Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 133887
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Review
A critical review on reducing the environmental impact of 3D printing
concrete: Material preparation, construction process and structure level
Zengfeng Zhao a, b, Chenyuan Ji a, *, Jianzhuang Xiao a, b, *, Lei Yao a, Can Lin a, Tao Ding a, b,
Taohua Ye a
a
b
Department of Structural Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
Key Laboratory of Performance Evolution and Control for Engineering Structures of Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
3D printing concrete
Recycled aggregates
Fibre
Durability
Component behaviour of 3DPC
This paper presents a critical review of reducing the life-cycle environmental impact of 3D printing concrete
(3DPC) systems from the perspectives of material preparation, construction process and structure level. The
material requirements of 3DPC are first introduced, then the utilization of low-carbon cementitious materials,
recycled aggregates, admixture and fibres in 3DPC is explored, along with their effect on workability and me­
chanical property. The potential for improving the environmental benefits by applying better design and printing
parameters are discussed in the subsequent part. Two main delivery systems and the effect of printing parameters
(including printing speed, standoff distance) are presented. Finally, the behaviour of 3D printing components
(beam, slab and column) is examined at the structural level. 3D printing technology has a high degree of
freedom, thus better understanding of the component behaviour can save materials and improve strength.
Finding a balance between component’s performance and environmental impact is a crucial work in future.
1. Introduction of 3D printing concrete with recycled materials
1.1. Background about 3D printing concrete
Construction industry exerts a significant influence on the environ­
ment. It accounts for over 36 % of global energy consumption, dis­
charges 39 % of global greenhouse gas emissions, uses 12 % of global
potable water, and generates over 40 % of solid waste, which is a crucial
issue in developed countries [1]. The report published by the Con­
struction Leadership Council (UK) in 2016 revealed that for every one
new worker trained, four skilled workers are leaving the construction
industry [2]. This indicates that the industry is grappling with a labour
shortage. Meanwhile, the average weekly income for the construction
industry rose to £13.4 per hour in December 2020. However, labour
productivity, which is measured by output per hour, has decreased by
4.8 % compared to the previous year [3]. A huge amount of waste will
also be generated by the construction industry, the annual production of
construction and demolition waste (CDW) in China reached 2 billion
tons in 2020 and still increases each year [4].
Thus, automated construction industry using recycled materials,
such as 3D printing, which is a typical method and gradually used in
construction. 3D printing, a print head extrudes material, and software
controls the movement of the print head to construct the final project by
material deposition. The history of 3D printing concrete (3DPC) can be
dated back to 1987 [5]. Compared to traditional construction methods,
the use of 3DPC requires less labour and eliminates the need for form­
work, which can take up to 35 %—54 % of the total cost and consumes
50 %—75 % of the total construction time [6]. To address the severe
environmental problems caused by the construction industry, re­
searchers have started to recycle CDW. Aggregates, which make up 60 %
to 75 % of the total volume of concrete [7], can be totally or partially
replaced by CDW. Cement, as the component with the heaviest envi­
ronmental impact, can also be replaced by engineering residual soil or
recycled powder from CDW [8]. The combination of 3D printing and
recycled material has become a hot topic in recent years [9].
However, there are also some problems that need to be addressed.
Firstly, the amount of cement used in 3DPC is higher than that used in
conventional concrete [10]. As shown in Table 1, the cement amount
used in showcases was about 40 % higher than normal concrete. The
printing ink has a higher environmental impact compared with the
conventional cast concrete. Therefore, finding methods to reduce the
environmental impact of 3DPC will become a crucial task for the future
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: 2111400@tongji.edu.cn (C. Ji), jzx@tongji.edu.cn (J. Xiao).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133887
Received 29 July 2023; Received in revised form 29 September 2023; Accepted 18 October 2023
Available online 4 November 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z. Zhao et al.
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 133887
Table 1
Cement amount used in 3DPC compared with the conventional concrete.
Abdalla et al.
[11]
Han et al. [12]
Agusti-Juan
et al. [13]
Nerela et al.
[14]
Le et al. [15]
3D printing concrete
(kg/m3)
Conventional cast
concrete (kg/m3)
Difference
430
300
43.3 %
440
500
320
300
37.5 %
66.6 %
430
360
19.5 %
579
446
29.8 %
studies.
This paper reviews the potential methods for reducing the environ­
mental impact throughout the entire life cycle of 3DPC. These methods
encompass material preparation, construction process, and structural
consideration. In terms of materials, the utilization of recycled materials
derived from CDW as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) or
aggregates can significantly reduce the environmental impact of 3DPC.
Furthermore, the influence of fibres and admixtures added to 3DPC is
investigated to assess their potential in minimizing environmental
impact. Regarding the printing process, the optimizing designs and
selecting appropriate delivery printing systems based on the printing
material can effectively conserve construction energy. Finally, the
structural behaviour of 3DPC and the novel analysis methods are given.
A comprehensive comparison has been made between the environ­
mental impact and economic costs of 3D printed structures and con­
ventional structures.
Fig. 1. Different failure models of 3DPC.
As for the stress-displacement (σ − d) curve at an early age, the σ − d
curve has two clear stages [21,27,28]. When 3DPC elements are at very
early ages, the curve grows slowly and gradually becomes flat. As time
evolves, the σ − d curve will rapidly increase to a peak and then drop to
lower stress.
2. Material challenge
This section discusses the use of recycled materials in 3DPC. Intro­
ducing different recycled materials from other industries can alter the
properties of concrete and result in various issues. Therefore, this section
will first analyse the properties of 3DPC in its fresh and hardened states,
and then explore the impact of different recycled materials on its
performance.
2.1.2. Hardened state of 3DPC
After 3DPC is hardened, the bond strength dominates the failure
mechanical behaviour [29,30]. Using scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) showed there are four kinds of bond layers: a): weakly bonded; b):
weakly bonded due to carbonation; c): temporary weakly bonded and
d): strongly bounded [31]. Two types of weakly bonds (Fig. 2 (a) and
(b)) in SEM image have clear cavities, the former cavities (Type a)
cannot be connected after self-curing, resulting in open pores between
layers that can negatively impact the mechanical properties and dura­
bility of 3DPC. On the other hand, Type b cavities can be filled by
employing appropriate curing methods such as CO2 curing or film
conservation, preventing the formation of continuous pores between
layers. The cavities in Type c are narrow or not continuous, which can be
self-healed. Printing parameters such as the time gap and standoff dis­
tance can also influence bond strength between layers [30,32–34]. The
strength of the interface can be also improved by adding glue materials
[35,36]. Nano-clay and sulfuryl-black carbon (SBC) can improve the
bond strength[37], use cement and acrylic emulsion slurry can also
compensate for the shrinkage and flexural strength.
For concrete printing in different layers, there are unavoidable pores
and voids between stripes, and the pores in 3DPC are no longer to be
spheroid. They become elongated in the printing directions, leading to
an anisotropic problem [38,39]. Elongated pores in 3DPC could lead to
the concentration of stress and affect the mechanical properties of
concrete. For the same layer, concrete is an isotropic material [32,40],
but for the whole element, 3DPC should be treated as anisotropic ma­
terial [40,41]. Most of existing research showed the strength of printed
samples were lower than that of cast samples [42], and the highest
compressive strength of printed samples can be obtained from X direc­
tion (printing direction) [43]. Using the index of isotropic Ia [40] as a
parameter to estimate the isotropic properties of 3DPC, Ia can be
determined by Equation (1), Ia factor is used in this paper to evaluate the
isotropic behaviour of different materials.
2.1. Requirement of 3D printing material
Two factors that dominate the printability properties of 3DPC are
pumpability and extrudability [9,16], which is dominated by the
rheology properties [17,18]. While, the properties to resist deformations
caused by load and self-weight called buildability [19]. Generally, the
extrudability and buildability are opposite with each other at the same
concrete composition [20].
2.1.1. Fresh state of 3DPC
The failure mechanisms of 3DPC are summarized in Fig. 1 which
mainly consist of material failure and buckling failure [21,22]. Material
failure is material loss the load-bearing capacity before or after the
upper layer was put on them [23]. Concrete material is a kind of Bing­
ham material [24], and the yield stress will dominate the mechanical
properties. Zhang et al. and Roussel used τi ≥ ρ√gh̅̅ to define the boundary
3
condition for element height and yield stress [25,26].
Bulking failure happened when the printing height is too high, and
the element becomes slender and there was a critical height between the
materials and buckling failure models [21,22]. Roussel connected elastic
modulus (E) and yield stress (γc) given the boundary of strength domi­
nate failure as E > 2√ρ̅̅gH (1 + ϑ), and calculate critical height (Hc) as
1
3γc
3
Hc ≅ (ρ8EI
gA) . If assuming the section is rectangular and the width of the
element is equal to a fixed value δ, the transition height (HT) between
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√̅̅
two failure models can be written as .HT = 2δ 1+ϑ
3 3γc
2
Z. Zhao et al.
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 133887
Fig. 2. Different bond types in 3DPC: (a) weekly bonded, (b) weakly bonded due to carbonation and (c) temporary weakly bonded [31].
Ia =
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅
)2
)2 (
(
f x − f c + f y − f c + (f z − f c )2 /f c
the compressive and flexural strengths of 3DPC did not show a clear
decrease. The SEM results indicated that bamboo fibre ash attached on
the C-S-H gel can effectively resist the cracking propagation [68].
Considering the cost and environmental benefits of SCMs from CDW, the
unit of waste powder is only 21 Chinese Yuan (CNY)/t which is only 4 %
of cement (520 CNY/t) using SCMs can bring huge economic benefits
[69]. Analysing the environmental impacts from the endpoint using 30
% recycled powder can lead to 25 % reduction on human health, 24 %
reduction on ecosystem quality, 28 % reduction on climate change, and
23 % reduction on resources consumption [70], which can definitely
make 3DPC to be greener.
Currently, there is a common sense that using CDW as SCM can lead
to a weak bond [47]. The replacement ratio of these SCMs was related to
the activity index. However, one of the main obstacles of promoting the
use of CDW is the unstable composition of CDW, which lacks a
normalized method to evaluating different kinds of CDW to produce
SCMs. Investigating the mechanism of effective components in CDW
should drive more attention in the near further to solve this problem. As
for the weak bond problem, finding the most economy and effective
physical, chemical or bio-curing might be the further research hot point.
Besides direct reducing the cement amount, using other low-carbon
cementitious system in the 3DPC is also a possible approach. Geo­
polymer, produced by several industrial wastes and by-products, is an
environmentally friendly material. It typically consists of an alkali so­
lution and solid aluminosilicate, and has the potential to reduce global
warming potential up to 64 %. However, both alkali and solid alumi­
nosilicate can be provided by different materials and the influence of Si/
Na ratio is a problem needs to be further discussed, so this material is not
the main topic in this review paper [71–73].
Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) is a new type of low-carbon
cement, which is consist of a blend of calcined clay (30 %), limestone
(15 %) and gypsum (5 %), and it can replace 50 % of clinker without
strength loss [74]. When clay containing kaolinite is calcined between
700 and 850℃, kaolinite will transfer to an amorphous alumina silicate
called metakaolin (MK), it can react with Ca(OH)2 and form calciumaluminium–silicate-hydrates (C-A-S-H) [75].
Currently, several different types of clays are used in LC3, but the
properties of LC3 in different regions showed significant differences. The
(1)
Where fc is the compressive strength of cast samples, fx(y,z) is the
compressive strength along (perpendicular, cumulative) printing
direction.
2.2. Reducing impacts from cementitious material
As shown in Table 1, 3DPC has approximately 40 % higher envi­
ronmental impact compared to the conventional concrete. Additionally,
the production of 1 ton of cement generates 900 kg of CO2, which brings
a heavy budget to the environment. Therefore, finding alternative ma­
terials to reduce the cement amount is a crucial approach to mitigating
the environmental impacts of 3DPC. Using SCMs obtained from byproducts or CDW to reduce cement amount is a possible method.
However, the addition of these SCMs in 3D printing will directly influ­
ence the workability and mechanical property of concrete [20,44–46],
which are crucial parameters for the successful printing of concrete.
Table 2 summarized the feature of SCMs and their influence on work­
ability, strength and durability to better compare the advantages of
different SCMs.
From Table 2, it can be found that normal SCMs can meet the de­
mands of 3DPC. However, facing the global warming challenge, many
countries have already set their goals to reduce the amount of industrial
waste, SCMs such as fly ash and silica fume come from industrial waste
may face a shortage condition in the near further, thus it is important to
find other alternative SCMs in the production of 3DPC.
SCMs obtained from CDW or renewable material might be the so­
lution to that problem. These powders obtained from waste concrete
(RCP) or waste brick (RBP) showed great pozzolanic reactivity [60],
when the replacement ratio is less than 20 % the 28-days strength loss of
concrete can be controlled within 5 %. The difference between them is
RCP required more water compared with RBP [67]. 10 %-20 %
replacement of ceramic waste powder makes the interfacial transition
zone (ITZ) to be denser, and the capillary water absorption and resis­
tance to chloride were both improved compared with concrete without
them. SCMs can be obtained from the renewable materials such as
bamboo. When 15 % of cement was replaced by the bamboo fibre ash,
Table 2
Different low carbon SCMs used in 3DPC.
SCMs
Silica fume
[47–49]
Fly ash
[49–52]
Blast furnace Slag
[51]
Limestone filler
[53,54]
Gypsum
[55–59]
Brick powder
[60–65]
Calcined clay
[53,66]
Fluidity
Setting time
Decrease
Prolong
Increase
Prolong
Increase
Prolong
0–20 % increase
0–10 % prolong
Decrease
20 % prolong
Decrease
/
Buildability
Young’s
Modulus
Early Strength
Final Strength
Increase
Increase
Decrease
Similar
Decrease
Slightly increase
Decrease
Similar
Decrease
0–5.5 %
prolong
Increase
/
Increase
Decrease
Increase
/
Decrease
Increase
Decrease
0–20 %
increase
Decrease
Increase
Decrease
Decrease
0–5 % increase
0–5 % increase
Decrease
20 % increase
Increase
Increase
3
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 133887
Z. Zhao et al.
thixotropy index of Indian calcined clay was 7.5 times higher than
Germany calcined clay [76], and the major difference between them was
the MK content. Other studies further investigated the effects of MK by
comparing high-grade calcined clay (HGCC) and low-grade calcined
clay (LGCC). HGCC contained over 95 % MK, whereas LGCC only con­
tained approximately 50 % MK. Test results indicated that increasing the
amount of HGCC will increase the flow consistency and improve the
buildability of LC3. However, 3DPC with HGCC has a quicker hydration
process and come up with a shorter print window, which also causes the
voids content in HGCC is higher than that of low-grade calcined clay
(LGCC). When the replacement of LC3 is equal to 50 % with 5 % of SF,
greenhouse gas generation and energy consumption can be reduced by
45.6 % and 40.2 %, respectively [77]. Further discussion is required to
identify the effective component for controlling the extrudability and
buildability, as well as establishing prediction formulas for these prop­
erties of 3D printing LC3.
Yu et al. [78] also found out that LC3 need to add more super­
plasticizer (SP) compared with traditional concrete, SP with 1.5 wt% of
binder can improve the buildability of LC3, the amount of SP should
increase with the replacement ratio of LC3 to maintain the same build­
ability. Besides adding high-pollution admixtures, buildability can be
also adjusted by changing the ratio of calcined clay and limestone
powder [78,79]. Reddy et al. investigated the mechanical properties of
LC3 and established the compressive and flexural strengths of LC3 at
early age are comparable to that of OPC. The final strength of them were
even higher, while the split tensile test was lower than that of OPC [80].
Other SCMs such as fly ash and silica fume can be used to adjust LC3based concrete [77,81]. Adjusting the percentage and categories of
SCMs will significantly influence the workability and mechanical
properties of 3DPC, thus the combination use with other SCMs could be
a great potential in the future.
focus on how RCA can be used in 3DPC to reduce the environmental
impacts.
During the aggregate preparation stage, the moisture condition (dry
or saturated) of aggregates will significantly influence printing states.
When using only fine recycled concrete aggregate (FRCA) in 3DPC, the
slump of concrete made with dried FRCA (DFRCA) was higher than that
of mortar made with saturated FRCA (SFRCA). Adding same quantity of
absorbed water to the mixer during the production, the workability of
mortar will increase compared directly using SFRCA [98]. For the
thickness of the ITZ, SFRCA based concrete had thicker layers compared
with that using DFRCA, this was caused by the water in SFRCA moving
from the old paste to the surface of the new paste reacting with water
and generate larger ITZ. Besides that, long-term shrinkage can be
effectively controlled by using SFRCA [99]. However, the old ITZ for the
coarse recycled concrete aggregates (CRCA) becomes the weak part of
CRCA [100]. Pedro found out that adding RCA in concrete will decrease
the strength of concrete due to the existing ITZ in RCA [101,102]. This
condition can be modified by applying different treatments (such as
carbonation, immersion in lime, etc.) to improve the properties of RCA
and further improve mechanical properties of 3DPC [103].
For the printing process, the addition of FRCA and CRCA will also
affect the printability of 3DPC: increase the replacement ratio of RCA
will increase the fresh yield stress and plastic viscosity, which can lead to
the reduction of rheology and fluidity of 3DPC [104,105]. The extrud­
ability will decrease with the incorporation of FRCA and CRCA. For
3DPC containing RCA, the buildability can be improved by adding
scrapers to the nozzle. Ji et al. found when the height of the scraper was
equal to 40 mm, the vertical deformation of 3DPC can reduce up to 25 %
and the flexural strength along the printing direction can increase 44 %
to 49 % [106].
Concerning the early stress development of 3DPC, there is an obvious
gradual stiffening process for FRCA. The load–displacement curve ex­
hibits linearity at early ages, with a peak generated on the curve and
followed by a sharp slope due to hydration processing[104]. For the
samples with different replacement ratios (R%), the green stress of them
is similar, the stress and hardening time have a linear relationship with R
%. For 3DPC containing FRCA, Young’s modulus (E) has a quadratic
relationship with age [107]. Meanwhile, for 3DPC with CRCA, an
exponential formula can better describe the relationship between them
[108], which is the major difference between FRCA and CRCA.
After hardening, the anisotropic properties of 3DPC showed that RCA
had limited impacts on compressive and flexural strengths but signifi­
cantly influenced the splitting tensile strength. For 3DPC containing
FRCA, the reduction of the compressive and flexural strengths along X
and Y directions shows less values compared with Z directions, which
could lead to the major crack more easily to promote along Z direction
2.3. Reducing environmental impact from aggregates
Aggregates, as the component has the highest volume percentage in
concrete, can be natural or synthetic. Natural aggregates (NA) are
typically sourced from rivers or quarries, while recycled aggregates (RA)
can be obtained from various types of CDW and can be used as fine or
coarse aggregates. Table 3 summarized the behaviours of different kinds
of recycled aggregates and their influence on 3DPC.
The most common recycled aggregates are recycled concrete ag­
gregates (RCA), which are obtained by crushing the demolished con­
crete waste. Because of the complexity of the recycling process, brick
waste and other CDW are unavoidable in RCA. Thus, the recycled ag­
gregates obtained by crushing the CDW, which containing more than 90
% concrete, can be regarded as RCA [63,96,97]. The following parts will
Table 3
Summary of recycled aggregates used in 3DPC.
Chemical
composition
Printing properties
Mechanical properties
Glass
waste
SiO2, Na2SiO3,
Ca2SiO3
1) Increasing replacement ratio (R%) can improve dynamic and plastic
yield stress, reduce static yield stress [82] and printing limit [83];
2) Decrease fineness will reduce buildability [83].
PET
(C10H8O4)n
Brick
waste
SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3/
FeO
1) Rheological properties increase with R% [85];
2) Buildability decreases with R% (50 % replacement, E value reduce
30.1 %) [86];
3) The maximum suggestion R% is 50 % [86–88].
1) Rheological properties decrease with R% [90];
Steel slag
(SS)
Fe2O3, SiO2, Al2O3,
CaO, MgO
1) Increasing R% can improve the interlayer bond strength, but
decrease the flexural strength along the printing direction [84];
2) Coarser particles can arrest propagation of crack, but have a
loose interlayer region [84].
1) Finer particles lead to higher compressive strength loss (50 %
replacement, compressive strength reduces 51.9 %) [89];
2) Freeze-thaw and high-temperature resistance decreases with the
increase of R% [85].
1) Compressive strength reduces 25 % when 64 % replacement of
NA; interlayer tensile strength decreases 20 % [92];
2) Resistances to chloride and carbonation reduce when R%
increases; expansion increases with R%.
1) 28-day compressive strength increases with R% [94], early
flexural strength can even increase 16.1 % [93];
2) The existence of CaO and MgO, their hydration of them leads to
volume expansion, the suggestion R% is around 25 % [94].
2) Workability is variable based on the original brick properties [91].
1) Shape of SS will influence the rheological properties (Round particles
reduce static while rough particles increase static [93,94]);
2) Increasing R% reduces water demand [95].
4
Z. Zhao et al.
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 133887
continuous open grading (OG) interruption/discontinuous dense
grading (IG). Results showed that CG has the highest flowability and
strongest aggregate skeleton. Stronger skeleton generally accompanying
with interlocking, which will improve the buildability of 3DPC. IG has
the least compressive strength, and the crack was promoted along a 45
angle with horizontal.
Using RCA in 3DPC has shown great potential to replace natural
aggregates. However, the durability of 3DPC is a crucial problem when
RCA is utilized. The use of RCA in concrete can lead to higher chloride
penetration and the formation of more pores at the interface between
layers, increasing the risk of steel corrosion [101,118]. Similarly, RCA
exhibits reduced carbonation resistance due to its higher porosity and
larger specific surface area, facilitating easier diffusion of CO2 into the
concrete. [119]. Lim and Mondal also pointed out that FRCA had a
larger specific surface area which accelerates the carbonation process.
Results showed that the carbonation depth of 3DPC with RCA was about
twice greater compared with the normal concrete. Using RCA also
causes the potential risk of the sulphate erosion [120], and prolong the
grinding process in CDW can significantly reduce the content of gypsum,
which is helpful to deal with sulphate erosion [103]. In terms of abrasion
resistance, Fonseca et al. found there was no clear relationship between
replacement ratio of CRCA and the thickness loss, the sample of 10 %
RCA even showed lower thickness loss (better resistance to abrasion)
compared with NA groups. While for other series, the thickness loss was
around 5.4 % compared with NA groups [121]. As for 100 % FRCA
concrete, the thickness loss is about 50 % greater than that of normal
concrete. This indicated the addition of FRCA will reduce abrasion
resistance of concrete [122]. The shrinkage presented in 3DPC will
promote the formation of micro-cracks [16,123], which is harmful to the
homogeneity properties of 3DPC and strength development.
Researchers analysed the life cycle assessment of recycled aggregates
concrete, using 30 % RCA leads to 20 % reduction in energy consump­
tion and 22 % reduction in global warming potential [124]. Recycled
[109]. While 3DPC prepared with CRCA, the hardened strengths in all
directions are less than that made with NA. Fig. 3 summarized the results
of compressive and flexural strengths of 3DPC prepared with different
ratios of FRCA and CRCA [105,109–113].
As shown in Fig. 3, the compressive and flexural strengths of printed
samples increased at low replacement ratio, but then decreased as the
replacement ratio for FRCA increased. Some researchers stated that the
unhydrated material attached on RCA can favor the strength develop­
ment when little FRCA was added, while other researchers showed
FRCA at low replacement ratio could change the packing structure of
3DPC. The bulk yield stress of mortar had a linear relationship with
maximum size of RCA [44], and increasing the binder percentage will
benefit to the torque viscosity and flow resistance [114,115]. This
controvert is mainly related to the composition of FRCA, which varies
widely in different studies. Thus, the further discussion should be made
based on the same composition to release the mechanism of FRCA.
For CRCA, both compressive and flexural strengths decreased with
the increase of the replacement ratio. At a 100 % replacement ratio,
compressive strength loss with FRCA was in the range of 22 % ~ 33 %
and flexural strength loss was in the range of 18 % ~ 25 %. This strength
loss was lower than that of 3DPC prepared with CRCA, which was 30 %
~ 43 % for compressive strength and 26 % ~ 37 % for flexural strength.
These results also demonstrated that the addition of CRCA may lead to a
higher strength loss due to larger ITZ area of CRCA compared with
FRCA. Besides that, Xiao et al. pointed out FRCA have higher water
absorption compared with CRCA, and the early enhancement of hy­
dration compensates for the defects of recycled aggregates [110]. Wang
et al. used 3D base force element method (BFEM) and demonstrated that
the Young’s modulus was sensitive to the replacement ratio [116]. The
yield stress and plastic viscosity of fresh concrete increased with the
cement to aggregate (C/A) ratio. When C/A ratio was within the range of
0.35–0.6, the maximum printed height can be improved by reducing C/
A. Bai et al. [117] studied the 3DPC with continuous dense grading (CG),
Fig. 3. The highest strength of 3DPC prepared with different replacement ratios: (a) compressive strength; (b) flexural strength.
5
Z. Zhao et al.
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 133887
aggregates not only have lower environmental impact for material
production, and they also have great potential to capture CO2, because
the old mortar in recycled aggregates can react with CO2 and forming
stable CaCO3. Rosa et al. claimed that recycled aggregates can store 8 Mt
CO2 in Europe [125,126].
However, 3DPC as an anisotropic material, the pores in concrete
were elongated along printing directions. This is reflected by more
penetration hole, which will be generated along printing direction. Freeion and water can move into penetration hole much easier compared
with cement matrix, which will lead to the different erosion speeds in X,
Y and Z direction. Recycled aggregates had a higher porosity compared
with natural aggregates, and using RA in 3DPC will make the erosion
path much complex. However, currently there are few studies focusing
on this point, corrosion model in three directions is necessary for
determining the life span for 3DPC.
aspect ratio (length/diameter) and fibre volume also play an important
role in determining the properties of 3DPC. When the fibre volume and
aspect ratio are the same, PVA fibres have a bigger die entry and die land
pressure compared with glass fibre [141]. Carbon fibres had a higher
improvement in flexural strength compared with glass and basalt fibres
[139], and the post-cracking behaviour is crucial after adding glass and
basalt fibre. Adding steel fibres to concrete can obtained a higher flex­
ural strength but the bond strength between layers will be reduced
compared with polypropylene fibres [142].
The influence of 3D printing technology on the mechanical proper­
ties of 3DPC was shown in Fig. 4. Currently, most of the research and
design on 3D printed engineered cementitious composite (ECC) has been
conducted at the mortar-scale. The values of flexural strength shown in
Fig. 4 were determined using a three-point bending test based on the
specimens (40 × 40 × 160 mm). Both cast and 3DPC samples were
produced by using identical materials and under the same fresh state
conditions. The highest compressive and flexural strengths were ob­
tained in the Z direction, while the species in the X and Y directions
exhibited brittle behaviour and relatively lower strength compared to
the Z direction. Therefore, only the strength along the Z direction was
selected for comparison with the cast samples. The comparison of 3DPC
and cast species showed 3DPC had a higher flexural strength but a lower
compressive strength. Lower compressive strength was caused by the 3D
printing laminate structure; this kind of structure was benefit to the
crack development which further deteriorate the compressive strength.
While the higher flexural and tensile strength is caused by fibre orien­
tation, for 3D printing process, fibre has a greater opportunity to be
located in the printing directions while the fibre distribution in cast
concrete is more similar to random distribution. The printing process
makes fibre to be able to better carry the load and improve the effective
fibre volume [145,146]. This also proved by the ultimate strain: the
strain of 3DPC samples were also higher than that of cast sample, which
means the ductility of concrete samples were benefit by 3D printing
technology.
The authors summarized the compressive, flexural and tensile
strengths of 3DPC prepared with steel fibre at different fibre contents,
and the results of them are shown in Fig. 5 [143,147–149]. The values of
flexural strength shown in Fig. 5 were determined using a three-point
bending test based on the specimens (40 × 40 × 160 mm).
Flexural strength and tensile strength of concrete can be improved by
increasing fibre content, the flexural and tensile strengths increase with
the fibre content: 1 % volume steel fibre (SF) addition can lead to 40 % ~
124 % increase in flexural strength and 51 % ~ 65 % increase in tensile
strength. However, for the green line in Fig. 5(c), the flexural strength
decreased in the range of 0.5 % ~ 1 %, which is due to the reduction of
the bond strength of the matrix when the fibre content is too high. As for
compressive strength, it was not sensitive to the fibre content, which is
fluctuated around the strength of unreinforced concrete at different fibre
contents.
The anisotropic factor (Ia) from different studies was calculated
using Equation (1) and the results are summarized in Fig. 6
[43,143,145,150–153].
The Ia value of 3DPC will decrease with the hydration process, but
for the relationship between Ia and fibre content, there seemed to be no
clear relationship between them. Because the location of fibre will be
influenced by printing height, nozzle diameter and printing speed
[145,146], which showed higher variation in the anisotropic properties
of 3DPC.
Besides the artificial fibre types mentioned above, cellulosic fibres
obtained from plants can be regarded as alternative renewable fibres in
3DPC, using these kinds of fibre will be beneficial to reduce environ­
mental impacts of 3DPC. Using plants fibre to partial substitution of
petroleum-based fibre can lead up to 40 % reduction in global warming
potential [154]. Vasudevan pointed out adding 15 % of bamboo fibre to
concrete can obtain a similar compressive strength and higher flexural
strength [155]. Hospodarova et al. used cellulosic fibre obtained from
2.4. Effect of admixtures
Admixtures are used in concrete to adjust the properties of printing
ink to meet printing demands. However, most of these materials are
produced based on petroleum, which is non-renewable and limited re­
sources in the earth. Facing the resources exhaustion problem, under­
standing and finding greener admixtures is a necessary task to reduce
the impact of admixtures.
Superplasticizers, which can be used to improve the flowability of
3DPC, can also improve the hydration process and lead to a higher early
strength [127,128]. Researchers found Chitosan-g-POEGMA can be used
as superplasticizer. Chitosan can be made from chitin which is the sec­
ond largest natural polymer in the world, it can be produced by grafting
the oligo methacrylate on chitosan. Using chitosan to replace petroleumbased admixtures can make admixture to be greener and achieve sus­
tainable development of concrete [129,130].
Accelerators can accelerate the hardening process, shorten setting
time and Li2CO3 is a typical component used as accelerators [131].
Retarders have the opposite influence of accelerator, because they will
impede the hydration process and lead to a longer setting time [56,131].
However, the yield strength of concrete will be improved by using it
[132]. Viscosity modifying agents (VMA) are used to control water
transport and porous structure in concrete, and thus finally increase
plastic viscosity. The addition of VMA can improve the cohesion and
benefits particle re-flocculation of mortar [133], it also can reduce water
evaporation rate [127,134,135]. Low-carbon VMA can be celluloseether derivatives or clay (organic or inorganic) [17,136], which has
little environmental impact.
Air entraining agents will slightly decrease the compressive strength
of 3DPC but can favor transportation properties [137]. Polar groups of
air entraining agents are attached to the cement particles and the hy­
drophobic chains of air-entraining agents will form air bubbles in 3DPC
[138]. The thermal insulation property of concrete prepared with air
entraining agents (the mass is smaller than other compositions) will
become better compared with the conventional concrete, and this would
be helpful to reduce the energy consumption during construction period
and expand the structure service life.
2.5. Effect of fibres
Fibre reinforced concrete is not a new concept for concrete, synthetic
or natural fibres are added into concrete to improve the ductility and the
strength of concrete. Addition of different kinds of fibre can lead to
different influences on both workability and mechanical properties of
3DPC.
The incorporation of fibres in 3DPC can improve flexural strength
and reduce the risk of collapse. However, the length of fibres used in
3DPC was shorter and limited by the nozzle diameter [139]. Adding
fibre can significantly increase the flexural strength and tensile strength
of 3DPC, but it also increased the rheology of 3DPC [140]. Fibre types,
6
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Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 133887
Fig. 4. Comparison between cast samples and 3DPC samples (strength obtained at Z direction) for (a) highest compressive strength and (b) highest flexural strength
[143,144] (fibre nomenclature used in this figure represents the fibre type-content-length. For example, “SF-0.25–6” represents a “steel fibre” with volume fibre
content of 0.25 % and a length of 6 mm.).
wasted paper and found it not only can reduce the density of concrete or
mortar but also can improve the isothermal properties [156]. This will
reduce the carbon emission during usage, which can make concrete
more sustainable.
However, there were still some problems with using cellulosic fibres,
the water demand for concrete will increase after adding fibres. In
addition, the setting time may be prolonged, while will bring some
problems in the printing process. Cellulosic fibres (especially for plants
fibre) can grow after meeting water, which can change the structure of
fibres. This brought huge difficulties in using and analyzing the mech­
anism. Further studies may focus on the developing stable and durable
cellulosic fibres.
factor for the success of 3D printing [15,157]. Besides that, printing
process which contributes about 20 % to total environmental impact,
this process needs to be carefully considered during the design process
[158]. In order to achieve the low-carbon construction approach, this
process needs to be better designed.
3.1. Choose proper printing system
Two common technologies used in 3D printing are ram extrusion and
screw extrusion [141,159] as shown in Fig. 7 (a) and (b). For different
printing materials, finding the suitable printing head and understanding
the dominating material properties can be helpful for designers to better
select the printing system.
Arnaud Perrot et al. summarized the extrusion force needs to over­
come three main parts, which are the force required for bulk deforma­
tion (Fpl,1, Equation (2), friction on dead zone surface (Fpl,2, Equation (3)
and friction along the die orifice steel surface (Fpl,3, Equation (4) [161].
3. Reducing environmental impact during construction
Considering the basic process of 3D printing, material need to be
pumped and maintain their shapes with small or no deformation during
the delivery, thus selecting a suitable delivery system and setting proper
printing parameters for different materials would be the dominated
7
Z. Zhao et al.
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 133887
√̅̅̅
Fpl,1 =
Fpl,2 =
( )
ns +1
πD2 √̅̅̅
D
2ks 3
2V × D2 ns
+
(
) sinθ(1 + cosθ)ns (1
[2 3τ0 ln
ns
3
4
3ns *2
d
d
d
− ( )3ns )]
D
(2)
(
)]
[
1 π D2
d
D2nfr
d
Kw0 cotθln + kfr V nfr 2nfr 1 − ( )2nfr
m 4
D
D
d
(3)
Fpl,3 = πdL0 [Kw0 + kfr V nfr
D2nfr
]
d2nfr
(4)
Where D is extruder barrel diameter, d is diameter of die orifice, LO is
length of exit orifice, V is the ram velocity. τ0 is bulk shear yield stress
and ks is shear consistency to describe Herschel-Bulkley behaviour, ns is
shear flow index, nfr is friction index, Kw0 is the friction yield stress of the
wall, m = Kτw0
. Facing the key parameters in ram extrusion, the higher
0
viscosity and the lower flowability, the force will be lower, which can be
beneficial to the energy consumption. In that way, the ram extrusion
system should be suitable to print concrete with large particle size of
aggregates [162,163],
For screw extrusion method, Roussel used Equation (5) to describe
the relationship between time and shear stress. However, other re­
searchers believed the relationship between time and shear stress is nonlinear [164–166], they used Equation (6) to describe the relationship in
exponential.
(5)
τ0 (t) = τ0 + Athix t
τ0 (ttest ) = τ0,0 + Athix *tc (e tc − 1)
ttest
(6)
Where Athix equals to τT0 and tc is a characteristic time. τ0 is the key
factor affects the printing energy, in that way, is suitable for materials
have a short setting time. Thus, it requires high flowability and thixot­
ropy [167–169]. The dominate factor for ram system is the friction
factor of system, while the thixotropy of material dominates the screw
system, which is based on printing ink properties. Selecting proper
system could be helpful in saving energy during construction.
Fig. 5. Mechanical properties of 3DPC prepared with steel fibres: (a)
Compressive strength; (b) Tensile strength; (c) Flexural strength (TC refers the
traditional concrete).
3.2. Apply better design
Using 3D printing allows the industry to achieve intelligent con­
struction and monitor construction, and these processes can be auto­
matically performed with little or without human operations [151]. In
that way, the corporation with building information model (BIM) can be
a guideline for 3DPC, using BIM can predict the potential problems
during construction, change material and optimize design [170,171].
Besides that, 3D printing is an ideal method to construct buildings on
other planets: robot does not need air or food, the energy can be
Fig. 6. Isotropic factor (Ia) versus the fibre content.
8
Z. Zhao et al.
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 133887
Fig. 7. Two most common methods used for 3DPC [159,160].
performance.
Printing speed is dominated by the nozzle move speed and extrusion
speed, when printing speed is low, the quality of 3DPC can be well
controlled, but the time gap of each layer will increase, this may lead to
the formation of cold joint and reduce the bond strength between layers
[33,34,177]. When printing speed is too fast, the strength for lower
layers may not be sufficient to support the upper layer and cause
structural failure. It is also important to find a balance between printing
speed and extrusion speed [20].
Standoff distance is the distance from the nozzle to element’s top
surface, a lower standoff distance can come up with higher bond
strength [32,177]. Some researchers even suggested pressing the pre­
vious layers instead of depositing layer from a certain height [178], but
press may destroy the shape of previous layers and affect the geometry
properties of elements [29]. Better combination of printing parameter
will help concrete element to be stable and beautiful, which will further
saving plenty of time of surface finish.
provided by the solar or lunar, and the materials can be supplied from
the powder on other planets [172], which will become the basis of
human to explore the universe.
Another advantage of 3DPC is that it can print complex geometries
freely (complex geometries not only refer to geometry complex but also
refer to most elements have little or no repetition) [9,173]. Anatasiou
et al. claimed that all 3D printed concrete structures can be printed layer
by layer [174], with different researchers using different supporting
methods to deal with the overhang parts. For the conventional method,
support can be scaffolding [175], and inflatable components can also act
as support or reference, all of these methods make the construction
freedom comes true.
Researchers also developed other approaches to print cantilever
without supporting system, which is called tangential continuity method
(TCM) and shown in Fig. 8.
Each concrete layer is then made of a contour line and a filling
pattern, the load applied on different layer are perpendicularly to the
layer interface plane in pure compression. From a structural mechanic’s
viewpoint, the TCM yields more efficient and mechanically sound con­
structions. Better design will be helpful for 3D printing to saving ma­
terial and further reducing environmental impact.
3.4. Reinforcement methods
Reinforcement in concrete is not a new topic for conventional con­
crete. How to combine rebar with cementitious material in 3DPC is still a
problem, thus finding an economic and effective reinforced method
would be helpful to improving strength and saving material. The first
method was shown in Fig. 9(a): this method finished the contour of el­
ements and horizontal steel simultaneously. Vertical steels were added
to the core area and finally pouring concrete to fill these pores. The
3.3. Effect of printing parameter
The selection of printing parameter is relative to the quality of 3DPC,
printing parameters such as printing speed and standoff distance will
influence the final rheological properties of concrete and aesthetic
Fig. 8. Schematic cut of TCM method (layer height shown in black, contact surface shown in red) [176].
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Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 133887
Fig. 9. Methods to reinforce 3DPC [179].
second method was to use fibre to reinforce the 3DPC (Fig. 9b), which
has been discussed in Section 2.5, anisotropic properties of 3DPC should
be taken special care when using fibres [40]. The third method is to
simultaneously print steel bars or cables with concrete (Fig. 9c), steel
bars or cables have good resistance to lateral deformation, which change
the failure model from brittle to ductile failure [179].
Method (a) requires manual addition of steel, which can lead to the
increased labor costs and construction time compared to other rein­
forcing methods. In the case of methods (b) and (c), a 45 mm height of
3DPC with 1.5 % fibre volume content is only equivalent to a 0.2 %
reinforcement ratio, indicating that adding fibre is less effective than the
traditional reinforcement [180]. Additionally, the price and CO2 emis­
sion of PE fibre in China are 9,350 CNY and 4,500 kg CO2 per ton,
respectively, which are significantly higher than those of steel bars
(4,054 CNY and 1,800 kg CO2 per ton). This undoubtedly imposes sig­
nificant economic and environmental pressures on 3D printed concrete.
Table 4
Structural behaviour of 3D printed structure.
Structure
Reference
Remarks
Cast beam and 3D
printed beam
Gebhard et al.
[181]
Cast beam and 3D
printed ECC beam
Zhu et al.
[182]
3D printed slab
Mesnil et al.
[183]
Cast cylindrical column,
1&2 ring 3D printed
column
Aramburu
et al. [184]
Improvement of fibre reinforcement
and stirrup reinforcement are similar
for beam with unbonded posttensioning, and fibre and cable are
failed in pull-out condition.
Beams with bonded conventional
reinforcement have more cracks
because of bending and shearing,
interlayer cable and fibres can
improve the capacity of beam.
3D printed ECC beam failed mode
have elastics, crack propagation and
descending stages.
The capacity of ECC beams printing in
different directions shows anisotropic
properties, combination of printing
direction can greatly improve the
ductility in Y direction.
3D printed ECC beam have a lower
rigidity, 1.8 % volume fraction
addition of fibre is equivalent to 1.5 %
reinforcement ratio.
Kirchhoff–Love plate theory can be
used to calculate the stiffness matrix of
3D printed plates, using stiffness
matrix can predict strength and
moment of a 3D printed plate. The
accuracy of this method can be
verified by the finite element analysis.
Printing process can make the lower
layers outside than design printing
path and forming a tapered shape,
they can adopt the formulas to
calculate the effective area of 3D
printed elements
.Double-ring specimens can effectively
improve the compressive load capacity
of column compared with the single
ring, but it is still slightly less than that
of the cast samples.
4. Reducing the environmental impact of 3D printed structure
4.1. Structural behaviour of 3D printed structures
Significant effort has been put in developing the material science of
3D printed concrete, while some researchers started to focus on the
structural behaviour of 3D printed structure. Table 4 summarized the
studies on 3D printed components including beam, slab and column.
According to the research above, it can be found out that both the
design method and mechanical calculation model of 3D printing were all
adopted compared with the conventional concrete, which is relative to
the printing process. During the printing process, bottom layers without
the restriction of formwork suffer the load from upper layers will
deformation, the height of it would be smaller compared with upper
layers, this leads the anisotropic of geometry. This problem plus the air
voids between different layers both make the isotropic problem become
a crucial factor for 3D printing. In that way, the analyzed methods need
to be adjusted or designed based on laminate structure. Concrete has
traditionally been considered as an isotropic material in design, which
often leads to design redundancy in two directions when meeting re­
quirements in one direction. However, the advent of 3D printing has
revealed the anisotropic properties of concrete. By investigating the
structural behaviour of beams, columns, and slabs, it is possible to fully
exploit the anisotropy of 3DPC. By precisely allocating the load and
displacement conditions in each direction, it becomes feasible to
conserve materials and optimize element dimensions, thereby signifi­
cantly reducing the economic and environmental impact of the con­
struction industry.
Openings such as windows and doors are necessary for a 3D printing
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Z. Zhao et al.
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 133887
building, as discussed earlier using robotic arm and design in TCM could
be a possible method. However, for most common 3D printing machine
used in construction were design based on fused deposition modelling
(FDM), which was construction layer by layer, this was need to manually
adding supports during the printing process and made 3D printing less
automatic. Tay et al. designed a method to create separated removable
parts based on changing printing speed, and the temporary removable
parts could act as support during printing. Maximum gap distance to
support upper continuous concrete without obvious slump needs to be
determined. The process is as shown in Fig. 10, they suggested that the
layer gap distance should be less than 10 mm for the normal concrete
[185].
Without manually adding support can make printing more effective
which can be beneficial to the energy saving. However, regarding these
removable materials, whether these concretes were easy to be removed
and the safety of whole structures need to be considered. Considering
the environmental impact of building, the supporting concrete will be
treated as CDW and directly abandoned, which could lead to a heavier
environmental impact. Finding a greener method to create the openings
needs to be studied in the future.
Table 5
Economic and economic cost cases of 3D printed structure.
Projects
Construction
method
Global warming
(CO2-eq)
Cost
Ras Alain Hall
[186]
Substation [187]
Conventional
3D printing
Conventional
6 × 105
1.5 × 105
/
3D printing
Conventional
3D printing
Conventional
3D printing
Precast
3D printing
/
4362
5653
/
/
18,131
2564
26,287 JOD*
8873 JOD
262,039
CNY*
228,101 CNY
18,755 CNY
15,366 CNY
12,771 CNY
14,766 CNY
2537 SGD*
1892 SGD
Silo [12]
Bungalow [12]
Bathroom [188]
(*JOD: Jordanian Dinars; CNY: Chinese Yuan; SGD: Singapore Dollars).
5. Conclusion
This paper has comprehensively reviewed the material and tech­
nology of 3D printing concrete in order to discover its potential in
reducing environmental impacts. Based on the literature discussed in the
previous sections, the conclusion and perspectives can be drawn as
follows.
1) Recycled powder has great potential to be used as SCMs along
with other low-carbon cementitious materials, to partially replace the
cement in the production of 3DPC. Cement is the component with the
heaviest environmental impacts. Using these recycled materials not only
can reduce the environmental impact of 3DPC, but also can adjust the
concrete properties to meet printing requirements.
2) Using recycled aggregates to replace natural aggregates is a
feasible method to reduce the total impacts of 3DPC. For instance, 30 %
replacement rate is an acceptable value for the coarse RCA. However,
using RCA always harmful to the strength development, 100 % coarse
RCA generally leads to 30 %-35 % compressive strength loss. The
durability of 3DPC with RCA is lack of research. Therefore, it is crucial to
explore economically and environmentally friendly methods to enhance
the quality of recycled aggregates in order to improve the overall per­
formance of 3DPC in the future.
3) Using fibres in 3DPC can significantly enhance its properties
compared to the traditional casting method, it can improve the flexural
strength up to 124 %. Moreover, the ultimate strain and impact energy
can be also improved by 3D printing. Fibre orientation changes with the
printing direction, and finding a perspective formula between printing
direction and strength could be an interesting topic. Additionally,
exploring approaches to overcome the limitations associated with plant
fibres and their utilization in 3DPC is an important aspect to consider to
minimize the environmental impact.
4) Printing process is directly relative to the success of 3DPC. The
environmental impacts related to the areas, such as material design,
printing system, printing parameters and methods to reinforce concrete,
seems attract less interest from the current studies. However, it is crucial
to find the proper combination of these factors based on material
4.2. Cost and environmental analysis of 3D printed structure
Facing the global warming challenge, the construction industry
needs to take responsibility to reduce the carbon emissions. The balance
between environmental and economic is crucial for 3D printing pro­
motion. The cost and environmental impacts from the published papers
are shown in Table 5.
From Table 5, 3D printing and conventional casting showed totally
inverse results in different regions. The production energy and material
consumption in different cases can be converted to CO2-equvient by
applying a transfer factor. However, due to the difference of local market
and policy condition in different countries, the factor in different
countries will be different, which make the results incomparable. The
same thing happened to economic cost, 3D printing has higher pro­
ductivity compared with the conventional construction, and it can also
save labour and formwork costs [189]. But the construction machine
and special concrete requirements increase the unit cost of concrete.
When 3D printing was used in low labour price region such as China, the
cost of 3DPC was lower than that of casting method. However, for the
high labour prices region such as Singapore, 3D printing demonstrated a
significant cost advantage. This issue poses a challenge in finding a
balance between economic considerations and environmental impact.
Moreover, researchers also pointed out the cost and environmental
impact of 3DPC were strong relative to the shape of the element. AgustíJuan et al. [13] showed the environmental impacts of global warming
and human toxicity would be lower than that of the conventional con­
struction, when the geometric complexity increased. In that way, 3D
printing might be a competitive method for customized building or
crafts exhibition in high labour price region.
Fig. 10. Printing process of removable support [185].
11
Z. Zhao et al.
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 133887
properties and to assess the environmental impact of using different
printing parameters. Therefore, further research and analysis are
necessary to address these aspects and understand their contribution to
the overall environmental footprint of 3DPC.
5) 3D printed components exhibit a laminated structure, leading to
anisotropy problems in both mechanical properties and durability.
Consequently, analysis methods for 3D printed components differ from
those of cast samples. Environmental and economic research on 3DPC
has shown a strong correlation with element shapes. However, most
existing research focuses on material properties and does not consider
strength development and durability requirements. Further research is
needed to compare 3DPC with conventional concrete at similar strength
and durability levels. This will better simulate working environments
and provide more accurate results in environmental and economic
studies of 3DPC.
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CRediT authorship contribution statement
Zengfeng Zhao: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Funding
acquisition, Conceptualization. Chenyuan Ji: Writing – original draft,
Resources, Investigation, Data curation. Jianzhuang Xiao: Validation,
Supervision, Project administration. Lei Yao: Visualization, Resources,
Formal analysis. Can Lin: Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation.
Tao Ding: Validation, Resources, Formal analysis. Taohua Ye: Soft­
ware, Resources, Investigation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge Tongji University for the
financial support from young scholar research funding. This research
was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central
Universities, funding number: 22120230250 (Tongji University).
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