difficulties; capable bearer o f the
sceptre ( daṇḍa); o penly respo nding both to acts o f help and harm; full o f
shame (to do anything evil) ... seeing far and wide; ... skilled in
discriminating between co nditio ns which require co nclusio n o f a treaty
and manifestatio n o f valo ur, letting o ff the enemies and curbing them,
and waiting under the pretext o f so me mutual understanding and taking
advantage o f the enemies’ weak po ints; laughing jo yfully, but guardedly
and witho ut lo ss o f dignity; lo o king straight and with uncoo ked bro w; free
fro m passio n; anger, greed, o bstinacy fickleness, heat, and calumny;
capable o f self-management; speaking with peo ple; smilingly but with
dignity; o bserving custo ms as taught by elderly peo ple — these are the
qualities o f the perso nality.
... [A minister sho uld be] native to the kingdom, bo rn o f high family,
influential, trained in arts, endo wed with fo resight, bo ld elo quent,
dignity, endurance etc.
326
Firm in the midland and at the bo undaries; capable o f affording
subsistence to its own peo ple and, in case o f difficulties, also to o utsiders;
easy to defend; affo rding easy livelihoo d to the peo ple; full o f hatred fo r
the enemy; capable o f co ntro lling [by its strategic po sitio n] the do minio ns
o f the feudatories; devo id o f muddy, ro cky, salty, uneven and tho rny
tracts, and o f forests infested with treachero us animals and wild animals;
pleasing; rich in arable land, mines, and timber and elephant fo rests;
who leso me to co ws; who lesome to men; with well-preserved pastures;
rich in cattle; no t depending entirely o n rain; po ssessing waterways and
o verland roads; having markets full o f valuable, manifo ld, and abundant
ware; capable o f bearing the burden o f army and taxatio n ... — this is the
perfectio n o f the co untry.
In the happiness o f the subjects lies the happiness o f the king; in their
welfare, his o wn welfare. The welfare o f the king do es no t lie in the
fulfilment o f what is dear to him; whatever is dear to the subjects
co nstitutes his welfare. (From Kau ṭilya’s Art haśāstra 1.9 & 6.1, quo ted in
Sources of Indian Tradition, pp. 248–250)
***
Aśoka in his Edicts gave strict instructions to his high officials (mahāmātras) to deal
fairly with the peo ple, amo ng o ther things:
This edict has been written for the fo llo wing purpo se: that the judicial
o fficers o f the city may strive to do their duty and that the peo ple under
them might no t suffer unjust impriso nment o r harsh treatment. To
achieve this, I will send o ut mah āmātras every five years who are not harsh
o r cruel, but who are merciful and who can ascertain if the judicial
o fficers have understoo d my purpo se and are acting acco rding to my
327
instructio ns. Similarly, fro m Ujjayini, the prince will send similar perso ns
with the same purpo se witho ut allowing three years to elapse. Likewise
fro m Takhasila also . When these mah āmātras go o n to urs o f inspectio n
each year, then witho ut neglecting their no rmal duties, they will ascertain
if judicial o fficers are acting according to the king' s instructio ns.
Belo ved-o f-the-Go ds speaks thus: This ro yal o rder is to be addressed to
the mah āmātras at Samapa. I wish to see that everything I co nsider to be
pro per is carried o ut in the right way. And I co nsider instructing yo u to be
the best way o f acco mplishing this. All men are my children. What I desire
fo r my o wn children, and I desire their welfare and happiness bo th in this
wo rld and the next, that I desire fo r all men. (Fro m Kalinga Ro ck Edicts 1
& 2, English rendering Ven. S. Dhammika.)
***
Society
Marriage
Marriage precedes the o ther calls o f life ( vyavah āra). The giving in
marriage o f a maiden well-ado rned is called brāhma marriage. The jo intperfo rmance o f sacred duties (by a man and a wo man) is kno wn as
pr ājāpatya marriage. [The giving in marriage o f a maiden] fo r a co uple o f
co ws is called arsha. [The giving in marriage o f a maiden] to an o fficiating
priest in a sacrifice is called daiva. The vo luntary unio n o f a maiden with
her lo ver is called g āndharva. Giving a maiden after receiving plenty o f
wealth ( sūlka) is termed asura. The abduction o f a maiden is called
r ākshasa. The abductio n o f a maiden while she is asleep and in into xicatio n
is called p aiśāca marriage. Of these, the first fo ur are ancestral custo ms o f
328
o ld and are valid o n their being approved o f by the father. The rest are to
be sanctio ned by bo th the father and the mo ther; fo r it is they that receive
the mo ney ( sūlka) paid by the bridegroo m for their daughter. In case o f
the absence by death o f either the father o r the mo ther, the survivo r will
receive the sūlka. If bo th o f them are dead, the maiden herself shall
receive it. Any kind o f marriage is approvable, pro vided it pleases all
tho se [that are co ncerned in it]. ( Kau ṭilya’s Arthaśāstra, Ch. 2)
*
Property of Women
Means o f subsistence ( v ṛtti) or jewellery ( ābadhya) co nstitutes what is
called the pro perty o f a wo man. Means o f subsistence valued at above two
tho usand shall be endowed [o n her name]. There is no limit to jewellery. It
is no guilt for the wife to make use o f this pro perty in maintaining her
so n, her daughter-in-law or herself whenever her absent husband has
made no pro visio n fo r her maintenance. In calamities, disease and famine,
in warding o ff dangers and in charitable acts, the husband, too , may make
use o f this pro perty. Neither shall there be any co mplaint against the
enjo yment o f this pro perty by mutual co nsent by a co uple who have
bro ught fo rth a twin. Nor shall there be any co mplaint if this pro perty has
been enjo yed fo r three years by tho se who are wedded in acco rdance with
the customs o f the first fo ur kinds o f marriage. But the enjo yment o f this
pro perty in the cases o f g āndharva and asura marriages shall be liable to be
resto red to gether with interest o n it. In the case o f such marriages as are
called r ākshasa and p aiśāca, the use o f this pro perty shall be dealt with as
theft. Thus the duty o f marriage is dealt with.
329
On the death o f her husband a woman, desiro us to lead a pio us life, shall
at o nce receive no t o nly her endowment and jewellery ( sth āpy ābharanam ),
but also the balance o f sūlka due to her. If bo th of these two things are no t
actually in her po ssessio n, tho ugh no minally given to her, she shall at
o nce receive bo th o f them to gether with interest [o n their value]. If she is
desiro us o f a seco nd marriage ( kutumbakama), she shall be given o n the
o ccasio n o f her remarriage ( niveśakāle) whatever either her father-in-law
o r her husband o r both had given to her. The time at which wo men can
remarry shall be explained in co nnectio n with the subject o f lo ng so jo urn
o f husbands.
If a widow marries any man o ther than o f her father-in-law’s selectio n
( svasurapr ātilo-myenaniviṣt ā), she shall forfeit whatever had been given to
her by her father-in-law and her husband.
The kinsmen o f a woman shall return to her whatever pro perty o f her
o wn she had placed in their custo dy. Who ever justly takes a wo man under
his protectio n shall equally pro tect her pro perty. No wo man shall succeed
in her attempt to establish her title to the pro perty o f her husband.
If she lives a pio us life, she may enjo y it ( dharmak āmā bhuñjīta). No
wo man with a so n or so ns shall be at liberty to make free use o f her own
pro perty ( str īdhana); fo r that pro perty o f hers her so ns shall receive.
If a wo man attempts to take possessio n o f her o wn pro perty under the
plea o f maintaining her so ns, she shall be made to endo w it in their name.
If a wo man has many male children, then she shall co nserve her o wn
pro perty in the same co nditio n as she had received fro m her husband.
Even that pro perty which has been given her with full powers o f
330
enjo yment and dispo sal she shall endo w in the name o f her so ns.
( Kau ṭilya’s Arthaśāstra, Ch. 2)
***
Position of Women
Wo men must be ho no ured and ado rned by their fathers, brothers,
husbands, and brother-in-laws who desire great go o d fortune.
Where wo men, verily, are ho no ured, there gods rejo ice; where, ho wever,
they are no t ho no ured, there all sacred rites prove fruitless.
Where female relatio ns live in grief — that family so o n perishes
co mpletely; where, ho wever, they do no t suffer fro m any grievance — that
family always pro spers...
Even against the slightest pro vo catio ns sho uld wo men be particularly
guarded; fo r unguarded they wo uld bring grief to bo th the families.
Regarding this as the highest dharma o f all fo ur classes, husbands,
tho ugh weak, must strive to protect their wives. (Fro m Manusm ṛti, 3.55-57,
9.3-7, 11, 26)
***
Interreligious Harmony
Aśoka in his Edicts set down what he perceived to be essential conditions for
interreligio us harmo ny. His insistence o n mo deratio n in pro mo ting o ne’s religio n
and o n studying o thers’ religio ns is insightful and still o f great relevance.
Belo ved-o f-the- Gods, King Piyadasi [i.e., Aśoka], honours both ascetics and
the ho useho lders o f all religio ns, and he ho no urs them with gifts and
ho no urs o f vario us kinds. But Belo ved-o f-the-Go ds, King Piyadasi, do es
331
no t value gifts and ho no urs as much as he values this — that there sho uld
be growth in the essentials o f all religio ns. Gro wth in essentials can be
do ne in different ways, but all o f them have as their ro ot restraint in
speech, that is, no t praising o ne’s o wn religio n, o r co ndemning the
religio n o f others witho ut go od cause. And if there is cause for criticism, it
sho uld be do ne in a mild way. But it is better to ho no ur other religio ns fo r
this reaso n. By so do ing, o ne' s own religio n benefits, and so do other
religio ns, while do ing o therwise harms o ne’s own religio n and the
religio ns o f o thers. Who ever praises his own religio n, due to excessive
devo tio n, and co ndemns o thers with the tho ught “ Let me glo rify my own
religio n,” o nly harms his o wn religio n. Therefo re co ntact (between
religio ns) is go od. One sho uld listen to and respect the do ctrines pro fessed
by o thers. Belo ved-o f-the-Go ds, King Piyadasi, desires that all sho uld be
well-learned in the go od do ctrines o f o ther religio ns. (Twelfth Ro ck Edict,
English rendering by Ven. S. Dhammika)
Islamic Society— the four- class division of society
The first reading has been taken fro m a Persian work o n ethics written o utside India
in the seco nd half o f the 15th century. The wo rk is Jalali’s Ethics (Akhlāq-i-Jalāli) by
Muhammad ibn Asad Jalāl ud-d īn al-Daww ānī (1427-1501). It was po pular in Mughal
India.
In o rder to preserve this po litical equipo ise, there is a co rrespo ndence to
be maintained between the vario us classes. Like as the equipo ise o f
po litical temperament is effected by intermixture and correspo ndence o f
fo ur elements, the equipo ise o f the po litical temperament is to be so ught
fo r in the correspo ndence o f fo ur classes.
332
1. Men
of
the
pen, such
as
lawyers, divines,
judges,
boo kmen,
statisticians, geo metricians, astro no mers, physicians, po ets. In these
and their exertio ns in the use o f their delightful pens, the subsistence
o f the faith and o f the wo rld itself is vested and bo und up. …
2. Men o f the swo rd, such as so ldiers, fighting zealo ts, guards o f fo rts and
passes, etc.; witho ut whose exercise o f the im petuo us and vindictive
sword, no arrangement o f the age’s interests could be effected; witho ut
the havo c o f who se tempest-like energies, the materials o f corruptio n,
in the shape o f rebellio us and disaffected perso ns, co uld never be
disso lved and dissipated. …
3. Men
o f business, such
as merchants, capitalists, artisans, and
craftsmen, by whom the means o f emo lument and all o ther interests
are adjusted; and thro ugh who m the remo test extremes enjo y the
advantage and safeguard o f each other’s mo st peculiar co mmo dities. ...
4. Husbandmen, such as seedsmen, bailiffs, and agriculturists — the
superintendents o f vegetatio n and preparers o f pro vender; witho ut
who se exertio ns the co ntinuance o f the human kind must be cut short.
These are, in fact, the o nly producers o f what had no previo us
existence; the o ther classes adding no thing whatever to subsisting
pro ducts, but o nly transferring what subsists already fro m perso n to
perso n, fro m place to place, and fro m form to form. …
In like manner then as in the co mpo site o rganizatio ns the passing o f any
element beyo nd its pro per measure o ccasio ns the lo ss o f equipo ise, and is
fo llo wed by disso lutio n and ruin, in po litical co alitio n, no less, the
prevalence o f any o ne class o ver the other three o verturns the adjustment
and disso lves the junctio n. Next attentio n is to be directed to the
333
co nditio n o f the individuals co mpo sing them, and the place o f everyo ne
determined acco rding to his right. (Fro m W.F. Tho mpso n, Practical
Philosophy of the Muhammadan People, pp. 388-90)
*
Four- class Classification
The fo ur-class classificatio n is fo und in Ab ū’l Fazl, by who m the learned are relegated
to the third po sitio n.
The peo ple o f the world may be divided into fo ur classes:
1. Warriors, who in the po litical bo dy have the nature o f fire. Their flames;
directed by understanding, co nsume the straw and rubbish o f rebellio n
and strife, but kindle also the lamp o f rest in this wo rld o f disturbances.
2. Artificers and merchants, who ho ld the place o f air. Fro m their labo urs
and
travels, Go d’s gifts beco me
universal, and
the
breeze
of
co ntentment no urishes the ro se-tree o f life.
3. The learned, such as the philo so pher, the physician, the arithmetician,
the geo metrician, the astro no mer, who resemble water. Fro m their pen
and their wisdo m, a river rises in the dro ught o f the wo rld, and the
garden o f the creatio n receives fro m their irrigating po wers, a peculiar
freshness.
4. Husbandmen and labourers, who may be co mpared to earth. By their
exertio ns, the staple o f life is bro ught to perfectio n, and strength and
happiness flow fro m their work.
It is therefore o bligato ry fo r a king to put each o f these in its pro per
place, and by uniting perso nal ability with due respect fo r others, to cause
334
the world to flo urish. (Fro m Ab ū’l Fazl, Ā’in-i-Akbar ī, iv-v, Sources of Indian
Tradition, p. 513)
***
Ethics
The Kural of Tiruvalluvar
A few extracts fro m the seco nd part o n “ porul” (wealth, artha):
The King
381.
Who has these six is a lio n amo ng kings:
An army, subjects, foo d, ministers, allies and forts.
382.
These fo ur unfailing mark a king:
Co urage, liberality, wisdo m and energy.
383.
A ruler sho uld never lack these three:
Diligence, learning and bo ldness.
384.
He is a true king who sticks to virtue,
Remo ves evil, and is spo tless in valo ur.
385.
He is a king who can do these—
Pro duce, acquire, co nserve and dispense.
386.
That king is to be exto lled
Who is easy o f access and so ft-spo ken.
A Fair King
542.
The wo rld lo o ks up to heaven fo r rain
And his subjects to their king for justice.
545.
The king who rules acco rding to the law
Never lacks rain and co rn.
335
549.
Fo r a king who wo uld guard and cherish his people
To punish crimes is a duty, no t defect.
550.
The king who punishes wicked men with death
Is a farmer weeding the tender cro ps.
557.
Ho w fares the earth witho ut rain? So fares
Life under a ruthless king.
570.
The earth bears no heavier burden
Than a tyrant hemmed in by foo ls.
582.
A king’s jo b is to know in time
Everything that happens to everyo ne each day.
The Land
731.
Tireless farmers, learned men and ho nest traders
Co nstitute a co untry.
732.
Wealth large and enviable and produce free o f pests
Make up a co untry.
733.
The hallmark o f an ideal land
Is to bear all burdens and pay all taxes willingly.
742.
Blue water, o pen space, hills and thick fo rests
Co nstitute a fo rtress.
754.
Wealth acquired sinless and well
Yields bo th virtue and happiness.
755. Wealth unblessed by giver and taker
Sho uld not be to uched.
770.
Ho wever many and go od its so ldiers
An army witho ut leaders will melt away.
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Society
1021. There is no thing more glo rio us than to persist
In the advance o f the community.
1025. The wo rld will flo ck ro und o ne devo ted
To ho nest so cial service.
1031. After trying o ther jo bs the wo rld co mes to the plo ugh,
Which tho ugh hard is best.
1032. Plo ughmen are the earth’s axle-pin;
They carry all the world.
1040. The goo d earth laughs at tho se who sit back and say,
“ We are po o r” .
(Translatio n by P.S. Sundaram, 1989)
***
Uttaramerur Inscription
The Cōḻa administratio n reco rded in this inscriptio n the mo de o f electio n to village
assemblies in the 10th century CE. Here is a selectio n o f the qualificatio ns and
disqualificatio ns listed o ut for candidates to these village assemblies:
Qualifications
In these thirty wards, tho se that live in each ward shall assemble and shall
cho o se for “ po t-tickets” (Kudav Olai) anyo ne po ssessing the fo llowing
qualificatio ns:

He must own mo re than a quarter veli o f tax-paying land;

He must live in a ho use built o n his o wn site;

His age must be below 70 and abo ve 35;
337

He must know the mantrabr āhmaṇa, i.e., he must know it by teaching
o thers;

Even if o ne o wns o nly o ne-eighth veli o f land, he sho uld [be a
candidate] in case he has learnt o ne Veda and o ne o f the fo ur bhaṣyas
by explaining it to others. …

One who po ssesses ho nest earnings, who se mind is pure and who has
no t been o n any o f the committees fo r the last three years shall also be
cho sen.
Disqualifications

One who has been o n any o f the co mmittees but has no t submitted his
acco unts, and all his relatio ns … shall not [be candidates]; …

One who has sto len the pro perty o f ano ther; …
All these thus specified shall no t to the end o f their lives have their
names written o n the po t-ticket to be put into the po t fo r any o f the
co mmittees.
(From V. Venkayya, in Annual Report on Epigraphy , 1904. The Uttaramerur
inscription, found in the village by this name in Chengalpattu district south of
Chennai, has been studied and commented upon by many authorities, such as
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri and S. Krishnaswamy Iyengar.)
***
Comprehension
1.
What are the flaws that mar the qualities o f a great king?
2.
In gro ups, narrate Bh īṣma’s sto ry o n the meaning o f dharma and the origin o f
kingship.
3.
Refer to the extracts fro m Kau ṭilya’s Arthaśāstra:
338
a) Examine clo sely the info rmatio n o n marriage, wo men’s duties and pro perty
rights.
b) Next, discuss in gro ups the co rrespo nding rights o f women today.
c) Co mpare and co ntrast wo men’s rights during the two periods.
d) Think o f parallel co ntemporary situatio ns related to the ro le o f wo men in
marriage and their rights.
i.
Organize a set o f co urtroo m scenes highlighting issues related to
wo men’s rights in the present times. Enact the ro le o f the aggrieved
wo man and o thers.
ii. But the judge must dispense justice acco rding to the main tenets o f
wo men’s rights as given in Arthaśāstra.
4. What were the classificatio n o f men acco rding to the fo llowing :
a) Jalali’s Ethics and
b) Ab ū’l Fazl, Ā’in-i-Akbar ī.
5.
What are the two kinds o f discipline listed by Kauṭilya?
Activity

What are the seven limbs o f the State, according to Kauṭilya? Co mplete the
diagram below with the correct info rmatio n from the text.
-----------
-----7 Limbs
o f State
------
------
------
------
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Activities

Discuss in gro ups

What yo u believe sho uld be the rights o f wo man in today’s co ntext.

Make a set o f po sters highlighting the rights o f women with respect to
marriage and pro perty.

Yo u are the headmaster o f a scho o l during Kauṭilya’s time. Yo u have been asked
to give an o rientatio n speech fo r the parents and students who have gathered in
scho o l. Reflect o n the ideas in the extracts fro m Kau ṭilya’s Arthaśāstra and
prepare a speech.

Yo u have read abo ut Rāma advising Bharata on how to rule the kingdo m o f
Ayo dhya as well as So madeva’s views o n kingship.

Organize a dramatizatio n wherein Rāma and Somadeva declaim o n the true
meaning o f kingship.

Highlight po rtio ns o f the speech which yo u think have a special significance
fo r today’s po litics and times.

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Trade: A Survey
Much trade has been taking place in and fro m the Indian subco ntinent fo r
millenniums. But what do we precisely mean by ‘trade’? The wo rd refers to the
purchase and sale o f go ods and services fo r mo ney o r so mething equivalent to it. The
pro ducer o r the manufacturer makes the go ods and takes them to the co nsumer
thro ugh intermediaries. Trade invo lves transfer o r exchange o f goo ds and services.
How Does Trade Work?
There are two types o f trade, internal and external. While internal trade takes place
within the regio n o r co untry, external trade invo lves expo rts and impo rts o f go ods
and services.
Trade
Internal Trade
External Trade
Exports
Imports
There are two major intermediaries invo lved in trade, the who lesalers and the
retailers. Who lesalers buy bulk quantities o f go o ds fro m
the pro ducer o r
manufacturer and sell them to the retailers in smaller quantities. Retailers buy goo ds
in small lo ts fro m the who lesalers and sell them in smaller quantities to the
co nsumers. Smaller retailers include kir ān ā sho ps, hawkers and push cart vendo rs.
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Departmental stores are bigger retailers. The fo llo wing chart explains the mo vement
o f go o ds fro m the pro ducers to the custo mers.
Pro ducer
Who lesaler
Retailer
Co nsumer
Trade is essential to satisfy the requirements o f the co nsumers. It is a major
eco no mic activity as the so ciety needs the supply o f go o ds. It helps the pro ducers to
find o utlets fo r their goo ds. It enco urages specializatio n, divisio n o f labo ur and the
benefits arising o ut o f co mparative advantages.
Trade in Ancient India
At Mehrgarh, in Baluchistan, archaeo lo gy has bro ught to light trade netwo rks as
early as aro und 5000 BCE, in the Neo lithic age. So me raw materials fo und there, such
as shell, lapis lazuli and turquo ise, must have come fro m distant regio ns. These trade
netwo rks expanded co nsiderably in extent
and diversity before and during the Indus
Civilizatio n (2600–1900 BCE), when cities
like
Mo henjo -daro
(Sind),
Harappa
(Punjab), Rakhigarhi (Haryana) or Dho lavira
A Harappan terracotta tablet depicting a
river boat.
(Gujarat) became major trade centres. Still
later, during the 1st millennium BCE, many large cities emerged, such as Takṣaśilā (or
Taxila), Ujjayin ī (Ujjain), Mathura, Pāṭaliputra (Patna), Rājagṛha (Rajgir), V ār āṇasī,
Bh ṛgukaccha (Bharuch or Broach); and in the So uth, Kāñc ī (Kanchipuram), Madurai,
342
Uraiyur (near Tiruchi), Kaveripattinam and several mo re. Tho se cities were always
impo rtant trading centres and generally lo cated o n so me o f the majo r trading ro utes.
That was also the time when well-structured states aro se, which pro vided the
required infrastructure and a suitable environment fo r the pro mo tio n o f trade.
Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra mentio ns trade as o ne o f the three majo r types o f eco no mic
activities and describes the duties o f the ‘Superintendents’ o f Co mmerce, To lls,
Shipping, Mining, Textile, Labo ur, etc. This 3rd o r 4th century BCE text sho ws Magadha
(co rrespo nding ro ughly to Bihar and Jharkhand) trading in textiles, gems, co ral and
pearls, metals and minerals, with many parts o f no rth, central and so uth India. Salt,
to o , was a majo r commo dity who se pro ductio n was strictly co ntro lled by the state.
The state also made sure that trade ro utes were safe and that go ods were not
adulterated or co nsumers duped by unscrupulo us traders.
Abo ut the same time, Megasthenes, a Greek envo y to the Mauryan Empire,
mentio ns a Ro yal Ro ad co nnecting Pāṭaliputra, Magadha’s capital, to the delta areas.
This is co nfirmed by Aśo ka’s edicts, which pro vide evidence o f po litical and eco no mic
netwo rks acro ss the who le subco ntinent, and in particular between no rth India and
the so uthern kingdo ms o f mo dern Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Sri Lanka. Tho se netwo rks
were the channels fo r a brisk internal trade, which to o k place thro ugh sea ro utes —
the co ast and rivers — and land ro utes. Amo ng the latter, two majo r o nes, called
Uttar āpatha and Dak ṣiṇāpatha, co nnected the no rthern and so uthern parts o f the
co untry.
Kauṭilya, in fact, preferred land o r river ro utes o ver sea ro utes, which he
tho ught were unsafe (except fo r tho se clo sely fo llo wing the co ast); and amo ng land
ro utes, he preferred the so uthward to the no rthward, because “ with the exceptio n o f
blankets, skins, and ho rses, o ther articles o f merchandise such as co nch shells,
diamo nds, precio us sto nes, pearls and go ld are available in plenty in the so uth”
( Arthaśāstra, 7.12).
343
Some of the main routes of internal trade in the first millennium
BCE
and the first centuries CE (adapted from Nayanjot Lahiri).
While Harappan trade was who lly based o n barter, between 600 and 500 BCE
punch-marked co ins o f silver were intro duced in no rth and western India; they had
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irregular shapes (tho ugh precise weights), no inscriptio ns but vario us symbo ls
‘punched’ into them by dies. Later, ro und o r square co ins o f go ld, silver or co pper
were minted by vario us dynasties. The mo st commo n co ins were the dīnāra, suvar ṇa
and k ārṣāpaṇa (o r paṇa), and they generally had specific weights. Let us however note
that despite the increasing use o f co ins, barter trade never co mpletely disappeared,
especially in lo cal trade.
Different Countries, Many Goods
But India had lo ng been engaged in external trade, too . The Harappans were
expo rting timber, beads o f semiprecio us sto ne (especially carnelian), shell bangles,
ivo ry items, pearls, etc., to Oman, Bahrain and Meso po tamia thro ugh the Persian
Gulf, besides Iran and Central Asia across the Afghan mo untain ranges. As a result,
Harappan seals and o ther evidence o f trade have co me to light at many sites in tho se
regio ns. Curio usly, little is known o f what Harappans imported in return: perhaps
go ld, silver or, mo re likely, co pper o re.
Aro und the beginning o f the 1st millennium BCE, trade began with the
Pho enicians, who appear to have reached India’s western co ast. Indian teak and
cedar reached Babylo nian builders, and a Buddhist Jātaka tale mentio ns trade with
the city o f Bāveru (Babylo n). Fro m India’s western co ast, spices, ivo ry, gems, timber,
silks and o ther textiles, besides ‘exo tic’ animals like mo nkeys and peaco cks, fo und
their way to Egypt, Asia Minor and the Near East, finally to Greece and Ro me.
Trade with the Ro man Empire began gradually in the 3rd century BCE, reached its
peak in the 1st centuries BCE and CE, and slo wly fo llowed the decline o f the Ro man
Empire. Archaeo lo gy, Greek and Latin texts and the Tamil Sangam literature agree
with a wealth o f details that Ro man traders frequented so uth Indian po rts. One early
Tamil text states, for example, “ The beautiful ships o f the Yavanas [a word for Greeks
o r Ro mans] arrived filled with go ods such as oil, wine, glass vases, go ld and silver
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co ins.” While they bro ught glassware, wine o r o live o il in sealed ampho ras (tall
co nical jars with a pair o f handles), pigments, co ral and metals (such as co pper, lead
and tin), they too k back ho me timber, sandalwoo d, precio us and semiprecio us sto nes
(such as beryl o r quartz), pearls, ivo ry, to rto ise shells, spices (especially pepper,
which they no t o nly co nsumed but used fo r mummificatio n), textiles (especially
muslin), perfumes, medicinal and aro matic plants, and peaco cks. Indian woo tz steel
was also expo rted to the Mediterranean wo rld, where it was used to make lighter and
sharper swords, amo ng o ther weapo ns (see module Other Technologies).
The findings o f tho usands o f go ld, silver and co pper Ro man co ins in India,
mo stly in the So uth, bear testimo ny to this intense trade. Many co ins depict the
Ro man emperor Augustus (63 BCE – 14 CE); he himself wrote, “ Indian kings o ften sent
me embassies, as no o ther Ro man head had received so
far.” It is generally assumed that those embassies fro m
India were partly co mpo sed o f merchants.
The 1st century BCE Greek geo grapher Strabo notes
that in his time, abo ut 120 ships sailed for India in a
single seaso n fro m the Red Sea po rt o f Myo s Ho rmos.
Berenike (o r Berenice)
was another Egyptian
A gold coin of Augustus found
in Pudukottai (Tamil Nadu).
po rt that saw many ships sailing to and fro m India,
and where excavatio ns have bro ught to light
evidence o f such trade. Inscriptio ns in Tamil
language and Tamil Brahmi script have been fo und
o n po tsherds at ano ther Red Sea po rt, Quseir alFragments of cotton material
from Gujarat were found in
Egyptian tombs at Fustat, 5th
century CE.
Qadim, dating back to the first centuries CE. Since
there was no Suez Canal in tho se days, go o ds traded
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in either directio n had to be o fflo aded in Egypt, either at Alexandria o n the
Mediterranean or at so me Red Sea po rt, and carried o verland. East Africa was also
part o f this trade netwo rk. The same sea ro utes were later much frequented by the
Arabs fo r their trade with Indian ports.
Ports and Sailors
Indians to o were shipbuilders and sailo rs. There is evidence (so me o f it fro m Greek
texts) that shipbuilding was a flo urishing activity right from Mauryan times. Early
Buddhist and Jain literatures corro borate this: a Jain text, for instance, refers to a
merchant, Nāgadatta, who travelled to Suvarnabh ūmi (a reference to Sumatra) with
five hundred ships to co nduct trade. (The number is clearly exaggerated, but not the
fact o f the trade co nnectio n.) Chinese histo rical so urces refer to maritime traders
bringing Indian pro ducts to China as far back as the 7th century BCE. Glass beads and
bangles fo und in the Malay Peninsula, Java and Bo rneo po int to a trade co ntact with
so uthern India go ing back to the 1st millennium BCE. A Sanskrit treatise o n
shipbuilding, Yuktikalpataru o f Bho ja Narapati, of
uncertain date, describes in great detail vario us
kinds o f ships, their pro portio ns and sizes, the
materials o ut o f which they were built, the ways
to deco rate them, etc.
In the next millennium, Kaliñga (mo dern
Odisha) and Bengal were engaged in a busy
traffic with Burma and all the way to Java; the
7th-century Chinese traveller Hsuan Tsang no ted
that merchants left from Puri “ for distant
co untries” . By the 9th century CE, the Cōḻas kings
A seafaring ship depicted on a lead
coin of a Sātav āhana king of the 1st–
2nd century CE.
o f so uth India had built a navy powerful eno ugh to briefly co nquer parts o f Malaysia
347
(Perak) and Indo nesia (the Śr īvijaya kingdom). Indian traders o ften visited co untries
and islands o f So utheast Asia, selling silk, gems and o ther luxury items, and bringing
back spices, campho r and fragrant woo ds.
A sea-faring ship depicted on a fresco at Ajanta (from a line drawing, colour added).
Po rts thus dotted the Indian co ast, and many o f them were listed in Greek and
Ro man texts, such as the Periplus Maris Erythraei o r ‘Voyage aro und the Erythrean
Sea’, an ano nymo us Greek travelo gue o f the 1st century CE, ‘Erythrean’ referring to
the Arabian Sea to gether with the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. It named po rts such
as Barygaza (Bh ṛgukaccha in Sanskrit, mo dern Bharuch o r Bro ach), Suppara (So para,
no rth o f Mumbai), Muziris (near Kodungallur in Kerala), Co lcho i (Ko ṛkai in Tamil
Nadu), Camara (kno wn as Puhar or Kāvēripaṭṭinam in Tamil literature), Po duke o r
Po duca (Puducherry), Palaesimundu (in ‘Tapro bane’, i.e., Sri Lanka) o r Masalia
(Masulipatam in Andhra Pradesh), amo ng many o thers. With the exceptio n o f a few
settlements such as Arikamedu near Puducherry, which was excavated in the 1940s,
it is o nly in the last two o r three decades that excavatio ns, so metimes co upled with
underwater explo ratio ns, have co nfirmed the antiquity o f so me o f tho se ancient po rt
to wns.
348
The sea routes described in Periplus Maris Erythraei, connecting India with
the Mediterranean world (source: Wikipedia).
Indian po rts did not exclusively deal in trade o f Indian o r Ro man goo ds: Chinese
silk, fo r instance, reached India’s eastern co ast, where Ro man traders bo ught it.
Go o ds also came there fro m So utheast Asia. The internatio nal trade was therefo re
based o n a co mplex netwo rk with multiple stages and intermediaries.
Land Routes
Land ro utes were, o f co urse, part o f this netwo rk, especially the famed Silk Ro ad
thro ugh which co untless caravans o f traders cro ssing many kingdo ms co nnected the
Mediterranean wo rld with Asia. (Ro mans, to o , started their Indian trade thro ugh the
land ro utes, but as to ll taxes fo r safe passage increased, they turned to the sea ro ute
and soo n learned to time their vo yages to India with the mo nsoo ns so as to shorten
them.) Indian traders made full use o f tho se routes, and established trading statio ns
at Kashgar, Yarkand and Kho tan, amo ng o ther cities o f central Asia. They did no t
349
travel o nly westward: they also carried co tto n to China and bro ught Chinese go o ds
back home.
Alto gether, the ancient world appears like a bustling network o f crisscro ssing
ro utes that no urished no t o nly co mmercial and military but also
cultural
interactio ns.
The main elements of the Silk Road (in red) connecting China and India with the
Mediterranean world. The map also shows important sea routes (in blue) (source:
Wikipedia).
India’s Dominance up to Precolonial Times
Fro m the beginning o f the histo rical period, India enjo yed a favo urable balance o f
trade, thereby accumulating sto cks o f go ld. In 77 CE, the Ro man historian Pliny the
elder co mplained,
By the lo west recko ning India, China and the Arab peninsula draw fro m
o ur empire 100 millio n sesterces every year. … In no year do es India
absorb less than 50 millio n sesterces o f o ur empire’s wealth, sending back
merchandise to be so ld with us at a hundred times its prime co st.
350
The sesterce was a Ro man currency, and so me scho lars have co unted this massive
drain o n the treasury amo ng the causes for the decline o f the Ro man Empire.
India’s trade do minance co ntinued in later times. In Mo ghul times, Abu’l Fazl’s
Āīn-e
Akbar ī reco rds that 40,000 vessels were engaged in trade in the Indus and its
tributaries o f Punjab. While studying the Indian eco no my in the few centuries
preceding British rule, eco no mic histo rians have po inted o ut India’s high trade
surplus with mo st o f her trading partners in Euro pe, West Asia o r Africa. This was the
result o f efficient lo w-co st pro ducts such as co tto n or spices, but also o f wello rganized co mmunities o f traders. Indeed, Indian merchants rarely o perated
individually; whether in north o r so uth India, they o rganized themselves into guilds,
a structure that pro vided them with greater security, shared and reliable
info rmatio n, and effective access to goo ds as well as markets.
China too was a do minant player in internatio nal trade. The two co untries
to gether, co ntro lling nearly 60 per cent o f the wo rld’s GDP 2,000 years ago , were the
premier eco no mic and trade powers fro m early times until the co lo nial era, as the
graph belo w shows. It also illustrates ho w the co lo nial rule co incided with a steep
decline in India’s o verseas trade do minance and o verall pro ductio n, as the rules o f
trade and industry began being dictated by the co lo nial master.
World GDP from 0 to 1950 CE (adapted from Angus Maddison and P. Kanagasabapathi).
351
During the preco lo nial era (15th to 18th century), several Euro pean visitors
testify that India was a ‘flo urishing’ land and its manufacturing centres, whether o f
textile, iro n o r paper, were do ing well and expo rting much o f their products. In the
late 1600s shipments o f tens o f tho usands o f woo tz ingots wo uld leave the
Co ro mandel Co ast for Persia. Sho rtly befo re his co nquest o f Bengal in 1757, Ro bert
Clive fo und it to be o ne o f the richest parts o f the wo rld, ‘the paradise o f the earth’; at
the time, Bengal expo rted rice to Sri Lanka and the Maldives, sugar to Arabia and
Meso po tamia, and silks to Euro pe, amo ng o ther go ods. Other ports such as Calcutta
(Ko lkata), Madras (Chennai), Po ndicherry (Puducherry), Co chin (Surat) o r Surat saw
ships sailing in fro m several Euro pean natio ns.
A view of the port of Calicut (Kozhikode, on Kerala’s Malabar coast) in 1572, with ships
calling in from Europe; ship building is also depicted. (Georg Braun and Franz
Hogenberg’s atlas Civitates orbis terrarum , 1572, source: Wikipedia)
352
‘Harvesting pepper at Quilon’ (Kollam, Kerala), a painting in a 1410 French version of
The Travels of Marco Polo (source: Bibliothèque Nationale de France)
By- Products of Trade
Indian texts emphasize that merchants and traders are to fo llo w ethical principles in
their businesses, and they were indeed respected and o ften praised by fo reign
travellers fo r their go o d character and trustworthiness. Thus the 12th -century Arab
geo grapher al-Idr īsī writes, “ Indians are naturally inclined to justice and never
depart fro m it in their actio ns. Their go o d faith, ho nesty, and fidelity to their
engagements are well kno wn, and they are so famo us fo r these qualities that peo ple
flo ck to their co untry fro m every side.” Five centuries later, abo ut 1619, Edward
Terry, a British traveller to India no ted how “ a stranger may travel alo ne, with a
great charge o f mo ney o r go ods, quite thro ugh the co untry and take [Indians] fo r his
guard, yet never be neglected or injured by them.”
353
Trade was thus not merely a so urce o f eco no mic pro sperity but also earned
fame fo r Indian go ods and peo ple. Alo ng with trade, culture travelled and extensive
as well as co mplex cultural interchanges to ok place in all directio ns. Fo r instance,
no rth India abso rbed elements o f Greek culture, as is especially visible in Gandh āra
art. Similarly, trade pro moted the spread o f Buddhism to much o f Asia and Hinduism
to parts o f So utheast Asia, alo ng with much Indian art and literature.
Within India, the growth o f trade networks pro mo ted exchanges between
regio ns and therefore cultural integratio n acro ss the land. Alto gether, trade has
played an important part to play in the eco no mic, so cial and cultural histo ry o f India.
Further Reading
1.
Vimala Begley & Richard Daniel De Puma, (eds), Rome and India: The Ancient Sea Trade ,
University of Wisconsin, 1992
2.
Ranabir Chakravarti, (ed.), Trade in Early India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2001
3.
Moti Chandra, Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi,
1977
4.
Rosa Maria Cimino, (ed.), Ancient Rome and India: Commercial and cultural contacts between
the Roman world and India, Italian Embassy Cultural Centre, New Delhi, 1994
5.
P. Kanagasabapathi, Indian Models of Economy, Business and Management , PHI Learning, 3rd
edn, New Delhi, 2011
6.
Nayanjot Lahiri, The Archaeology of Indian Trade Routes Upto c. 200 BC, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi, 1992
7.
R.C. Majumdar, The Classical Accounts of India, Firmal KLM, Calcutta, 1960
8.
Radha Kumud Mookerji, Indian Shipping: A History of the Sea-Borne Trade and Maritime
Activity of the Indians from the Earliest Times, Kitab Mahal, Calcutta, 1962
9.
Balram Srivastava, Trade and Commerce in Ancient India (From the earliest times to c. A.D.
300), Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1968
354
Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in December 2013)

Pliny the Elder o n India: www.fordham.edu/ halsall/ ancient/ pliny-india.asp

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: www.fordham.edu/ halsall/ ancient/ periplus.asp and
http:/ / depts.washington.edu/ silkroad/ texts/ periplus/ periplus.html

The Silk Ro ad: www.ess.uci.edu/ ~oliver/ silk.html and www.silkroutes.net

The Silk Ro ad, 12-episo de do cumentary film, first episo de:
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=b-AqeE2p_ww&list=PL43EA21B3FBAA90CF

Do cumentary, “ Secrets o f the Ancient Empires: The First Merchants” :
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=R15JrHjXscs

Buddhist art and the trade ro utes:
www.asiasocietymuseum.org/ buddhist_trade/ intro.html

Indian co inage: www.rbi.org.in/ currency/ museum/ c-overview.html
Comprehension
1.
What do yo u understand by trade? Explain the impo rtance o f trade in so ciety.
2.
Name so me trade centres o f ancient India. Make a list o f articles o f expo rt and
impo rt during that perio d.
3.
What do yo u kno w abo ut the ranks in trades? Find the co ntempo rary names.
4.
Explain the ro le o f winds in go verning the sea ro utes.
5.
Describe a caravan. Mentio ning the security system fo r a caravan, compare it
with present-day practices o f carrying lo ad to vario us destinatio ns. Yo u may
co mpare o n scales o f time, fuel, co st, ro ute, distance and mo des o f transpo rt.
6.
What do yo u understand by ethics in trade? What will happen if the traders do
no t fo llow certain rules fo r their business?
7.
Make a list o f materials that were expo rted thro ugh the Silk Ro ad and the sea
ro ute. Co mment o n the barter system and co mpare trade practices o f that
perio d with present-day eco no mic practices.
355
8.
What currencies were used fo r trade in ancient India? Co mpare with the
present-day system.
9.
Trace the ro le o f trade in the spread o f Buddhism and Hinduism beyo nd India.
10.
In the absence o f literary evidence, what o ther disciplines can help us find o ut
trade activities in ancient India?
Activities

Prepare a list o f so me o f India’s ancient cities alo ng with their co ntemporary
names and lo cate them o n a map.

Keeping the perio d o f Arth aśastra in mind, list impo rtant cities alo ng the
Uttar āpatha and Dak ṣiṇāpatha and lo cate them o n the map.

Using the maps and o ther data in this Survey, draw a map o f the Silk Ro ad and
so me o f the sea ro utes fro m India; calculate the distance using o nline to o ls.

Can yo u imagine when exchange o f goo ds became an important ingredient o f
India’s so cio eco no mic life? To have the feel o f that perio d, imagine yo u are part
o f the so ciety in a pre-currency perio d. Divide yo ur class into two gro ups.
Create a village haat where two gro ups co me and display a variety o f go ods.
Witho ut language, currency and witho ut the interventio n o f a broker o r
mediator, visualize ho w the exchange co uld have taken place. Act o ut a who le
scene o f barter trade. Take care that all yo ur actio ns are in mime (i.e., witho ut
wo rds).
356
Projects

Wo rk in gro ups and explo re abo ut the travellers / traders who visited ancient
India. Mentio n their epo chs, ro utes to India, duratio ns o f their stays, and
purpo ses o f their visits.

Arrange a field visit to a museum with yo ur friends to view so me evidence o f
trade co nnectio ns in the past. Co llect images of co ins and currency o f vario us
perio ds fo und at different parts o f the world and prepare a presentatio n.
Extended Activity

Select o ne o f India’s ancient o r medieval ports mentio ned by fo reign travellers
that is still active today — for instance Surat, Bro ach, Go a, Co chin, Puducherry,
Puri, etc. Research the histo ry o f the po rt thro ugh the travellers’ testimo nies
and do cument the kind o f goo ds (bo th impo rted and expo rted) and trade traffic
it has seen at different perio ds.

Research the different fo reign co ins that have been fo und in India and co rrelate
them with testimo nies by foreign travellers. As far as po ssible, wo rk o ut their
rates o f exchange with Indian currencies o f tho se times.

Assume yo u lead a caravan o f merchants alo ng the Silk Ro ad fro m no rth India to
Antio ch in the 1st century BCE. What places will yo u pass thro ugh? (Find o ut
their ancient as well as present-day names.) What go o ds will yo u take fro m
India? What places will yo u travel thro ugh? What trade will take place o n the
way? What dangers sho uld yo u be prepared to ward o ff o n the way? Prepare a
realistic presentatio n o n the who le jo urney.

357
Trade: A Selection from Primary Texts
Sigālovāda
Suttanta
In this text, Buddha praises the amassing o f wealth thro ugh trade and business, and
gives directio ns for the righteo us use o f wealth.
Who so is virtuo us and intelligent,
Shines like a fire that blazes.
To him amassing wealth, like ro ving bee
Its ho ney gathering,
Riches mo unt up as an ant-heap gro wing high.
When the goo d layman wealth has so amassed
Able is he to benefit his clan.
In po rtio ns fo ur let him divide that wealth.
So binds he to himself life’s friendly things.
One po rtio n let him spend and taste the fruit.
His business to co nduct let him take two .
And po rtio n fo ur let him reserve and ho ard;
So there’ll be wherewithal in times o f need.
(tr. T.W. & C.A.F. Rhys Davis, Dialogues of the Buddha,
Oxford University Press, 1921, vol. 3, pp. 179–180)
***
Jātaka Tales
The Buddhist Jātaka tales, which narrate the fo rmer births o f Buddha (as a
Bo dhisattva o r Bo dhisatta), give many clues to the so ciety o f those times. We find, in
particular, references to trade and merchants, caravans, sailing to distant co untries,
shrewd business practices, leadership qualities, etc. A few beginnings o f such Jātakas:
358
Once o n a time in the city o f Benares in the Kāsi country there was a king
named Brahmadatta. In tho se days the Bo dhisatta was bo rn into a
merchant’s family, and growing up in due co urse, used to jo urney abo ut
trading with five hundred carts, travelling no w fro m east to west and now
fro m west to east. There was also at Benares ano ther yo ung merchant, a
stupid blo ckhead, lacking reso urce. No w at the time o f o ur sto ry the
Bo dhisatta had loaded five hundred carts with co stly wares o f Benares and
had go t them all ready to start. ... ( Apaṇṇaka-Jātaka)
Once upo n a time when Brahmadatta was reigning in Benares in Kāsi, the
Bo dhisatta was bo rn into the Treasurer’s family, and growing up, was
made Treasuere, being called Treasurer Little. A wise and clever man was
he, with a keen eye fo r signs and o mens. One day o n his way to wait upo n
the kind, he came o n a dead mo use lying o n the ro ad; and, taking note o f
the po sitio ns o f the stars at that mo ment, he said, “ Any decent yo ung
fello w with his wits abo ut him has o nly to pick that mo use up, and [using
it as his initial capital] he might start a business and keep a wife.” ( CullakaSe ṭṭhi-Jātaka)
Once upo n a time when Brahmadatta was reigning in Benares, the
Bo dhisattva was bo rn a merchant. When he grew up, and was trading with
five hundred waggo ns, he came o ne day to where the ro ad led thro ugh a
great fo rest. ... ( Ph āla-Jātaka)
Once upo n a time, they say, a landed gentleman named Sujāta at Benares
lo dged in his park and ministered to five hundred ascetics who had co me
do wn from the Himalayas to pro cure salt and vinegar. ... ( Mah āsutasomaJat āka).
(Tr. E.B. Co well)
***
359
Arthaśāstra
Kauṭilya’s classic treatise o n go vernance and administratio n has vo lumino us and
impo rtant data o n trade and trade regulatio ns as it was practised a few centuries BCE.
The care taken by Kau ṭilya to deal with every situatio n in detail is especially
no teworthy. A few passages (amo ng o thers):
Land Routes vs. Sea Routes
“ As between a water-ro ute and a land-route, the water-ro ute is
preferable, invo lving little expenditure and exertio n and yielding plenty
o f goo ds,” say the teachers. “ No ,” says Kau ṭilya. The water-ro ute is
restricted in mo vements, no t usable at all times, a so urce o f great dangers
and witho ut remedies; the land-ro ute is the o ppo site o f this.
In case o f a water-way, ho wever, as between a ro ute alo ng the sho re
and o ne o n the high sea, the ro ute alo ng the co ast is preferable because o f
the large number o f po rts, or a river-ro ute, because o f perennial use and
because the dangers in it can be withstoo d.
Even in the case o f a land-ro ute, “ The [no rthern] ro ute to the
Himavat is preferable to the so uthern ro ute, fo r the co mmodities o f
elephants, ho rses, perfumes, ivo ry, skins, silver and go ld are o f very high
value,” say the teachers. “ No ,” says Kautilya. (These) with the exceptio n o f
the co mmo dities o f blankets, skins and ho rses, besides the co mmo dities o f
co nch-shells, diamo nds, rubies, pearls and go ld are more plentiful o n the
so uthern ro ute.
Even in the case o f the ro ute to the so uth, the trade-ro ute with many
mines, with commo dities o f high value, with well-secured mo vements, o r
requiring little expenditure and exertio n, is preferable, o r o ne with
co mmo dities o f small value with an extensive sco pe (fo r sale). (7.12)
360
The Director of Trade
The Directo r o f Trade sho uld be co nversant with the differences in the
prices o f commodities o f high value and o f low value and the po pularity o r
unpo pularity o f goo ds o f vario us kinds, whether pro duced o n land o r in
water (and) whether they have arrived alo ng land-ro utes or water-ro utes,
also (sho uld know abo ut) suitable times for reso rting to dispersal o r
co ncentratio n, purchase o r sale.
And that co mmo dity which may be plentiful, he sho uld co llect in o ne
place and raise the price. Or, when the price is reached, he sho uld fix
ano ther price.
He sho uld establish in o ne place trade in ro yal co mmodities that are
pro duced in his own co untry; in many places, in tho se pro duced in foreign
lands. And he sho uld cause both to be so ld so as to favo ur the subjects.
And he sho uld avo id even a big pro fit that wo uld be injurio us to the
subjects. He sho uld no t create a restrictio n as to time o r the evil o f a glut
in the market in the case o f co mmodities co nstantly in demand.
Or, traders sho uld sell ro yal goo ds in many places with the price
fixed. And they sho uld pay co mpensatio n in acco rdance with the lo ss
(sustained).
One-sixteenth part is the surcharge in measure by capacity, o netwentieth part in measure by weighing, o ne-eleventh part o f co mmo dities
so ld by co unting.
He sho uld enco urage the import o f go ods pro duced in fo reign lands
by (allo wing) co ncessio ns. And to tho se (who bring such go o ds) in ships or
caravans, he sho uld grant exemptio ns (fro m taxes) that wo uld enable a
pro fit (to be made by them). And no law-suit in mo ney matters (sho uld be
361
allo wed) against fo reign traders, except such as are members (o f native
co ncerns) and (their) asso ciates.
Officers in charge o f (ro yal) goo ds shall depo sit the price o f go o ds
(so ld), in o ne place, in a woo den bo x having a lid with o ne o pening. And in
the eighth part o f the day, they sho uld hand it o ver to the Director o f
Trade, declaring, “ This much is so ld; this is left o ver.” They sho uld also
hand o ver the implements o f weighing and measuring.
Thus (the sale o f go ods) in o ne’s o wn territory has been explained.
In fo reign territory, ho wever, he sho uld ascertain the price and the
value o f the co mmo dity (taken o ut) and the co mmo dity (to be bro ught) in
exchange and sho uld calculate the pro fit after clearing expenses fo r duty,
ro ad-cess, esco rt-charges, picket- and ferry-dues, fo o d and fo dder and
share.
Sho uld there be no pro fit, he sho uld see if there is any advantage in
taking o ut goo ds or in bringing in goo ds in exchange fo r goo ds. Then with
a quarter o f the go ods o f high value, he sho uld set go ing trade by land
alo ng a safe ro ute. And he sho uld establish co ntacts with forest chieftains,
fro ntier o fficers, and chiefs in the city and the co untryside, to secure their
favo ur. In case o f a calamity, he sho uld rescue the go o ds o f high value or
himself. Or, if he has reached his destinatio n, he sho uld carry o n the trade
after paying all dues. And o n the water-ro ute he sho uld ascertain hire fo r
bo ats, pro visio ns o n the jo urney, price and amo unt o f (his) go ods and o f
the go o ds in exchange, seaso ns suited for voyage, precautio ns against
dangers and regulatio ns at the ports.
362
And alo ng river-ro utes, he sho uld ascertain (co nditio ns o f) trade
fro m the (po rt) regulatio ns and sho uld pro ceed to where there is pro fit
and avo id absence o f pro fit. (2.16)
The Collector of Customs and Tolls
The Co llecto r o f Custo ms and To lls sho uld establish the custo ms ho use
and the flag facing east o r the no rth in the vicinity o f the big gates (o f the
city).
The receivers o f duty, fo ur o r five in number, sho uld record in
writing (details abo ut) traders who have arrived in a caravan, who they
are, fro m what place, with how much merchandise and where the
identity-pass (was issued) o r the stamping was made.
Fo r (goo ds) witho ut the stamp the penalty is do uble the dues. Fo r
tho se with a forged stamp, the fine is eight times the duty. Fo r tho se with
bro ken stamps, the penalty is distraint in the ware-ho use. In case o f
change o f the ro yal stamp or o f (change in) the name, he sho uld make (the
trader) pay a fine o f o ne paṇa and a quarter per lo ad.
Traders shall declare the quantity and price o f the go o ds that have
arrived at the fo ot o f the flag, “ Who is willing to purchase these go o ds, so
much in quantity, at this price?” When it has been thrice pro claimed, he
sho uld give it to tho se who have so ught it. In case o f co mpetitio n amo ng
purchasers, the increase in price to gether with the duty shall go to the
treasury.
If fo r fear o f duty a (trader) declares the quantity o f the go o ds o r the
price to be less (than it actually is), the king shall co nfiscate that excess.
Or, the (trader) shall pay eight times the duty. He sho uld impo se the same
(penalty) in case o f depreciatio n o f price o f a package co ntaining go o ds by
363
(sho wing) a sample o f lo wer value and in case of co ncealment o f go o ds o f
high value by goo ds o f low value.
Or, if thro ugh fear o f a rival purchaser a (trader) increases the price
beyo nd the (due) price o f a co mmo dity, the king shall receive the increase
in price, o r make the amo unt o f duty do uble. The same (penalty) eightfo ld
(shall be imposed) o n the Superintendent co ncealing (the trader’s
o ffences).
Therefo re, the sale o f go ods sho uld be made by weighing, measuring
o r co unting; an appraisal (o f value sho uld be made) o f go ods o f small value
and go ods enjo ying co ncessio ns.
And fo r goo ds that have passed beyo nd the fo ot o f the flag witho ut
the duty being paid, the fine is eight times the duty. Secret agents
o perating o n ro ads and in places witho ut roads sho uld find o ut such
(evasio n).
Go o ds intended for marriage, marriage-gifts acco mpanying the
bride, go ods intended as gifts, go ods required o n the o ccasio n o f a
sacrifice o r a ceremo ny or a birth and goo ds used in vario us rituals like
wo rship o f the go ds, to nsure rite, initiatio n for Veda study, hair-cutting
rite, co nsecratio n for a vow and so o n, sho uld go duty-free. Fo r a (perso n)
making a false declaratio n (in this respect) the punishment fo r theft (shall
be impo sed).
Fo r the trader taking o ut a co mmo dity for which duty has no t been
paid alo ng with o ne for which duty has been paid, o r carrying o ff a seco nd
(co mmo dity) under o ne stamp after breaking o pen the package, forfeiture
o f the same and an equal amo unt as fine (shall be the punishment). Fo r
the (trader) carrying o ff (goo ds o f high value) fro m the custo ms ho use
364
after securing acceptance o f co wdung (cakes) o r straw as the basis (fo r
calculating duty), the highest fine for vio lence (shall be the punishment).
Fo r the (trader) taking o ut any o ne o f the unexpo rtable articles, viz.,
weapo ns, armo urs, co ats o f mail, metals, chariots, jewels, grains and
cattle, there shall be a fine as pro claimed as well as lo ss o f the go ods. In
case any o ne o f these is bro ught in, its sale (shall be effected) duty-free
o utside (the city-gate) itself.
The fro ntier o fficer sho uld charge a road cess o f o ne paṇa and a
quarter fo r a cart-lo ad o f go o ds, o f o ne paṇa fo r a o ne-ho o fed animal, o f
half a paṇa fo r cattle, o f a quarter paṇa for small animals, o f o ne m āṣaka
fo r a sho ulder-lo ad. And he shall make go od what is lo st or sto len (o n the
way). He sho uld send o n to the Superintendent a caravan fro m a foreign
land after making an investigatio n as to go ods o f high and lo w value and
giving them an identity-pass and stamp (o n the go o ds).
Or, a secret agent appearing as a trader sho uld co mmunicate to the
king the size o f the caravan. In acco rdance with that info rmatio n, the king
sho uld tell the Co llecto r o f Custo ms abo ut the size o f the caravan, in order
to make his o mniscience kno wn. Then the Co llecto r, o n meeting the
caravan, sho uld say, “ These are go o ds o f high and lo w value belo nging to
such and such a merchant. It sho uld no t be concealed. This is the king’s
po wer.” For o ne co ncealing goo ds o f low value the fine shall be eight
times the duty, (fo r co ncealing) goo ds o f high value, co nfiscatio n o f
everything (shall be the punishment).
He sho uld cut o ut goo ds that are harmful to the co untry and that are
wo rthless. He sho uld make goo ds that are highly beneficial duty-free, also
seeds that are rare. (2.21)
365
The Tariff of Duties and Tolls
(Go o ds are) fro m the co untryside, fro m the city and from fo reign lands.
That o n (go o ds) go ing o ut and that o n (goo ds) coming in is duty.
On go o ds coming in (the duty shall be) o ne-fifth o f the price.
Of flo wers, fruits, vegetables, ro ots, bulbo us ro ots, fruits o f creepers,
seeds, dried fish and meat, he sho uld take o ne-sixth part (as duty).
Of co nch-shells, diamo nds, gems and necklaces o f pearls and co rals,
he sho uld make (a valuatio n) thro ugh men expert in the line, making an
agreement with them as to the amo unt o f wo rk, time allowed and wages.
On k ṣauma [linen clo th], duk ūla [a fine muslin clo th], silk yarn,
armo urs, yello w orpiment, red arsenic, antimo ny, vermilio n, metals o f
vario us kinds and o res, o n sandal-woo d, alo e, spices, fermentatio n, and
mino r substances, o n skins, ivory, bed-spreads, co verings and silk cloth,
and o n pro ducts o f go ats and rams, (the duty to be charged is) o ne-tenth
part or o ne-fifteenth part.
On clo thes, fo ur-foo ted and two -foo ted creatures, yarn, co tto n,
perfumes, medicines, wo o ds, bamboo s, barks, leather go ods and earthenware, and o n grains, fats, sugars, salts, wine, co o ked foo d and so o n (the
duty is) o ne-twentieth part o r o ne twenty-fifth part. ... (2.22)
The Controller of Shipping
The Co ntro ller o f Shipping sho uld lo o k after activities co ncerning sea
vo yages and ferries at the mo uths o f rivers, as well as ferries o ver natural
lakes, artificial lakes and rivers, in the sth ānīya [the kingdo m’s capital] and
o ther (to wns).
Villages o n their sho res and banks shall pay a fixed (tax).
366
Fishermen shall pay o ne-sixth (o f their catch) as rent fo r the bo ats.
Traders shall pay a part (o f the go ods) as duty acco rding as it may be
current at the ports, tho se travelling by the king’s ships (shall pay) hire
fo r the vo yage.
Tho se fishing for co nch-shells and pearls shall pay a rent fo r the
bo ats, o r sail in their o wn boats. And (the duty o f) the Superviso r o f these
is explained by (that o f) the Superintendent o f Mines.
The Co ntro ller o f Shipping shall o bserve the regulatio ns in a port
to wn as fixed by the Co mmissio ner o f Po rts.
He sho uld rescue bo ats that have go ne o ut o f their co urse o r are
to ssed abo ut by a gale, like a father. He sho uld make go ods that have
fallen in water either duty-free o r pay half the duty. And he sho uld send
these (bo ats) o n, as co mmissio ned, at times suitable fo r vo yage fro m the
po rt.
He sho uld demand duty from ships sailing o n sea when they co me
within the do main. He sho uld destro y (bo ats) that cause harm, also tho se
co ming o ver from the enemy’s territo ry and tho se vio lating the
regulatio ns o f the po rt.
And he sho uld keep in use big boats in charge of a captain, a pilot, a
manipulato r o f the cutter and ro pes and a bailer o f water, o n big rivers
that have to be ferried o n (even) in winter and summer, small o nes o n
small rivers flo wing (o nly) in the rainy season. And these sho uld have
their cro ssing-places fixed because o f the danger o f cro ssing by traitoro us
perso ns.
367
Fo r o ne cro ssing o ut o f time o r elsewhere than at the crossing, (the
punishment shall be) the lo west fine fo r vio lence. Fo r o ne who crosses
witho ut autho rity even at the pro per time and at the cro ssing, the penalty
fo r cro ssing is twenty-six paṇas and three quarters. There shall be no
penalty fo r fishermen, (carriers o f) lo ads o f wo od and grass, attendants at
flo wer-gardens, fruit-o rchards and vegetable gardens and co wherds, also
fo r tho se who se go ing after an envo y is conceivable, and fo r tho se
carrying o ut activity in co nnectio n with goo ds fo r the army, when these
cro ss in their o wn barges, as well as for tho se who ferry acro ss seeds,
fo o d-stuffs and articles fo r ho useho ld use in villages alo ng the waterco urses.
Brahmins, wandering mo nks, children, o ld perso ns, sick perso ns,
carriers o f ro yal edicts and pregnant wo men sho uld cro ss with a sealed
pass fro m the Co ntro ller o f Shipping.
Perso ns fro m foreign lands may enter when permissio n to enter is
granted o r o n the testimo ny o f the caravan. ...
A small animal and a man with a load (in hand) shall pay o ne m āṣaka,
a lo ad o n the head, a lo ad o n the back, a cow and a ho rse (shall pay) two
( m āṣakas), a camel and a buffalo fo ur, a small vehicle five, o ne driven by
bullo cks six, a cart seven, a lo ad o f co mmo dities o ne quarter (o f a paṇa).
By that is explained (fare fo r) a lo ad o f goo ds. The fare fo r ferries o n big
rivers is do uble.
Villages o n water-ways shall pay a fixed amo unt o f fo od and wages
(fo r the ferrymen).
At the fro ntiers, ferrymen sho uld reco ver the duty, the esco rtcharges and the ro ad cess, and sho uld co nfiscate the goo ds o f o ne go ing
368
o ut witho ut a seal, also (tho se) o f a perso n crossing with a heavy load at
an impro per time and elsewhere than at the regular cro ssing.
When a bo at that is lacking in men o r equipm ent o r is unseawo rthy
co mes to grief, the Co ntro ller o f Shipping shall make go o d what is lo st or
ruined.
(Tr. R.P. Kangle)
***
Periplus Maris Ery thraei (‘Voyage around the Erythrean Sea’)
This 1st century CE travelo gue o f the Erythrean Sea (i.e., the Arabian Sea, the Red Sea
and the Persian Gulf to gether) was written in Greek by an unnamed Egyptian
merchant. Its first part describes the maritime trade-ro utes from Egypt so uthward,
fo llo wing the East Africa coast down to modern-day Tanzania, and the o ther parts the
ro utes from Egypt eastward, aro und Arabia, past the Persian Gulf and o n to India. Fo r
the identificatio n o f Indian po rts and other places, we have relied o n R.C. Majumdar
( Classical Accounts, pp. 311–12). A few extracts concerning India:
The ships lie at ancho r at Barbaricum [in the delta o f the Indus], but all
their cargo es are carried up to the metro po lis by the river, to the King.
There are impo rted into this market a great deal o f thin clothing, and a
little spurio us; figured linens, to paz, co ral, sto rax, frankincense, vessels o f
glass, silver and go ld plate, and a little wine. On the o ther hand there are
expo rted co stus, bdellium, lycium, nard, turquo ise, lapis lazuli, Seric
skins, co tto n clo th, silk yarn, and indigo . And sailo rs set o ut thither with
the Indian Etesian winds [i.e., the mo nso o n], abo ut the mo nth o f July, that
is Epiphi: it is mo re dangero us then, but thro ugh these winds the vo yage
is more direct, and soo ner completed.
369
Beyo nd the river Sinthus [Indus] there is ano ther gulf, not navigable,
running in toward the no rth; it is called Eirino n [Rann o f Kachchh]; its
parts are called separately the small gulf and the great; in bo th parts the
water is shallow, with shifting sandbanks o ccurring co ntinually and a
great way fro m sho re; so that very o ften when the sho re is not even in
sight, ships run agro und, and if they attempt to ho ld their co urse they are
wrecked. ...
Beyo nd
the
gulf
of
Baraca
[Kachchh]
is
that
of
Barygaza
[Bh ṛgukaccha, mo dern Bharuch o r Broach] and the co ast o f the co untry o f
Ariaca, which is the beginning o f the Kingdom o f Nambanus and o f all
India. That part o f it lying inland and adjo ining Scythia is called Abiria,
but the coast is called Syrastrene [Saurashtra]. It is a fertile co untry,
yielding wheat and rice and sesame o il and clarified butter, co tto n and the
Indian clo ths made therefro m, o f the co arser so rts. Very many cattle are
pastured there, and the men are o f great stature and black in co lo ur. The
metro po lis o f this co untry is Minnagara, fro m which much co tto n clo th is
bro ught do wn to Barygaza. ...
Beyo nd this there is another gulf expo sed to the sea-waves, running
up to ward the no rth, at the mo uth o f which there is an island called
Baeo nes; at its innermo st part there is a great river called Mais [Mahi].
Tho se sailing to Barygaza pass across this gulf, which is 300 stadia1 in
width, leaving behind to their left the island just visible fro m their to ps
to ward the east, straight to the very mo uth o f the river o f Barygaza; and
this river is called Nammadus [Narmada].
1
A stadia is an ancient Greek unit of length, estimated (in Egypt) to have been about 157 m.
370
This gulf is very narrow to Barygaza and very hard to navigate fo r
tho se co ming fro m the o cean. ...
Fo r this reaso n entrance and departure o f vessels is very dangero us
to tho se who are inexperienced o r who co me to this market-town fo r the
first time. Fo r the rush o f waters at the inco ming tide is irresistible, and
the ancho rs cannot ho ld against it. ...
Inland fro m this place and to the east, is the city called Ozene
[Ujjain], fo rmerly a ro yal capital; fro m this place are bro ught down all
things needed fo r the welfare o f the co untry abo ut Barygaza, and many
things fo r o ur trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallo w
clo th, and much ordinary clo th. Thro ugh this same regio n and fro m the
upper co untry is bro ught the spikenard that comes thro ugh Po clais; that
is, the Caspapyrene [Kashmir?] and Paro panisene [Hindu Kush] and
Cabo litic [Kabul] and that bro ught thro ugh the adjo ining co untry o f
Scythia; also co stus and bdellium.
There are impo rted into this market-to wn, wine, Italian preferred,
also Lao dicean and Arabian; co pper, tin, and lead; co ral and to paz; thin
clo thing and inferio r sorts o f all kinds; bright-co lo ured girdles a cubit
wide; sto rax, sweet clo ver, flint glass, realgar, antimo ny, go ld and silver
co in, o n which there is a pro fit when exchanged fo r the mo ney o f the
co untry; and o intment, but no t very co stly and no t much. And fo r the
King there are bro ught into tho se places very co stly vessels o f silver,
singing bo ys, beautiful maidens fo r the harem, fine wines, thin clothing o f
the finest weaves, and the cho icest o intments. There are expo rted fro m
these places spikenard, co stus, bdellium, ivo ry, agate and carnelian,
lycium, co tto n cloth o f all kinds, silk clo th, mallo w clo th, yarn, lo ng
pepper and such o ther things as are bro ught here fro m the vario us
371
market-to wns. Tho se bo und for this market-town fro m Egypt make the
vo yage favo urably abo ut the mo nth o f July, that is Epiphi.
Beyo nd Barygaza the adjo ining co ast extends in a straight line fro m
no rth to so uth; and so this regio n is called Dachinabades [ Dak ṣiṇāpatha],
fo r dachanos in the language o f the natives means ‘so uth’. The inland
co untry back fro m the co ast to ward the east co mprises many desert
regio ns and great mo untains; and all kinds o f wild beasts — leo pards,
tigers, elephants, eno rmo us serpents, hyenas, and babo o ns o f many so rts;
and many po pulo us natio ns, as far as the Ganges.
Amo ng the market-to wns o f Dachinabades there are two o f special
impo rtance; Paethana [Paithan, o n the Go davari], distant abo ut twenty
days’ jo urney so uth fro m Barygaza; beyo nd which, abo ut ten days’
jo urney east, there is ano ther very great city, Tagara [Ter]. There are
bro ught down to Barygaza from these places by wago ns and thro ugh great
tracts witho ut roads, fro m Paethana carnelian in great quantity, and fro m
Tagara much co mmo n clo th, all kinds o f muslins and mallo w clo th, and
o ther merchandise bro ught there lo cally from the regio ns alo ng the seaco ast. And the who le co urse to the end o f Damirica [the Tamil land] is
7,000 stadia; but
the
distance
is greater
to
the
Co ast
Co untry
[Co ro mandel?].
The market-towns o f this regio n are, in o rder, after Barygaza:
Suppara [So para, no rth o f Mumbai], and the city o f Calliena [Kalyan],
which in the time o f the elder Saraganus became a lawful market-town;
but since it came into the po ssessio n o f Sandares the port is much
o bstructed, and Greek ships landing there may chance to be taken to
Barygaza under guard.
372
Beyo nd Calliena there are o ther market-to wns o f this regio n. ...
Tyndis [Po nnani?] is o f the kingdo m o f Cero bo thra [Keralaputra or
Kerala]; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris [near Ko dungallur],
o f the same kingdo m, abo unds in ships sent there with cargo es fro m
Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is lo cated o n a river, distant fro m Tyndis by
river and sea 500 stadia, and up the river from the sho re twenty stadia. ...
There is ano ther place at the mo uth o f this river, the village o f
Bacare [Porakad], to which ships dro p down o n the o utward vo yage fro m
Nelcynda. ... They send large ships to these market-towns o n acco unt o f
the great quantity and bulk o f pepper and malabathrum [an aro matic
plant]. There are impo rted here, in the first place, a great quantity o f co in;
to paz, thin clothing, not much; figured linens, antimo ny, co ral, crude
glass, co pper, tin, lead; wine, no t much, but as much as at Barygaza;
realgar and orpiment; and wheat eno ugh fo r the sailo rs, fo r this is no t
dealt in by the merchants there. There is expo rted pepper, which is
pro duced in quantity in o nly o ne regio n near these markets, a district
called Co tto nara. Besides this there are expo rted great quantities o f fine
pearls, ivory, silk cloth, spikenard fro m the Ganges, malabathrum fro m
the places in the interio r, transparent sto nes of all kinds, diamo nds and
sapphires, and torto ise-shell; that fro m Chryse Island [the Malay
Peninsula], and that taken amo ng the islands alo ng the coast o f Damirica.
They make the vo yage to this place in a favo urable seaso n who set o ut
fro m Egypt abo ut the mo nth o f July, that is Epiphi. ...
Beyo nd Bacare there is the Dark Red Mo untain, and ano ther district
stretching alo ng the co ast toward the so uth, called Paralia [Purali o r
Travancore]. The first place is called Balita [Varkallai]; it has a fine
harbo ur and a village by the sho re. Beyo nd this there is ano ther place
373
called Co mari [Kumari or Cape Co morin], at which are the Cape o f Co mari
and a harbo ur; hither co me tho se men who wish to co nsecrate themselves
fo r the rest o f their lives, and bathe and dwell in celibacy; and wo men also
do the same; fo r it is to ld that a go ddess o nce dwelt here and bathed.
Fro m Comari to ward the so uth this regio n extends to Co lchi
[Ko rkai], where the pearl-fisheries are; (they are wo rked by co ndemned
criminals); and it belo ngs to the Pandian Kingdo m. Beyo nd Co lchi there
fo llo ws another district called the Co ast Co untry [Co romandel], which lies
o n a bay, and has a regio n inland called Argaru [Uraiyur, near Tiruchi]. At
this place, and no where else, are bo ught the pearls gathered o n the co ast
thereabo uts; and fro m there are expo rted muslins, tho se called Argaritic.
Amo ng the market-towns o f these co untries, and the harbo urs
where the ships put in fro m Damirica [the Tamil land] and fro m the north,
the mo st impo rtant are, in o rder as they lie, first Camara [Puhar o r
Kāvēripaṭṭinam], then Po duca [Puducherry], then So patma [Marakanam];
in which there are ships o f the co untry co asting alo ng the sho re as far as
Damirica; and o ther very large vessels made o f single lo gs bo und to gether,
called sangara; but tho se which make the vo yage to Chryse and to the
Ganges are called colandia, and are very large. There are impo rted into
these places everything made in Damirica, and the greatest part o f what is
bro ught at any time fro m Egypt comes here, to gether with mo st kinds o f
all the things that are bro ught from Damirica and o f tho se that are carried
thro ugh Paralia.
Abo ut the fo llowing regio n, the co urse trending to ward the east,
lying o ut at sea toward the west is the island Palaesimundu, called by the
ancients Tapro bane [Sri Lanka]. The no rthern part is a day’s jo urney
distant, and the so uthern part trends gradually toward the west, and
374
almo st to uches the o ppo site sho re o f Azania. It pro duces pearls,
transparent sto nes, muslins, and to rto ise-shell.
Abo ut these places is the regio n o f Masalia [Masulipatam in Andhra
Pradesh] stretching a great way alo ng the co ast befo re the inland co untry;
a great quantity o f muslins is made there. Beyo nd this regio n, sailing
to ward the east and cro ssing the adjacent bay, there is the regio n o f
Do sarene, yielding the ivo ry kno wn as Do sarenic. Beyo nd this, the co urse
trending to ward the no rth, there are many barbaro us tribes, amo ng
who m are the Cirrhadae, a race o f men with flattened no ses, very savage;
ano ther tribe, the Bargysi; and the Horse-faces and the Lo ng-faces, who
are said to be cannibals.
After these, the co urse turns to ward the east again, and sailing with
the o cean to the right and the sho re remaining beyo nd to the left, Ganges
co mes into view, and near it the very last land toward the east, Chryse.
There is a river near it called the Ganges, and it rises and falls in the same
way as the Nile. On its bank is a market-town which has the same name as
the river, Ganges. Thro ugh this place are bro ught malabathrum and
Gangetic spikenard and pearls, and muslins o f the finest so rts, which are
called Gangetic. It is said that there are go ld-mines near these places, and
there is a go ld co in which is called caltis. And just o ppo site this river there
is an island in the o cean, the last part o f the inhabited wo rld to ward the
cast, under the rising sun itself; it is called Chryse; and it has the best
to rto ise-shell o f all the places o n the Erythraean Sea. ...
(Tr. William H. Scho ff)
***
375
Tamil Literature
The early Tamil literature (fro m the first centuries CE, po ssibly slightly earlier)
co ntains many descriptio ns o f po rt to wns and trading practices. A few extracts:
There gardens girt with loam are seen
Where pegs are driven to tie stro ng bo ats
That stand like steeds in stables tied,
Co me fully laden with the grain
By barter bo ught o f salt refined
Thro ugh Cōḻa land extending wide
With many a hamlet clo sely set. ...
... Here are bro ught
Swift, prancing steeds by sea in ships,
And bales o f pepper black, by carts.
Himalayas sends gems and go ld,
While Kudda hills, sweet sandal-woo d
And akhil; pearls fro m the so uth sea co me,
Red co ral fro m the eastern sea.
The Ganges and the Kaveri bring
Their yield: Ceylo n pro vides its fo od,
And Burma, manufactures rare.
With o ther rare and rich impo rts
This wealth lies clo se and thickly piled,
376
Co nfused alo ng the spacio us streets.
From Paṭṭiṇapp ālai (quoted in A Sourcebook of Indian
Civilization, Niharranjan Ray & B.D. Chattopadhyaya,
(eds), Orient Longman, 2000, pp. 283 ff)
*
Tho se who well fashio n bangles fine fro m chanks,
The go ldsmiths that make jewels bright fro m go ld
Well purified in fire, tho se who sell go ld
That’s well assayed, tho se who do trade in clo thes,
Tho se who buy co pper by the weight, tho se who
Stitch garments fine, tho se who sell well-culled blo o ms
And sandal-woo d, tho se who co uld pictures paint
Of vario us things in mo tio n, tho se who draw
With accuracy things that catch the eye,
And o thers gather. Weavers small and great
Display bright, fo lded garments, sho rt and lo ng,
That lo o k like shining sands that edge the sea.
All these are fo und in fo ur well-crowded streets. ...
In the neithal [litto ral] tract are fo und fine sparkling pearls
Which the shining sea do th yield, bright bangles cut
And shaped straight with the file, and other wares
That merchants sell. Sea captains that sail o ver
The o cean high in showy ships that co me
Fro m large and distant co untries take away
377
The salt that’s formed in black and clayey pans,
Sweet tamarind and salted fish that loo k
Like sides o f drums prepared by fishermen
On widespread sands. They bring fine horses here
And o ther precio us things to barter them
Fo r jewels fine that are here made. This wealth
Abo unds increasing day by day.
From Maduraikāñci (quoted in ibid., pp. 284 ff)
*
The flourishing town of Muśiṛi, where the large beautiful ships o f the
Yavanas which bring go ld and take pepper, co me disturbing the white
fo am o f the little, fair Periy āru [river] of the Seralar ...
From Aganānūru (quoted in ibid., p. 285)
*
The Sun sho ne o ver the o pen terraces, o ver the wareho uses near the
harbo urs, and o ver the turrets with air-ho les loo king like the eyes o f deer.
In different places o f Pukār [Poompuhar or Kāvēripaṭṭinam] the
o nlo oker’s attentio n was arrested by the sight o f the abodes o f Yavanas
[Ro man traders] who se prosperity was never o n the wane. On the harbo ur
were to be seen sailo rs co me fro m distant lands, but fo r all appearance
they lived as o ne co mmunity. In the streets o f the city hawkers went
abo ut with paints, bathing powders and co o l pastes, flo wers, incense and
fragrant scents. In certain places weavers were seen dealing in fine fabrics
made o f silk, fur and co tto n. Who le streets were full o f silks, co rals, sandal
378
and myrrh, besides a wealth o f rare ornaments, perfect pearls, gems and
go ld, which were beyo nd recko ning.
There were also o ther streets where grain-dealers lived who kept
their grains in separate heaps. Washermen, makers o f muffins, winesellers, fishermen selling fish, dealers in white salt, tho se who so ld betel
leaves, tho se who dealt in scents, mutto n-vendo rs, o il-mo ngers, meatvendo rs, dealers in bro nze, manufacturers o f co pper, carpenters, stro ngarmed blacksmiths, sculpto rs, po tters, go ldsmiths, jewellers, tailo rs,
co bblers, skilled workers o f all so rts who made fancy trinkets o f pieces o f
clo th and co rk …
[In additio n] there was the o pen space where co uld be fo und many
bundles o f go o ds with marks indicative o f the quantity, weight and names
o f their new o wners. Since there was neither gate no r lo ck no r watchman
guarding them, thieves might so metimes be tempted to remo ve these
bundles o n their heads. And if they did so , the invisible deity guarding the
place wo uld make the thief go ro und and ro und the o pen plain, with the
heavy burden o n his head but wo uld no t permit him to pass away fro m
there. The very tho ught o f stealing anything made peo ple quake with fear.
…
Fro m the Tamil epic Cilappatik āram, Canto V
(tr. V.R. Ramachandra Dikshitar)
***
An Inscription on Internal Trade
Inscriptio ns have a wealth o f data not o nly o n trade and traded go ods, but also o n the
so cial o rganizatio n o f the traders, such as their co mmunities, leaders and guilds.
379
A 13th-century inscriptio n fro m Belgaum (Karnakata) gives details o f taxes to be
impo sed o n vario us go o ds. The fo llo wing items are mentio ned: ho rses, o xen and
buffalo es, go ld jewellery, co tto n, perfumes, clo th, grass, co tto n, paddy, unhusked
rice, black pepper, asafo etida, green ginger, turmeric, o il, areca buts, betel leaves,
coconuts, palm-leaves, co arse sugar, plantains, myro bo lans, sugar-cane and po tsto ne.
The fo llo wing extract is fro m an inscriptio n by king Ganapatideva at Mo tupalli
(Andhra Pradesh) dated to the 13th century CE, in which the king grants pro tectio n to
traders — o f co urse no t witho ut some co mpensatio n:
... By this glorio us Maharaja Ganapatideva the fo llo wing edict (assuring)
safety has been granted to traders by sea starting fo r and arriving fro m all
co ntinents, islands, fo reign co untries and cities.
Fo rmerly kings used to take away by force the who le cargo , viz. go ld,
elephants, ho rses, gems, etc., carried by ships and vessels which after they
had started from o ne co untry fo r another, were attacked by storms,
wrecked, and thrown o n sho re. But, we o ut o f mercy, fo r the sake o f glo ry
and merit, are granting everything besides the fixed duty to tho se who
have incurred the great risk o f a sea-vo yage with the tho ught that wealth
is more valuable than even life.
The rate o f this duty [is] o ne in thirty o n [all] expo rts and impo rts.
On o ne to la o f sandal, 1 pago da 1/ 4 fanam.
On 1 pago da’s value o f [co untry] campho r, Chinese campho r and
pearls, 3 and 3/ 8 fanam.
On 1 pago da’s value o f ro se-water, ivo ry, civet, campho r-o il, co pper,
zinc, riseya (?), lead, silk-threads, corals, and perfumes, 1¼ and 1/ 8 fanam.
On 1 pago da’s value o f pepper, 3 and 3/ 8 fanam.
380
On all silks, 5½ fanams per bale.
On every lakh o f areca-nuts, 1 pago da 3¼ fanams ...
(L.D. Barnett, quoted in ibid., p. 455–56)
***
Comprehension
1.
What do es Kau ṭilya mean when he speaks in Arthaśāstra o f “ the evil o f a glut in
the market in the case o f co mmodities co nstantly in demand” ? Do es it remind
yo u o f certain situatio ns in co ntemporary business?
2.
What, acco rding to Kauṭilya, are the different metho ds used by the state to
check trade malpractices at different stages o f trading?
3.
What is the implicatio n o f Kauṭilya’s statement that the Directo r o f Trade
“ sho uld avo id even a big pro fit that wo uld be injurio us to the subjects” ?
4.
What is the idea behind Kauṭilya’s injunctio n to grant exemptio ns to those
invo lved in impo rt o f go ods thro ugh ships or caravans?
5.
Why do yo u think Kau ṭilya lists goo ds like “ weapo ns, armo urs, co ats o f mail,
metals, chario ts, jewels, grains and cattle” as barred fro m expo rt?
6.
What kind o f picture do es the extract from the Cilappatik āram paint as far as the
eco no mic life is co ncerned?
Extended Activities

Reading the abo ve excerpts fro m Arthaśāstra, o ne gets an impressio n that
co nsumer pro tectio n is no t such a new no tio n. Research the measures pro po sed
381
by Kauṭilya to make sure that custo mers are no t cheated and co mpare with
to day’s situatio n.

Study the taxatio n system develo ped by Arthaśāstra for traded go ods (including
duties and to lls). What services can merchants expect in exchange fo r the taxes
they have to pay? Discuss whether, in yo ur estimate, the system is (1) fair
o verall, and (2) co nducive to trade activities?

Draw a map o f the vario us po rts mentio ned in the Periplus Maris Erythraei, and a
table o f the goo ds impo rted and expo rted through the Indian po rts. Co mment
o n the kind and vo lume o f trade this suggests.

Study the abo ve extracts fro m Tamil literature, including the vario us goo ds,
crafts and traders they mentio n, and make a compariso n with the data fro m the
Periplus. Po int o ut co mmo nalities as well as differences.

382