(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
blank page
How to be a
GENIUS
Written by John Woodward
Consultants Dr. David Hardman
and Phil Chambers
Illustrated by Serge Seidlitz
and Andy Smith
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
CONTENTS
6 Your amazing brain
MEET YOUR BRAIN
HOW MEMORY WORKS
10 Mapping the brain
60 How you think
12 Left brain, right brain
62 What is memory?
14 Taking sides
64 Improve your memory
16 Nerves and neurons
66 Do you remember?
18 Brain waves
68 Paying attention
20 What is a genius?
70 Making associations
72 Albert Einstein
COME TO YOUR SENSES
PROBLEM SOLVING
24 Brain and eyes
76 How you learn
26 Tricky pictures
78 Mastering mazes
28 How you see
80 Puzzling patterns
30 Simple illusions
82 Intelligence types
32 Impossible illusions
84 George Washington Carve
er
34 How you hear
86 Logic
36 Sounds like?
88 Illogical thinking
38 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozartt
90 Brainteasers
40 Taste and smell
92 Thinking inside the box
42 Sensitive senses
94 Mathematical thinking
44 How you feel and touch
96 Think of a number
46 Touch and tell
tel
98 The magic of math
48 Tricking the
e mind
100 Spatial awareness
areness
50 Magic tricks
102 Seeing in 2-D
52
2 Sensing your body
104 Thinking in 3-D
54 Body illusions
106 Invention
56 Intuition
io
108 Wernher vo
on Braun
4
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
A WAY WITH WORDS
YOUR BRAIN AND YOU
112 Learning to speak
138 Sense of self
114 Having a word
140 Personality types
116 Using language
142 What about you?
118 Words aloud
144 What makes you tick?
120 Reading and writing
146 Mary Anning
122 Jean Franςois Champollion
148 The unconscious
150 Dreams
152 Emotions
154 Mahatma Gandhi
156 Fear
158 Reading emotions
160 Body talk
162 Good and bad habits
164 Winning and losing
THE CREATIVE MIND
THE EVOLVING BRAIN
126 What is creativity?
168 How we got our brains
128 Are you a creative spark?
170 Charles Darwin
130 Boost your creativity
172 How the brain grows
132 Creative exercises
174 Brain surgery
134 Leonardo da Vinci
176 Animal intelligence
178 Train your pet
180 Can machines think?
182 Program your friend
184 Glossary
186 Answers
190 Index
5
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Do you remembe
remember?
Put your brain’s memory sk
skills
to the
e test. Study the picture
shown
n inside this boy’s busy
head forr 45 seconds, then cover
it up and try
ry to answer the
following questions. No peeking!
1. Where
W
does he like to sing?
2. Name
ame three sports that we
see the boy do
doing.
3. One picture
e shows
show us inside
his body. Which part
rt do we see?
4. What color is the terrifyi
terrifying
monster he
e is scared of?
5. Who iss the love of his life?
lif
6. What food does the boy
really, really hate?
7. How many candles
andles are
there on the birthday cak
cake?
8 Name three different
8.
animals that we see.
9. What is the delicious
ou smell
that we see the boy ssniff?
10. What injury makes
m
him cry?
How did you do? Turn
to page 186 to find out.
Emo
t
Fear, ions
an
and o ger, joy,
lov
th
seem er emoti e,
o
resp like auto ns might
onse
mati
c me
s, bu
our b
n
t
emo rains to c we can u tal
tions
ontro
se
if we
l
want our
.
Aut
actomat
i
You ivit c
r br
y
even ain is
It al when y always
con so kee ou are active,
p
t
tem rolling s you a asleep
.
p
y
live
e
ou
ra
and
dige ture, b r heart by
b
r
stio
eath
e
n.
ing, at,
The brain is the most astonishing part
of your body. Its billions of cells control
everything you think and do, including
on re
your actions, senses, emotions,
ti ses a in, als
p
e en
ra
n
memory, and language. The more
rc your s your b he sig you
e
t
P l of nto in ows e,
you use it, the better it works.
Al red i akes d all tast
wi ich t d an ell,
This book is all about how to
wh y sen ar, sm ld.
the e, he e wor
get your brain cells buzzing and,
e
h
to s feel t
d
maybe, become a genius.
an
B
Perfect pair
This puzzle tests your
spatial awareness—your
sense of space. Which two
pieces on the far right will
fit together to create this
hexagon shape?
A
E
C
D
F
6
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Check the
puzzle answers
on page 186.
g
lvin
ng s so
ki lway ng
in is a cti
Th brain conne n when n
w
y
r
e
You ems b s—ev your o s
n
f
ea
bl
pro ent id part o huma
r
t
y
l
e
o
diff are n ce. On
y
n is.
e
e
i
h
t
er
h
exp n do t
ca
A human bra
brain
rain
is the most complex
ex
structure
str
tru
ruct
cture
re on EEarth.
art
rth.
rt
Memory
Every event or fact that
grabs your attention may be
stored in your memory—an
amazingly efficient library of
information that never runs
out of space.
Lang
Your b uage
ability rain gives
y
under to commu ou the
nicate
stand
using
comp
and
spe
lex
learn ech. You c ideas
an als
by rea
o
din
were
writte g words th
n long
at
ago.
Mo
Yo
ve
o ur
m
so rgan brain en
an you izes trig t
de ra
yo
g
ha ffici ction ur m ers a
pp
en
nd
o
s
thi ens t. Mo are s veme
nk wit
s
m
ing ho t of
o nts,
ab ut y this oth
ou
t it ou
.
Feel lost?
Life is full of puzzling
problems—such as how
to get to the middle of
this tricky maze. It’s your
a-maze-ing brain that
helps you find the
answers.
7
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Fish
Bird
Human
Origin of genius
Compared to other animals, the human brain
has a much bigger cerebrum (shown in orange
above). This is what makes uss intelligent, because
we use the cerebrum for consscious thought.
Meninges
Mening
Me
es
s Th
hese
ese
layers
lay
ers cu
cushion
n the
th
brain ag
br
aga
aga
ainst shock.
B
Your bra
ain is the most complex organ in your
body—a
a spongy pink mass made up of billions
of micro
oscopic nerve cells linked togethe
er in an
electron
nic network. Each part has its own
n job,
but it is the biggest part, the cerebrum, that is
responssible for your thoughts and actions.
Pituitary glan
nd
mun
f Perga
Galen o n named Galen of
reek surgeo
t people
This releases chemicals calle
ed
hormones into your blood. The
ey
control many functions, includin
ng
growth and body development.
AG
the firs
was one of
Pergamun
in was an
ra
b
e
that th
ntrolled
to suspect
and that it co
an
g
or
t
n
ta
impor
Galen lived
d emotions.
an
s
ie
or
mem
, in what is
9 and 200 CE
between 12
treated the
, where he
.
now Turkey
of gladiators
gory injuries
Hy
ypothala
amus
Thiis is the part of your brain
tha
at regulates ssleep, hunger,
and body tempe
erature.
Thal
lamus
The thalam
mus relays sensoryy signals
from your
your body to your ce
cerebrum,
rebrum
where they are decoded and analyzed.
Your
Yo
ur bra
raiin is
rain
i 77 per
ppercent
errcentt w
erc
water.
wat
wate
water
aater
terr.
Brain stem
Connected to the spinal cord,
the brain stem links the rest
of the body to the brain and
controls heartbeat and breathing.
10
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Skull Forms a protective
p
casing around the brain
Cerebrum
The biggest part of the brain
controls all our conscious actions
and thoughts, analyzes sensory
data, and stores memories.
U ttoo 2 pints
Up
pints
ts (1 litr
litre
litre)
tre
re)
e) of
o
bloodd flows
blood
flows
ws through
thrrough
thro
ugh you
your
your
bbrrrain
bra
aain
in every
eve
ver
ery
ry minute.
m
minute
inutee.
Cor
orpus
s ca
ccallo
ll sum A band
and
of ner
ervve
er
ve fibe
fibers
rs tha
thatt link
lin
nk the
the
two si
sides
des of th
the
e cere
cere
reb
re
ebru
brum
Sub
bara
ra
achn
c oid space
sp ce
This is fille
led
d with
sho
ock-absorb
or ing fluid.
fluid.
Blood
sup
ply
The brain
needs a c
onstant su
of oxygen
pply
to fuel its
activities.
This is de
livered in
the blood
the body’s
via
circulatory
system of
arteries, ve
ins, and c
apillaries
Around on
.
e fifth of th
e body’s
entire quo
ta of oxyg
enated
blood is re
served for
the brain.
Cerebellum
This complex folded
structure helps control
balance and movement.
Parietal lobe Processes
inform
mation from the senses,
especcially from the skin,
muscles, and joints
Th outer
The
T
t
b ain
br
T cerebrum is heavilly
The
folded in order to increase
the total surface area, w
which
iss packed with brain cells. It
iss divided into halves, th
he left
and right hemispheres, and
ea
ach consists of four lob
bes
tha
at have different functiions.
Frontal lobe Vital to
thought,
h
h personallliity,
speech, and emotion
Temporal lobe Mostly
concerned
d with the
recognition
n of sound
Occipittal lobe Receives nerve
signalss from the eyes and
interprrets visual information
Spinal
al cord
cord
d
Cerebellum
11
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
LEFT
EFT
d
el
l fi ch
ua ea eft
vis of l d
ft de the el
Le ht si ees ual fi
g s s
Ri eye vi
The cerebrum
m is divided into
o two halves,
halve connected by a
bridge of nerve
rve fibers. For some functions,
ns, each half is wired
to the opposite side of the body, but other skills and thought
processes are controlled
d by only one half of the brain.
n
n.
BRA
LEFT BRAIN
IN SKILLS
The left side
de of your brain is
responsible
b for the more logical,
rational a
aspects of your thinking,
as well ass yyour verbal skills.
Language
e
Yo ability to express yourself
Your
in words is usually controlled
by the frontal lobe of the left
cerebral hemisphere.
ce
Sci
ientific
t
thought
Logical scientific
e ific thinking is the
job o
of the left side
s
of the brain,
altho
ough most science also
involvves being creative.
Left op
ptic tract
Carries data from
right vissual field
Rational thought
Thinking and reacting
acting in a rational
way appears
ears to be mostly a left-brain
leftactivity. It allows you to analyze
activ
ze a
problem to find an answer.
Mathematical
them
skills
Studies
es show that the left side of the
brain is much better at dealing with
b
numbers than the right side, and it is
responsible for mathematical skills.
Writing skills
Like spoken language,
age, writing skills
ski
that involve organizing
o
ideas and
expressing them in words are largely
controlled by the left hemisphere.
ds?
Two min l activities involve both
12
ows brain
This scan sh areas) in
activity (redmisphere.
the right he
is
Many menta
e side that
brain, but th
o
tw
se
e
h
sides of the
T
.
ed may vary
o
most involv
activity of tw
in
ra
b
e
th
w
e
o
h
T
sh
s
c.
n
si
sca
to mu
e listening
t
h
g
ri
ir
people whil
the
left is using
one on the
, indicating
re
o
m
ch
u
m
re
e
h
p
hemis
, while the
ive approach alytical.
it
tu
in
re
o
am
ore an
n may be m
other perso
usician uses
A trained misphere more.
m
he
ft
the le
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Left visua
al cortex
Processes da
ata from
right visual field
R
L igh
ey eft s t vis
e
vis se ide ual
ua es of fie
l fi th ea ld
eld e ch
rig
ht
RI
RIGHT
IG
BRAIN
RI
IGHT BRAIN SKI
ILLS
S
The
e right side of your
ou brain seems
s
to be the focus of
you
ur more creati
t ve thou
t ughts a
and emotional, intuitive
ressponses. It is also
o important
nt for spatial awareness.
Spatial skills
s
Optic nerve
Sends visual
signals to brain
Your ability to visualize and
work with three-dimensional
shapes is strongly linked to
the right side of your brain.
th
Art
Vissual art is related to spatial skills,
an
nd the right side of your brain is
prrobably more active when you are
drrawing, painting, or looking at art.
Imaginatio
agination
Right optic tract
Carries data
a from
left visual fi
field
Your creative imagination
imag
is mostlyy
directed by the right hemisphere,
dir
although expressing that imagination
n
involves left-brain skills.
s
Insight
h
Those mom
moments of insight when
you connect
nne two very different
iideas probably
ably come from
fr
the
right half of your brain.
Music
c
Right
h visual co
ortex
Processes data
a
from left
visual field
Like visual art, music involves
olves a lot
of right-brain activity—but trained
ained
musicians also use their left brains
nss
to master musical theory.
ry.
y.
Right-
han
Cro
ossed
os
d wires
wi
The
he le
left side
s o
of each eye is
connected
nnected to the left side of your
brain, but
ut it p
picks up data
a from the right
side of your head—the
—th right visual field.
—the
fi
Each side of the
brain processes
ess im
iimages from the oth
her side of the head.
Each side als
also
so controls the muscless of the opposite hand.
ded wo
The left b
rld
rain contr
ols the rig
hand, and
ht
since mos
t people a
right-han
re
ded, this s
uggests
that the le
ft brain is
usually
dominant.
So do left
-handers
use their
right-brain
skills
more? Th
ere is no p
roof of this
and many
,
left-hande
rs have no
trouble us
ing langua
ge and log
ic.
13
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
TAKING SIDES
Most people are either left- or right-handed,
but did you know that you can also have a
dominant foot and a preferred eye? In both
physical and mental tasks, the left and right
sides of your brain are far from equal, and it
is very rare for someone to be able to use both
hands or feet equally well. Try the following
tests to find which side you are on
on.
Best foot forward
The easiest way of finding which
of your feet is dominant is to kicck
a soccer ball, but you usually ta
ake
the first step of a flight of stairss
with your stronger foot, too. You
ur
preferred foot may not be on
the same side as your dominan
nt
hand—you
y can be left-footed an
nd
right-handed or vice versa.
Eye-motion
Look straight at the nose of the girl in each of
these pictures. In which one do you think she looks
happier? Most people find that she looks happier in
the bottom image, which shows her smiling on the
left side of the picture. This is because information
from your left visual field gets processed in your
brain’s right hemisphere, which is also dominant
for interpreting emotions.
Tr
oppo y doing
t
s
switc ite hand hings wit
hing
h
to
the h normal the
your
,
a
suc
f
n
o
d
r
watc
h on k with or that you h as
pu
ho
your the oth
er ar tting you ld
brain
m.
r
of do
t
ing t o learn n This forc
h
es
ew w
more
ings
the t connecti and crea ays
wo s
ides ons betw tes
of yo
e
ur br en
ain.
14
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Eye see you
Trick your brain
To
o discove
er which is your dominant
eye, hold up your index finger
tto eye level and look past it
into the distance. Then close
ea
ach eye, one at a time. You
will see that with your weaker
eyye, your finger will appear
to ju
ump, whereas with your
stronger eye, it will stay in place.
Your sttronger eye figures out the
position
n of things, while the weaker
eye help
ps with depth perception.
This exercise reveals how your brain sometimes tricks you
into taking shortcuts. First, draw this upside-down picture of
a face. Then turn the face the right way up and draw it again.
When you compare the two pictures, you may be surprised
to find that the upside-down version is the most accurate.
Havi
Having
ving one hand as strong
str
tro
rong as the other
er
can give
ve you an advantage
adva
vantag
age in some
sports.
sport
rtts. In baseball,
rts
baseb
eball, for
fo example,
ex
e, an
ambidextrous
ambidex
ext
xtr
tro
rous hitt
hitter
tter
tt
er can switch hands
ds
to strike
str
tri
rike the ball fr
fro
from
rom the bes
best
est side.
es
e.
Handy test
Ambidexterity is the ability to use both hands equally well. To
see if you are ambidextrous try the exercise below. Take a pencil
in your right hand and ask a friend to time you for 15 seconds.
Starting top right, work your way along the line, putting as many
dots as you can in the white circles. Then do the same on the
other side with your left hand and compare the results.
The left side of your brain assigns simple shapes
to common objects—for example, an almond shape for
an eye. So if you draw a face the right way up, you
probably draw the features based on what you think they
look like rather than what you see. When you look
at a face upside down, however, the right side of your
brain works harder to understand the unfamiliar image
and you draw the shapes and lines you actually see.
Left hand
start
Right hand
start
You will get the farthest
along the line with your
dominant hand, but you may
surprise yourself by just how
well you did with your
weaker hand. If you found
that you got just as far
with each hand, you are
probably ambidextrous.
15
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Child prodigy
Determination
Born in Poland in 1867, Marie Curie was
determined to be a scientist, even though
such a career was not considered suitable
for a woman in the 1800s. She fought poverty
and prejudice to win two Nobel Prizes for
her pioneering work on radioactivity.
Some people just seem to be born geniuses.
Garry Kasparov was only 13 when he won the
Russian junior chess championship in 1976,
and he became the youngest-ever world
champion in 1985. He had a natural talent,
but he worked hard to make the most of it.
Encouragement
Broad view
Some geniuses do one thing extremely well,
but others excel at many things. Thomas
Jefferson—the main author of the U.S.
Declaration of Independence in 1776—was
a philosopher, archaeologist, architect, and
inventor, as well as a politician who became
president of the United States.
American sistterrs Venus and Serena
Williams are am
mong the greatest of all
tennis players. They showed amazing
talent from a young age, but they owe a
lot of their success to their
h i parents,
who coached and encouraged them to
build on their skills.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Come to Your
Senses
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Eye muscle One of six
muscles that rotate the
eye in its socket
Choroid A network of
blood vessels spreads
through this middle
layer of the eye.
Retina The inner
lining is a sheet of
light-sensitive cells.
We are visual creatures. We identify most things by sight
and we think mainly in visual terms. So for most of us,
sight is our dominant sense. This means that a lot of
the information we commit to memory is in the form
of visual images. But how do the brain and eyes
work together to create these images?
wo
Pupil The opening
P
in the iris alllows
llight into the eye.
Image convertor
Your eye is a ball of transparent jelly lined with light-sensitive
cells. Light rays enter your eye through lenses that focus an
upside-down image on the cells. These cells respond by
generating tiny electrical signals that pass down a bundle
of nerve fibers to your brain. The cells exposed to parts of
the image that are light generate bigger signals than cells
exposed to dark parts, just like the pixels in a digital camera
ra
sensor. The cells turn the image into an electronic code
that your brain can process.
Lens The ellastic lens
L
cchanges sha
ape to
fine-focus the image.
fi
ew
r vi m
Cleareflected fro is focused
Reflected light
Visible objects
reflect
refle
ect light into
o
your eyes..
u see lens to
Light
ing yo
anyth cornea and image.
al
by the lear optic ide
c
a
ps
form rojected u he eye.
t
p
o
is
ck f
This
the ba
n
o
n
dow
Iris Muscles in
n the
e
iris change
c
the
he si
size
ze
of the centr
tral
al pupil.
upil
Cornea The “wind
“
dow” at
the front of the
e eye
e partly
focuses tth
the image.
rol
Automatic cont. The cornea at the
24
Dilated
pupil
Contracted
pupil
Each eye has two lenses
hind this is another
front forms one lens. Be
nt jelly, suspended
lens made of transpare
cally change its
ati
by muscles that autom
distant objects.
or
se
clo
shape to focus on
ls the light entering
The colored iris contro
ly dilating (widening)
the eye by automatical
at the centre.
or contracting the pupil
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Sclera The white
of the eye forms a
tough outer layer.
Seeing
Men
The tal
c
con ells of imag
vert
th
e
ligh e retin
sign
t int
a
a
l
s
visu
. Th
oe
whi al cor ese pa lectric
t
c
al
ss
e
h
x
t
upr
ight urns th of the to the
b
me
nta em into rain,
l im
age an
.
in c
The cone
cells in th olor
e retina re
different
strength
s of basic spond to
as red, g
color
ree
send to th n, and blue. The s s such
ign
e brain re
present m als they
dots of th
ese color
illions of
s. The br
the dots
ain
to create
all the oth combines
the spec
e
trum, as
in this sim r colors of
plified dia
gram.
Visual cortex The
part of the brain that
processes visual data
Dark adaptation
When you turn the light off in your
room at night, you can’t see much.
However, as the minutes tick by,
you
yo
u ar
are
e ab
able
le to
to se
see
e mo
more
re a
and
nd mor
more
e.
This is because the sensory cells in
your eyes can adapt to the low light
level—but it takes time. If you turn
the light back on, you get dazzled
because your eyes have adapted
to the dark. They must readapt to
the light, but they do this much
more quickly.
Opt
p ic nerve Bundle of
nerve fibers linked to
the sensory cells
S
T e
s he n
ca hee im so
ce lled t of age ry
lls
li
is
t
to (ro he r ght- foc ce
dim ds eti se us l
(co li ) ar na. nsi ed ls
ne gh e v So tive on
a
s) t, w ery m
e ce
de h
tec ile sen of t lls
t c oth siti he
olo er ve
r. s
There
There
Ther
erre are
re aro
around
round 126 million
sensory
sen
ensory
ry cel
cells
ells
ls in each
ea eye—
eye—
120 million ro
rods
ds and
six million co
cones.
cones
es.
es
Strange effects
Bright lights and contrasting patterns can cause strange
optical effects. For example, if you stare at something for
a minute and then close your eyes, you see a negative
afterimage. Each color is replaced by its opposite, so the
yellow and red flowers shown below appear blue and cyan.
This is a side effect of the way your brain processes color.
Blind spot
The point where the optic nerve leaves the eye cannot
detect light, but your brain invents information to fill the
gap. You can test this using the diagram above. Hold the
book at arm’s length, close your right eye, and focus on the
cross. Slowly move the book toward you. The center of
the wheel will disappear when it falls on your blind spot—
but your brain will fill the gap with spokes of the wheel.
25
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
TRICKY
PICTURES
The optical illusions in this gallery all
play tricks on what your eyes and brain
think they are seeing. They stimulate
the eyes in such a way that still images
seem to move, colors change, and things
appear where they shouldn’t.
Is it straight?
The horizontal lines in this illusion appear to be wavy,
but they are all perfectly straight—use a ruler and see
for yourself! Our brains interpret the lines as being
wavy owing to the disjointed black-and-white lines
running from top to bottom, which can also make
some horizontal bands look closer than others.
Did that move?
The patterns in this picture appear to be
moving, but not if you stare at any spot for
a few seconds. This demonstrates what is
called peripheral vision drift. Our brains
perceive the colors and contrasts as moving
when we are not looking directly at them,
but the effect ends when we train our eyes
on one spot.
26
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Ouch!
If you move your eyes around
d this pattern, called
the Ouchi illusion, the circle in the middle seems to
move or separate from the rectangular background,
and even hovers in front of itt. This illusion is not fully
understood, but it probably arises from the brain
being unsure of where the ciircle ends when you
are not looking directly at it.
Jumping goldfish
Stare at the pink dot in the centre of the goldfish’s head for 15 seconds
and then look at the black dot in the empty bowl. You should see the
goldfish in its new home. This happens because an impression of the
goldfish, called an afterimage, is still left on the back of your eye.
Seeing spots
This picture is called a scintillating grid because when
you look at it, dark spots seem to flash (scintillate) in
the intersections between the squares. The reason for
this is yet to be explained, but if you tilt your head to
either side, it seems to lessen the effect.
Color contrasts
Which of these green crosses is lighter? Most people would
say the cross on the right. It might seem strange, but there is
actually no difference between them. This illusion is known as
simultaneous contrast, and it shows that the way we perceive
colors is based on their surroundings.
27
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
HOW YOU
SEE
Binocular vision
Each eye sees a slightly different image of the world. Try closing
one eye and framing a distant object with your hands. Then open
that eye and close the other. You will find that your hands are
framing a different view. The images below show the different
views of the same setting seen by each eye.
eye The left eye can
see the palm trees behind the boat, while the right eye sees the
flowering trees. You might expect this to confuse your brain,
but it combines the images to create a 3-D view.
Your eyes turn visual images into
o an
electronic code that can be processed
and stored in your brain. It is thiss mental
processing that determines how
w you
see the world. Without it, you could
not make sense of all the shapess
and colors. Your brain also
responds to some visual effects
by translating them into other
types of information. This enable
es
you to judge things like depth,
shape, and distance.
Perspective
Parallax
If you close one eye and look at a scene
without moving your head, it looks flat
like a picture. But if you move your head
from side to side, you get an impression
of depth. This is because objects that are
closer to your eye seem to move more
than objects that are farther away, and
your brain translates the difference into
a perception of depth. This parallax effect
is obvious if you look out of the side
window of a moving car—nearby objects
like these pillars zip past, but distant
objects like the trees move hardly at all.
A oth
An
ther way your brain jud
ges distance is by decod
ing perspective.
This is the effect you ge
t when you look up at
a tall building and
the walls seem to lean
toward one another—eve
n though you know
they are vertical. Your
brain makes an autom
atic calculation based
on this knowledge and
turns it into a percepti
on of height.
28
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
ive
Aerial perspect
another clue
ws, your brain can use
g vie
In landscapes with lon
describes the
d aerial perspective, it
lle
Ca
ce.
to assess distan
moisture or dust
t objects is affected by
way the color of distan
in this picture,
n
in hilly regions, as see
in the air. It is obvious
n those closer
tha
er
blu
look paler and
where the distant hills
on, which has
ronauts visited the Mo
to the camera. When ast
that distant
ef ect made them think
this eff
no air, the absence of
re.
we
than they actually
hills were much closer
nt
n dififfere
e
t
o
t
p
u
istance
We use
i g dis
gin
d
u
j
ju
f
o
s
how
way
showiing .
,
h
t
p
e
d
us
and
t it is to
mportan
iim
Light and s
ha
de
Objects are usually
lit from
above, casting sh
a
adows that vary
according to their
a
shape. Your
brain uses this to
b
judge shapes,
enabling you to te
e
ll the difference
between a ball an
b
d a flat disk.
The reaction is so
T
instinctive that
it even works with
2-D images.
Th
hese shapes look
like a dent
su
urrounded by bum
ps, but if
yo
ou turn the page
upside down,
they look like a sin
gle bump
su
urrounded by de
nts.
e sense
llusions
Optical ied in your memory hellps yoouu makplying
ap
or
st
by
rmation
use you
Info
so conf
e blue
e. But it can al
of what you se
sert mirage, th
les. In this de
ru
e wrong
of
t
th
se
in
s
ng
ar
ro
the w
sky. It appe
e
th
t
of
rt
pa
ly
layer of very ho
“water” is real
distorted by a
is
e
ew
m
vi
e
su
th
as
e
u
yo
place becaus
n’t be the sky,
know that it ca
er.
at
w
of
ol
air. Since you
po
a
n of the sky in
it is a reflectio
An average
ave
ver
errage
era
ag person
per
errson can tell
ers
tel
ell the
difference
diff
fffer
ffe
ere
ren
ence between
bet
etwe
wee
een
en 200 colors,
colors
co
rs,s,
all forming
form
fo
rming part
rt of the visible
vi
light
lig
ight
spectrum
spec
ect
cttru
ctr
rum from
fro
fr
rom red
reed to
t violet.
violet
vi
et.t.
29
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
Big and
sm
all
Psychologist
Edward Bradf
ord Titchener
our judgment
discovered th
about the size
at
of something
the size of othe
is affected by
r things around
it. The red circ
picture here an
le
ess in the
d the one belo
l w are the sa
one here look
me size, but th
s biggerr beca
e
use it is surrou
circles. Movie
nded by smal
makers use th
ler
is simple effe
monsters appe
ct to make
ar mucch bigg
er than they ac
tually are.
Wro
The ng di
M
into üller-Ly recti
think
er ill
on
us
in
on th
e lef g that th ion misl
t is l
This
eads
e
mid
on
is
t
beyo becaus ger than dle sect he brain
ion o
e the
nd th
t
h
e
f
of le
o
e
ngth line, pl open arr ne on th the line
aying
owh
e
and
right
ea
dept
with
h.
our p ds exten .
d
erce
ption
Some of the most effective optical illusions can be
produced with simple lines and shapes. Such illusions
play with our perceptions off angles, size, and shape,
causing us to make unconsccious assumptions about
what we see. Even when we
e know how they work,
the illusions are difficult to shake off.
30
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Is it square?
The concentric
circles in this
picture trick
our brains into
thinking that the
image has depth.
It also makes the
perfectlyy straight
p
g
lines of the blue
square appear
to bend inward.
nes
ed li
s
s
o
r
C
ion was
s
This illu
erman
ed by G
r
e
v
o
disc
ohann
J
ysicist
h
p
o
tr
s
a
llner.
drich Zö
Karl Frie rallel
r pa
The fou
pear
lines ap
l
a
c
ti
r
ve
cannot
ts
s
cienti
S
.
d
e
lt
ti
see
why we
explain
they
es when ht!
tilted lin
ig
a
tr
ctly s
are perfe
A little bit
t dotty
Dots appear to join the crosses in this image, but
the dots don’t actually exist—they’re simply gaps
in the lines. Scientists disagree on an explanation.
Do we see dots because the brain figures out the
boundaries of shapes from little bits of information?
Or do we see the illusio
on before the brain has
processed exactly whatt it is we are looking at?
The
ns. tching
o
i
s
e
u
o ill
, str
n
s tw pective illusio
e
n
i
n
a
t
d
s
o
n
r
n
o
e
o
e
in mage c se of p s a sec rs to b
Twosimple i ive a senis createop appeahey are,
This lines g nce. Th at the t ttom. T
k
a
o
blac he dist red line t the b
t
a
e
o
e
t
h
n
t
in
o
the
hich
e.
in w r than me siz
e
a
g
s
n
he
lo
ct, t
in fa
31
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
The water cycle
32
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
American illustrator Charles Allan Gilbert
created this famous optical illusion. What do
you
ou see
s in the picture? A pretty woman admiring
herself
lf in a mirror or a scary grinning skull?
Deathly beauty
The Dutch artist M. C. Escher was inspired by optical
illusions. This picture shows a circuit of water that
seems to flow impossibly uphill before tumbling
down to start its journey all over again. If you
look closely, you can see that the technique used
is the same as that in the Penrose triangle, below.
BRAIN GAMES
33
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Face-to-face?
This illusion was crreated by matthematician
Roger Penrosse. All three straigh
ht beam
ms of
the tria
angle appear in fron
nt and behind
d one
another at the same time, and they me
eet at
right an
ngles to one anothe
er. It would be
imposssible fo
or this object to exisst in 3--D.
Tric
cky triangle
When the eyes and brain focus on an object,
they separate it from its background, but it’s
not clear which is the object in this illusion.
Some people see a white vase on a black
background, while others see two black people
looking at each other on a white background.
Like
e Penro
ose’s triangle
e, this object cannott
be created
d in 3-D. You see tw
wo diffe
erent
perrspectivves at once, yet it’s imposssible
to fit them
m togetther. Th
hree ro
ound prongs
at one end
d become a rectang
gular shape
at the other. Nob
body iss reallyy sure who
first creatted thiss illusion—it’’s a puzzle
from
m startt to finish!
Tw
wo or three
e?
Look at these pictures and objects. What do you
see? Is there one image or two? Is the water really
flowing uphill? Illusions are not always as they
seem at first glance. The brain can flip between two
options as it tries to make sense of the impossible.
ILLUSIONS
MPOSSIBLE
You
u can see th
his sha
ape in
n two ways—
—as
a small cube sitting
g on th
he inside of
a bigger cube or as a sing
gle larrge cu
ube
with a sm
mall cube-ssize ch
hunk missin
ng
from its bottom
m corner. This de
esign first
app
peared
d in a floor mosaic found in the
anccient Roman ruin
ns of Pompe
eii, Italy.
Cr
razy
y cu
ube
Can you hear something? From whispering voices
to a phone ringing, yours ears pick up all sorts of
sounds. Try the following activities and find out how
much information we process through our ears.
What was that?
Test your hearing
ability by identifying
these challenging
sounds.
You will need:
ǩ3DSHU
ǩ7DSH
ǩ6FLVVRUV
ǩ7KUHHHPSW\ERWWOHV
ǩ8QFRRNHGULFH
ǩ'ULHGEHDQV
ǩ8QFRRNHGSDVWD
ǩ(PSW\EDJ
ǩ)ULHQGVWRSDUWLFLSDWH
Yo cannot hear
You
hea
ear any sounds
ds in
space.
space
e. This
Th is bec
because
ecause sound
needs
need
eds
ds a medium
med
edium to travel
tra
tr
ravvel
through,
thro
rough, such as air or w
water.
ater
er.r.
Noisy bottles
([SHULPHQWZLWK
high- and lowpitched sounds
when you do
this activity.
You will need:
ǩ7KUHHHPSW\
glass bottles
ǩ3LWFKHURIZDWHU
ep 1
Ste
Fill each bottle with a
diffferent amount of water,
eaving one empty. If
le
you blow across the top
of the empty bottle, it
makes a low-pitched
m
ound. If you add a little
so
quid and then blow, the
liq
pitcch is higher—the more
liquid, the higher the pitch.
liquid
ep 1
Ste
Filll each bottle with a
different material—the
d
uncooked rice, dried
beans, and uncooked
pasta. Let the participants
hear each shaken bottle
once. Then wrap them in
paper before placing
tthem in the bag.
Step 2
If you tap the sides
of the same bottles,
you get the opposite
effect: the empty
bottle has the
highest pitch, while
the fullest bottle
has the lowest pitch.
Step 2
Ask your volunteerss
to close their eyes and
pick the bottles out,
ey
one by one. Can the
identify what is
inside the bottles
by shaking them?
How good is your sense of hearing?
Throughout your life, your brain stores
information it encounters, enabling you to
identify the sounds you come across.
There is less air when the bottle is half
full, so the air vibrates faster, with higher pitch.
When the bottle is empty, the vibration is slower
and the pitch lower. But when you tap the bottle,
it is the glass and water that are vibrating to
create the sound. The greater the amount
of water, the lower the pitch.
37
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Wolfgang
Amadeus
Mozart
Wolfgang at th
sister, Nanner e age of six, performing wi
their first trip i, and their father, Leopol th his
d,
to Paris, Fran
ce, in 1762. during
Child prodigy zart was the son of
rn in Austria in 1756, Mo
Bo
, so he was in the right
a professional musician
He could read music
family to learn his art.
rds, and began playing
before he could read wo
at the age of five. His
and composing music
g
ian, and when Wolfgan
sister was also a music
e
rop
Eu
d
un
aro
m
k the
was six, their father too
prodigies.
ld
chi
as
off
m
the
w
to sho
Some people seem to have a genius for music
and can play it superbly when they are very
young. A few are even able to compose complex
orchestral music when they are only children—
something that most people would find impossible.
The most celebrated of these musical geniuses is
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, one of the greatest
composers who ever lived.
ent
g taling
n
i
s
i
m
prov
at drea
Im
rific
heme
was ter
usical t
m
a
Mozart
g
n
o
tions
ccordin
up varia as playing. A perform
im
ew
while h ss who saw h
ise
e
improv
n
ld
it
u
w
o
w
e
to a
with
h
r,
enager, e than an hou
as a te
ed
r
h
o
s
li
m
for
omp
like this that even acc d. But to
ill
de
l
astoun
such sk
s were fitting musica
n
ia
ic
s
r
mu
fo
y
t
t
talen
t a par
him this ther was jus was to
e
g
e
o
g
t
ideas
hallen
ic,
e real c exciting mus
h
T
.
k
l,
tric
a
in
er.
se orig
compo k a little long
o
o
t
which
This portrait of Mozart at the age of around
26 shows his love for fine clothing.
young
w, the
ick pillohis skill at the
th
a
n
s
.
do
Perche demonstrate tic audience
Mozartto an aristocra
organ
Fun and games
In 1787, Em
Emper
Emperor
ero
rorr Josep
JJoseph
eph II
of Austr
Austria
tri
ria made Moz
Mozart
ozart
rt his
court
rt composer
composer.
er.r.
Despite his musical genius, Mozart did not have a
one-track mind. He enjoyed horse riding, dancing,
and billiards. When he started earning serious
money in Vienna, he bought a billiard table as well
as a new piano. He was well known for his sense
of humor, partly because he enjoyed practical
jokes. He also liked showy clothes and was once
decribed as appearing onstage “with his crimson
pelisse and gold-laced cocked hat.”
38
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Cerebral cortex
Analyzes and relates
smells and tastes
Olffactory bulb
Ga
athers scent
signals and passes
them to the brain
Your senses of taste and smell are closely connected,
and they both help you enjoy your food. But yourr sense
e
of smell is vital in other ways. It alerts you to danger
and helps you recognize familiar places, things, and evven
ven
people. Your brain reacts surprisingly strongly to smelll,
especially smells that you memorized long ago.
Taste bud
Most of the re
Taste pore
ceptor cells th
at detect tast
concentrated
e are
on the tongue
in clusters ca
taste buds. Th
lled
ere are around
10,000 of thes
each containi
e,
ng 50 to 100 ba
nana-shaped
cells with tiny
“taste hairs”
at the top. Whe
you eat, saliva
n
and dissolved
food seep into
each taste bu
d through a tin
y pore. The ce
react to chem
lls
icals in the fo
od by sending
nerve impuls
es to the brai
n.
Taste hair
Olfactory
receptors
Detect scent
molecu
mol
molecules
ecules
les in
the air
Nerve fiber
Taste
receptor cell
Nasal
chamber
Simple tastes
SALTY
Your taste buds can distinguish
between only five taste sensations:
salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umani
(savory). This combination is too
limited to account for all the different
li
tastes that you experience, and this is
because your sense of smell also plays an
important role in “tasting” your food. Infections
such as colds and the flu can make you
temporarily lose your sense of smell—
l
and then you find that you cannot
taste much either.
SOUR
R
Tongue
SWEET
BITT
TER
40
UMANI
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Nerve fibers
Gather data from
taste buds
Scent si
ignals
The hum
man sense of smell is poor compared to that of many animals,
but it is much more refined th
than
t
you
ur sense of taste, enabling you
to detect thousands of sscents. Scent molecules are carried in
the air, and when yo
ou breatthe in, they are detected by two
patches of recep
ptor cellls located high up in your nasal
cavity. Nerve fi
fibers frrom these cells pass through the
skull to the olfactorry bulb, where more nerve cells
transfer th
he coded
d scent signals to the brain.
Wee all hav
W
have
ve our
own unique smel
smell
ell
identity. Th
This is
determined
det
eter
erm
rmined
ed by fa
fact
factors
cto
tors
rs
such as genes
genes,
ess, diet
diet,
ett,
and skin type.
typee.
tion
tinctive reac limbic system at
Inst
the
of
rt
pa
is
actory bulb
The olf
tem is an
stem. The limbic sys
the top of the brain
role in
nt
rta
po
im
an
t plays
area of the brain tha
ents
sc
. This explains why
memoryy and emotion
m
rmant
do
en
ak
s and aw
ger powerful emotion
an trigg
cortex
ca
the
to
es
ss
pa
o
mation als
es
emoriess. Scent infor
me
tak
this
zed consciously, but
t brain to be analy
of the
instinctive reaction.
a lot longer than the
Thalamus Receives taste
signa
als from the medulla
and sends them to the cortex
Medulla Receives taste
signa
als and relays them
to the thalamus
Brain
n stem
Professional senses
Some people earn a living by their noses.
They include the makers of perfumes and,
not so obviously, wine tasters and tea
blenders. The blenders of fine teas, for
example, m
may “taste” the teas, but their
taste buds can barely identify them.
Theyy use th
heir refined sense of smell
to decide w
which combinations have
the best fla
avor.
41
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
SENSITIVE
SEN
SENSES
ENSES
Unlike the other senses, smell and taste
function by detecting chemical substances.
Our sense of smell enables us to distinguish
up to 10,000 different scents, and there are
people who have an extra-sensitive sense of
smell and taste. Try these activities and find out
more about your senses of smell and taste.
A blocked nose
Can a blocked
nose affect your
sense of taste?
Follow the steps
below and find out.
You will need:
ǩ6HOHFWLRQRIIRRGV
with varying degrees
of taste and flavor
ǩ*ODVVRIZDWHU
ǩ7ZRIULHQGV
In th
the we
wei
weightless
eig
ightltles
ess
es
enviro
environment
envi
ronmen
ent of space,
e,
food aro
fo
aromas
romas
as do
don’t
often
oft
ftten
fte
ten re
rea
reach
eachh th
the nose,
e,
so astronauts
astr
as
trronauts
tro
ts miss
mis
iss
out on a lot of
food flavo
fo
flavors.
vors
rss.
rs.
Seeing is believing!
You will need:
How good are you at
ǩ6HOHFWLRQRIȍDYRUHG
identifying what you
Jell-O
are eating?
ǩ6RPHSODWHVDQGVSRRQV
ǩ%OLQGIROG
ǩ7ZRIULHQGV
ǩ3HQDQGSDSHU
Step 1
Ask the first volunteer to
o sample
the food, rinsing his or her mouth
out with water in between tastes.
Record the responses.
Step 1
Step 2
Ask an adult to help you
make the Jell-O. When
they have set, place
them on a plate.
Put a blindfold on the first
person, making sure he or
she does not see the Jell-O
beforehand. Then ask your
f i d to taste and
friend
d id
identify
if the
h
flavors. Record the results.
Step 2
Repeat Step 1 with the
second volunteer, but this
time ask your friend to hold
his or her nose closed.. Who
had a better sense of ta
aste?
When you can’t sme
ell what
you are eating, it is harrder to
recognize food flavors
s. So if
your nose is blocked be
ecause
you have a cold, for exa
ample,
food often tastes bla
and.
42
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Smell
S
Try this test and find
out how good your
sense of smell is.
Step 1
For each item, put two
samples of it in two
different bowls. Mix
the bowls around.
Step 2
%OLQGIROG\RXUIULHQG
and ask him or her to
identify which two items
smell the same. How
good was your friend’s
sense of smell?
You will need:
ǩ%OLQGIROG
ǩ$WOHDVWVL[ERZOVDQG
three items with strong
smells such as a banana,
coffee grounds, flowers,
or soap
ǩ$IULHQG
T
The
chemical factor
You will need:
Find out if saliva
ǩ3DSHUWRZHO
helps you when
ǩ6HOHFWLRQRIGU\IRRGV
it comes to
such as cookies, cakes,
tasting food.
or crackers
ǩ7ZRIULHQGV
Our sense of smell is
much more sensitive than
our sense of taste—around
10,000 times more
sensitive. It alerts us
to danger by detecting
poisonous odors and we
can even identify whether
food is ripe
p or rotten byy
smell alone.
Step 3
Ask the second person to
identify the flavors. This
volunteer should not be
blindfolded. Record his
or her answers, too.
Step 1
Step 2
Pat the tongue of one of
your volunteers dry with
the paper towel so that
no part of the tongue’s
top side has saliva on it.
The second person can
taste the food as normal.
Ask the two subjects to
taste the dry food and then
record their responses as
t how
to
h much
hfl
flavor th
they
can taste.
Step 4
Compare the differences
between the two
experiments. Did the
blindfolded person make
any mistakes or take longer
in identifying the flavors?
We are used to
seeing foods in
certain colors, and
this helps identify
their flavors.
Chemicals from food
can reach your taste buds
only if they have been
dissolved in saliva.
A child has around
aro
round
10,000 taste buds,
buds
ds,s, while
wh
an adult may have
ve
only 5,000.
43
3
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
H
Your skin is the largest organ in your body. It ha
as
many functions, including acting as a protective
e
barrier against infection, but it also provides yo
ou
with vital information about your environment.
It does this by using millions of sensory recepto
or
cells that detect different types of stimuli—from
m
the most delicate tap to the sharp shock of pain
n.
Free nerve endings
Sense touch, pressure,
pain, and tem
mperature
Thalamus
Sensitive
e skin
Human skin has at leastt six types of
sensory receptors. Some arre branched
nerve endings, while others are nerve fibers
that end in tiny disks or cap
psules that
psules
detect different types of pressure,
vibration, stretching, temp
perature
change, and physical damag
ge. Some
nerve endings are wrapped aro
ound the
roots of hairs and sense their response
to touch and air mo
ovement.
Merkell’s disk
Responds to light
touch and pre
essure
There
There
Ther
re are
re aro
around
round
18 million skin sensors
rs
altogether,
alto
tog
oget
ether
er,r, constantly
constanttly
sending info
information
form
rmation
to the bra
brain.
rain.
Hair
i root sensors
Detect hair movement
Signal network
Sensoryy signals from the skin are sent through
the bran
nching nerves of the peripheral nervous
system to the spinal cord and then to the
thalamus. The thalamus passes them on to the
somatic ssensory cortex, which is located in the
brain. The thalamus acts as a relay station, as it
does forr all sensory information except smell.
44
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Finger
tip
contro
Some part
l
s of your s
kin are m
more sen
uch
sitive than
others. If
somethin
g touches
your leg,
you can ce
rtainly fee
l it, but th
sensation
e
is not very
precise.
By contra
st, your fin
gertips are
highly sen
sit
sense of to ive, giving you the
uch that a
llows you
to feel tex
tures and
, in the ca
of blind pe
se
ople, to re
ad Braille
.
Sensory map
Hair shaft Proje
ects
above skin surfface
and reacts to to
ouch
and air moveme
ent
This odd-looking figure
shows how your brain
reacts to touch on various
parts of your body. It looks
strange because the size of each
body part is related to the num
mber
of touch sensors that it has ratther
than its physical size. Your han
nds are
shown much bigger than your feet
because they are much more sensitive.
Epidermis
Outer layer
of skin
Thhe lea
T
The
least
leas
le
ea t sensit
east
sens
en ittive
ivvee
iv
part
aart
rt of
rt
of yo
yoour
ur bo
ur
boody
dy
dy
is the
is
the mi
miiddle
ddle of
ddle
of
your back.
your
ackk.
Habituation
Dermis Containss
blood vessels,
glands, and
nerve endings
Meissner’s corpu
uscle
A touch receptor
found in sensitive
e
areas of skin
Although your brain
reacts strongly to new
sensory information from your skin,
it adapts to some constant or repetitive
messages to make them less distracting.
This effect happens with all the senses
but is most easily tested using touch.
If you put a pencil in the palm of your
hand, for example, you get an instant
sensation, but within seconds this wears
off to leave just a low-key awareness.
This is because some skin sensors soon
stop sending signals, but others don’t.
Pacinian corp
puscle
Sensitive to
pressure and
vibrations
Feeling
g pain
Nerve endings throughoutt your skin
register pain by reacting to cchemicals
called prostaglandins and histam
mines that
are released from damaged ce
ells. There
are two types of pain responsses. One is
short and sharp to make you
u jerk your
hand away from a candle flame in a reflex
action. The other is slower and
d starts after
the reflex, giving more persistent pain and
warning us of possib
ble long-term harm.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
45
BRAIN GAMES
TOUCH
Grab bag
+RZJRRGLV\RXUVHQVH
of touch in helping you
identify objects?
AND TELL
You will need:
ǩ%R[ZLWKWZRKROHVFXWRXW
RUDSLOORZFDVH
ǩ6HOHFWLRQRILWHPVLQDOOVL]HVVXFK
as a cup, spoon, ball, apple, sponge,
rock, pinecone, and
d feather
ǩ6RFNVRUUXEEHUJORYHV
ǩ$IULHQG
Step 2
1RZDVN\RXUIULHQG
1
to
o put socks or rubber
gloves on his or her
hands and touch the
LWHPV+RZGRHVWKLV
ch
hange the success rate?
Step 1
By covering your hands, itt is
harde
er to tell what you are touching.
This iis because you are reducing the
am
mount of tactile informatio
on
being sent to your brain.
Step 2
Have your friend place
a hand inside the box
DQGSLFNDQLWHP
With eyes closed, ask
your friend to feel the
object and then sketch
WKHVKDSHDQGGLPHQVLRQV
RIWKHLWHP$VNKLPRU
her to describe the texture
of the object, too.
We have different
types of receptors under
our skin. These enable
us to find out a lot about
an object just by touch
alone—whether an
object is soft or hard, its
shape, and how big it is.
46
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
ywhere else on the body.
than an
fingers
Step 1
&RPSDUHWKHȌQLVKHG
GUDZLQJZLWKWKHRULJLQDO
LW
LWHP+RZDFFXUDWH
+
W
ZDV\RXUIULHQG"
n o ur
ǩ$IULHQG
Step 3
e p t o rs i
Artist at work!
You will need:
Can you judge the
ǩ%R[ZLWKDKROH
size, texture, and
ǩ6RPHREMHFWVVXFK
shape of an object by as a feather, apple,
touch alone? Try this ERRNDQGZDOOHW
activity and find out. ǩ3HQFLODQGSDSHU
c
We have more touch re
3ODFHDIHZ
LWHPVLQWKHE
ER[
RUSLOORZFDVH
H$VN
your friend to
o put
his or her hands
inside the boxx and try
to identify the
e objects
IURPWRXFKDORQH
<RXUHQWLUHERG\LVFRYHUHGZLWKWRXFKUHFHSWRUV
VHQVLQJGLIIHUHQWW\SHVRIVHQVDWLRQVǟSUHVVXUH
SDLQDQGWHPSHUDWXUH<RXFDQH[SORUH\RXU
VHQVHRIWRXFKZLWKWKHIROORZLQJDFWLYLWLHV
Sensitive
e touch
7KLVDFWLYLW\G
GHPRQVWUDWHV
how some parts of your
ERG\DUHPRUHVHQVLWLYH
than others.
You will need:
ǩ$SDSHUFOLS
Step 1
S
6WUDLJKWHQRXWWKHSDSHUFOLS7KHQ
bend it so that the tips are around
0.5 in (1 cm) ap
part.
Step 2
Some animals have different ways of feeling. Cats, for examp
le, use t
heir w
hiske
rs.
&ORVH\RXUH\H
HVRUORRNDZD\7KHQUXQ
the paper clip from the tip of your index
ȌQJHUDORQJ\\RXUSDOPDQGXSWR\RXU
forearm. Could you feel both the points
of the paper clip on your forearm?
Hot or cold?
Follow the steps of
this experiment and
see how your thermal
receptors detect
changes in
temperature.
Your forearm
m is not as
sensitive as your fingers, so it
feels as if the points of the
paper clip are together—or
you might feel onlyy one point.
You will need:
ǩ7KUHHSODVWLFFXSV
ǩ,FHFROGZDWHUZDUP
ZDWHUDQGKRWZDWHUDW
104–122 °F (40–50 °C).
Ask an adult to check
the temperature with
a thermometer.
ǩ6WRSZDWFK
The finger that has been
placed in cold water perceives
the water as warm, while the
finger placed in hot water
perceives it as cool. This is
because the receptors are not
d t ti the
detecting
th water
t temperature.
t
t
Instead, they are comparing it to
the previous temperatures.
Step 1
Fill each of the cups w
with the
FROGZDUPDQGKRWZ
ZDWHUU
Place a finger from yo
our le
eft
hand in the cold water and
da
finger from your rightt hand in
WKHKRWZDWHU/HDYHWKHȌQ
QJHUV
immersed in the wate
er forr
around a minute.
Step 2
5HPRYHERWKȌQJHUVDQGGLS
them in the cup of warm water.
Does your body detect any
changes in temperature?
47
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
e?
Real or fak
something that
is
l”
ica
ag
“m
ything
An
e laws of nature,
seems to break th
things disappear
such as making
ne’s mind. Some
or reading someo
ve in magic, just
people really belie
e
ve in ghosts. Som
as they may belie
e
ar
ch as voodoo
religious cults su
t most of
Bu
ic.
ag
based on m
magic is
us recognize that
ery, even
some sort of trick
it’s
w
ho
if we can’t see
is
at
th
done—and
part of the fun.
Illusion
A magician tosses a ball in the air twice
while following it with his eyes. But he fakes
a third toss, moving his eyes as if watching
the ball, and to you, the ball appears to vanish.
This illusion works because there is a slight
delay in visual data reaching your brain.
The brain compensates by inventing some
data to fill the gap—sometimes it’s incorrect.
Crimin
a
l tric
We assoc
ks
iate mag
ic tricks
artists, b
with perfo
ut confid
rmance
ence tric
use simil
ksters an
ar techniq
d
pickpock
ues. If yo
trick is d
ets
u can’t s
one whe
e
e how a
n
y
o
you certa
u are wa
tching a
inly won’t
m
recogniz
distracts
e it when agician,
your atte
someone
ntion in th
her partn
es
er steals
your mon treet and his or
ey. So wa
tch out!
48
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
ce
d for
r
a
l need:
c
You wil FDUGV
The
RI
u trick
ǩ'HFN
U
Can yo
GSDSH
into
3HQDQ
e
ǩ
n
o
e
som
ORSH
ǩ(QYH
a
QG
LH
U
picking ard
ǩ$I
c
c
ifi
c
e
p
s
ke their
but ma appear
n
decisio
?
m
o
rand
Step 1
Secretly place the Queen of
Diamonds so that it is the third
card from the top in the deck
of cards. Write down the name
of the card on a piece of paper
and put it in an envelope.
We rely on our senses to tell us about our surroundings.
However, our senses can be fooled, and we can easily
miss a trick if our brains are concentrating on something
else. Magicians distract their audiences to take attention
away from what is really going on. Try these tricks to find
out if you, too, can fool the senses.
Step 3
Ask your friend to point to two
cards. If the first two cards are
chosen, remove them and go to
Step 4. If the first and third cards
are chosen, remove the middle one.
If the second and third cards are
chosen, remove the first one. Then
ask your friend to choose another
card—whichever one is chosen,
make sure you remove the one
that isn’t the Queen of Diamonds.
Step 4
S
A your friend to turn over the
Ask
rremaining card and then open
the envelope to reveal how your
amazing prediction came true.
a
Step 2
3UHWHQGWRVKXIȍHWKHFDUGV$VN
your friend to deal out the top
six cards into two rows of three.
Watch to see where the Queen of
Diamonds lands. Ask your friend
to point to a row and confidently
take away the row that doesn’t
have the Queen of Diamonds.
If you perform in a confident
manner, your friend will be
convinced that you are doing what
he or she has asked you to do.
In fact, you are doing exactly what
you need to do in order for the
Queen of Diamonds to be picked.
50
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
The magic coin
You will need:
You need quick
ǩ$FRLQ
actions and plenty
ǩ$IULHQG
of practice to make
this trick work.
Step 1
In front of your friend, place the coin
in the p
palm of yyour left hand,, near
the thumb.
Step 3
Step 2
Ask your friend to say which hand
the coin is under. Lift your hands
to reveal the answer!
Quickly turn over both hands,
flicking the coin from under the
left hand to under the right hand.
Because the coin was not seen to
move, your friend is tricked into thinking
that it is still under your left hand.
he cup?
:
Where’s t
You will need
ke
a
m
u
yo
LQ
Can
ǩ$FR
nish? ǩ7DEOH
something va
try
ǩ&KDLU
You’ll need to
s
e
ǩ3DSHU
m
ti
this a few
ǩ3ODVWLFFXS
k
before the tric
ǩ$IULHQG
ly.
works perfect
Step 4
Place the paper (which is still in the
shape of the cup) back over the coin.
Then smash your hand down on the
paper to show that the cup has
vanished. Say, “Oops, I’ve made the
wrong thing disappear!” Only you
know that you made the right object
vanish after all.
Step 1
Step 2
Place the coin on the table
and the cup over the coin.
Tell your friend you will
make the coin disappear.
Wrap the paper tightly
around the cup so that you
can see the shape of the cup
underneath the paper.
Step 3
Lift up the cup and the paper
to show that the coin is still
there. While you and your
friend are still looking at the
coin, move the paper and cup
over the edge of the table
and drop the cup out of the
paper into your lap.
Because you have
directed all the attention
to the coin, not the cup,
your friend’s brain isn’t
focusing on what is
really happening.
51
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Balance
Your inner ear contains three bony tubes that
form loops called semicircular canals. Each
tube ends in a bulge, or ampulla, containing
sensors that detect the movement of fluid
in the loop—which depends on your body’s
movement. Similar receptors called maculae
detect how upright you are. Your brain uses
these signals to correct your balance.
We normally think that we have five senses: sight,
hearing, taste, smell, and touch. But we also feel
things that do not seem related to a particular
sense. They are like an awareness of your body.
Most of these sensations affect your unconscious
mind, but that doesn’t make them unimportant.
Without your sense of balance, for example, you
could not stand upright.
Vestibular nerve
Delivers balance
sensor data to
your brain
s
cknes
nce
n si tion of your bala
o
i
t
o
M
stimula
g like a
Intense
methin
s by so
n cause
sensor aster ride ca
e
o
is mad
roller-c ickness. This ars
s
e
motion our eyes and
y
ing
if
t
e
ic
s
fl
wor
on
con
r brain hing the horiz f
u
o
y
e
c
o
giv
t
a
e
s
W
n
.
ke se
ation
inform e brain to ma
.
help
s th
d may
enable
ent, an
m
e
v
o
the m
Semicircular canals
s
Filled with fluid that
moves when your
body moves
Ampulla
Contains sensors
that detect body
movement
Macula
Has sensors that
detect whether you
are upright
Internal organs
We are not usually aware of our internal organs,
b we all
but
lll get sensations from our stomachs.
Some are
e vague feelings that mark the
passage
e of food, but hunger pangs are more
useful. Digestive problems can cause pain,
and other organs may also hurt if they are
damage
ed or diseased. A disorder releases
chemica
als that are detected by nerve endings
and relayed to the brain as pain.
52
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Now ask your frriend to put one foot
on a low step (or a pile of books or
magazines) and
d repeat the test.
Step 2
Ask a friend to stretch an arm out
straight. Then ask him or her to
resist you as you press down on
his or her wrist with two fingers—
your friend will be able to resist
the force you are exerting on his
or her
h arm.
Step 1
Hard to resist
This test demonstrates one
of the many ways the brain
defends the body from possible
harm—only in this case, there
is no harm at all.
54
Sometimes your brain has a mind of its own. It can
stop you from doing something that you want to do
or make you feel things that are not actually there.
Try the following experiments and witness
for yourself the mysterious brain at work.
With one hand, reach
around to tap and rub
your friend’s nose.
Exactly copy yo
our
movements with
your other han
nd
on your own
nose. After a
short time, you
u
should start to
o
feel that your
friend’s nose iss yours.
That’s one long
g nose!
Step 2
Blindfold yourrself and then
stand behind a friend.
Step 1
Pinocchio nose
Ever wondered what
it would be like to have
a nose as long as
Pinocchio’s? Try this
and find out.
BODY
ILLUSIONS
Your brain uses you
ur
sense of touch to figure out
where your nose is.
When the sensations
s
from touching your frien
nd’s
nose interfere with th
he
messages from touchin
ng
yyour own nose,, yyourr
brain begins to think yo
our
nose has grown to where
your friend’s nose is!
Th Ari
The
Aristotle
risto
t tl
to
tle illusion is one of
the oldes
oldest
est known
es
wn body illusions. Her
Here
erre’s
ere
how it works:
work
wo
rks
ks: cross
cro
cr
ross your finger
fingers
errs
ers
and to
ttouch
uch a small round
ro
object,
obj
bjec
ect
ctt, like
ct,
a pea
pea,
ea, and it will
wi feel
fee
fe
eel
el like you are
re
ttouching
to
uching two
wo peas!
pea
eas!
BRAIN GAMES
INTUITION
We often believe
things without having
any idea why. You might
get a feeling that you
are being followed, or
arrive at an inspired
solution to a problem.
We call this intuition,
telepathy, or sometimes
a “sixth sense.” These
intuitive perceptions
are probably the result
of rapid unconscious
mental processes—
using either information
gathered by your senses
or data stored deep in
your memory.
Sixth sense
Have you ever felt that something was wrong without
understanding how you knew it? This “sixth sense” effect
can be quite creepy, but it is probably created by your brain
picking up some clue from your other senses and alerting
your alarm response without giving you the full picture.
What’s up? There’s
something wrong! The
house doesn’t feel
right at all!
Telepathy
Apparent telepathy is probably caused by a
combination of sensory awareness and shared
experience. Twins often seem telepathic because
they share
a the same history and thought patterns.
Female and male
Women are usually thought
to be more intuitive than
men. But psychological tests
show that this is not true,
and men score just as well.
It is simply that women like
t appear more intuitive,
to
i t iti
especially among friends.
56
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
thinking
Inspired player may seem
expert chess
An
g
ght move usin
to make the ri
ut this
B
c.
gi
lo
an
th
intuition rather
ely
lik
king” is more
“inspired thin
y
ud
st
e
lt of intens
to be the resu
s
le
ab
en
, which
and experience
ular
cognize partic
re
to
er
ay
the pl
eces
pi
s
of the ches
arrangements
ly
al
ic
at
m
This auto
on the board.
xt
ne
e
th
ory of
triggers a mem
t
ually turns ou
us
ch
hi
w
move,
t one.
to be the righ
Wait a minute! It
smells like someone
has been baking a
cake. Why would
they be doing that?
What? A balloon?
I thought I was imagining
it, but there’s definitely
something going on!
Surprise!
Out of the blue
Sometimes someone grappling
with a problem finds that the solution
seems to come “out of the blue”
after working on something else
for a while. This is probably because
irrelevant details get forgotten, so the
main elements of the problem come
into sharper focus. The person may
also come across new information
that makes everything slot into place.
Woof!
Dream wor
rk
Occasionally people
e may
even dream the soluttion to a
problem. In the winterr of 1861,
German chemist August Kekulé was
G
ttrying to figure out the structure of a
benzene molecule. Whille dozing in
fro
ontt off the
th fire,
fi he
h dreame
d
ed
d off a snake
k
biting its tail. According to Kekulé,
this gave him the clue
e that the
molecule was a ring o
of carbon
and hydrogen ato
oms.
Benzene molecule
structure
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
57
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Memory Works
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
HOW YOU
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Peeople wh
People
Peo
who go blind
ndd
often
oft
ften continue to
ft
“see”” things bec
because
ecause
the bra
brain
rain is wire
wired
red
ed
to pro
process
roces
ess vi
es
visual
info
information.
form
rmation.
Having paid attention, your brain
n filters out
irrelevant information and focuses
cu
on the
important data. This is often an u
unconscious
process—for example, a flicker off movement
in this pool catches
hes your attention
o and you
instinctively
nstinctively foc
focus on the swimming
g animal.
a
Filter and focus
fo
ocus
Our senses are constantly receiving
eiving information
about the world around us.
s. Mo
Most is irrelevant, so
our brains filter and sort
ort it, leaving only the data that
requires our close attention.
tte
The information that we
gather in this way iss stored in our memories and is
the basis of conscious
u thought.
THINK
NK
60
Attention
The data gathered by your senses passess
into your sensory memory. Visual data
a iis
held there for less than a second, bef
before
being erased if you do not pay attention
entio to it.
Attention is the vital first stage
age in the mental
processing of any sensory
ensory input. If you don’t
pay attention,
ention, p
perhaps because you are
thinking about something else, the
th
information simply goes out of your head.
61
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Ste
Stereotypes
Labeling leads us to create
cre
mental models of
all kinds of things
things,
ngs,
s from
f
animals to people and
social grou
groups. These are called stereotypes.
People
ople ar
are scared of snakes because they think
all snakes conform to a venomous stereotype.
In fact, this is a harmless grass snake,
showing that the stereotype is often wrong.
The brain’s habit of creating stereotypes
can be destructive, leading to social
problems such as racial prejudice.
When your brain registers sensory data as
important, it instantly labels
abels it as a pa
particular type
of experience
erience or pro
problem. This helps it devise a
rapid response without getting bogged down in
rap
detail. So once yyou realize that this is a snake,
you don’t go through a mental
al checklist to
assure yourself that you are right. You
label it, and take a step back. After
all, some snakes are venomous.
Labeling
NOT VENOMOUS
HABITAT:
TAT Rainforest
LATIN NAME:
M Morelia spilota
cheynei
NAME: Ju
Jungle carpet python
NOT VENOMOUS
HABITAT: Semiaquatic
LATIN NAME: Natrix natrix
NAME: Grass snake
VENOMOUS
HABITAT: Terrestrial
LATIN NAME: Crotalus atrox
NAME: Western diamondback
rattlesnake
Conscious thoug
thought
ught is only a fraction
fra
fr
ract
ction
ct
of wh
what is going on inside your brain—
bra
rain—
unconscious
unco
conscious thought
thoug
ught is co
constantly
constantl
tly going
on in the background,
backkgro
kground,
d, influencing
influen
encing
your beh
behavior.
ehavi
vior.r.
Often you see only partt of the picture and have to fill
fil in
the rest using data stored in your memory. A few clues
are often enough, because your brain is programmed
to make sense o
of sketchy information that might be
important to your safety. In this
th case, the animal’s
head looks familiar, so you mentally
ental fill in the rest of
its body as that of a snake, which m
might be dangerous.
This happens before you get
et a good
go view of it.
Joining the dots
Your brrain processes your experiences
and all the information gathered by your
senses. Most of this data is discarded, but
the imp
portant perceptions, facts, and skills
are stored in your memory. This enables
you to think, learn, and be creative.
Ignored
Any information
in the sensory
memory that you
ignore is thrown
out right away.
Sensorry memory
This part of memory
holds a lot of in
nformation
for a few seconds
at most.
Input All the data
from your senses
enters your sensory
memory store.
Memo
Me
mory
ry sto
store
res
s
Your me
emory is divided into
three se
ections—sensory,
short terrm, and long term.
Only the
e most important
informattion makes it into
the finall section. All the
rest is th
h
hrown
out.
t
Stimulus
Nerve cell
Attention If you
pay attention to any
items off inform
it
i f
ation,
ti
they pass into your
short-term memory.
WHAT IS
Electrical signal
E
62
Making memories
Making connecttions
When a nerve cell
ll
receives a stong enough
stimulus, it fires an
electrical signal onto a
neighboring nerve cell.
Memories are formed by electrical
signals
i
l making
ki connections
ti
b
between
t
nerve cells so that they form a
network. The more often the network
is activated, the stronger it gets,
creating a long-term memory.
Permanent
P
b
bond
Links form
The more the linked cells
are stimulated, the stronger
the bond becomes.
Vivid
m
emorie
When you
s
are feelin
g very em
changes in
otiona
your brain
boost nerv l, chemical
They stren
e activity.
gthen the
memory-f
creating vi
orming pro
vid long-t
cess,
erm mem
why you o
ories. This
ften have
is
u
n
u
clear reca
ll of events sually
that
you experi
enc
state of hig ed in a
h emotion
.
Memory web
The signals continue to fire until
a web of nerve cells is formed.
This represents a single memory.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Prefrontal cortex
Short-term
memories
Amygdala
Unconscious and
emotional memories
Putam
men
Learned skills
and prrocedures
Hippoccampus
Spatiall memories
Cortex Memories
of personal and
life events
Temporal lobe
Learned facts
and details
Recognition and re
ecall
It is much easier to recognize a memoryy you are
looking for than to recall it. Look at the picture
of the girl below for five seconds and th
hen cover
her up. Now look for her in the photo
o on the
right.
g Even though
gh you’ve
seen her for a verry short
time, you should re
ecognize
her. But if you had to d
h
describe
her, you would pro
obably
find it a lot harrder.
Where do we remem
mber?
The cortex and
Th
d hippocam
hi
mpus are
e the main areas
of the brain responsible for mem
mory, but different
parts of the brain store different types of memories.
Use it o
or lose it
If you d
don’t think
about tthe data in
short-tterm memory,
it is losst after around
20 seco
onds.
VVery
Ve
Ver
ery
ryy few
ffeew peo
ppeeeople
opl
op
ople
can remem
can
reeme
mem
em
mbber
ber
er
anythhing
anyt
anyth
ing fr
ing
ffrom
fro
rroom
om
befor
bbefo
bef
efor
efor
efo
fforree the
th
t e ag
age
age
of thre
of
reeee..
ree
Sh
hort-term memory
Th
hiis has
h
h li
limited
i d space,
an
nd information is soon
losst if you don’t think
ab
bout it enough to pass
it on to long-term memory.
Long-term memory
L
m
Any informattion that
A
enters your long-term
memory is carefully
m
c
file
ed away so that you
can easily recall it.
Involuntary recall
Have you ever found yourself smelling
something and suddenly remembering
a certain time or place very strongly?
This sensation is called involuntary recall,
because your brain has retrieved the memory
by itself, without any prompting from your
conscious mind. Sounds and
nd sights can
also cause this, but smells are
especially powerful, perhap
ps
because the part of your brrain
that processes scent is clossely
sely
linked to your memory.
63
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Trip method
1.Tree
One way to memorize a list is to visualize a trip
that you often take. Link each landmark on the trip
with an item on your list—the stranger the result,
the easier it is to remember! Then go through the
trip in your head to remember the items.
The leaves of the tree
are pages from a book.
Find a good book to
read on vacation.
This is a vacation to-do list, and here
is how to picture each of the items
with a landmark on a walk to school:
1. Find a book to read
2. Pack your sunglasses
3. Mail a letter
4. Buy some toothpaste
5. Hang your laundry
6. Remember your sun hat
7. Buy dog
g food
8. Get a haircut
2.Sunflo
ower
A flower iss wearing
your sungllasses.
Remembe
er to pack
tthem in yo
our bag.
3.Sign
3
Sign
Si
The sign has turned into
an envelope re
eminding
you to mail a lletter.
4.Bridge
There’s a tube of
toothpaste floating
under the bridge.
You need to buy
toothpaste.
SCH
OOL
6.Scarecrow
5.Flags
The scarecrow has your sun hat
on its head. Remember to take
your hat on vacation with you.
The flying flags
have become socks.
You need to hang
your laundry.
8.Bush
The bush is getting
a haircut, and you need
to get one, too!
7.Wall
Imagine your dog running along the
wall. Remember to buy dog food.
65
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
Memory span
Your short-term memory can
store a certain amount of
information for a limited time.
This game reveals your brain’s
ability to remember numbers
and words. You may be
surprised at your own abilities.
Step 1
Starting at the top, read out loud each line of
numbers, one at a time. Cover up the line and then
try to repeat the numbers. Work your way down
the list until you can’t remember them all.
Most people can hold only seven
numbers at a time in their short-term
memory, so good job if you could
remember more.
438
7209
18546
907513
2146307
50918243
480759162
These games test your capacity for storing numbers, words,
and visual information in your memory. They also show the
two different ways we remember—recall and recognition.
Recall is finding information in your memory when you
need it. Recognition is knowing something when you see it.
1728406395
DO YOU
REMEMBER?
Visual memory
How good is your memory
for visual images? Study
these 16 pictures for
45 seconds. Then close
the book and write down
as many as you can.
How well did you do?
You’ve done well if you
have remembered more than
half the objects. More than
12 is an excellent result.
66
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Bed, lamp, rug
Fork, plate, glass, table
Step 2
Now read out these words, one line at a time.
Cover up the line and try to repeat the words.
Continue down the list until your memory fails.
Spider, tree, bird, flower, dog
Pencil, scissors, chair, book, fish, clock
Pond, moon, star, grass, worm, bike, stone
Most people are better at remembering
words than numbers. If you can repeat a string
of eight words you have done very well.
Drum, bell, ball, racket, rope, box, net, pole
Eye, leg, arm, foot, head, ear, toe, hair, nose
Bread, milk, cookie, plate, bowl, plum, spoon,
apple, banana, orange
An artistic eye
Do you have a good memory
for remembering visual detail?
Try this test and see.
Recognition vs. recall
This game clearly shows you the
difference between recognizing
and recalling information.
Step 1
Step 1
First test your recognition
skills. Below are ten
countries and ten capital
cities. In 30 seconds, see how
many you can match up and
then turn to page 186 to
check your answers.
COUNTRIES
Israel
France
India
Russia
Czech Republic
Germany
Afghanistan
Canada
Denmark
Argentina
CAPITALS
New Delhi
Ottowa
Berlin
Prague
Copenhagen
Jerusalem
Buenos Aires
Kabul
Paris
Moscow
Look at the picture right
and closely study it for
two minutes. You may find
it helpful to draw it. Then
cover up the picture and try
to draw it from memory.
When you think you’ve
finished, compare your
drawing to the picture and
give yourself a point for
every line you got right.
Step 2
Now do the same with this
picture, left, but this time
look for familiar shapes
or patterns. For example,
does it look like a kite?
Again, after two minutes
cover up the picture and
try to draw it. Figure out
your score again and
compare it with the
previous one.
Step 2
Here are another ten countries, but this time you need to
try to recall their capital cities in 30 seconds. Check your
answers again and then compare your two scores.
Spain
Ireland
China
Sweden
Iraq
Netherlands
s
Japan
Italy
Egypt
Greece
Most people get a better score ffor recognition
iti th
than
recall. This is because having a list of possible answers
gives your brain a shortcut to finding the information
stored in your memory.
You probably did better in the second
test than the first because associating the
lines with familiar shapes makes them
easier to remember.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
67
BRAIN GAMES
ATTENTION
PAYING
e
differenc
Spot the
ook
e for detail? L
ey
r
u
yo
is
w
o
H
e
ictures and se
at these two p
s
ce
n
t ten differe
if you can spo
. Turn to page
between them
.
u got them all
186 to see if yo
Do you have a good memory for detail? These games will put
your short-term memory to work, first testing how well you
remember the detail of a story and then how sharp your
eye and brain are at spotting visual differences. Remember,
none of the information will go into your memory unless you
really focus your attention
on the exercise.
Important
details
How well do yo
u focus on
details when
you read?
To find out, re
ad this story
through carefu
lly, but only
once, then se
e if you can
answer the qu
estions below
.
At last the backyard looked
perfect. Jenny admired the orange
lanterns hanging from the trees as they
glowed in the fading light and the pretty
tables dotted around the yard, decorated
with candles and pink roses. There was
a table laden with champagne, a white
chocolate cake, a whole salmon, and
a tall pyramid of strawberries.
Jenny began to feel excited. Her parents
had no idea about the party. They thought
they were just going to the movies.
Suddenly, she heard a familiar noise
that filled her with alarm—a dog panting.
Chester! She had locked him in the
kitchen. How had he gotten out? A big,
muddy, wet, and very smelly dog raced
up and proudly dropped a dead fish
h at her
feet. Jenny knew where that had co
ome
ome
from—the Johnsons’ pond next doo
or. She
groaned and tried to grab Chester’ss collar,
but he leaped away. Between two ta
ables he
ables
shook his fur, splattering them both
h with
mud and grass. Then he spotted—o
or
probably smelled—the food table and
raced up to it. Paws on the table, he
e took
a bite of the salmon as a hundred
strawberries tumbled to the ground
d.
68
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
ssing?
What’s mi
kly
veals how quic
This game re
om
n disappear fr
information ca
.
rm memory
your short-te
Step 1
Study the 14 objects on the tray for
30 seconds, and then cover the picture.
Step 2
Now look at the tray below. Five items
have been removed—but which ones?
Uncover the picture above and see if you
were right. Did you get them all?
Questions
1
2
3
4
5
6
What time
of day is
it?
How were
the tables
decorated?
What flav
or was
the cake?
Who was th
e party
for?
Where did
Jenny thin
k
Chester wa
s?
What is th
e last na
me
of Jenny’
s neighbor
s?
Look back at
the story to ch
eck
your answers.
If you got five
right
you’ve done w
ell. A good w
ay to
help remembe
r detail is to pi
cture
what’s happen
ing in the stor
y in
your he
ea
ad
d..
?
Who’s who
u at
yo
e
How good ar
fe
if rences in
spotting tiny d
solving this
patterns? Try
e.
problem and se
Freddy, a much-loved
pet tortoise, above
right, h
has gone
missing
g. A reward
has bee
en offered for
his retu
urn, and the
four torrtoises below
have be
een handed
in. But which one is
Freddy?? Turn to page
186 to fi
find out if you
are righ
ht.
A
B
C
D
69
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
1
1=
crocodile
2 =
swan
70
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
3 =
worm
8 =
doughnuts
9 =
snail
8371
After
Aft
fter
ft
err jjust one sig
sighting,
ighting, British
Bri
ritish
mem
memory
emory
ry maestro
maes
estr
es
tro
ro Dominic O’Bri
O’Brien
rien
en
recalled
rec
re
ecalled
ed a sequence
seq
equen
ence of 2,808 shuffled
shuffl
ffled
ffl
ed
playing cards
card
rds
ds with
wi only eight
eig
ei
ight errors.
err
er
rrroors
rr
rs.
You can also use number pictures to help you
with lists. Imagine you need to buy six eggs,
three cartons of milk, two bananas, and eight
stamps. Visualize the objects on the list with
the number pictures—a rabbit eating an egg,
a worm drinking milk, a swan with a banana
in its beak, and a stamp with the picture of
a doughnut on it, for example. The crazier
the picture, the better, because it’s
it s more
likely to stick in your mind.
7 =
giraffe
Step 3
6 =
rabbit
Now study this number for 30 seconds and
try to “see” it in pictures. Then cover up the
number and try to write it down. Did you find
it easy to remember using associations?
5 =
face
Step 2
4 =
arm
Study the number pictures we’ve created
below and try to memorize them. Or invent
your own number pictures and learn them.
Step 1
MAKING
ASSOCIA
ATIONS
Making links between objects—
called association—is a useful way
to remember things that you might
otherwise forget. The following exercises
show you how to make associations that
match numbers to pictures, organize
words into groups, or link a person with
an image so that you never forget a name.
0 =
mouth
s
tures
and pic
aped picture
h
s
s
r
re
a
b
il
m
im
u
s
N
ith
mbers,
numbers w
er phone nu dlock
b
m
e
Associating
m
re
easier to
d on a pa
can make it
umber use
n
a
r
o
,
te
a
o help you
nt d
res can als
an importa
tu
ic
p
r
e
b
m
ue works.
. Nu
the techniq
w
for example
o
h
is
is
h
lists. T
remember
BRAIN GAMES
71
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Step 2
Castle
Mouse
Book
Airplane
Greenhouse
Insect
Goldfish
Tractor
Carpet
Elephant
Button
If there are no obvious groups,
you could imagine items paired
together. For example, you could
remember a mouse with eyelashes
or a ship carrying a banana.
Ship
Twig
Nail
Banana
Eyelash
Tree
Mountain
Pin
Here is a new list. This time, sort the
items into smaller groups. One way
would be to divide the list into two
groups—big or small items. After
30 seconds, cover the list and try to write
down all ten items. Was that easier?
Pyramid
Study the list of ten items below for
30 seconds. Then cover it up and try
to write down as many of the items
as you can remember. Check the
list and make a note of your score.
Step 1
Forming a group
If you have a long list of words
to remember, try breaking the
list down into smaller groups.
John
Now look at the faces belo
ow. Can you
remember who’s who with
h th
he help of
your associations?
Step 2
Look at the people above and make up
your own associations for them, based
on the ideas above.
Step 1
Mary
If you find it difficult to remember
people’s names, try associating
a name with a picture. If you
meet a girl named Daisy, think
of her holding the flower. Or link
a person’s name with an object
they might have (Doug with a dog)
or make up a rhyme (Mike on a
bike) to help you.
Names to faces
Louis
Doug
Th bra
The
brain
rain has a
built-in
bbui
uilt-iiin
n ability
ability to
to
recognize
reco
rec
re
eco
ccoognize
g ize fa
gniz
faces
faces.
es.
es
Lucy
Mike
Ei ein’s fa
Einstein’s
Einstei
fascination wi
with
th physics
cs beg
began
egan at th
the ag
age of
five,
five
ve,
e, wh
when
en he wa
watc
watched
tched
ed th
the twi
twitching
witc
tching nee
needle
eed
edle of a co
compass
compa
and realized
rea
re
ealiz
ized
ed th
that space wa
was fu
full of unsee
unseen
een
en force
forces.
forc
fo
rces
es.
es
Albert
Einstein
Einstein was
the son of an born in Germany in 1879,
engineer.
When you think of genius, you think of Einstein. This
is partly because his ideas are beyond most people’s
understanding—the bending of light and the distortion
of space, for example. He is most famous for his theories
of relativity, which explain how the universe works, and for
the equation E=mc2, which has become an icon of inspired
mathematical
atical thin
thinking.
nking. Transl
Translating
lating e
extraordinary ideas
into clear mathem
matics was pa
art of his
h genius.
Bright
n
93 whe .
in in 18
ath
s Einstescinated by m
w
o
h
s
rtrait
dy fa
This po 14 and alrea
he was
id
ea
At the age
of only 16
, Einstein
be like to
wondere
travel at th
ed what it
e speed o
would
(300,000 k
f light: 186
m) per se
,000 miles
c
o
n
d
.
t avele
tr
H
e
realize
l d away fr
ed that if yo
om a cloc
u
able to lo
k at this s
ook back
peed, and
and see it
were
would neve
,
th
e clock’s h
r move—b
ands
ecause th
hands afte
e image o
r they mo
f the
ved would
with you.
never catc
Time wou
h up
ld seem to
stand still
It takes ge
.
niu
i s to thin
k like this
.
Day job
b
Einstein stud
died physics
h i and
nd
mathematicss, and then got worrk in
the p
patent offi
fice in Bern, Switze
erland,
decid
ding whether other
h r people
le’ss
inven
ntions were worthw
while. Meanwhile
he wa
as thinking hard ab
bout physics and
the nature of the universe iin hi
his spare
time, as a hobby rather than a job.
The fact that he was not working at
a university, where he would have had
to focus on the ideas of the professors,
meant that he was free to come up
with his own theories.
72
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
vity
e
Relatiwas fascinated by th
Einstein
ce, and
light, spa
nature of
ns were
conclusio time can
time. His
at
th
ggling—
mind-bo
curved,
is
e
c
a
n, sp
slow dow istortion of space
ad
gravity is
g is fixed
nd nothin
a
,
e
m
ti
and
f light.
e speed o
except th
the core
d
e
as form
e
id
e
s
e
h
T
lativity.
ries of re
o
e
th
is
h
of
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
HOW WE
LEARN
Find wallet
Learning is vital to survival. We often think it is all about
skills like reading and writing, but it also involves developing
life skills such as safely crossing the street, dealing with
other people, and managing money.
ey.
We learn these things through a
combination of conscious effort
and unconscious reactions, and
everything we learn becomes
part of our long-term memory.
How much will it cost?
Take money
Conditioning
Learning curve
When we are young, we all have to learn a huge
amount about the world in a short time. We learn
basic skills like walking, eating, and avoiding harm.
We discover that everything we do makes other
things happen, and we learn how to predict this—
and maybe avoid it. We learn much more in our first
few years than we do in all of the rest of our lives.
If an experience always follows a particularr
event, or does so only once but is very
upsetting, this can create such a
strong link in the brain that you react
automatically to the event if it happens
again. So, for example, if you have
been stung by a wasp, you get nervous
when you see another one—or any insect
with yellow and black stripes. This basic
form of learning is called conditioning.
rcuits
Memory ciing” of the brain is formed at
The basic “wir
something,
n
never you lear
birth, but whe
p of nerve
ou
gr
A
s.
ge
the wiring chan
a network
rm
ther to fo
ge
to
ks
lin
lls
ce
n
peat the actio
that lets you re
u
yo
if
ut
B
t.
wan
whenever you
ork
tw
ne
e
th
n,
ai
never use it ag
.
ly stop working
may eventual
76
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Association
You learn by making connections between
different experiences and skills, creating a
web of associated ideas in your brain. When
one part of the web is activated, it fires up
the rest. If you decide to buy a magazine, for
example, this idea triggers an association with
the store, the bicycle you will use to get there,
the route, the money you will need, and so on.
Association also allows you to link the abstract
ideas you learn in your classes at school.
Which store?
Go to st
sto
s
t re
Which route?
Travel by bike
Thhee weig
T
The
weight
w
weigh
we
eight
ig t off your
urr bra
bbrain
rain
iin tr
tri
triples
ttrip
tripl
riples
e
es
during
duri
uring
ri g you
ring
yo
y r fir
your
fifirst
firs
rrst
stt th
three
three
thre
ree
ee year
years
years
yea
ars of
of lif
life
l fe
as yyou
as
ou lea
ou
learn
earn
arn more
more skills
skills.
skillls.
ski
Take lock
Remember helmet
ion
d to
Imitat
gramme
rs,
n are pro
f othe
Childre
actions o
e
is
th
te
a
imit
A lot of th
,
y adults.
especiall n seem pointless
a
c
y
r
ic
mim
doll to
putting a
is
such as
a lot in th
n
r
we lea
t
te
u
a
b
u
,
d
d
a
e
r
b
eg
ntually w actually
way. Eve
to
y
la
p
d
ten
from pre
sks such
ta
m
r
fo
r
e
p
g
in
help
ooking.
ing and c
n
e
rd
a
g
as
Buy a magazine
Put in the practice
If you keep repeating
p
something to yourself,
you will remember it. This is because
the repetition links brain cells into a memory
circuit. You can learn a skill like playing the piano
in the same way, creating circuits in your brain that
enable you to play each tune. Repetitive practice
can be dull, but its benefits last a long time.
Musicians can stop playing for a year or more, yet
quickly pick up the skills if they start playing again.
77
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
The one-hand rule
To get through a maze where all the walls are
connected to the outer boundary, you can use the
“one-hand rule.” To do this, always keep a hand on
one wall as you go—it doesn’t matter which hand, but
don’t swap along the way. Try this method to make your
way to the center of this maze—and back out again.
The Ancient
The
Th
Ancien
ent Egyptians
Eg
built mazes
maz
azes
es
44,000
,000
000 years
yea
ears
rs ago.
ag
ago One pharaoh
pharao
phara
ppharraoh even
ev
eve
ven
en
bu
bbuilt
uilt
u
ilt
lt a huge
hug
uge
ge maze
maz
aze inside
nside his pyramid
pyrami
pyram
pyr
pyra
ramid
t baffle
to
baffl
ffle tomb
ffl
t mb robbers.
to
robber
ro
errs.
ers
MASTERING
The brain’s ability to learn
helps us solve all sorts of
problems, including how to
find our way out of a maze.
Giant hedge mazes are
popular attractions—it
seems that people like the
feeling of getting lost for a
while, as long as they can
eventually find their way
to freedom, of course! See
if you can make your way
through this collection
of miniature mazes.
If you get lost, find the
solutions on page 186.
MAZES
Right or left?
You can find your way through
this more complicated maze
using the one-hand rule, too.
Once through, try again using
your other hand—which
route is quicker?
78
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Trial and error
Mazes like this one, where some of the
walls are not connected to the others,
cannot be solved using the one-hand
rule. Instead you’ll have to find your way
through by learning from yyour
mistakes. Find your way to the
center of the maze and the
en
out the other side
e.
Amazing mazes
The bigger and more complicated
a maze is, the more difficult it is
to remember all the wrong turns.
The challenge of this maze is to
figure out the route to the dot.
Th wo
The
worl
world’s
rld’s larg
largest
rges
est
es
maze
maz
aze is the Dole
Plantation Pineapple
Pl
Pinea
Pi
eapple
Garden
Gard
rden Maz
Maze
aze in Hawa
Hawaii,
aii,
which covers
wh
cove
ver
ers
rs an area
are
rea
ea
of 137,000 sq ft
(12,746 sq m) and
has nea
nearly
earl
rly 2.5 miles
es
(4 km) of paths.
Over and under
This 3-D cube maze couldn’t
exist in real life—people would
keep falling off it! The way the
paths pass under and over
one another can make it
difficult to keep track of
where you’re going—so you’ll
have to pay attention. Using
the one-hand rule will take you
back out the way you came in,
so to find the exit you’ll have
to use trial and error.
79
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
PUZZ
PU
ZLI
ZLI
ING
ING
G
PATT
TTE
TER
ERN
RN
NS
S
A face in the crowd
The more we learn, the better our
brains become at spotting even
the smallest differences between
things. See if you can find these
two musicians among the group
of rock stars below.
All alone
Without writing anything down or marking the
puzzle in any way, see if you can find the one
creature in the picture that doesn’t appear
twice. To do this you will have to learn and
remember which items form parts of a pair.
Thinking ahead
This batch of colorful cupcakes is
arranged in a specific pattern. Can you
figure out what it is? If the sequence
was to continue, what would be the
color of the 49th and 100th cupcakes?
Thhe wo
T
The
world’s
world
w
orl
orld’s
rrld’s llargest
arges
arg
rrgges
e t jjijigsaw
est
igsaaw
igsaw
ig
w puz
ppuzzle
uzz
uzz
zzle
le has
has 244,000
,000
ppieces.
piec
iec
ecces.
ece
es. Itt ta
es.
es
take
ttak
aakes
kkes
es ma
es
many
m
aany
ny mo
ny
m
mont
oonths
nths to
to co
ccomplete
ompl
mpllete.
lete
eete
et
ttee.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
80
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
A
between different things are important parts of
the learning process. We use past experiences
and solutions to previous problems, stored in our
brains, to help us make sense of new ones. All of
these perplexing puzzles require you to spot new
w
patterns.
tt
Turn
T
to
t page 187 to
to find
fi d the
th answers.
B
C
D
F
E
G
H
I
J
K
L
Missing
Mi
i
pieces
i
Putting a jigsaw puzzle together is a
good example of pattern recognition.
Your brain has to work out how each
small piece fits together to make
the big picture. To do this you need
to study both the contents of the
pieces and their shapes. Four pieces
from this puzzle are mixed up with
pieces from a different puzzle.
Can you find the missing pieces?
Polic
Po
olic
oolice
licee ffo
lice
forces
for
rces
rrc
ces
ces
e use
u
use compu
compute
cco
ompu
uter
ter
ter
er sof
ssoftw
oft
fftware
ftw
tw
waare
ware
are
re ttoo hel
hhelp
elp
elp
lp them
tthe
thhem
track
ttra
rrack
ra
aack
ck ppa
ck
patterns
pat
att
ttern
tter
erns
er
rns ooff cr
ccrime
cri
rim
rim
mee and
and ca
ccatch
atch
tch cr
ccriminals.
cri
rimina
ri
minaals.
alls
ls.s.
Perfect pairs
At first glance, these patterns look very similar. Give
your brain time to study them, however, and you will
begin to tell them apart. In fact, each pattern has
an exact double, except for one. See if you can
find the unique pattern among the seven pairs.
Spot the sequence
These flowers (left) may look
randomly arranged, but in fact
they have been laid out in a
particular sequence. See if you
can figure out the pattern. Which
three colored flowers should
finish off the sequence?
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
82
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Bodily intelligence
The ability to effectively use your body is not
normally associated with intelligence, but it does
involve intellectual skills. You need certain mental
abilites to coordinate the movements that are
essential to sports and other physical activities.
Interpersonal intelligence
This covers the sympathetic understanding that
is vital if you are to relate to the motivations and
desires of other people. It enables you to give
good advice to friends who may have problems
but also allows you to work effectively with others.
1R1R
*RRGE\H"
This type of intelligence involves a sensitivity to
written and spoken language. It may enable people
to easily learn languages, but it also includes the
ability to use language to express yourself and
communicate complex information.
This is a form of intelligence that gives a person the
ability to appreciate, perform, and compose musical
patterns. It involves recognizing and working with
musical pitches, tones, and rhythms and is similar
to linguistic intelligence.
<HV\HV
+HOOR
Linguistic intelligence
Musical intelligence
Anyone
yone with the ability to navigate accurately and
visualize things in three dimensions is using their
spatial intelligence. It also covers the skills involved
in sports like tennis and many forms of art, such
as architecture and sculpture.
Sp
patial intelligence
This is when someone has the ability to logically
analyze problems, detect patterns, and carry out
mathematical calculations. It covers both scientific
and mathematical thinking, so it may also apply
to people who rarely use mathematics.
Mathematical
h
ti l i
intelligence
t lli
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
One aspect of intelligence is the ability to
understand yourself and appreciate your own
feelings, fears, and motives. It could be described
as knowing how you “tick” and being able to use
that information to regulate your life.
Intrapersonal intelligence
W usually rate people’s intelligence
We
by their ability to explain or use
b
ccomplex ideas. Intelligence can
also be described as the ability to
a
experience, learn, think, and adapt
e
tto the world. According to psychologist
Howard Gardner, you can be intelligent
H
in eight ways, combining different
degrees of each. However, this idea
d
of “multiple intelligences” is only one
o
of many theories about intelligence.
o
A of us have different abilities, and multiple intelligences
All
iss just one way of describing them. Most people combine
many skills in varying degrees, while some perform very
m
well in only a few. Looking at the intelligence types above,
w
how would you describe yourself?
h
What about you?
W
This type of intelligence enables you to recognize,
understand, and use various features of your
environment. It covers your ability to make sense
of the natural world, but it may also affect how
you respond to any environment.
Naturalist intelligence
Various tests have been devised to measure
intelligence. The results are given a
numerical value called an intelligence
quotient, or IQ. IQ tests usually involve
general knowledge, arithmetic,
reasoning, memory, puzzle solving,
decoding, and analyzing shapes. But
they do not rate things like interpersonal
skills and may not be fair to people from
different cultural backgrounds.
Intelligence quotient
psychologist H
oward Gardne
began to ques
r
tion the notion
of a single type
of intelligence
in the 1970s, an
d he published
his theory of m
ultiple intellige
nces in 1983.
Although his th
eory has been
hotly debated,
it has helped un
dermine the cr
ude idea
that intelligenc
e can be accura
tely
measured by IQ
tests.
Howard Ga
rdner
American
TYPES
INTELLIGENCE
83
George
Washington
Carv
Carver
arver
rvver did not know the yea
rve
year
ear or date of his birt
birth,
rth,
rt
so hee neve
never
ver
er knew wh
which day w
was
as his birt
birthday.
birthd
rthday.
rt
Carver
during his
house like this
.
have lived in a
like to be poor
Carver would knew exactly what it was
He
.
od
early childho
Determined student
Carver was named after his slave owner, Moses
Carver, who raised the orphan as his own child
after abolition. Eventually, George got a place
in school and later went to college. At first
he studied art and music, but in 1891, he
transferred to Iowa State Agricultural College,
where he was the first black student.
An African American born in the South before the
abolition of slavery, George Washington Carver fought
racism to become a respected scientist, educator, and
inventor. His main interest was agriculture, especially
promoting crops that poor farmers could grow for food
and other purposes. In the process he improved the
lives of people often too poor to help themselves. His
achievements helped undermine racial prejudice and
blazed a trail for other African Americans to follow.
Carv
Carver
rvver once said, “ Wh
rve
When yyou can
do the common things of life
fe in an
uncommon way,
way, you will command
the att
attention
ttention of the wo
tt
worl
world.
rld.”
nd
Peanuts a
s
potatoe
improve
In the early 19
the few places 00s, Carver’s laboratory
at Tu
where black Am
ericans couldskegee was one of
learn plant sc
ience.
College teacher
In 1896, Carver was invited to lead the agriculture
department at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama—
a college founded for the education of ex-slaves.
He stayed at Tuskegee for 47 years, teaching the
students farming techniques and ways of becoming
self-sufficient. The head of the institute called
Carver “one of the most thoroughly scientific
men with whom I am acquainted.”
to
Carver wanted
farmers whose
or
po
of
es
the liv
usted by the
land was exha
ting of cotton—
an
relentless pl
crop of the
the main cash
ts
sed his studen
region. He advi
r
he
tton with ot
to alternate co
eet
peanuts and sw
as
crops such
ith
w
up
e
m
so ca
potatoes. He al
ese crops,
th
r
fo
es
us
many
ints, plastics,
pa
,
including dyes
plosives. He
oil, and even ex
ld enable his
hoped this wou
ake their own
students to m
em.
he
d of buying th
ea
products inst
84
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Everyone
eryone thinks,
thin but some people think in a less
disciplined
d way than others.
others They say things
ngs
gs
that don’t add up. Someone might say that she
hates all animals but then sa
ay that she really
likes her neighbor’s cat. The two statements
contradict each other, so you don’t know
which one to take seriously. Pe
eople who
talk like this are often said to be
lacking in logic—they
logic they can’t
can t
analyze what they say and see
the flaws in it. Logic is all
about thinking clearly.
ing
reason
r
Flawed that all fish live in wate n
a
If you say
fish, you c
harks are
water.
in
ve
and tthat s
li
s
at shark
conclude th that penguins can
ay
s
u
But if yo
uins are
since peng
,
d
n
a
i
swim
im, this is
w
s
ds can
ir
b
ll
a
,
s
d
bir
asoning is
ng. The re
clearly wro
ncluding
ause the co
rogression
flawed bec
a logical p
’t
n
is
t
n
e
statem
rst one.
frrom the fi
Use your head
Logic involves using sound reasoning to
draw the right conclusions from known
facts. If you cannot fault the reasoning,
it is likely that the conclusions are
correct. Checking the reasoning is an
important part of logical thinking.
But perfectly good reasoning is
no use if the basic facts are wrong,
so you have to check those as well.
THE
DESTROYS CAUSE
THAT
BACTERIA
ECAY
TOOTH D
Testing the argument
T
The ability to test the argument is important when you can’t test
th
he conclusion. Bacteria are well known to cause tooth decay,
so it is logical to argue that a toothpaste that destroys bacteria
will help prevent tooth decay. You have to trust the logic,
w
because you have no way of testing the effect on your teeth.
86
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Persuasive logic
Many people use logic to persuade
others. If someone says something
that you don’t believe but then backs
it up with a solid logical argument,
you might start to believe it. But if
there is no logical argument to back it
up, you will not be persuaded. This
makes logic very important for lawyers
and politicians such as Hillary Clinton.
Logic and philosophy
Computer logic
The intellectual discipline of philosophy, first practiced by the
ancient Greeks, is mostly about logic, because it uses reasoned
argument to investigate concepts such as truth, beauty, and
justice. To many people, these exercises are intellectual games,
as we believe we know the answers through common sense.
But common sense can be misleading if it is based on false
ideas. The rigorous, logical argument encouraged by the
study of philosophy has real practical value.
Logic is vital to computing. All
computers are controlled by long
strings of electronic instructions
called programs. These are
devised by programmers who
have to convert their ideas into
a code that a comp
puter can read.
If the coded in
nstructions are not
logical, the program will not work.
Makes you
ur
teeth shine,
, and
shiny teeth are
healthy teeth
Checking the facts
Very often people come up with conclusions that are based on ideas
that are wrong. If making teeth shiny really did make them healthy,
the argument in this advertisement would be fine. But simply
brushing your teeth does not prevent tooth decay, so the facts
are wrong. It’s important to check the facts as well as the logic.
87
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Free association
When you think logically,
you retrieve information
from your memory and
use it to solve problems.
But sometimes your
mind wanders and
makes associations
without conscious
direction. This tends
to happen when you
are very relaxed.
Phob
Ph
obia
ias
s
Many peo
Many
eopl
ple
e ar
are
e te
terr
rrifi
ified
ed o
of
spid
sp
der
ers.
s Thi
hiss ty
type
pe of fe
fear
ar iss
call
ca
lled
ed a pho
hobi
b a. T
The
here
re are man
anyy
diff
di
ffer
eren
ent ty
type
pess of pho
hobi
bias
as. So
Some
me
are
ar
e un
unde
ders
rsta
tand
ndab
able
le,, li
l ke the
fear
fe
a of he
h ig
ight
hts—
s—af
afte
terr al
all, ffal
alliing
f om a hei
fr
eigh
ghtt ca
can
n ki
kill
ll you
ou. Bu
Butt
othe
ot
herss, su
uch ass th
he fe
fear
ar of fis
fish,
h,
are
ar
e illlo
log
gica
al, irr
rrat
atio
ona
nal,, and
diffi
di
fficu
cultt to ex
expl
plai
ain.
n.
Orn
rnith
thoph
ophobi
ob a is
the fear
fear of bir
birds,
ds an
and
d
someti
som
etimes
mes ev
even
en
justt the
jus
the fea
feathe
hers.
rs
Ichthyoph
Ichthy
ophobi
obia
a is the fe
fear
a
off fish
fish,, whic
which is one
one of the
he
rar
a er
e pho
phobia
bias.
s
Instinct
We all have natural instincts
that make sure we get things
like food, water, and air.
Instincts also include
some emotions such
as the fear of fierce dogs.
These instincts are the type
of thinking that is shared
by animals, but they are
not governed by logic. This
does not mean that instincts
do not make sense—they are
essential to our survival.
Faith
All religions are based on
faith, which involves believing in
something that cannot be proved.
There is no logical reason to
believe in a god, but a lot of
people do—even if they do not
practice any religious rituals—
including many scientists who
normally rely on logical thinking.
88
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Arachnoph
Arachn
ophobi
ob a is the
the fear
fear
o spi
of
spider
derss and
a d iss one of
o the
the
mostt comm
mos
common
n pho
phobia
bias.
s
Musophobia
Musoph
a is the
word
wor
d used
use to descr
describe
the
h fear
fe r off mic
mice.
e
Aviatopho
Aviato
hobia
bia
iss the fe
fear
ar of flyi
flying
ng
and
nd is a ver
veryy
common
com
mon phobi
phobia.
We all like to imagine that
we think logically, but this is
often far from the truth. Ideas
jump into our heads for no
obvious reason, and many
people suffer from phobias
or even serious delusions.
A lot of us are superstitious,
and all religions are based on
faith rather than actual logic.
Luck
Many people believe in good
and bad luck. Some buy lottery
tickets because they think they
might get lucky and win a big
prize. Others will avoid flying
in case they suffer “bad luck”
and the plane crashes. In
reality, the chances of both
are very small, but people
ignore the facts and act in line
with their illogical thoughts..
Demophobi
Demoph
obia is the
the
fear of b
fea
bein
eing
g trap
trapped
ed
in a crow
c owd
d of
o peop
eople.
le
Technopho
Techno
phobia
bia iss
the
he fe
fear
ar of
o tec
techno
hnolog
logy
such
suc
h as ccell
el phone
ph nes
an compu
and
comp ter
ters.
s
Superstition
Many people are superstitious. They avoid walking under
ladders, worry about what may happen on Friday the 13th,
or believe in ghosts. Most of us try to avoid saying things like
“I’ve never been in a car accident” because we feel that we
are increasing the risk just by saying it, or “tempting fate.”
There is no logic in this way of thinking.
89
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
Clear, logical thinking is the key to solving
these baffling brainteasers. They have been
designed to confuse, confound, and mislead,
so you’ll have to concentrate hard and use
sound reasoning to arrive at your answers.
T
Turn
to page 187 to see if you are right.
i h
The frustrat
a ed farmer
A farmer is trying to use a small boat to row
a fox, a chicken, and a bag of corn across a river.
However, he can take only one thing at a time
in the boat. If he leaves the fox with the chicken,
the fox will eat the chicken. If he leaves the
chicken with the corn, the chicken will eat
the corn. How can the farmer get across the
river without anything eating anything else?
Carnival m
money
oney
Three boys arrive at a carnival on Sunday
morning. The man in the ticket booth tells them
that the entrance fee is $10 each—so the boys pay
$30 and enter the carnival. However, the man in
the ticket booth realizes that tickets cost less on
Sundays, so the boys should have paid only $25.
The man asks his assistant to go find the boys and
give them $5 back. The assistant can’t figure out
how to split $5 between three people, so he keeps
$2 for himself and gives the boys $1 each. This
means that the boys have now paid $9 each for
their tickets—a total of $27—and the assistant
has kept $2, making $29 . . . What happened to
the other $1?
It might help if you make paper
cutouts of the characters to help
you visualize the solution.
Find the treat
Janet wants a cookie,
but first she needs to
find the cookie jar in the
cupboard. None of the
e jars
has labels, only numb
bers.
She gets only one gue
ess.
If she’s wrong, she’ll end up
with something much
h less
tasty than a cookie. To
o help
her choose, she is given the
following clues:
90
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
1
2
4
5
Two at a time
A group of four men—made up of two brothe
ers
plus their father and grandffather—is walkiing
to a train station in the darrk and come to an old
narrow bridge that leadss to the station. The
bridge can support onlyy two people at a time, and
they have only one flasshlight between
n them, so
after one pair has cro
rossed, one of th
he men needs
to bring the flashlig
ght back for the
e next pair. The
four men take diffferent times to cross the bridge.
The right door
A prisoner is given a chance to win his
freedom: In his cell are two doors—behind one
is a hungry lion and behind the other is the exit
to the prison. In front of each door stands a
guard—one guard always speaks the truth, the
other only lies. The prisoner is allowed to ask
one of the guards only one question. So what
question should he ask to
o gain his freedom?
ǩ%URWKHUWDNH
NHVRQHPLQXWH
ǩ%URWKHUWD
DNHVWZRPLQXWH
HV
ǩ7KHIDWKHUUWDNHVȌYHPLQXW
W
XWHV
ǩ7KHJUDQG
GIDWKHUUWDNH
HVWHQPLQXWHV
Each paiir can walk across the bridge only as fast
as the slowest ma
an, and the next train arrives at
WKHVWWDWLRQLQP
PLQXWHV+RZFDQDOOWWKHPHQ
crosss the bridge to
o the station on time??
Who passed the package?
Rob has just won a game of pass the package.
It started with nine children sitting in a circle. A
package was given to the first player, who then
passed it to the left to player number two and they
continued in this way until the package reached
the seventh player. This person then unwrapped a
layer of paper and was eliminated from the game.
The person to their left then became player
number one and the game continued until there
was only one person left to claim the prize. If
Rob won the game, who started it?
Susan
3
6
ǩ7KHOH
HQWLOVDUHQRWRQWKH
bottom row and not in the middle.
ǩ7KHEHDQVDUHQRWRQWKHWRS
row and
d are not next to the rice,
which iss directly under the flour.
ǩ7KHSHSSHULVQRWRQWKH
right-ha
and side and has a
numberr that is two more than
the flour and four more than
the lenttils.
Which jar should she choose?
W
Joe
Mary
Peter
Kevin
Gary
Annie
Stacey
Rob
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
91
BRAIN GAMES
Many number puzzles rely on logical
thinking rather than math skills.
Sudoku and Kakuro, for example, are
puzzles you solve by filling in blank
squares with the right numbers
according to certain logical rules.
Tips and tricks
6
8
2
3
4
5
2
Sudoku
4
The classic Sudoku puzzle consists
of a 9 x 9 grid of squares divided into
nine boxes of nine squares. Every
vertical column, horizontal row, and box
must contain the numbers 1 through 9.
Some squares already contain numbers,
and your job is to figure out which
numbers go in the empty squares.
Start with this puzzle and pick up
some tips and tricks before moving
on to try a few more on your own.
1
3
9
5
6
3
1
8
3
4
7
2
2
4
9
5
9
8
5
6
4
6
4
5
6
6
1
2
5
7
6
7
Middle row
4
8
3
1
5
Starter Sudoku
1
6
5
8
9
8
9
7
5
6
4
8
5
1
4
5
2
4
6
1
8
4
5
5
6
9
9
7
1
7
8
7
2
4
2
3
6
4
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
9
9
8
2
1
5
7
1
8
4
6
3
9
5
7
Neve
Never
ver
er gues
guess
ess which
es
wh number
er goes
es in a
square.
square
ree. If ther
there
erre are
ere
re a number
er of
possibilities,
possibilities
ess, write
es,
wri tthem
wr
hem
em small in pen
pencil
encil
in the co
corn
corner
rner
er of the square
squares
res
es and erase
era
er
rase
them
em as you el
eliminate them.
them
em.
3
5
6
2
1
3
4
3
Another trick is to look for
sets of three numbers, known
as “triplets.” Look at the middle
column of three boxes, shaded
gray. The top two already
contain 1. This means that
1 must go in the right-hand
column of the bottom box.
Check the rows and you’ll
realize there’s only one place
the other 1 can go.
Slightly harder
7
2
1
6
1
9
1
8
3
8
7
2
3
3
A good place to look first is
the row or column with the most
numbers. Here, the middle row
is missing only 2 and 8. If you
check the rest of the numbers in
the vertical columns that the
middle row’s blank squares sit
in, you should be able to figure
out which numbers go where.
1
6
8
3
5
king involvves numberrs.
al form of think
The mosst logica
When you do simple calculattions, you don’tt make
e outt the answers byy applying
guesses. You figure
ost people worldwide
logiical rules to the figures. Mo
nd most have
ave devised some way of counting, an
ha
eloped ways of reasoning with numbers.
deve
ms
g syste
Countin ne Age farmer counting
u are a Sto
ngers of
fi
i e yo
Imagin
n using the
count to te
put a stone
u
o
yo
,
n
te
sheep. You
t
to
t
e
g
u
yo
When
ach eight,
in. If you re
both hands.
a
g
a
rt
a
st
and
ers: 18. This
in your lap
d eight fing
n
a
e
s.
n
o
st
e
ased on ten
you have on
systtem is b
g
n
ti
n
u
co
r
is why ou
Calcu
lations
You want to
b ild a wall
bu
from br
It will be
b iicks.
b 200 bricks
long and 12
high, bu
2b
brickss
ut how man
y bricks will
need? It’s ea
l yo
y u
sy—yyo
ou ju
ust multiply
12 by tw
wo, giviing 24
, then add t
zeroes, givi
wo
ng 2,400 bri
cks.
s Most
calc
l ulations u
se tricks like
this: they
e arre
e the ba
asis off
mathemattic
al th
hinking.
Geometry
Mathematics can describe shapes such
as triangles and pyramids in terms of
angles and dimensions. This can be used
d
to measure thingss like the heights of
mountains. If you know your horizontal
m
dista
stance (D) to a mountaintop and
you ha
have
h
v some way of measuring
the ang
gle as you look up at it, you
can figu
ure ou
out how high (H) it is.
is
,
(
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
Puzzling pyramid
120
Fill in the gaps so that each box
in the second row up contains
a figure that is the sum of the
figures in the two boxes below.
?
?
44
14
?
?
50
?
?
?
?
?
3
TH1NK OF A
NUM8ER
Only one chance
Replace each of the question marks with the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 to make this problem
work. You can use each number only once.
?? x ? = ???
?
To find the solutions to
these puzzles, you’ll need
to use math—and a fair
bit of logical thinking.
Some of the puzzles are
straightforward and
should be easy to solve,
while others are more
difficult and will require
more thought. There are
also a couple of trick
questions to keep you on
your toes. You’ll find the
answers on page 188.
Flower power
In each flower, the four
black numbers can be
added and multiplied
in the same way to
make the white number
in the center. See if
you can figure out
how you do it. What
number should appear
in the center of the
third flower?
6
4
2
30
5
6
10 50
9
96
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
5
2
7
?
8
6
Pieces of eight
Write down eight number 8s, like this: 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8.
Now insert four addition signs between the eights in
such a way as to make a sum that equals 1,000.
88888888
Pass or fail?
To pass a test, Susan must correctly
answer 15 out of 20 questions. For each
correct answer, she is awarded ten points,
but for each incorrect answer, she is
deducted five points. She completes the
test, answering all 20 questions and
receiving a score of 125. Did she pass?
Dazzling stars
x
Each colored star represents a different
number from 1 to 4. Figure out which star
is which number to make this addition
problem work.
+
The weighing game
A pineapple weighs more than an orange, which weighs
more than an apple, which weighs more than a banana,
which weighs more than a strawberry. Study the balanced
scales above, then try to work out how many strawberries
are needed to balance one pineapple and three bananas?
How many strawberries do a pineapple, an orange, an
apple, and a banana each weigh?
Multiple fractions
What is ½ of ¹⁄⁄³ of ¼ of ¹⁄⁄5 of 600?
/ /3 1/4
1 2 1
1
/5
97
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
THE MAGIC OF
MATH
A lot of math involves figuring out
patterns and relationships between
different numbers. Try out these
clever mind-bending math tricks on
your friends and family and find out
how math can be much more fun
than you think.
D m n divining
Domino
i i i g
Use basic
U
s subtraction
b a o sskills to
o discover
i o r the
ttotal on
n a domino
d m o hidden
i e in your
o friend’s
e
h
hand.
d
Step
S
e 1
G yyourr friend
Give
e a set
e of dominoes
m
a
and a
ask h
him or h
her to
cchoose
o o
one w
without letting you
y know
k w what
h itt is.
Step
S
e 2
The ans
wer is
“9”
Thiss is an
easy trrick
to
s
with, beca
use you arre tart offf
le
e
do all th
ttin
ng matth
he work fo
or you. As
friend to e
k
xactl
t y f llow tth your
of th
e ste
he trrick an fo
e
d th
he answer ps
will alw
ways be th
e same: 9.
Step 1
Before
r yo
ou sttart tth
e ttrick, wrri
a piece
c of pape
te tthe num
r, fold
ber 9 on
d it, and h
but te
ell him or
a
nd it to yo
her not to
o
u
r frriend,
o look at it
.
A him
Ask
h or h
her to p
pick
c one o
of the
e numbers
u e o
on the
h domino
o n
and to
a
t do
o the
e following p
problemss with it—it’s
’ okay
k to use
s
a calculator:
l la
ǩ0XOWLSO\E\
ǩ
0XOWLSO\
X O E\\ ǩ G
ǩ$GG
ǩ X O \
ǩ0XOWLSO\E\
ǩ$GGWKHRWKHUQXPEHU
ǩ
$GG
G WKH WK
K Q PE
sshown
w on
n the
e domino
o
Step
St
S
e 3
A him
Ask
h or her
h to
o tell
l you the
answer.
a
w IIf you then ssubtract
r
14 from
1
o tthis,, you
u will be left
with a two-digit
w
w
number,
n m r,
which will
w
i correspond
o s n to
o
the vveryy same
m numbers
u b
on your
o
o ffriend’s
n d
domino.
m .
Step 2
Hand your
frriiend a ca
alcullator a
to
o do the fo
nd ask him
lllo
owin
ng:
m or her
ǩ7\S
SHLQKLVR
U
K
H
U
D
J
H
ǩ$GGWKHQ
XPEHURIIWK
HLLUKRXVH
ǩ$GGWKHO
DVWIRXUGLLJ
LWVRIWKHLUU
ǩ$
$GGWKHQX
SKRQHQ
PEHURIISH
QXPEHU
WVV
ǩ$GGWKHQ
XPEHURIIE WKH\KDYH
UR
ǩ0XOOWLSO\E
WWKHUVDQGV
E\\
LVWH
HUVWKH\K
ǩ$
DYH
GGWKHG
LJ
JLWVR
R
I
WK
K
HDQVZHUWR
answer iss
RJHWK
more tthan
KHU,,I
one dig
to
o add th
giit, ask him WKH
hose digitts
or her
to
ogeth
th
her, and to
hem togeth
keep addin
er untiill tth
ere is onlyy
g
digiit lefft.
St
ep 3
Show your
ffrriie
iend the p
iecce of pap
with th
t e answe
er
r written o
n itt.
98
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
22222
22222
ow
in a ro
All i
A
also a
t a
eat ttricck, it’s
Thiss is not jusst a gre
T
i attion
ur multtiplic
praccticiing you
of p
way o
dw
od
oo
go
g
is
9
r
e
numbe
he n
n, th
again
Oncce a
l .O
sskills
c
ic.
a
ag
m
g wiith tthe
p ng
helpi
h
=
4
or, a pen, and a
ulato
d a ccalcu
r nd
ur frie
d you
H nd
Ha
n
d wn
o wrrite do
er to
o he
h or
A k him
er. As
p pe
e of pa
piece
p
.
9
79
56
2345
digitss: 12
ght d
e eig
h se
the
ep 2
Ste
S
.
7
ep 1
S e
St
1
%
8
5
2
AC
e digiits.
ne off the
e on
se
hoo
o ch
her to
him or h
Ask h
A
22
C
9
6
3
0
Math
th gen
genius
enius Ka
Karl
rl Gauss
(1777–1855) once added
edd th
the
numbers
number
errs
ers
rs fr
from
fro
rom 1 to 100 in seconds.
sec
eco
conds
ds.s.
He saw th
that if you add th
the fir
first
firs
rs and
rst
last
las
ast number
numbers
errs
ers
rs (1 + 100), you get
et 101.
Adding
ng th
the sec
second
eco
cond and sec
second-to-last
eco
cond-to
to-las
to
ast
numbers
number
errs
ers
rs (2 + 99) als
also
lso give
gives
ves
es you 101,
and so on. So all yyou need
nee
eed
edd to do is
is
101 x 50, wh
whichh is 5,050.
÷
×
-
+
ep 3
Ste
S
ust
u mu
n cchoosses, you
y r friend
ne you
er on
c eve
W ich
Wh
e
mple,
exam
for
,
So
.
ad
e
he
r
u
you
n
i ly it byy 9 in
m ltip
kly mu
quick
q
2,
2
ks
c
pic
e
he orr sh
9; if h
pickss 1, 1 x 9 = 9
s ep
iff he or sh
o on.
nd so
7, an
x 9 = 27
3
3,
ks
i
pic
e
h
sh
or
o
8; if he
2 x 9 = 18
ep 4
Ste
S
pllyy
ultip
mu
om
or to
ulato
use tthe ccalcu
i nd to u
ur frie
k you
N w ask
No
t
u
jus
v
ve
ha
u
you
r
mber
e by tthe num
gure
git fig
t dig
eighth e
the
e
3, the
ep 3
n Ste
d 1 in
ke
c
pic
n
nd
r
frie
r
o
you
If
t.
t
ou
k do
worke
w
2,
d2
ke
k
pic
e
sh
or
e
he
if
1;
1
111,11
be 111,1
will b
wer w
answ
a
d
ke
k
pic
e
sh
e or
2 2; if he
222,22
22,2
be 22
will b
wer w
a sw
h an
the
.
n
on
so
s
d
n
an
33,
3,33
3,333
e 333
i l be
er wil
nswe
e an
3, the
3
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
S p r a
Super
adder
d r
Perform
P
f m this
h trick
t c well
w and
d you
o w
will
cconvince
vi c yyourr ffriends
i d th
that
h t you
u are
r th
the
h
world’s
world
w
s fastest
s s adder
adder.
d e In
n fact
fact,
a the
e only
sskilll you need
e d to master
a e iss how
o to
multiply
m
l l byy 11.
1
Step
S
e 1
H d your
Hand
our friend
r d a pencil,
p
pencil a piece
c off paper,
paper
p and
a
a calculator,
c a
and ask
k him
m or her to do
d the
h following:
w :
ǩ
ǩ:ULWHGRZQWZRQXPEHUVEHWZHHQDQG
G Q R X H E Z Q
one beneath
o
b e
the other.
e
ǩ$GGWKHWZRQXPEHUVWRJHWKHUDQGZULWHWKDW
ǩ
$GG
G WKH
H WZR
Z QXPEHUV
X H WRJHWKHU
W H U DQG
G ZULWH
U WWKDW
third new
w number
e benea
beneath
e a tthe o
otherr two.
o
ǩ G H F G
ǩ$GGWKHVHFRQGDQGWKLUGQXPEHUVWRJHWKHU
Q
V J
and write
a
w e a fourth
f t new
e number
n b below
b lo them.
h
ǩ0DNHDȌIWKQHZQXPEHUE\DGGLQJWRJHWKHUWKH
ǩ
0DNH
D D ȌIWK QHZ
H QXPEHU
E E\
E DGGLQJ
G
WRJHWKHU
K WKH
W
third and
d fourth
u
numbers
m r and
n write
w
it below
e w them.
e
ǩ H J J W V
ǩ.HHSJRLQJLQWKHVDPHIDVKLRQXQWLOWKHUHLV
V R Q W H
a column
l n off tten numbers.
mb r
9
10 11 12
13 14 15
16 17
18 19 20
Step 3
When yo
our ffriend
accepts th
add the nu
he challle
mberrs to
enge, don
ogeth
’t
her. Instea
multiplyy th
d
e seve
,
sim
mply
v nth
h number
give you th
b
y
11—th
e sum to
his will
ottal of all
morre quic
ten numb
klly th
h
e
a
rs much
n
yo
y
ur frie
with a calc
end can fi
ulato
gurre it ou
or.
t
For instan
ce, if tthe tte
n numbers
wro
ote
t down w
yo
our friend
erre 7, 12,
212, 343,
19, 31, 50
555, all
,
81, 131,
l yo
ou have to
seve
enth
t do is m
h number,
ulttiplyy the
r
131, by 11
sum total
to get 1,44
of all the n
1, th
he
umberrs. D
you can u
on’tt forge
se a pen a
t
nd paper
fo
or thiis trriic
k.
Step
S
e 2
A your
Ask
y r friend
e to
t show
h
you the list of numbers.
b s
Tell h
T
him or h
her that yyou can add the numbers
m r
together
t r quicker
c r using
i a pen
n and
n paper
a r than
he orr she
h
e can using
s
a calculator.
a l r
99
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Thinking in pictures
If you have to pack a lot of items
into the trunk of a car, you use spatial
skills to mentally rearrange them
and decide how to make them fit
best. You also use spatial skills
when imagining how something might
look, such as a different furniture
arrangement in your bedroom.
You
ur ability to think
k in three dimensionss
iss called spatia
al awareness. It enab
bles you
to visuallizze shapes and imagine wh
hat things
mig
ght look
k liike from differen
nt angles. Itt also
gives you a sen
nse
e of dirrection
n, helps you
read
d mapss, and
d is use
eful in many sports.
Map reading
A map is like an aerial view
of the ground, but with all the
features represented by symbols.
Map reading is a very good test
of spatial awareness. Here, a boy
finds his way blocked and needs to
find a new route by reading a map
and relating it to the real world.
100
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
SEEING IN
2−D
We usually think of spatial awareness in terms
of 3-D activities—playing sports, for example.
But spatial skills can also help us with 2-D
problems, such as making sense of patterns
on a page. Use these skills to figure out how
the 2-D objects in these puzzles interact with
one another. Check your answers on page 188.
You use
You
us
u e 22-D
2 D, and
nd
ssometimes
somet
ometim
etimes
i es 3-D
33--D
D, spatia
s atia
spatial
ti l
skkiills
skills
lllss wh
w e yo
when
you play
pl y
pla
computer
omputer
mput
puter
uter
e ggaames.
ames
ames
e
es.
A
Up and down
Imagine the man turning the top-right cog
g
clockwise. What will happen to the two
baskets of bricks? Will basket A move up
or down? Will basket B move up or down?
You will have to solve this problem stage
by stage, figuring out how the turning
of each cog, wheel, and pulley affects
how the next one will move.
B
102
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Ups
side-down triangle
Can yyou figure out a way to turn the
triangle on the left into the triangle
on the rright by moving only three tires?
It might h
help if you use ten equal-size
co
oins to m
make your own triangle and
mo
ove the co
oins around to find a solution.
oluti
Five into fou
ur
Here you can see five squares ma
ade
out of 16 shovels. Can you figure out
a way to move only two shovelss to
turn the five squares into four?
No shovels can be taken aw
way.
Scans
cans
ans
n have
hhavee rrev
reve
re
vvealed
eeale
ealed
ea
aled
ed that
ed
tha
h tthe
thhhee
area
are
rea
ea of
of the
th bbr
bra
raaain
in associated
in
associa
associ
sso iated
ted
e
with
with
th navi
navig
n
nav
avig
avigation,
vigatio
vig
iggation,
ation,
ation,
ion,
n the
the
hhippocampus
ippocampuss,, is
i enlarg
enlarge
enlarged
nlarg
arged
ged
edd
iin
n LLondon
ondon ttaxi
taaaxi
xi drivers
ddr
driv
dri
drivers.
rriive
vver
eerrrs
ers
rs.s.
Equal division
The workers
workers, wheelbarrows
wheelbarrows,
and piles of bricks at this
construction site look randomlyy
arranged. However, see if you can
add four lines to divide the site
into five areas, each ccontaining
ontainin
one worker, one whee
elbarrow
w,
and one pile of brickss.
103
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
Four trian
ngles
Arrange six equall-size pencils
so that they mak
ke four equilateral
triangles. If yo
ou get stuck, remember
that this is a 3
3-D puzzle.
Many of the things you do
each day depend on spatial
awareness skills—walking
along the street, or using the
phone, for example. You perform
these actions so often that they
feel natural, so you barely give
them a thought. You’ll need to
pay a bit more attention to solve
e
these 3-D problems. Turn to
page 188 to find the answerss.
View from th
the top
A
D
B
The side view above
e shows four 3-D shape
pes positioned on a boarrd
(clockwise from to
op left: a cube, a cylind
der, a pyramid, and an
icosahedron). Ca
an you figure out whicch of the six overhead vie
ews
below matchess the positions of the 3-D shapes in the side vi
view?
C
E
F
C
A
G
H
I
Dif
fferent angles
es
B
Alth
though these nine 3-D sh
hapes
alll look very different, two
o them are
identical—they’re just be
eing shown from
contrasting angles. Se
ee if you can find
the two matching sha
apes. You will need
to visualize each sh
hape at different angles.
F
D
E
104
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
INVENT
NVEN ION
O
People regularly
re
come up with new ideas that
make life easier and that may even change the
world. Turning such inventions into practi
practical
racti
technology takes hard work, but the
he original
idea is often the product of inspired
re genius.
Making connections
e this one have
, seedpods lik r, carrying the
fu
Known as burs
al
im
an
to
ng
hooks that cli m the parent plant.
seed away fro
Bright ideas
Br
ified view) mimic
Stiff Velcro hooks (red in this magn in the soft loops
catch
and
bur,
plant
a
on
s
hook
the
of a woven pad.
Inventive people are often very
observant, with a talent for linking what
o
th
hey see to other ideas. In 1948, Swiss
inve
ventor George de Mestral noticed a
lot of prickly plant seedpods clinging
to hiss clothes.
c
He discovered thatt they
were eq
quipped with microscopic
roscopic hooks
that clung
ng to the
e fabric, and he used his
discovery
ery to
t inv
invent the Velcro fastener.
Problem s
olving
Thhe Nobel
T
The
N
Nobe
obel
ob
el Prize
Priz
Pri
Pr
riz
izee was
wass es
establishe
established
establis
estab ed
establ
establi
by Swed
by
SSwedish
wed
w
edish cchemist
edish
chhemist
mist
ist Alfr
Alfred
lfred
fredd Nobel
fr
fre
Nobel,
Nobe
obel,
ob
whoo mad
who
wh
made
made hhis
hiis ffo
fortune
ort
rtune
rt
tu
unee wh
whe
w
when
hen he
he
iinvented
nvented
nve
vente
ve
vented
ente
tted
ed dynam
ed
dyn
ddyna
dynamit
y amite
ynam
mite
ite iin
it
n 11867
1867.
8667.
8867.
7
In 1993, Britis
h inventor
Trevor Baylis
was watching
a TV
show about th
e spread of AI
DS in
Africa. He real
ized thatt peop
le
were dying be
causse
e they could
not pick up
p vital inform
ation
broadcast over
the radio, sim
ply
because they
had no electr
ic
ity
.
He solved the
problem by
inventing a w
ind-up radio,
powered by a
clockwork
motor linked
to a small
electrical gene
rator.
106
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Some inventions involve luck, together
with
h the knowledge
know
to appreciate it.
In 1928, Alexander
nd Fleming had been
trying to find w
ways of fighting bacterial
infections when he noticed that
infectio
a mold growing on an unwashed
bacterial culture plate had killed the
bacteria around it—just like the white
mold on the culture plate above.
He realized he had discovered the
first antibiotic drug, penicillin.
Wernher
von Braun
wn
urtles do
tz Opel h
pelled Fri Berlin in 1928.
ro
p
te
in
A rock
racetrack
the AVUS
Liftoff
Born in 1912, von Braun developed a
passion for astronomy when he was a child.
Inspired by the rocket-powered vehicles of
Fritz von Opel and the work of rocket
pioneer Hermann Oberth, he became
obsessed by space travel and joined the
Spaceflight Society at the University of
Berlin to assist Oberth in rocket research.
Wernher von Braun was a visionary inventor: a man who
saw the future and made it happen. He was the scientist
behind the Saturn V rocket that carried men to the Moon,
and he masterminded the development of the smaller
rockets that preceded it. He also had ambitious plans
for an orbiting space station and manned flights to
Mars. But all this was based on his early experience
developing the deadly V-2 missile for Nazi Germany.
At the ag
age of 12, vo
von Bra
Braun
raun w
was
as
arrested
arr
rrres
rre
ested
ed fo
for att
attaching
ttaching ro
tt
rocket
rockets
ets
ts to a cart
rt
and set
setting
ett
tting fir
tt
fire
re to them in the
crowded
cro
cr
rowd
wded
ed str
streets
tre
reet
ets
ts of Ber
Berlin.
erl
rlin.
Relaunch
In 1945, von Braun surrendered to the
American forces, who took him to the
U.S. Eventually, he was joined by a team
of 127 technicians who had worked on
the V-2 rocket program. Their task was
to develop the V-2 into a nuclear missile.
However, in 1958, one of von Braun’s
rockets was used to launch the first
U.S. satellite, Explorer 1. This marked
the beginning of the space race
between Russia and the U.S. that
was to lead to the Moon landings.
A captured V-2 rocket is launched
British scientists in October 1945 by
, soon
after the war ended.
Wrong target
In the late 1930s, the German Nazi authorities
persuaded von Braun to develop the V-2 rocket as
a weapon. Yet von Braun always said that he was
really only interested in space travel. On hearing
the news that the first operational V-2 had hit
London, England, he said, “The rocket worked
perfectly except for landing on the wrong planet.”
An asto
astonishing
tonishing to
total of 3,225 VV-2s wer
were
ere
re
launched
aunched
ed ag
against Allied
ed targ
targets
rget
ets
ts to
tow
toward
ward
rd the
end of Wo
Worl
World
rld Wa
War II—up to ten per
er day.
108
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Rocket science
While he was working on the first American
rockets, von Braun came up with some
ambitious plans for space exploration.
He devised a huge manned orbiting space
station and figured out ways of mounting
expeditions to the Moon and even Mars.
He later worked as an adviser to Walt
Disney, who was making TV shows
about space travel.
Lunar
g
landin was the colossal
s
s
e
c
c
u
s
the
ig
d
’s b
that carrie
Von Braun
rbooster”
e
uch
p
u
M
.
“s
s
V
0
6
Saturn
late 19
e
th
f
o
d the
s
n
h
sio
cket, it a
Moon mis
revious ro
p
orbit
y
h
n
a
rt
a
n
E
a
load into
bigger th
vy
a
e
h
a
ecame
arry
power to c
’s dream b
n
u
ra
B
ed
n
o
d. V
ket launch
and beyon
en his roc
h
w
9
d
6
n
9
la
1
to
a reality in
er mission
n its pione
ere were
th
r
e
th
e
Apollo 11 o
on. Altog
o
M
e
Saturn V.
e
th
th
n
men o
ll using
a
—
s
g
in
d
n
six Moon la
Grounded
Eventually it became clear that von Braun’s
Saturn rocket was going to be replaced by
the space shuttle, which is not suitable for
missions beyond Earth orbit. Von Braun’s
hopes for more expeditions to the Moon and
planets were shattered, and in 1972, he stopped
working for the American space program. Soon
after this he became ill, dying in 1977. Yet he
had achieved his main ambition of sending
astronauts into space—and to the Moon.
109
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Hi
Okay?
Coming?
Let’s go
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Hello
Great
Yes
Okay
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
113
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
cat
more
bag
Babies are very sensitive to words and
speech patterns, and by two years old
they know around 300 words. They start
linking them together until, at the age
of four, most children can say simple
sentences. By age five or six they can
put together more complex sentences.
Words and sentences
Born key figur e). He is an instin to
g
e
of th of langua ren have learn how h
ld
y
i
d
h
nd
u
c
houg
t
s
that erstand a —even t rent
y
r
o
fe
nd
the
ther
in dif
are
y to u
toge
abilit ntences ges work se skills
e
a
e
h
s
u
put
lang es that t ature.
v
rent
diffe He belie t of our n
r
.
ways erited pa
h
n
i
an
one
skyhomsky is he
m
o
h
(t
C
m C
oam
istics
r his
Noa in 1928, N es in lingu famous fo ctive
I want some
chocolate!
If I am very good and eat
my cabbage, can I have
some ice cream?
Learning another language is easy when we are
very young, because at this age our brains respond
to every new stimulus. Some children even pick up two
languages at once. But it becomes harder with age, and
many adults find it is almost impossible (unless they live
for a while in a country where the language is spoken).
Some people do better than others, possibly because
the language-processing areas of their brains are bigger.
Second language
Pretty Polly!
You can teach a parrot to
speak, but you can’t teach it
to have a real conversation.
The parrot just learns to
repeat the sounds, and
may understand when to
say particular phrases, but
it cannot put together its
own sentences. This skill is
uniquely human.
Parrot fashion
Our complex language is one of the features that makes humans
different from other animals. A parrot may be able to talk, but it
cannot use language to explain what it is thinking. Speaking is
not just about making the right sounds—it is about using sounds
to communicate. We learn this when we are very young, but we
keep adding to our verbal skills throughout our lives.
SPEAK
LEARNING TO
BRAIN GAMES
HAVING A
WORD
When you talk or write, your brain searches
through your vocabulary to pick out the words
you need to express yourself. The following
games test your understanding of the
relationships between words and also show
how easily your brain can become confused
when you read words in a strange context.
Check your answers on page 189.
Quick comparisons
Figuring out the relationships between
words is the first step to correctly using
them. Choose the right word to complete
the sentences below.
Odd ones out
In each of the following lists of words,
three of the five are related in some way.
See if you can guess which two are the
odd ones out and why.
1. Sail, cone, mast, cat, deck
ǩ%LUGLVWREHDNDVKXPDQLVWR
eye, mouth, hair, fur, crow
2. Stapler, pencil, ruler, pen, crayon
ǩ(\HVDUHWRVLJKWDVQRVHLVWR
smell, aroma, taste, touch, hearing
3. Moon, Earth, Mars, Sun, Neptune
ǩ,QLVWRRXWDVRIILVWR
up, back, on, below, above
4. Dolphin, sparrow, robin, crow, sea horse
ǩ3HQLVWRLQNDVEUXVKLVWR
pencil, color, paper, paint, brush stroke
5. Tree, run, flower, sky, laugh
ǩ7ULF\FOHLVWRWKUHHDVELF\FOHLVWR
two, four, unicycle, five, one
Blue
Green
Orange
White
Pink
Red
Orange
Blue
Green
Orange
White
Pink
Green
Red
Red
Mixed messages
The circumstances in which you see
words influence the way you read.
Step 1
Time yourself as you read out the color of
the writing, not the word itself. Look at the
15 words in the top panel.
Step 2
Blue
Green
Orange
White
Pink
Red
Orange
Blue
Green
Orange
White
Pink
Green
Red
Red
114
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Next, time yourself as you try to do the
same with the panel below.
It is very difficult to equal or beat your
time from Step 1. For people who are
proficient at reading, it is difficult not to
automatically read the word. If the color of
the word and the word
rd itself are not the
same, we say the word much quicker
ame the color.
than we can na
Colored creatures
Time yourself
y
as you
y sayy out loud the color
and the animal pictured behind the word for
the group of animals on the left
left. For example
example,
the first one is a blue rabbit. Then do the
same for the group of animals on the right
and compare the two times
times.
Sheep
As in the mixed-messages
g s
game, it is harder to ignore the
e
word. We have to stop the
automatic reading response
in order to perform the task
task,
and this slows us down.
Horse
Sheep
Rabbit
Goat
Cat
Pig
Tiger
Dog
Tiger
Cat
Elephant
Horse
Goat
Bird
Bird
Pig
Elephant
Rabbit
Dog
Like and unlike
This game tests your knowledge of how words
relate to one another. In the top
p game,
g
, pick
p two
words from each line—one from the left side and
one from the right—that
g
are closest in meaning.
g
Now do the same for the game below, but this
time pick
p the two words that are opposites.
pp
Like
nice, hungry, work
tired, cut, include
scary, trash, party
friend, banana, sillyy
starving, cat, strong
apple,
pp sleepy,
py worse
top, fish, spooky
catch, grow,
g
foolish
Unlike
hide, distant, praise
sharp,
p, chew,, edge
g
twist, rational, puzzle
crawl, leave
crawl
leave, start
scorn, blink, listen
bite,, center,, strange
g
untidy, illogical, test
return, walk
return
walk, travel
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
USING
ANGUAGE
We had a terrific
time skiing in the
Alps last year.
Can I have
two tickets
for the movie,
please? Can
we sit where
we want?
We went in March. I think
that’s the best time to
go because there was
a lot of snow.
When did you
go there?
We will do
the same.
The children
will love it!
Do you think
hink he will
ever forgive me?
Maybe you should
explain to him why
you did that and
see what he says.
What is he
doing?
Lang
La
ngua
ng
u ge and lea
ua
earn
rn
r
nin
ing
g
Soci
So
ci
ial
l ins
nsti
tinc
ti
ncts
nc
cts
Conv
Co
nver
nv
ersa
er
sati
sa
tion
ti
on
n
If we di
d dn’t
dn’t hav
dn
ave
e lang
la
ang
ngua
u ge
ua
ge, we
e wou
ould
ld
d
ha
ave to le
ear
arn
n ev
ever
e yt
er
ythi
hing
hi
ng by im
mit
itat
atio
at
io
on.
This
This
Th
i mig
ight
ht wor
ht
ork
k fo
forr some
so
ome
m ski
kill
lllls,
s, b
but
ut
m stt of th
mo
he co
omp
mple
lexx th
le
thin
in
ngss ttha
h t we
ha
e
le
ear
arn
n mu
m st
s be de
desc
scri
sc
ribe
ri
be
ed. The
he chi
hild
ld
d
ab
bove
ove do
ov
d es
esn’
n’t unde
ders
de
r ta
rs
t nd the
e pro
oce
c ss
s
o buy
of
u iin
ng ti
tick
cket
ck
e s to
et
o see the
e mov
ovie
ie
e, an
and
d
w ll not
wi
o under
e st
stan
and
nd iff it is not
ot exp
pla
l in
i ed
d
to him
m. Yo
You ne
n ed
d langu
guag
gu
ag
ge to lea
e rn
n.
We
ep
pas
asss in
i fo
f rm
rmat
atio
at
io
on ar
arou
ound
ou
nd
d by talk
ta
alk
lkin
in
ng
to one ano
noth
ther
th
her
e . Thou
Th
hou
usa
sand
nds
nd
ds of
o yea
ears
rss a
ago
go,,
go
a lo
lott of
o th
hiis in
info
fo
orm
mat
atio
ion
io
n wo
oul
u d ha
have
ve
e
help
he
lp
ped
e peopl
eo
ople
e fin
nd fo
ood
d or av
avoi
o d da
oi
ang
ger
er.
In
n mod
oder
errn ci
ern
citiie
ess, we
e spend
pe
end
n a lott morre ti
time
talk
ta
kin
ng ab
bou
out th
hin
ings
gs tha
hatt do
on’
nta
afffe
fectt our
surv
su
rvivval—l
—like th
—l
t es
ese peop
pe
e ple
e dis
iscu
c ss
s in
ng
th
hei
eir va
aca
ati
tion
ns—
s—bu
butt we sti
till
l exc
xccha
hang
nge
e
in
nfo
form
r atio
ion
n alll th
t e time
me.
me
S me tal
So
alki
k ng
ng iiss ea
e sy
s , bu
butt a se
seri
r ou
ri
ouss
conv
co
nver
nv
ersa
er
sati
sa
tion
ti
on inv
on
nvol
olve
ol
v s li
ve
l st
sten
e in
en
ing
g cca
are
refu
full
full
llyy
an
nd fig
figur
urin
ur
ng ou
outt ex
exac
actl
ac
tlly wh
hatt you
ou wan
antt
to sayy in re
r pl
ply.
y Thi
hiss iss mor
o e di
d ffi
ficult
cu
ult if
if
you
yo
u do nott kno
now
w ea
ach
h oth
ther
e vver
er
ery we
er
well
ll,
l,
beca
be
c usse th
he exxpr
pres
essi
sion
onss an
on
a d body
dy
lang
la
ngua
ng
uage
ua
ge tha
hatt he
h lp
p us co
omm
mmun
unic
icat
ic
ate
at
e
arre ha
hard
rrd
der
e to un
nde
ers
rsta
tand
d whe
h n
ta
alk
kin
i g to strran
nge
g rss.
116
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
4D3;@93?7E
Talk about it
This game is a
Coming up with
fun way to check
10–15 connected
how good your
words in the time
vocabulary is as
limit shows a good
well as testing
level of word skill.
the ability of your
brain to think
You will need:
quickly and create
ǩ7ZRSOD\HUV
ǩ6WRSZDWFK
connections
ǩ3
HQDQGSD
S SHU
S
between objects.
ts
Step 1
6WDUWWKHVWRSZDWFKDV\RXDVN\RXUIULHQG
to name as many animals as he or she can
in 30 seconds.
Step 2
For every animal named, mark a checkmark
on a piece of paper. If there are any words you
don’t know, check with an adult.
Step 3
This time get your friend to ask you how many
fruit you can name in 30 seconds. Next time,
use your own ideas for subjects.
ks
Fill in the blan
you are at
od
go
w
ho
This game tests
context. Where
understanding words in
story below?
do these words fit into the
long, so choose
Two of the words don’t be
on page 189.
wisely! Check the answers
ǩVKRFN
G
SHG
SSH
ULS
ǩ JUL
ǩJ
ǩJOLPSVH
ǩIULHQGO\
ǩKLGHRXV
ǩEORRGFXUGOLQJ
H
ULVVH
SUL
XUS
ǩVVXU
FH
KDQ
ǩF
ǩȍHZ
ǩWDOO
ǩVHFRQG
ǩFRZ
X-ray almost froze when he saw the shape.
Looking up at the ________ birdlike animal,
perched at the top of a ________ building,
X-ray knew this could be a fight to the death.
When the beast spied X-ray below, it let out
a ________ shriek and, without waiting
another ________, swooped down with
terrifying speed. It ________ X-ray in its
talons and carried him away before he had
a________ to think. After the initial ________,
X-ray turned in the animal’s grip so that he
got a brief ________ of its face, and he sent
a laser beam straight into the beast’s beady
eyes. The creature shrieked in ________ and
let go of the hero, who ________ to safety,
ready for his next challenge.
118
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Your brain has an amazing capacity to
remember words, often by linking them
with visual imagess. These games help you
practice your word
d skills to improve your
vocabulary and con
nfidence so that you
won’t ever be lost for words.
Every pi
ct
Here’s a gam ure tells a st
ory
e to test you
r storytellin
Choose five
g skills.
objects from
the grid opp
create a bri
osite to
ef story. Cho
ose your ob
either a stra
jects from
ight or a dia
gonal line. Yo
bring all five
u must
ob
proper sente jects into your story an
d use
nces. Try to
be as imagin
you can, wh
ative as
ether your s
tory is set in
world or is ju
a fa
st about a d
ay at school! ntasy
atives
:
Close rel
You will need
sy
ea
s
DQGDQ
ay
V
w
HU
ǩ7ZRSOD\
It’s not al
u
t with
yo
ou
d
lp
or
he
w
adult to
finding the
e
e
m
ga
the
need. This gam
U
at
ǩ3HQDQGSDSH
l
il
sk
r
u
HRQWRS
tests yo
RO
K
D
ǩ%R[ZLWK
s
d
or
w
p
u
thinking
ǩ6WRSZDWFK
with related
meanings.
Step
p 1
Ask an adult to write 12 words
(noun
ns and adjectives) on separate
p ces of paper. Fold each piece
piec
and put them inside the box.
St
Step
2
The first player chooses a
piece of pa
aper and reads out
the word, an
nd the second
player has to say a similar
word. If the noun is “yacht,”
y
he or she could say “ship” or if the adjective
is “cold,” he or she could suggest “ffreezing.”
Step 3
The game continues with the remaining
words until the player pauses for mo
ore
than five seconds or is unable to thin
nk
nk
of a suitable word. Ask an adult to time
the answers with the stopwatch.
Keep talking
Now it’s time to
think on your feet—
and hope those
words keep coming.
You will need:
ǩ7ZRSOD\HUV
ǩ4XL]PDVWHU
ǩ6WRSZDWFK
Step 1
The two players take
turns to talk on a topic
for 30 seconds, without
repeating words or
pausing for too long.
The topics are decided
by the quizmaster, who
also keeps time.
Step 2
Step 3
At the word “go,” player 1
starts to talk. Challenges
can be made at any point
if player 2 feels a rule
has been broken—the
quizmaster’s decision is
final. If the challenger is
correct, he or she continues
the talk. The player who is
speaking when the time
is up wins the point.
Next it is the turn
of player 2 to start to
speak on a new subject.
After three turns each,
you could increase the
time to a minute for
each speech.
119
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Words as art
Some forms of writing are so
beautiful that they are treated
as an art form. In the past, many
people in the West learned graceful
forms of handwriting—an art known
as calligraphy that is still enjoyed by
some today. In Chinese, every new
word requires a different character,
and this gives calligraphy a practical
function because the writer can invent
an entirely new character to express
a particular idea. Such characters
are works of art in their own right.
Picture
s
and wor
Comic books
ds
have always
been
popular wit
h children,
and many
adults read
graphic nov
els that are
based on th
e same idea
. These
do have wor
ds, but mos
t of the
meaning is
in the pictu
res. Pictorial
representati
ons of word
s ar
used in oth
er ways such e also
as road
signs. Know
n as pictogra
ms,
these have
the advanta
ge of being
universally
understood
—regardless
of the langu
age you spea
k and
whether yo
u can read
it.
i
r ie
As lnogg as you wrt
ress
tre
ltttr
lsaat lt
sit and ls
thhe frrsi
r d, you can
of a wro
siitll raed iitt.
Spea
Altho king
ug
a
few p h most of nd wr
eople
iti
us lea
do it
story,
well. rn how to ng
but s
W
w
omeh
when
ow w e can tell rite,
it
a
e lose
We of comes to
th
te
w
we w n use unc riting it d e plot
own.
rite, w
lear l
angu
hich i
forms
age
s
a
unde nd docum why so ma when
rstan
ny of
e
n
t
s are
d.
yours
diffic ficial
elf in Learning
ult to
to
s
are w
riting imple term express
is an
s whe
impo
rtant n you
skill.
121
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Jean François
ç
Champollion
f the
age o
.
langupia, Africa
e
h
t
thio
ric is
Amhapeople of E
a
mhar
Some people have a flair for learning languages. They
catch on to what is being said, learn how to reply, and
are soon able to fluently read and write the language.
Jean François Champollion was a genius at this.
But he didn’t just learn the languages of his own age.
He found a way of using his skill to decipher a language
that had been long forgotten, enabling scholars to
rediscover the lost world of ancient Egypt.
A
Used to co
m
is an old lapose sacred textts,
A
nguage fr
om easter vestan
n Iran.
Master of languages
uage of
e ancient lang
Sanskrit is th g back to 1500 B.C.E.
tin
da
Hindu India,
Born in France
F
i 1790,
in
1790, Jean
J
F
François
i
came from a poor family and was
eight years old before he went to
school. He quickly discovered that he
had an amazing talent for languages,
mastering a dozen by the age of 16.
He also became intrigued by obscure
languages such as Amharic, Avestan,
Sanskrit, and Chaldean. Eventually
he became an assistant professor
of history, specializing in ancient
languages that could provide a way
of understanding the past.
Land o
f the
pharao
While Cha
m
hs
pollion wa
s a child,
wonders
the
of ancient
Egypt were
being disc
just
ove
built them red. The civilization
was a mys
that
tery, howe
because n
ver,
o one cou
ld read th
found on
e writing
the monu
ments—th
symbols k
e
nown as h
ieroglyph
Champoll
s.
ion was fa
scinated b
the ancie
nt Egyptia
y
ns.
122
Keystone
In 1799, a French army captain discovered a
stone slab near the Egyptian port of Rashid,
or Rosetta. The “Rosetta stone” was covered
with writing in three languages: Egyptian
hieroglyphs, another form of Egyptian writing
called demotic, and classical Greek. But all three
were versions of the same thing—a document
issued by Pharaoh Ptolemy V in 196 B.C.E. Enough
of the writing remained to allow the hieroglyphs
to be related to the Greek and decoded—
but it would prove difficult.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
A dotty challenge
Can you draw four straight lines,
without lifting your pen from the page,
to connect all the red dots? You will need
to think outside the box on this!
When taking up a
challenge such as this, you
may need to take one or two
different approaches. If you
don’t get it right the first
time, keep starting from
a different point
until it works.
Natural talent
Mother nature is often the best designer and
has provided inspiration for some important
inventions. See if you can match the invention
on the left with the inspiration on the right.
1. Shinkansen bullet train
2. Futuristic car
3. Swimsuit
4. Self-cleaning paint
5. Road reflectors
A. Shark’s skin
B. Lotus leaf
C. Cat’s eyes
D. Trunkfish
E. Kingfisher’s beak
The field of science referred to above is
known as biomimicry, which means “imitating
nature.” The next time you are in a park or
garden, see if you can find inspiration or new
ideas from the things you see around you.
Illustrated stories
Choose a painting—from an art book or from
the Internet! Study the picture for a while and
focus on the details. Let your mind wander and
then try to create a story around it.
Being able to understand
and interpret artwork is
a good creative exercise,
as the brain thinks about what
at
the artwork is showing and
d
draws on what it means.
By basing your story on
something that inspires you
u,
you may create something
impressive yourself.
Back to basics
What can you do with an empty
cardboard box? Use your imagination
and see if you can design something
brilliant. Of course, you could always
just copy our idea, but where’s the
fun in that?
Some of the greatest inventors have
taken simple things and used them in
a new way. You don’t always need
elaborate materials to come up with
great ideas!
ARE YOU
U A CREATIVE
128
SP
PARK?
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Lateral thinking
Se
ee if you can solve these riddles with a dash
of imagination and a lot of lateral thinking.
o
Riddlle A: Romeo and Juliet
are lyying dead on the floor.
The
ere are no marks on
eitherr of them, but they are
soake
ed with water, and near
them is a broken glass bowl.
How did they die?
H
Riddle B: How do you throw
a ball and make it come back
without throwing the ball
against a wall, the ball being
attached to string or elastic,
or the ball being caught and
thrown back by someone?
Riddle C: A man rode into town on
Wednesday. He stayed for three
nights and then left on Wednesday.
How is this possible?
When presented with
riddles, we may try to find the answer
based on a straightforward reading of
the question. By trying to think what
else the riddle might mean, you will
learn to think laterally.
Something from nothing
There is great creative potential in the
bits and pieces lying around your home.
Try to find new ways to use everyday
objects such as tissue boxes, cardboard
tubes, and straws. Or maybe make
a sculpture, starting with an empty egg
carton and adding anything else that
sparks yo
your
our imagination.
imagination
You may come up with a
fantastic creation, but even if your
ideas turn out to be more silly than
splendid, you will have learned
a great deal about using your own
n
creative spark.
Put your potential for brilliancce to the tesst
with these six challenges. Some of th
the ga
ames
require lateral thinking,
ng, while
w
otherss leavve
the creativity entirely iin your hands. Just
Ju
check the challenge
e in each cloud and se
ee
whetherr you quali
qualify as a creative spark!
You’ll find
fin the answers on page 189.
129
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BOOST YOUR
CREATIVITY
Many techniques designed to
improve creative thinking encourage
you to break away from strict logic
and fixed ideas and let your mind
wander more freely around a
problem. This is often called
“thinking outside the box.” It
helps you see things from different
angles and come up with the fresh
ang
approaches you need
ed to be creative.
creative
Brainstorming
This involves thinking up as many ideas
as possible without judging them. You can do
this alone, but it is usuallyy a g
group
p activity,
y with
someone writing all the ideas down. It can be fun!
When everyone has run ou
ut of ideas, you look at
the list and see what you have. Sometimes the
oddball ideas turn out to be the best ones.
Vis
sual thinking
Instea
ad of making simple lists of ideas, you can turn them
iinto
t a diagram
diagram. You start with a central problem, such as
global warming, and add a series of spreading
di branches
depicting all the related facts, figures, and ideas. This can
work like a visual form of brainstorming, with new ideas
leading to more radical, creative ones.
Lateral thinking
Similar to brainstorming, latera
al
thinking is all about approachin
ng
a problem from every possible
angle. The basic idea is to
identify the “normal” way of
looking at a problem and avoid
it. You use a random way of
triggering new trains of though
ht,
such as letting a book fall open
n,
sticking a pin on the page, and
seeing how the word it hits
might relate to the problem.
It sounds crazy, but it can be
surprisingly effective.
130
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
What if...?
I WA
ALK MY
HUMANS TWICE
A DAY.
One way of moving beyond fixed ideas
is to ask, “What if . . .?” You could ask,
“What if all bus travel was free?” and
this might lead to creative thinking
g
about the way we get around and the
role of cars. It could be a negative
question, such as “What if no one
collected our garbage?” You could
then figure out ways of dealing witth
the problem. Or the question could
d
be impractical in itself, such as “W
What
if our pets could talk?” This might
seem like a fantasy, but it could
stimulate useful ideas about
how we treat animals.
I TRAINED
MINE TO WALK
THEMSELVES.
Energetic thi
inking
Many people find that the
ey think
more creatively about pro
oblems
oblems
while they are walking, ru
unning,
or working out. The exerccise has
to be repetitive, so it frees your
mind to work on the prob
blem.
The
T
Th
he tec
technique
echnique
ech
hniique of
of
using
u
sing diag
diagrams
diagr
iagra
ramss to
t
link
iink
nkk idea
iideas
deeas
deas
ass dates
es back
bback
ba
to tthhhee 200
to
200s C.E.,
whe
w
when
wh
hen it
i was
was
a used
used
e
by pphilosop
by
philosopher
hilosopher
ilosopher
losopher
er
Porphyry
Porp
Po
rrpphhyry
rph
yry
ry of
of Ty
Tyre
Tyre.
Tyrre.
re.
e
A
Working backw
ward
ward
If you know what you want but don’t
know how to get to there
e, try working
backward. It’s like working back from
a winning shot in basketball: to get C
to score, A has to pass th
he ball to B
and B to C. Mentally, it ca
an suggest ideas
that would not occur to you otherwise.
B
131
C
(c) 2011 Dorling
Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
BRAIN GAMES
You can improve your creative
skills by following exercises
designed to make you look
at ideas and problems in
different ways. So try thesse
games and let your
imagination run free!
What if...?
Exercise your creative streak and
come up with the most imaginative
story you can to complete the
following scenarios:
ǩ What if we didn’t sleep?
ǩ What if your house could speak?
ǩ What if we could go on vacation in space?
ǩ What if our eyes were in our kneecaps?
ǩ What if we could breathe underwater?
Novel story
Use your imagination and
think of ways of combining
all the following words into
a funny story or poem:
purple, sheep, chips, string
g,
chair, summit, apple, screw
w,
tie, smile
CREATIVE
EXERCISES
Clip art
Can you think of 30 different
ways of using a paper clip
other than for holding papers
together? Write down as many
as you can in ten minutes.
The crazier, the better.
Ready, set, go!
Unusual c
rossing!
Imagine that
you are stran
ded
on one side o
f a lake, your
friend is on th
e other, and yo
u
want to get to
your friend.
Set yourself a
time limit of
five minutes a
nd write down
as many ways
you can think
of to cross the
lake. See wha
t
ideas your frie
nds come up
with, too. It co
uld make for
an interesting
crossing!
132
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
dentials
Green cre
ften about
Creativity is o
e of the world
being aware
d using it for
around us an
hen was the
inspiration. W
d
ou really looke
last time yo
for
r—
lo
co
ick a
around you? P
n. How many
example, gree
u see that are
things can yo
are more than
green? There
k at first.
you might thin
Albert
A
lb
lbbert
ert
er
rtt Einstein
Einst
Ei
nstein
teiin cul
cultivated
ultivated
lltiv
ttiiva
vattedd hhis
hiis ow
own
wn
creative
cre
cr
rea
eative
ve ex
exer
exercises.
erc
rcises
es. Th
es
Thes
These
ese “thought
es
exp
ex
experiments
xper
eri
riments
ts” led
ed to the deve
development
vel
elopment
of his fa
famous theo
theories
eori
ries
es of re
rel
relativity.
elativi
vity.
Creative play
Play helps free the mind and aid creativity, so
use your visual imagination and plan a treasure
hunt for your friends. Think of some cryptic clues
to lead your friends on a journey around your
house or backyard.
backyard The clues could
could even be
pictures. Each clue leads to another until you
reach the treasure. Read out th
he first clue and
let the hunt begin!
133
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Leonardo
da Vinci
the wife
be a portrait of
.
is thought to
The Mona Lisa k merchant from Florence
of a wealthy sil
One of the most intelligent people ever to have lived,
Leonardo da Vinci is famous for the amazing breadth of
his interests. Primarily a painter of extraordinary skill,
he became fascinated by the human body and pioneered
the science of anatomy. He also became a practical
engineer and inventor, dreaming up all kinds of
astonishing devices that were way ahead of their time.
Amazing artist
Leonardo was born near Florence, Italy,
in 1452. When he was 15, his father sent
him to work as an apprentice for the
Florentine painter Andrea del Verrochio.
He soon became a superbly realistic
painter of human figures, partly because
of his interest in anatomy. He worked very
slowly, and during the late 1400s, he
completed only six paintings in 17 years.
His most famous painting is the Mona Lisa,
probably painted in around 1505.
Visionary engineer
In 1482, Leonardo got a well-paid job with
the duke of Milan by describing himself as
a military engineer. Luckily he was much
more talented than most engineers of the
time. He was interested in water power
and came up with many devices driven by
water wheels. Later, he proposed a bridge
across the Gulf of Istanbul, which would
have been the longest single-span bridge
in the world, but it was never built.
Leo
Leonardo
eonardo
eonard
rdo lef
left
eft
ft most of his pro
projects
roj
ojec
ect
cts
ts unfinished
unfinished,
ed, and
it is possible that he suff
suffered
fffer
ffe
ere
red
ed fr
fro
from
rom att
attention
ttention defi
tt
deficit
eficit
disorder
disord
rder
er (A
(ADD)—a psycholog
psychological
ogical pro
problem
roblem that
has only re
rec
recently
ecently been identified
identified.
ed.
This Leonardo
stones—a bom drawing shows a weapon
for hurling
bard—powere
d by a water wh
eel.
Ahead of his time
ve worked,
’s would not ha
r of Leonardohe did build flying models.
te
op
lic
he
is
Th
at
tes suggest th
although his no
Many of Leonardo’s inventions were
objects that could not be made at the
time but have since become a reality.
He devised a form of parachute, a glider,
a type of bicycle, a life jacket to keep a
person afloat, an underwater breathing
device, weapons that could be used to
attack ships from underwater, and an
“unsinkable” double-hulled ship. He
even came up with this pioneering
concept for a helicopter (left).
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
To
Today,
Leonardo’s
Leo
eonard
rdo’s
paintings—and eve
even
ven
his dr
dra
drawings—are
rawings—are
re
among the most
valuable in the wo
va
worl
world.
rld.
N te
No
es an
and
d sk
ket
etch
ches
ch
es
We kno
n w ab
bou
outt Le
Leon
o ar
ardo
do’s
’ss man
anyy ta
t le
ent
ntss
be
eca
causse he
ek
kep
eptt no
ote
es il
illu
lu
ust
stra
rate
ra
te
ed wi
with
th
d ta
de
ailed
ed ske
ketc
tche
hes.
he
s An in
ntrrig
gui
uing
ng
g ffea
eatu
ea
ture
tu
r
re
of th
hese
he
se
e nottess is th
that
att the
ey ar
a e wr
w it
itte
te
en fr
from
om
righ
ht to lef
eftt in “mi
ef
m rr
rror
o ” wr
writ
itin
in
ng. We kn
know
ow
w
thatt Leo
ona
n rd
rdo
o wa
wass le
left
f -hande
ded, whi
hich
ch
h
mak
k s wr
ke
w ittin
ing
g le
eft to ri
righ
ght in ink
nk qui
u te
e
d ffi
di
fficu
cult bec
ecau
ause
au
se
e you
our wr
writtin
ing
g hand
nd
smu
udge
ud
g s th
ge
he we
wet in
nk. He po
poss
s ib
i lyy dec
ecid
ided
d
to g
gett aro
ro
oun
u d thiss by wrrittin
i g ba
b ck
ckwa
wa
ard
d—
e id
ev
den
en
nce of hiss orrig
gin
inal
al,, lo
logica
c l th
thinki
king
ng
g.
These studies of limbs by Leonardo were among
the first anatomical drawings ever made.
Scie
Sc
ient
ie
ntifi
nt
ific
ifi
c pi
pion
on
nee
eer
r
Gruesome fascination
Leonardo was fascinated by human anatomy.
He spent hours dissecting human corpses and
drawing what he saw. This gruesome activity
was considered suspicious, and was even
forbidden by the pope himself, but Leonardo was
not easily put off. He pressed on, producing many
drawings, which he considered a much better
way of describing anatomical features than
written descriptions. Many of his drawings
are remarkably detailed and accurate.
L on
Le
onar
ardo
ar
do wass iint
ntter
eres
e te
es
t d in all ffor
orms
ms of
scie
sc
ie
enc
n e, iinc
nclu
nc
lu
udi
d ng
n opt
ptic
i s, ana
ic
nato
tomy
m , zo
my
z ol
olog
ogy,
og
y,
bota
bota
bo
t nyy, ge
geol
olog
ogy,
og
y and aer
y,
erod
od
dyn
ynam
am
miccs. Morre
i po
im
port
rtan
rt
an
ntl
tly,
y he pi
y,
pion
onee
eere
red
d a me
m th
thod
od o
off
stud
st
ud
dy th
that
at we st
stil
illl us
use
e to
toda
day.
da
y IIns
y.
nsste
tead
ad of
gett
ge
tttin
ing
g in
info
fo
orm
rmat
atio
io
on fr
from
om cla
lass
ssic
ical
al aut
utho
ho
ors
r
a d th
an
he Bi
B bl
b e,
e he us
u ed
d tthe
he rev
e ollut
utio
i na
io
ary
appr
ap
proa
pr
oach
oa
ch
h of ob
bse
ervvin
ing
g na
n tu
ure a
and
n a
nd
ask
s in
sk
ng
simp
si
mple
e que
uest
sttio
ions
nss lik
i e “H
How
w do biird
rdss flyy?”
?
135
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Your Brain and
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
You
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
SENSE OF
you
The inner that we have
ve
lie
be
us
of
Most
r
that defines ou
an inner “self”
a
s
ha
e concept
personalities. Th
p
s, and most
si
ba
al
no biologic
n
it is an illusion.
sscientists think
werful idea,
ett it is a very po
Ye
Y
basis of the
e
and it forms th
a
y people believe
““soul” that man
ter death.
ssurvives even af
SELF
You know who you are. You recognize
yourself in mirrors and pictu
ures. You
have an image of yourself that includes
your personality and your be
eliefs about
how others see you. This sellf-awareness
enables you to think about yo
our identity
and how you relate to other people. It is
what we call consciousness..
That’s me!
Self-esteem
If you put a cat in front of a mirror, it may not
react at all. Birds don’t recognize themselves
either; instead, some see a rival and try to drive
it away. Human babies are similar, but at the
age of around 18 months, they know who they are
looking at—they have developed a sense of self.
We all have an idea of how we would
like to be. If we think we don’t match up
to this ideal, we feel bad about ourselves—we have
low self-esteem. Quite often the ideal is not realistic,
but sometimes our judgment of our self is inaccurate
and we are actually closer to the ideal than we think.
138
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Brain
Some people
peo
eople suffer
suff
fffer from
ffe
fro
fr
rom
a psychological
psycholog
ogical condition
co
that
makes
es them
em think they
eyy have
ve
more
re than one “self.
sel
elf.f.“ On
average,
ave
ver
errag
era
age,
e, they
ey believe
bel
elieve
ve they
ey
hhave
ave
ve 13
13 different
diff
fffe
fer
fe
fer
eeren
ere
rent
ren
een
nt iidentities
identities.
dent
entities.
en
es
es
H
Q?
Scans o
f brain
activity
high ac
like this
tivity in
one, s
red,
single p
art of th reveal that th howing
er
e brain
conscio
that is th e isn’t a
us
e focus
a brain ness. No one
of
has eve
injury th
r suffer
at
self but
ed
left eve destroyed the
rything
ir
seems
else inta sense of
th
through at consciousn
ct. Inste
ess dep
ad, it
brain re out the cerebr
al corte ends on activit
sponsib
x—the
y
le for m
pa
emory
and thin rt of the
king.
I look good,
good
ood,,
andd I’m looking
looking
forward
forw
fo
rw
rwa
ward
rd to seei
seeing
see
eing
ing
my fr
friends
fri
riends
ds later
er . . .
Self-image
Consciousness
Your sense of self is made up of your personal history
combined with your own idea of your personality and physical
appearance, as well as how others see you. If you are lucky,
you will have a positive self-image, but some people have
negative ideas that distort their self-image. For example,
very shy people think others are judging them all the time.
No one really knows what consciousness is,
but we all have it. It has been described as
an awareness of our own existence and our
thought processes. So it is partly about your
identity but also about your ability to think,
plan, and analyze your thoughts and plans.
139
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
S
E
P
Y
T
Y
T
I
L
PERSONA
ences.
s by the same experi
ay
w
nt
re
ffe
di
in
ed
ve
Everyone is affect
ll loves them. They ha
Ji
nd
ie
fr
s
hi
t
bu
s,
Jack hates partie
edict how
. Yet this might not pr
es
iti
al
on
rs
pe
nt
re
diffe
ces. Jack might be
en
ri
pe
ex
of
s
pe
ty
r
they react to othe
We are all complex
t.
no
is
ll
Ji
le
hi
w
s,
open to new idea
personality traits.
of
y
et
ri
va
a
of
s
re
tu
mix
Th ancient Greeks
The
Gre
reek
eks
ks
thought ther
there
ere
re wer
were
ere
re only
four basic per
fo
personality
ers
rsonality
types:
types
es: happy, gloomy,
es
calm, and excitable.
ex
e.
Getting a
l
ur
enes
In the grsonality is inherited from yole,
op
pe
oving pe
t of your
Par
th fun-l
if they are bo
the same.
parents, so
ce you will be
an
ch
od
use
go
a
there’s
simple, beca
not quite so
rious
is
va
it
,
in
er
d
ev
se
How
be expres
n
ca
ts
ai
tr
pl
for exam e,
personality
nized artist,
ga
r.
or
lel
w
nized banke
ways. A
e a well-orga
lik
n
u
em
se
might
ong toget
Some people
her
are very reserv
ed and have on
special friend
ly a few
s. Others are
more sociable
to get along w
and seem
ith everyone. B
eing open min
ideas of people
ded to the
with different
personalities
develop both em
helps us
otionally and in
tellectually. It
helps us coop
also
erate to achiev
e things.
Individuality
Western cultures tend to
celebrate the variations in
personality that make us
individuals. Some other
cultures discourage them.
However, we all seem to
be getting bolder about our
individuality, and we often
display this in the way we
dress and behave. Ideally,
we would all feel confident
as individuals while
staying responsible
members of society.
Nature and nurture
Your experiences can have a big effect on your
personality. If your best friend is run over by a bus,
for example, it affects your outlook. But although
these twins may have been affected in different
ways by their personal histories, they probably
react to new experiences in similar ways.
140
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
t
Five-way spli
Neuroticism
ree that personality
Most psychologists ag
, each with its own
is defined by five traits
trait, every one
sliding scale. For each
t point on the
en
fer
of us lies at a dif
of possible
ge
ran
e
wid
a
scale. This gives
t
counts for the almos
combinations and ac
.
es
liti
na
rso
pe
n
infinite variety of huma
Calm
Secure
Self-satisfied
Worried
Insecure
Self-pitying
Extroversion
Shy
Serious
Reserved
Sociable
Fun loving
Affectionate
Openness
Imaginative
Independent
Prefers variety
Down-to-earth
Conforming
Prefers routine
Agreeableness
Helpful
Softhearted
Trusting
Simple systems ys of
wa
People often use simple
common
e
On
.
lity
na
rso
pe
ing
defin
n who is
rso
pe
A
system is the type
as the girl
uch
—s
shy
pu
dynamic and
and the type B
in the above pictures—
axed. But
person who is more rel
do not cover
ts
cep
these simple con
.
lity
na
rso
pe
all aspects of
Unhelpful
Ruthless
Suspicious
ess
Conscientiousn
Organized
Careful
Self disciplined
Disorganized
Careless
Weak willed
141
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
142
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
10
Do you feel sorry for people
who are unhappy?
Do yyou usually do your homework
on ttime?
enjoy meeting
8 Donewyoupeople?
you very sensitive
6 Are
to criticism?
Do you get bored easily with
7
new hobbies and keep
sttarting new ones?
like doing things that
1 Doareyou
a bit dangerous?
you afraid to tell someone
2 Are
when you don’t like them?
you enjoy having long phone
3 Doconversations?
you good at remembering
4 Are
birthdays?
Would you rather hang out
5 inonea large
group than with
or two good friends?
find that you often get angry
23 Doaboutyousmall
things?
Does your music and fashion taste
24 change often?
Do you trust people easily?
25
you enjoy any artistic or
26 Docreative
hobbies?
you speak up if you
27 Would
disagreed with someone?
think you are carefree
e
28 Doandyourelaxed?
you start a book, do
29 When
you usually finish it?
30 Do you feel anxious easily?
Would you like to try bungee
22
jumping, skydiving, or
white-water rafting?
Everyone is a mix of emotions, habits, and traits—
put them all together and you get your own unique
personality. But how well do you know yourself?
Take this personality test and find out more.
usually manage to stay
11 Docalmyouunder
pressure?
you usually “forgive and
12 Would
forget” when someone upsets you?
think others would describe
13 Doyouyouas shy?
have a plan for what
14 Doyouyouwillusually
do on weekends?
Do you make sure your room is
15 neat and clean?
Do you rarely have arguments with
16 other people?
you like exploring unfamiliar
17 Doplaces?
you scared of what other people
18 Are
might think about you?
ever offer to help with
19 Dotheyou
laundry?
you consider yourself to be
20 Doa rebel?
do things to the
21 Dobestyouof usually
your abilities?
For each ques
tions, answer
“yes,” “no,” o
sure.” There a
r “not
re no right or
w
rong answers
choose the an
—just
swer that you
think best des
you and then
c
ri
follow the ins
bes
tructions belo
up your score
w to add
and see what
your results re
veal.
ty test
Personali
WHAT ABOUT YOU?
BRAIN GAMES
143
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
swered “yes,”
you answ
d 27.
ore 2 points if
ts if you 2, 10, 12, 16, 25, an
Openness: Sc
. Score 2 poin
26
d
” to
an
,
24
,
20
,
answered “yes
t if you
questions 7, 17
2 points if you
n 14 and 1 poin
o”
e
tio
“n
or
es
Sc
ed
:
qu
er
m
to
.
is
sw
o”
26
Neurotic
ints if you an
20, 24, and
,
answered “n
po
17
2
,
e
14
or
7,
Sc
ed
.
to
er
30
sw
sure,”
6, 18, 23, and
point if you an
answered “not
or 28. Score 1
11
ed
ns
er
tio
sw
es
.
an
qu
30
u
d
to
, an
points if yo
6, 11, 18, 23, 28
ness: Score 2
“not sure” to
ot sure,” to
“n
Conscientious
ed
er
sw
an
ality trait:
int if you
r each person
.
“yes,” and 1 po
fo
29
es
d
.
or
an
,
sc
21
ur
,
15, 19
or more = high
Add up yo
questions 4, 9,
edium, and 9
m
e
=
8
th
4–
—
,
ts
w
ai
lo
ality tr
“yes”
3 or less =
erent person
you answered
ld
about the diff
ore 2 points if
u
Sc
ad
:
yo
better it shou
re
on
if
e
si
ts
ow
th
er
in
N
e,
ov
po
Extr
for each on
e
d 22. Score 2
or
an
sc
8,
5,
ur
3,
yo
u
1,
yo
if
higher
to questions
. Score 1 point
describe you!
to question 13
13, and 22.
8,
5,
3,
1,
answered “no”
ns
sure” to questio
answered “not
e
ts if you an
your scor Agreeableness: Score 2 poin ot sure,” to questions
t
u
o
e
r
u
“n
g
you answered
How to fi
and 1 point if
ered “yes” to
Everyone has a little of each of the
five personality types, but in varying
amounts. You can be open as well as neurotic
or a conscientious extrovert. Each of the five
traits is independent from the others.
Neuroticism
If your score was high, you are likely
to be emotionally sensitive and high
strung. You might get worried, upset, or
excited more easily than others do. A low
score usually means you are a calm and
relaxed type who rarely gets emotional.
Agreeableness
A high score means you are easy to get along
with and very cooperative. If your score was
low, perhaps you can be argumentative or
too outspoken. Most people become more
agreeable as they get older.
Extroversion
Extroverts love talking to people and are very
confident. They crave excitement and fun and are
often thrill seekers who like danger. The opposite
of an extrovert is an introvert. Introverts prefer to
be socialize with one or two good friends rather
than a big group of people of people who they
might not know. Introverts can often be shy.
Conscientiousness
A high score means that you are sensible, reliable,
and hard working. People who are conscientious try
to do their best in everything and are often very neat
and organized. They can also be a little fussy. If your
score was low, you may be a little disorganized and
find finishing homework, or doing chores, very dull.
Openness
If you are very open, you like to experience new
things and you welcome change. You prefer spur-ofthe-moment decisions to making plans, and you
probably have a number of hobbies that you dip in
and out of. If your score was low, you probably prefer
to be in familiar surroundings and like routine. You
may have one hobby that you are absorbed in.
Personality types
144
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
1. When a friend is upset, do you feel upset, too?
2. Do you notice the big picture rather than the
little details?
3. Do you pay attention to someone’s body
language when they’re talking to you?
4. Are you happier when you are talking about
people you know rather than about television
and computer games?
5. Do you understand written information
more easily than maps and diagrams?
Male or female brain?
Answer these quick questions and then
turn to page 189 to find out whether
you have male- or female-type skills.
The bike test
People with predominantly male brains
are better at noticing small details than
those with female brains. A good way to
demonstrate this is to ask a selection
of friends, both male and female, to draw
a bicycle from memory in 30 seconds.
Compare their drawings. People with
a male brain tend to draw bikes that
are fairly close to the real thing,
ng, with a
frame and saddle. Those with a female
brain are more likely to draw
something that could never
work as a bike but may
include a rider.
We all behave in different ways, and
one important influence is the brain.
Some psychologists believe that there
are two main types of brains—male and
female—each with different skills. Have
you also noticed that some people are
full of energy when others are thinking
of going to bed? Why is this? Find out
more about how your brain affects
your behavior with these exercises.
TICK?
WHA
AT MAKES YOU
Ring
finger
Index
finger
Check your fingers
Testosterone is the male sex
hormone (a body chemical that
causes changes in the body), but
it is present in girls, too. If you had
a high level of testosterone before
you were born, your ring finger is
usually longer than your index
finger, and you’re more likely
to have a male br
brain.
BRAIN GAMES
Mary
Anning
is ammonite
n nautilus, th
e of the moder the Jurassic coast.
tiv
la
re
ct
tin
d on
An ex
y fossils foun
is one of man
Born in England in the last year of the 1700s,
Mary Anning was a self-taught pioneer of the new
science of geology. She had a genius for finding the
fossil remains of extinct animals and was considered
an expert by some of the most eminent scientists
in Europe. Yet she achieved all this at a time when
women were barred from academic life.
Jurassic coast
Mary lived in Lyme Regis on the
“Jurassic coast” of southern England—
so named because the cliffs contain
fossils dating from the Jurassic period
of the age of dinosaurs. In the early
1800s, such “curiosities” were not
understood, but they were eagerly
sought by visiting gentlemen
naturalists. If they could not find
any, they could buy them from
local collectors like Mary.
nter
Fossil hu a
as
w
y’s father
This view show
s Lyme Regis
across
Charmouth wh
ere Mary foun the bay, and the beach in
d some of her
best fossils.
In 1800,
1800 at one year
yea
ear old,
old Mary
ry survived
surv
rvvive
rvi
ved
ed being
bei
struck
str
truck
tru
ruck by lightning.
lig
ightning. People
Peo
Pe
eople believed
bel
elieve
ved
ed that this
thi
made her
er unusually bri
bright
rig
ight and obser
observant.
erv
rvvant.t.
rva
Mar
er and
furniture mak
who took his
or
ct
lle
fossil co
hunting along
children fossil
to
sold his finds
the shore. He
in
e
bl
ta
rs from a
wealthy visito
ed
di
he
ore. But
front of his st
s
11, leaving hi
as
w
y
ar
M
when
ife
w
income. His
family with no
il trade, while
ss
fo
kept up the
elder brother
Mary and her
Mary
ok for fossils.
went out to lo
, and
pert at finding
became an ex
d
an
,
citing fossils
identifying, ex
to
d
te
ar
st
20, she
when she was
f.
el
rs
he
ss
busine
run the fossil
Marine reptiles
Mary made her first major discovery in 1811, after
her brother found the fossilized skull of what he
thought was a crocodile. It took her a whole year
to uncover the complete skeleton of an ichthyosaur,
a prehistoric marine reptile that resembled
a dolphin. It was the first ever found. She sold
the fossil to a rich local man, who sold it on to a
museum in London. She was then only 12 years old.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Inspired by fin
an ichthyosaurds like Mary’s, this old pr
int sh
and a plesiosa
ur might have ows what
looked like.
Sea
Se
a dr
drag
agon
ag
on
n
W al
We
alth
thyy co
coll
lllec
ecto
tor Th
T om
mas Bir
irch
ch wass so
im
mpr
p es
esse
se
ed by Marry’
y s di
d sc
s ovve
errie
iess th
that
at he sold
hiss own
hi
ow
wn fo
fossil
il co
ollle
lect
cti
tion
io in
n1
182
820
0 an
a d gave
the
th
e pr
proc
ocee
eeds
ds to
o the
he An
Anniing
ngs.
s. T
Thi
hiss es
esta
tablished
Mary
Ma
ry in he
herr bu
busi
sine
ess
ss,, an
and
d sh
she
e we
ent
n on to make
otthe
othe
h r am
amaz
azin
ing
g fin
finds
ds.. Th
They
ey inc
nclu
lude
ded,
d,, iin
n 1823, the
first
fir
st k
kno
nown
wn ske
kele
leto
ton
n of
o a llon
ongg-ne
neccked
cked “sea
drag
dr
ag
gon,”” later
e des
escr
crib
ribed
da
ass a pl
ples
e io
osa
saur.
gis with her
ore of Lyme Re
Mary on the sh
Tray, her dog.
d
an
er
m
m
geological ha
G ological pioneer
Ge
r
expert
Renowned rmal education,
fo
d
Mary had little
elf anatomy an
hers
but she taught
came
rly age, she be
ea
an
geology. At
la Beche,
s with Henry de
lifelong friend
esident
pr
become the
who went on to
ndon. She
Lo
of
al Society
ic
og
ol
Ge
e
th
of
ientists,
her eminent sc
knew many ot
h letters, and
ally or throug
either person
nsidered
0s, she was co
by the mid-182
ils.
ss
fo
of
ost types
d
an expert on m
an
,
is
eg
R
e
left Lym
er
Yet she rarely
nt
ce
e
ndon—then th
.
she visited Lo
ce
on
c world—only
of the scientifi
These illustra
and a plesiosations from 1860 include an
ur, probably co
ich
llected by Ma thyosaur
ry.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
When Mary Anning was collle
l ct
ctin
ing
fossils, most scie
i ntists still believe
ed
that Ear
a th and its animals had been
created in six days, only 6,000 years
ago. The evolutionar
a y theories of
Charles Darwin were
e not published
until 12 years after Mary died
in 1847. Her fossiilss of extinctt
creatures we
w re some of
o the
h most
important ge
g ological
a discove
v ries of
all time, an
nd her ideas abou
o t wh
w at
they meant force
ced scientists to
o look
for differen
nt ways of explaining
g the
history of life. In 18
824, it was said
d of
o
M ry, “. . . all ackno
Ma
n wledge thatt she
understands more of the scienc
n e
th
han anyone else in th
this kingdom.””
147
by the conscious part of your
brain. A lot of mental activity is un
nconscious—or it is until you
become aware of it. It includes priimitive instincts and urges
inherited from our distant ancesto
ors but also your own
perceptions and memories. These
e color your personality
and affect your decisions, sometim
mes in strange ways.
Pe
Sce rce
n
p
un t is a ti
con
po on
of
gra sciou werf
the ss r s m ul tr
ha coun emin emor igger
infl s als try, ds y ies— of
in uen o sh for e ou of the
pr a roo ce b own xam a d sme
to oduc m sm ehavi that ple. R ay in ll
tha clean ts ar elli or. P sme ese
e
l
n
a
e
ni
f th up a muc g fai ople ls can rch
e r fter h m ntly wh
oom th
oe
or
of
ha ey ha e like clea at
sn
nin
v
l
o s e ea y
g
cen ten
t.
Soome
Som
SSome
mee men
m
mental
ment
m
meental
eent
nt l pro
prob
prob
roblem
llems
ems
ems
hhaav
have
ave
ve an
ve
an unc
unconsc
uncons
u
un
unco
uncon
ncconsc
ncon
n
conscciious
iiooous
uss
u
caause
cause
cause.
ause.
use.
use
u
see.
e IfI you
yo
you bec
bbeeco
beco
eco
coom
me
me
aware
awa
ware
re of
re
of the
tthhhee cau
cause,
caus
ca
cause
c use,
e, the
the
pproblem
pro
roooblem
rob
roblem
bllem
m often
oft
of
oft
f en
fte
ften
en go
goes
goe
gooes
es awa
es
aaway.
away
wayy.
way.
Carl Jung
Swiss psychologist Carl Jung believed
in the collective unconscious—a mass
of buried memories inherited from our
ancestors. He thought this explained the
ghost stories, myths, and fairy tales that
are part of every culture. However, since
Jung’s death in 1961, his theory has been
displaced by other ideas.
s a
es
ln an have Some
l
i
c
h.
ed us mind n healt somatic ental
n
i scio ce o cho by m ther
ag
y
Im e unconl influen rom ps caused n the o over
h
s
ec
.O
rf
fu
T
148
er
ffe
sse
ay r
ess
pow ple su —illne as str ick m hey
o
s
s
h
tt h
pe esse
are
suc
tha
illn blems le who icine” thoug
pro , peop “med , even his is
a
m
d
T
han taking re the ients.
u
d
r
c
e
e
l
r
aft e wil e ing
t.
ffec
tiv
iev
bel no ac cebo e
la
as
it h the p
d
e
l
l
ca
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
s
Yo unconscious mind can
Your
be difficult
diffi
fficult to control,
ffi
contr
tro
rol, but it
is vi
vital to your survival.
surv
rvviva
rvi
val.
iou
e
t sc b s
nc on s to can
c
s
tiur un seemrain s sciou ivity —
s
t
y
o
n
B
c
n
t
in
I st of ctivi nct. unco w a bra ther
a sti or sho he h o
Mo al
t
f
l
t
.
nt by in ted ed, s of e wi ntro etite
e
e
m ed tes gr art ar co app
s
p
id e
sh s
gu eopl ch a itive we area h as
t
u
p
e
a
uc
of es, s prim s th hes ts s
t
c
T
g
e
ur n th par als. stin
i he m
t ni sic in
a a
b
d.
g to in
in ies s m
,
r
u
ising t scio ages ons e,
t
n
ti pl
s
s
r i
,
rt co s ia
ve dve e un d me ssoc examam tune
d
a
e
r
a
e
h
g
y
r
A e t h
o
t.
m ce flas s or s. F ce c atch uyin ar i
o
n
i
t
n
e
S ue e
b
c
s
ga jec for a ut u h
fl
in ay u r slo y ob ent to a abo r yo
a
e
d
m o
k
It gs, ryd isem nke hin nev
t
e
t
i
e
n
l
v
r
so th e dve be you wh
wi an a ight king eam
m ma cr
ice
Thhee part
The
par
artt of
of th
tthe
hhee bra
brai
brain
rrai that
rain
th t
ttha
ccontrols
contr
ontrols
ntro
trols
tr
rols
ls str
stro
sttro
trrong
ngg emotions
eemot
emotion
mot
otio
i
matures
matu
mature
atu
ures
res
e in
in your
you
our
urr 20s.
u
20
0
Con
Peop sciou
l
s c
ment e being te
al act
sted f ontro
going
l
ivity a
or un
them on, becau re never t conscious
s
o
c
ld wh
consc ontrol th e this wo
at is
uld
eir
iou
overc s control reactions. make
enabl
ome
Such
thei
es
and t
his is r unconsc people to
ious u
an i
civiliz
rge
ation mportant
.
elem s,
I
f
instin
we fo
ent o
llow
cts
f
at all without co ed our
, soci
n
t
roll
ety m
ight f ing them
all ap
art.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
150
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Links with reality
A dream often turns out to be your sleeping
brain’s explanation of something that is really
happening. If a cat is yowling outside your
bedroom window, you might dream about
someone singing really badly! In one test,
sleepers sprayed lightly with cold water said
they dreamed of bathing, floods, or rain.
Scrambled events
Dreams usually link together a whole series
of strange events. One minute you are riding
through the house on a horse and the next
minute you and the horse are having lunch.
Your brain seems to have a large collection of
images, which it uses to form a story. You realize
how crazy the story is only when you wake up.
The imag
ges that appear in dreams may be
symbolic of something else. If you were to
dream of being on a desert island, it might be
because you want to escape from your normal
life. This idea was once an important part of
a therapy called psychoanalysis, but there is
no evidence that dreams really work like this.
Hidden meanings
151
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Some people suffer from a sleep disorder where
they get up and do things such as dressing,
bathing, or even using the vacuum cleaner—
but without waking up. Afterward, they cannot
remember what they have done. Sleepwalking
is not a form of dreaming, because it occurs
during a different phase of sleep.
Some people believe that dreams predict the
future. In fact, most dreams simply reflect our
concerns, and sometimes these coincide with
real events. If you are worried about being
told off by your teacher, you are likely to
dream about it. So if your teacher does tell you
off the next day, your dream has come true!
Some of our strangest experiences happen in our dreams.
We all have dreams—even if we don’t remember them very
well—so we know how illogical and strange they can be. Yet
dreams also conjure up people and events that we recognize
from our normal waking lives. Scientists are still trying to
understand the meaning of dreams and why we have them.
Sleepwalking
Prophetic dreams
m
ts
Fa
iev
nflic
their
l
d b el
Freu scious co masking th menta .
i
n
,
w
o
m
a s
unc olic form people
ir dre f
e
p
b
h
l
t
e
m
h
sy
ng
yo
alyzi
ied to
d
heor
He tr ms by an t of his t develope
r
e
l
e
a
b
h
p
o
s.
ch
pr
ed
, whi
1890
form
This oanalysis ia, in the
r
h
psyc na, Aust
n
e
i
V
in
ud
Fret Sigmund press
d
n
s
i
s ex
mu
log
n
Sig us psycho that dreamd desires i ning.
o
a
d
n
e
e
a
m
Most scientists now agree that dreams are
part of the brain’s housekeeping activities.
As you sleep, your brain sorts out the events
that have happened during the day and
commits many of them to long-term memory.
In the process, it triggers other memories,
and these get knitted together into dreams.
Mental housekeeping
Emotional
intelligence
Our ability to control and make use of
emotion is sometimes seen as a form of
intelligence. The man below is using his
emotional intelligence to recognize his
friend’s unhappiness and comfort her.
This is a social skill that also raises
awareness of your own emotions.
Controlling emotion
As we grow, the part of the brain
responsible for conscious control
grows, too, and we learn to control
our emotions. The man on the right
below is annoyed by his neighbor
eating popcorn, but he is managing to
stop himself from getting angry.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Teears
Tears
Tea
rs seem to wash
wash away
aw
way
some natural
natura
ral chemicals
ls
that make you unhappy.
This may be wh
Th
why you feel
feel
better
bet
ett
tter
tt
er after
aft
fter
ft
er a “good cr
cry.
cry
ry.”
Co
omplex emotions
Crying
As well as the six basic emotions, we also
exp
perience up to 30 complex emotions
succh as guilt, irritation, alarm, pride,
envvy, and love. Many of these are related
to the complexities of human society.
The
ey are less automatic, involving more
thought—although emotions such as
love
e can still seem difficult to control.
As far as we kno
ow, only humans cry.
Crying in distresss produces tears
and a distinctive
e facial expression.
Tears with a different expression
can also be caussed by joy, especially
among adults. This may indicate
that the mental wiring for distress
and joy is connected.
153
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Mahatma
Gandhi
We do not often link politics with genius.
Yet some political figures have the genius
to see problems in a new way and use
this insight to change history. One of the
greatest was Mahatma Gandhi, the leader
of the Indian independence movement.
He pioneered resistance to authority by
nonviolent mass civil disobedience—an
idea that inspired movements for civil
rights and freedom across the world.
Rude awakening
Born in 1869 in Gujarat, India,
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
studied to become a lawyer. In 1893,
he went to work in South Africa on
a 12-month contract and came
face-to-face with racism when he
was thrown off a train for refusing
to give up his first-class seat. He
became a political agitator, staying
in South Africa to help resident
Indians obtain the right to vote.
tain
reat Bri
lled to Gege London.
ve
a
tr
i
, Gandh niversity Coll
U
ge of 19
At the a as a lawyer at
in
a
to tr
In South Afr
Africa,
frrica, Gandhi
fri
found ra
fo
racism in the
courts,
court
rtts, wh
rts
wher
where
ere
re he w
was
as
not allowed
ed to wea
wear
ear
his turb
turban.
rban.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Nonviolent protest
In 1906, the South African government tried to
force resident Indians to carry registration cards.
Gandhi called on Indians to defy the law but not
use violence. During a seven-year campaign,
thousands were jailed, beaten, or even shot—
yet Gandhi stood firm. Eventually this harsh
treatment of peaceful protesters forced
the government to negotiate with Gandhi.
Nonviolent protest had won its first victory.
South Africa.
Here he is with
his staff in 19
03.
Great soul
Gandhi returned to British-ruled India in 1915
and became involved in the independence struggle.
He campaigned against the unfair taxation of poor
villagers, earning the name Mahatma, or “great
soul.” He always advocated nonviolent protest,
even after the 1919 Amritsar Massacre in which
British-commanded soldiers opened fire on an
unarmed gathering, killing at least 379 people.
154
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156
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Amyg
a
Triggedala
respo rs fear
nse
Fear is related to anger, and
between the two they trigger the
“fight or flight” response. This
might give you the strength to
wrestle a crocodile, but if you didn’t
have faith in your chances, it would
also enable you to run away. The
same response might also prompt
you to rescue someone trapped
in a burning building.
Fight or flight
When the fear response is activated, your
adrenal glands release chemicals such as
adrenaline into your bloodstream. These
chemicals combine with nerve signals to
push up your breathing rate, increase the
blood supply to your muscles, and intensify
your awareness. You are briefly supercharged
with the strength you need to survive.
Supercharged
When faced with dangerous situations, it is important
to feel some level of fear. If you were not afraid of road
traffic, for example, you might get knocked down by a
car or truck. Fear triggers physical reactions that give
you superpowers, so you can run away from a fierce
dog and even jump over a fence to escape. However,
many of the situations that frighten us in modern life
do not require this type of physical response, and the
fear can lead to stress-related illnesses.
Prefro
nta
cortexl
The
When wiring
yo
thalam u are frigh of fea
ten
r
us
inform , which pro ed, the
cesse
ation,
ss
se
to a p
art of nds a nerve ensory
t
h
signal
e brain
amygd
a
c
adren la. This ale alled the
rts
al
chem glands to p your
icals t
r
hat pr oduce
body f
ep
o
sends r action. M are your
eanwh
a
n
o
t
h
prefro
e r me
ile, it
nt
ss
that y al cortex of age to the
ou can
y
analyz our brain s
o
e t he
threat
.
Thala
Sendsmus
to am signal
ygdala
157
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Many people use relaxation
techniques to reduce the effects of
fear-related stress. They include deep
breathing exercises, meditation, and yoga.
These can trigger a relaxation response,
which works like an antidote to the fear
response and helps you calm down.
Relaxation
When you get stressed, one way of dealing with the
problem is to work it off with physical exercise. This
uses up the chemicals that are supposed to
help you fight or escape and makes you
feel better. Exercise also encourages other
parts of the brain to produce chemicals
called endorphins that improve your state
of mind and combat the effects of stress.
Working it off
Many of the events that frighten
us in modern life cannot be easily
resolved. Caught by his enemies, our
hero is more worried about how his
boss will react than anything else—
and he cannot fight or run away from
his boss. There is nothing he can do,
so he just gets more upset. This
type of stress can cause
serious illness.
Wound up
Lie de
tectio
n
Your emo
tions tend
to trigger
reactions
certain
if you are
lying. You
rate and b
r heart
reathing s
peed up a
you tend to
nd
sweat. Th
ese reacti
can be mo
ons
nitored us
ing electr
“lie detec
onic
tors”—bu
t good liars
stay calm
can
and fool th
e system.
A real
rea
re
eal smile looks
ks diff
different
fffere
ffe
erren
ent
from
fro
fr
rom a fa
fake one bec
because
ecause it is
controlled
contr
co
tro
rolled
ed by a different
diff
fffer
ffe
ere
ren
ent
part
rt of the bra
brain.
rain.
Body language
Faking it
Acting
Our body postures say a lot about how
we are feeling. Some are obvious, like
jumping for joy or slumping in defeat.
Many are harder to define and more
difficult to pick up, but we can often
read such body language anyway—
especially when someone’s expression
doesn’t match up. The confident body
language but sad expression above
gives a strange mixed message.
We all try to conceal our emotions
sometimes. We try not to look
bored when visiting relatives or
try to look happy when we are sad.
Some people in public life make it
their business to smile all the time.
But the difference between a real
smile and a fake one is obvious if
you see them side by side—in a
real smile, the eyes smile, too.
Actors are judged by their abilityy to
express emotions that they do not
really feel. This can be difficult,
so one performance technique,
known as “the Method,” involves
actors becoming immersed in
the thoughts and emotions of
the characters they are playing.
Sometimes they do this so well that
they get completely carried away.
159
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BRAIN GAMES
BODY
TALK
It’s not only your words that say a lot
about you—your facial expressions and
the way you move your body do, too. In fact,
your body language often reveals a lot more
than you want it to, because you don’t realize
what you are doing. Try these exercises and
then check your answers on page 189 to see
how good you are at reading emotions.
B
A
B
A
Fake smiles
A real smile spreads across
your whole face, while a
fake smile is often mistimed,
crooked, and leaves the eyes
expressionless. Look at these
six faces and see if you can
sort the sham smiles from
the genuine ones.
C
C
D
D
E
F
Figuring faces
E
Facial expressions often speak louder than words.
Study the faces above and then see if you can match
them to these six different emotions: anger, disgust,
happiness, sadness, surprise, and contempt.
F
160
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
We alll have hab
bits thatt help us get thro
ough life. When you wash
your hands, do you stop to think
k ho
ow to get them wet, apply the
soap, use it to
o clean yo
our skin
n, and
d the
en rinse it off? Probably
no
ot. You
u auttomati
tiicall
llly do it, because iit’
t’s a habit. IItt’s also useful,
unlike
e bad habitts such as naill bitting. All habits are formed
by re
epetitio
on, whicch programs yo
our bra
ain so that you behave
lik
ke a robo
ot—and oncce formed, theyy can be very difficult to break.
Addiction
Programm
med behavior
The most destructive habits are called addictions.
The addictions that get in the news involve illegal drugs,
alcohol, and tobacco, but people can also become
addicted to things like sugary foods and chocolate.
If they keep eating them, they can get sick, but despite
this, they just can’t stop—they are stuck with a bad habit.
Habits are form
med by repeated pa
atterns of behavior
creating nerve networks in the brrain. These work
like the simple programs used in an appliance like a
washing machine—once it is turn
ned on, the program
runs by itself. So when you start b
brushing your teeth,
the habit progra
am takes over to ccomplete the job.
162
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Useful routine
Bad habits
Every day you do things without thinking much about them,
because they are part of your daily routine. If something like
washing your face becomes a habit, it helps ensure that you
do it even if you’re thinking about something else. So habits are
valuable when they make life easier and encourage you to do
the things that you need to do, which you might otherwise forget.
Unfortunately, it’s very easy to p
pick up bad habits. A lot
of people bite their fingernails o
or pick their noses. They
often do not know that they are doing it, because they
are thinking about something e
else. Sometimes this
doesn’t matter much, although it can be irritating for
others. But some bad habits ca
an be very damaging.
Triggers and prompts
Breaking
g a bad habit
Most habits are triggered by external signals. When
a driver sees a red light, it makes him or her perform a
series of actions that stops the car. It is like an instinct.
You can sometimes think up your own ways of prompting
useful habits—putting your toothbrush somewhere
obvious might prompt you to use it, for example.
A bad habit can
n be difficult to break because it is wired
into your brain. Even if you manag
ge to overcome a bad
habit for severa
al months, the wiring is still there, ready
to be reactivate
ed by the relevant ttrigger. Time may help,
but often the be
est tactic is to replace a bad habit with a
less damaging one.
163
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Most people who take up a sport are trying to win,
but this means that someone has to lose. The
difference is usually put down to fitness and ability,
but when physical skills are evenly matched, the
winner is often the competitor who has the
right mental attitude. The same
is probably true of life.
Confidence
Confidence is vital to winning, and this
has been proved by research. In one study,
24 people had their arms strength tested
before an arm-wrestling match. The
researchers deceived the competitors
into believing that the weaker participants
were the stronger ones. In ten out of 12
contests, the weaker wrestlers won!
Setting goals
To get anywhere, you need
to set yourself goals. But
don’t go for the long-term
goal of being the champion—
you need short-term
personal targets that you
can try to hit every day. If you
are a cyclist, for example,
your short-term goal could
be to achieve a faster time
than before—regardless of
who wins the race. This will
increase your confidence.
Visualization
Get in the right frame of mind by recalling the sensation
of success. Imagine yourself accepting the prize for first
place—it feels good, doesn’t it? This feeling can help you
win. Also, before the event, visualize yourself moving
smoothly through the activity, and you are more likely
do it perfectly when it matters.
164
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
i
ii
ii
ii
iv
v
v
vi
vii
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
HOW
OW WE G
GOT O
OUR
BRAINS
RA
Se
ensory tenttacles
enso
Ga
ather inform
mation that
must be proccessed by a
brrain of some kind,
ho
owever prim
mitive.
The most primitive animals do
not have brains. A jellyfish has
only a network of nerve fibers
extending over its body, with no
central control area to direct
ce
its
t actions. But most animals
have brains of some kind to
h
process sensory signals and
enable them to respond to
en
their surroundings. The part
of the brain that does this
processing has become hugely
enlarged in the human brain.
One part in particular—the
prefrontal cortex—has expanded
d
to give us our capacity for
abstract thought.
Human
Hea
ads and tail
ls
Simple
e animals
a
like jellyfis
jellyfish
sh do not
have brains because tthe
they hav
have
ve no
heads or tails. The evolutio
evolution of the
brain began
gan with the develop
developm
pment
of a “front
front end
end” to the
he
e body
body,
because once an animal
mal start
starts
using only one end
nd of itself to
explore its world,
rld, its sense organs
become grouped
ouped at that end.
e
The sense
e organs nee
need a nerve
center to
o process their
t
signals and
send instructions
struction to the rest off the
body. So even a snail
sna has a brain.
b
dedicated to
A large part of this owl’s brain is and ears—
decoding the signals from its eyes
r.
making it an extremely efficient hunte
Monkey
Intellect central
Super senses
For most animals, the main job of
the brain is to process data from the
senses. This function is often more
highly developed than it is in humans.
A dog has a much greater ability than
humans to identify scents, and some
owls can use sound alone to pinpoint
mice in total darkness. The brains of
these animals have a lot of mental
processing power, but compared to
us, it is used in different ways.
168
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
The part of the brain that seems to be the
main intellectual processing centre is the
bulge at the front, behind your forehea
ad—the
prefrontal cortex. This uses informatio
on from
the senses to form judgments, make choices,
and predict future events. It has expan
nded in
size throughout our evolution, pushin
ng the
human forehead forward compared to our
monkeylike ancestors. However, a stu
udy of
the brains of baboons—large monke
eys—has
shown that the human prefrontal corrtex is
not much bigger than theirs relative
e to the
rest of the brain. So it is likely that itts
structure has also changed.
Instinct and thought
For a shark, the taste of blood in
the water means only one thing—
food! For a human, it could mea
mean
several things: “Have I cut my
myself?
Is it someone else’s blood?
od Where
is the closest doctor? Will
Wi a shark
detect it? Help!” The difference
fference
f
is
that a shark doesn’t
esn’t giv
give th
the blood
much thought
ought but acts on instinct.
nstin
By contrast,
ontr
humans tend to think
nk
about
ou everything and may think so
much that they suppress instincts
mu
that are crucial to survival.
Human cr
H
creativity
cre
rea
eatitivi
tivit
vity
itty tto
took
a gre
great
rea
eat lea
leap
eap
ap fo
forward
forw
rw
rwa
ward
rd
around
aro
round 40,000 yea
years
ears
rs
ago, possibly bec
ag
because
ecause of
improved
impro
rove
ved
ed languag
language
age skills
skills.
lss.
Mostt of th
driiven by e behaviior of th
iis
iinheriitted
r ome g
in
i sttiinctts ffears
rrath
t er thanreat white shark
i
is
consciou
s though
tts
.
mans
hum
r
The first
g so
n did we get
Whyy and when
elligent? Our big brrains
inte
our
prrobably evolved as o
ually
social nature gradu
p
develop
o develo
drove us tto
language. The abiility
b
to talk and plan became
useful, so smartt people
suc
successful
more succ
were more
en
and had more children.
a
ms to have
This process seem
t the firsst human
n rise to
giiven
which
lis, whi
habilis,
pecies, Homo habil
sp
e primitive
evvolved from a more
around
ancestor a
apelike ance
ago
3 million years ago.
2.3
ed on
ures were paintg before
or hunting fig
lon
These dancing e northern Sahara Desert
the rocks of thme a desert.
the land beca
Intelligent ancestors
Ho
H
omo habilis
Kn
nown
wn as Hom
Homo habilis,
orr “handy man,”” because
e
th
hey were the first to
make stone tools.
By 160,000 years ago, our own species—
Homo sapiens—had evolved in Africa, and by
60,000 years ago, humans had spread across
mostt of the globe. Compared to humans today,
these people led primitive
mitive lives, but they needed
to be smart to survive. Studies of their sk
skulls
show that their brains were probably just like
ours, and they would have been just as capable
of operating complex devices like computers if
they had them. They have left evidence of their
intelligence in the rock art that still survives in
the p
places where they lived.
pla
169
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Charles
Darwin
embarked on
ly 23 when he his life and
Darwin was on
to change
s
wa
at
th
ge
eory.
the voya
volutionary th
inspire his re
English naturalist Charles Darwin revolutionized
d
the way we see the living world. His theory of
evolution by natural selection showed that
competition for scarce resources led to species
changing constantly through “the survival of the
fittest.” Published in 1859, the theory was a flash
of genius backed up by a mass of evidence—the
product of inspiration and a lot of hard work.
Distracted student
Born in England in 1809, Darwin went
to the University of Cambridge to study
for the church, but he was much more
interested in studying nature. He became
friends with John Stevens Henslow, a
professor of botany, and Adam Sedgwick,
one of the founders of modern geology.
In 1831, he was on a geology field trip with
Sedgwick when Henslow suggested that
he join the survey ship HMS Beagle as
“ship’s naturalist” on an expedition to
chart the coastline of South America.
When Darwin’s
When
Darw
rwin’s gre
rw
great
rea
eat theo
theory
eory
ry w
was
as published
published,
ed,
his fr
fri
friend
riend T. H. Huxley
ey said, “How ex
ext
extremely
xtr
tre
remel
ely
stupid of me not to have
ve thought of that!
t!”
The Beagle
voyage
The Be
agle
had to was a small
,
be virtu
ally rebcramped ship
rougheuilt to survive that
st seas
th
on Ear e
th.
Natural s
e
all
ycreepers
aiian hone e ancestor
m
These Haw
sa
e
th
om
evolved fr tural selection.
through na
The voyage lasted five
years, and while the crew
charted the coastal waters,
Darwin spent most of his
time on land. He explored
South America, where he
found fossils of giant extinct
animals. He visited the
Galápagos Islands, where
he saw that the animals on
neighboring islands were
similar but slightly different.
He wondered if they might have
changed over time—or evolved.
lection
Within one ye
ar of his return
in 1836, Darw
about how an
in was thinking
imals might ev
olve. He realiz
is difficult to fin
ed
that if food
d, animals th
at are less wel
find it tend to
l equipped to
starve, while
more favored
Since all anim
animals flour
als are slight
ish.
ly different from
some are born
their parents,
with advantag
es that help th
particular envi
em survive in
ronments. Th
is leads to the
species by a pr
evolution of ne
ocess that Dar
w
win called na
tural selectio
n.
170
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
HOW THE BRAIN
GROWS
Most of the development of the bra
ain takes place before
a baby is born, so at birth the brain contains almost all the
nerve cells that it will ever have. During childhood, these
cells are rearranged into increasin
ngly complex networks
that allow us to learn and rememb
ber. The brain reaches
peak weight in early adulthood and then starts to shrink.
3 weeks
7 weeks
11 weeks
Beginnings
During the early stages of a baby’s development in the
womb, the brain forms at the end of a tube of cellls that
eventually becomes the spinal cord. At first it rese
embles
the brain of a fish, with all the “primitive” parts well
formed. But at around 11 weeks, the cerebrum sttarts
to expand, until at birth it looks like a smaller version
ion
of a mature human brain.
Trimming down
Once the brain is up and running,
it starts economizing on nerve cells.
Inactivated cells are allowed to die
off—a process that starts at the age of
around four and continues for the rest of
your life. This does not affect the brain’s
efficiency, however, because inactive
brain cells have no function and simply
waste energy. So they are thrown away,
just like these spare girders being
tossed into a Dumpster.
17
72
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Making connections
During the months after birth, the brain
develops fast. At first it has a simple cell
structure that can control only the basic
survival functions. But every new
stimulus to the senses triggers the
restructuring of nerve cells into the
networks
t
k that
th t store
t
iinformation
f
ti and
d
enable us to think. Like the girders
below, they are rearranged into
a new, more complex form.
Older and wiser?
At times
es duri
during
ring
the gro
growth
rowt
w h of
wt
an unborn
rn baby,
tthe
he bbrain
rain ddeve
rai
ra
develops
eeve
velo
vel
ve
elops
at the ra
rate of
250,000 nerve
ner
erv
rvve cells
rve
cel
ells
ls
per
er minute.
minutee.
As you get olde
er, you definitely know more
about the world and are able to make better
decisions. But once you pass the age of 25, you
often become less able to learn new skills that
are not connected to the things you
already know. This mayy reflect the
fact that, in many people
e, the brain
gradually
gr
radually loses weight,
weight
ht, mostly
thro
ough the loss of brrain cells.
But this mental declin
ne is not
an inevitable process.
Use it or lose it
There is plenty of evidence that intellectual
challenges help slow down the decline of the
brain during old age. People such as musicians,
scientists, and political activists who keep working
well past normal retirement age often show very
few signs of mental aging until the last few
months of life. Solving problems may seem
like hard work, but
it probably keeps
your brain fit
and healthy.
Nelson Mandela
Structural failure
Some unlucky people suffer brain damage
in old age, or even younger. Some
may suffer a stroke, which cuts
off the blood supply to part
of the brain, causing some
of the brain tissue to die.
Others may get Alzheimer’s
disease, which makes brain
cells like these become
tangled up and stop
working, so sufferers can
Damaged brain cell
no longer think properly.
173
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Surgical precision
n
Thanks to three-dimensional computer-aided
guidance systems, brain surgeonss can reach
damaged areas without harming nearby
tissues. They can operate preciselly with
the aid of remote-controlled micro
oscopes—
shown in use here—and fiber-optic lighting.
mary
Prim
motor cortex
ory
Primary sens
cortex
Sensorryy
attion
associa
cortex
Premotor
cortex
frr ntal
Preffro
cortex
ual
Visu
ociation
asso
ex
corte
Brocca’s
arrea
l
Primary visua
cortex
Primary
orry cortex
audito
Auditory
rtex
association co
Wernicke’s
area
Dis
scovery and learnin
ng
When a brain surg
geon operates on a patient’s brain, the
area that is affected iis precisely located and recorded. Ass a
result, we now underrstand a lot more about the function of
various parts o
of the brain, and this has increased the
accura
acy and effectiveness of brain surgery.
Radiother
rapy
Some brain disease can be
treated by therapies that don’t
involve cutting into the brain.
They include radiotherapy,
which uses a be
eam of
radiation to destro
oy the
cells that cause cance
erous
brain tumors. The beam
is precisely targete
ed on
the basis of a comp
puter
simulation, as seen here
(right). It is painlesss but
has to be repeated
several tim
mes.
tes
Hippocra ysician Hippocrates, who
ph
ek
ient Gre
wrote
Anc
0 B.C.E.,
ound 460–37
described
lived from ar
n surgery. He
ai
br
on
s
xt
te
many
izures and
ms such as se
le
ob
pr
l
ta
en
m
mptoms of
gnized the sy
spasms, reco
on patients
, and operated
head injuries
actures.
fr
l
pes of skul
with certain ty
175
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
ANI
I AL
IMA
A
Trick and treat
Toolmakers
Many stories of animal intelligence
iinvolve
l th
their
i d
devising
i i ways off
getting at food. Some people who
put out food for garden birds, for
example, find that it is often stolen
by squirrels. The squirrels show
amazing ingenuity as they
overcome obstacles to break into
“squirrel-proof” bird feeders.
Hunger is a powerful motivator.
Several animals are able to make
and
d use ttools—a
l
skill
kill th
thatt was
once thought unique to humans.
Chimpanzees, for example, use
carefully selected straws and
sticks to pick edible termites from
their nests. If a stick is too thick
to poke into the holes in a nest, a
chimp will carefully peel back the
bark until it is just the right size.
Some insec
insects,
ect
cts
tss, such as termites,
ter
erm
rmites
ess,
es,
construct
constr
onstruct
struct
tru
ruct
ctt amaz
amazingly
aziinglly compl
comp
complex
lex
nests
nes
ests
es
ts using instinct
ct alone.
e.
176
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Cr
ow
A c s ar
r
e
pa ow o very
ck
f
f
ca age ered brigh
p
of able in a a sm t bir
ho wire of p glas all ds.
the ok, w and icki s tu food
foo hic ben ng u be i
d f h it din p a s
rom us
g
p
the es t it int iece
o
tub pu o a
ll
e.
If you have a dog, you probably think it is
intelligent. Sometimes it will do something
that amazes you. But that is becau
use we do
not expect animals to think. We exxpect them
to use the instincts that are programmed into
their brains at birth rather than m
make
ake use of
the information in their memoriess to solve
problems. But some animals do jju
p
ust that.
BRAIN GAMES
New trick
s for old
dogs
If you have a d
og, he or she
may already
know how to
sit, stay, lie do
wn, and beg.
So here are tw
o more tricks
to add to the
collection of sk
ills.
Trick 1
T
It’s not just dogs that can be taught new
tricks—many pets can be taught to do
something. Even your goldfish can be
coached to impress your friends if you
train it. Here are some fun activities to
try with all sorts of pets—but you must
check with an adult before you start.
Next time your dog yawns,
ask him, “Are you sleepy?”
Do this everyy time you
you
catch him yawning and
praise him as he do
oes it.
Eventually, he will yawn
whenever you ask him
if he is sleepy.
ing!
tertainment,
Ham-stand
vide lots of en
ro
p
n
ca
rs
e
is is a good
Hamst
get bored. Th
ly
si
a
e
n
ca
ep
but they
e with them, ke
m
ti
f
o
ts
lo
d
cool trick.
way to spen
teach them a
d
n
a
,
e
iv
ct
a
them
T
Trick
k 2
You can also teach your
dog to wa
alk or run around
you in circcles. Start by
showing h
him a treat and
then moving it around your
body so th
hat he follows it.
Reward h
him with the treat
and congrratulate him.
Step 1
Show your hamster a treat
in your hand and then
hold it above its head.
It is
s possible to teach
an old d
dog new tricks, but
they may not learn as
quick
kly as when they
were young.
w
Step 2
Say, “Stand” until your
hamster reaches up on
two legs to get the treat
and give it lots of praise
once it does. If you repeat
this often enough, your
hamster will associate
you saying “stand” with
a treat and will rise up
on command.
178
You can also do this
with other commands. Try
saying “paw” while holding
a treat in front of your
hamster––it will reach
a paw to get it!
Yo
Young
hamsters—around
hamster
ers
rs—aro
round one
or two
wo months old—are
re the
easiest
easies
ea
est to tr
es
train.
tra
rain.
Take your
pig for a guinea
walk
Guinea pigs mig
ht not be
as smart as dogs
, but they
are intelligent en
ough to
be trained to wal
k on a
leash. This gives
you the
chance to give yo
ur pet
some exercise an
d to show
it off to your frie
nds.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Step
S
t
1
Start by getting a leash
small enough for your
guinea pig. Sit it on
your lap with its favorite
food and give it a lot of
attention. While it is
eating, slip the leash on,
and let your pet get used
to wearing it for a while.
180
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Computer power
If you program a computer or robot to pla
ay chess, it runs through
hundreds of thousands of options before making each move. It does
this in seconds, but it’s inefficient compa
ared to an intelligent human
player who, with experience, will explore
e only the best moves. Yet it’s
not the robot’s fault—it’s the way it’s been programmed. A better
program might enable it to work more in
ntelligently.
Tireless robots
Many factories now use robots to
o
work on production lines. They
are controlled by computers that
are programmed with all the
instructions for the task. They
work fast and they always do it
right. The computers never
forget anything vital and the
robots never get tired. This
makes them ideal for complex
p
but repetitive jobs. But they onlyy
do what they are programmed
to do, because they don’t know
how to do anything else,
and they can’t learn.
Most of us usse machines such as computers and
calculators that seem to be able to do things better
than we can. Many products such as cars arre even
made by robo
ots. But can these machines think?
Mostly they can’t—they simply follow instructions
that have bee
en programmed into them by pe
eople
who do the th
hinking for them. But we are fin
nding
ways
y of making
g computers
p
and robots learn
n from
their mistakes, and this is enabling some
machin
nes to display a form of intelligence.
181
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Thinking about thinking
One day a device with artificial intelligence might
be able to find ways of programming itself to think
more efficiently. This would then lead to even
better programming and therefore even smarter
thinking. We could end up in a world in which
machines are much smarter than we are.
Understanding inte
elligence
Intelligent mach
hines can do more than
play chess or make cars. One really useful
application is to
o make use of their excellent
memorries. Everything we know
about a subject can
be programmed into
a machine, which can
then be used as an
electronic expert. This
has already been tried
for medical conditions.
The machine processes
all the facts about the
patient’s problem, figures
out what it is, and comes
up with the right treatment.
When we learn, nerve cells in our brains are
rewired into new networks. Engineers have
found ways of making computer
circuits automatically do the
same thing in response to
good or bad results. This
means they can “learn”
and display what is known
as artificial intelligence.
Getting machines to act intelligently is proving very
difficult and demands immense com
mputing power—
which just shows how complex our brains are.
But part of the problem is that we do not really
know how human intelligence works, and
we cannot replicate something tha
at we do
not understand. We might be able
e to
get simple computers to think
intelligently if we only knew
how to program them.
Useful ap
pplications
Art
tificial intelligence
BRAIN GAMES
PROGRAM YOUR
To perform even the simplest
task, your brain weighs up a
constant flow of information
from your senses and
effortlessly decides what
to do. A machine, however,
can only follow instructions.
These games reveal how
difficult it is to give and
interpret instructions.
FRIEND
Step 2
time
:
Puzzling
You will need
LVVRUV
an
VF
is
G
DQ
ǩ3DSHU
A tangram
e
es
HU
in
ǩ5XO
ancient Ch
LOV
be
n
ca
ǩ&RORUHGSHQF
at
th
le
puzz
or pens
any
arranged in m
ǩ$IULHQG
.
es
shap
ways to make
here
Your challenge
nd
ie
fr
is to guide a
s
to make picture
apes.
from these sh
You are going to help your friend
make a picture. However, he or
she doesn’t know what it is. Choose
a picture from this page. Now give
your friend precise one-step
instructions as to how to arrange the
pieces. For example, say, “Take the
small brown square and place it on
its point.” This is surprisingly tricky.
Step 1
Using the tangram below as a guide, draw
a square on a piece of paper and divide it
into seven individual shapes. Then color
and cut out each shape.
Step 3
Next it is your turn to make a
picture based on the instructions
of your friend. How does it feel
to be the person receiving the
instructions? How did you
do compared to your friend?
182
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Picture this
How good are your
friends at giving
clear instructions to
achieve a common
goal? Find out with
this activityy!
You will need:
ǩ3DSHU
ǩ&RORUHGSHQFLOVRUSHQV
ǩ$WOHDVWIRXUIULHQGV
ǩ6WRSZDWFK
Play time!
Working in pairs, the
object of this task is to
direct your blindfolded
partner to throw the
ball and hit another
blindfolded player
using simple command
s.
You will need:
Ņ Several blindfolds
ǩ6PDOOIRDPEDOO
ǩ$WOHDVWVL[IULHQGV
ǩ6WRSZDWFK
ǩ$QDGXOWWRKHOSMXGJ
H
Step 1
Step 1
Draw a picture—it can be an animal or a person
such as a clown or a queen. Place the picture in
another room so no one gets to see it.
Get into pairs and
stand in a circle.
One person in each
pair must put on a
blindfold. Set a time
e
limit of ten minutess
IRUWKHH[HUFLVH7KH
game begins with one
blindfolded player
holding the ball.
Step 2
Pick one of your friends to recreate the drawing from
instructions given by the others. He or she is not allowed
to say anything during the activity. Set a time limit of
WHQPLQXWHVWRFRPSOHWHWKHH[HUFLVH
Step 3
One person then goes out of the room to look at
the picture and can only answer questions by saying
Ǥ\HVǥRUǤQRǥZKHQDVNHGE\WKHWHDP7KHLOOXVWUDWRU
has to listen to the questions and answers and draw
a picture of what he or she thinks is being described.
Step 2
7KHSOD\HUVZKRDUHEOLQGIROGHGDUHLQVWUXFWHGE\
WKHLUSDUWQHUVKRZWRWKURZWKHEDOO)RUH[DPSOHVD\
“Move to your right one step. Now throw.” Or tell them
when to duck so that they can defend themselves.
When the ball lands near their partner, they must give
clear instructions for retrieving the ball, such as
“Bend down and reach out with your right hand.”
Step 4
When the time limit is up, compare the picture
with the original and see how closely it matches.
If it doesn’t, figure out where things went wrong
VR\RXZLOOGREHWWHUQH[WWLPH
Step 3
When the time limit
is up, you can switch
the blindfold to the
other player and start
DJDLQ$VNDQDGXOW
to judge on how good
you and your friends
were at either
listening or giving
clear instructions.
183
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
G
GLOSSARY
anatomy
cerebellum
instinct
The study of the structure of
living things.
A part of the brain that helps control
balance and movement.
An automatic feeling or action.
association
cerebral cortex
The process by which new memories
are linked to memories already
stored in the brain.
The entire wrinkly outer part of the
brain that is responsible for sensory
processing, memory, voluntary
movement, and thinking.
intellectual
atom
The smallest particle of a substance.
Some substances such as oxygen
contain only one type of atom, while
others like water contain more than
one type of atom.
attention
The first stage in committing
something to memory by focusing
on the moment or on the task at hand.
auditory
Having to do with hearing and sound.
cerebral
hemisphere
One half of the cerebral cortex,
or cerebrum.
mimicry
A form of learning in which good or
bad experiences create an automatic
response to similar experiences.
Copying the appearance or behavior
of another person.
Being mentally aware.
consciousness
A state of mental awareness.
A short fiber extending from a nerve
cell, or neuron, that picks up signals
from other nerve cells.
evolution
brain stem
The process by which things change
slowly into different forms, usually
applied to living things.
The region at the base of the brain
where it joins the spinal cord.
frontal lobe
cell
The smallest unit of a living thing.
Many living things such as bacteria
consist of only one cell, but the human
body is made up of many cells,
specialized for different jobs.
central nervous
system
The brain and spinal cord.
Sound reasoning that draws correct
conclusions from basic facts.
molecule
dendrite
The part of the brain that controls
speech production.
A part of the brain that plays a role in
automatic body functions, emotions,
and the sense of smell.
conditioning
bacteria
Broca’s area
limbic system
logic
conscious
The study of plants.
Believing that you know something
without knowing why. This is
sometimes called a “sixth sense.”
Another name for the cerebral
cortex, the cerebrum forms most
of the human brain.
The long fiber that extends from
a nerve cell, or neuron. Nerve signals
pass down the axon in one direction,
away from the main body of the cell,
to stimulate other cells.
botany
intuition
cerebrum
axon
Microscopic organisms with a simple
single-celled structure. Some types
of bacteria can cause disease.
Anything to do with thinking.
The front part of each cerebral
hemisphere, which plays an important
role in thinking.
The smallest particle of a substance
that can exist without breaking the
substance into its component atoms.
A single water molecule, for example,
consists of two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom.
motor area
The region of the brain responsible
for voluntary (controlled) movement
of the body.
nerve
A bundle of fibers extending from
nerve cells (neurons) that carries
nerve signals, or impulses, between
the brain and other parts of the body.
nerve cell
The study of rocks.
A specialized cell, also known as a
neuron, that carries nerve signals
from and to all parts of the body
and forms networks in the brain.
hair cell
nerve impulse
geology
A cell equipped with a tiny flexible
“hair” that is attached to nerves.
hormone
A substance released into the blood by
a gland that effects change in another
part of the body.
An electrical signal that passes along
the fibers extending from nerve cells
(neurons) and carries coded information
to the brain or other organs.
neuron
A single nerve cell.
184
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
nucleus
prejudice
spectrum
The control center of a cell.
A judgment that is made before
examining the facts.
The entire range of visible colors,
as seen in a rainbow.
Having to do with the sense of smell.
prodigy
spinal cord
parallax
Someone who displays great talents
or abilities at an unusually early age.
The main bundle of nerve fibers.
It extends from the brain, down
to the lower backbone.
olfactory
A visual effect that makes close
objects appear to move more than
distant objects when you move your
head and eyes. It is important in the
perception of distance.
program
parietal lobe
A list of instructions that directs
the operation of an electronic device
such as a computer. The term is also
used to describe the code that
controls some biological functions.
The part of the brain that interprets
touch, pain, and temperature.
psychology
The science of the mind.
perception
The process of becoming aware of
something through your senses.
peripheral nervous
system
The outer network of small nerves
that are connected to the muscles,
skin, and all the organs besides
the brain. It is linked to the central
nervous system.
personality
The combination of character traits
that makes you an individual.
perspective
A visual effect that makes parallel
lines such as railroad tracks appear
to converge with distance.
PET scan
A medical scanning technique using
a system called positron emission
tomography, often used to detect
and locate activity in the brain.
philosophy
The study of the nature of knowledge.
phobia
A fear of something that has no
rational basis.
placebo effect
A psychological response to medical
treatment whereby the patient
believes that his or her health has
improved, even if the medicine they
received was fake.
prefrontal cortex
The area of the brain that is most
actively involved in thinking.
recall
The process of consciously retrieving
a memory from the brain.
receptor
A structure that responds to
a stimulus such as touch, light,
or temperature.
recognition
The process of identifying
familiar knowledge when it is
presented to you.
reflex
An automatic reaction by nerves
that triggers movement—for example,
in response to sharp pain.
retina
The sheet of light-sensitive cells
at the back of the eye.
robot
A mechanical device that
automatically performs a task
under the control of a computer.
Often used to describe a machine
that resembles a human.
stereotype
A fixed idea or image of something,
often based on very little evidence.
telepathy
The ability to read the mind of another
person, probably through experience
and guesswork rather than true
mental communication.
thalamus
The part of the brain near its base that
acts as a relay station for information
from all the senses except smell.
therapy
Any treatment designed to relieve
physical or psychological illness.
3-D (threedimensional)
The term used to describe objects that
have volume, with the third dimension
of depth as well as the two other
dimensions of height and width.
unconscious
Having to do with mental activity that
does not involve any thought.
Wernicke’s area
The part of the brain that interprets
sound and visual data, vital to
understanding language.
sensory
Having to do with the senses: sight,
hearing, taste, smell, and touch.
somatic sensory
cortex
The part of the brain that analyzes
nerve signals from the skin,
muscles, and joints.
spatial
Having to do with shape and space.
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
ANSWERS
78–79 Mastering mazes
The one-hand rule
6–7 Your amazing brain
Perfect pair
A
Do you remember?
Shapes A and F fit
together to make
the hexagon.
F
1. The shower
2. Running, skiing, swimming,
playing soccer
3. His lungs
4. Red
5. His cat
6. Fish
7. One
8. Cat, dog, fish, bird, snail, rabbit
9. Bacon and eggs frying
10. An injured finger
Right or left?
Feel lost?
If you got more than six
answers right, your memory
is in great shape.
Trial and error
66–67 Do you remember?
Recognition vs. recall
Step 1
Step 2
1. Israel—Jerusalem
2. France—Paris
3. India—New Delhi
4. Russia—Moscow
5. Czech Republic—Prague
6. Germany —Berlin
7. Afghanistan—Kabul
8. Canada—Ottowa
9. Denmark—Copenhagen
10. Argentina—Buenos Aires
1. Spain—Madrid
2. Ireland—Dublin
3. China—Beijing
4. Sweden—Stockholm
5. Iraq—Baghdad
6. Netherlands—Amsterdam
7. Japan—Tokyo
8. Italy—Rome
9. Egypt—Cairo
10. Greece—Athens
Amazing mazes
68–69 Paying attention
Spot the difference
Who’s who?
Freddy is
Tortoise B.
Over and under
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
80–81 Puzzling patterns
90–91 Brainteasers
All alone
Carnival money
Two at a time
The one creature that doesn’t
appear twice is the wasp.
The three boys initially paid $10 each,
or $30. They are then given $3 back,
which means they paid a total of $27
(the $25 entrance fee plus the $2
pocketed by the sales assistant). The
$27 added to the $3 refund equals $30,
so there’s no missing money. In the
puzzle, the $2 taken by the assistant is
added to the $27 to create confusion.
Brother 1 and Brother 2 cross
together, taking two minutes.
Brother 1 returns, taking one minute.
The father and grandfather cross
together, taking ten minutes.
Brother 2 returns, taking two minutes,
then Brother 1 and Brother 2 cross
together, taking two minutes.
2 + 1 + 10 + 2 + 2 = 17, so they should
get to the train just in time.
Thinking ahead
Each part of the sequence begins
with two yellow cupcakes and ends
with a purple cupcake, and the
number of pink cupcakes in between
increases by one each time. The
yellow cupcakes at the beginning
of the sequence are at numbers
1, 5, and 10—the difference between
the numbers increases by one each
time. This means the next yellow
cupcakes starting a new sequence
will be at 16, 23, 31, 40, 50, 61, 73,
86, and 100. So the 49th cupcake
will be purple and the 100th cupcake
will be yellow.
A face in the crowd
The frustrated farmer
The right door
The farmer crosses first with the
chicken and leaves it on the other
side. He then returns, picks up the fox,
and crosses again. Then he swaps the
fox for the chicken so that they are not
left together, and takes the chicken
back. He then swaps the chicken for
the grain and takes the grain across,
leaving it with the fox. He then
returns, picks up the chicken, and
takes it to the other side.
The prisoner should ask each of the
guards, “If I asked the other guard
which is the door to freedom, what
would he say?” If the door to freedom
is the red one and he asked the guard
who told the truth, the guard would say
the blue door, because he would know
the other guard would lie. If he asked
the guard who always told lies, the
guard would lie and say the blue door.
Either way, the answer would be the
same—they would both reveal the door
with the lion behind it, and the prisoner
should take the other door to freedom.
Find the treat
She should choose Jar 2.
1. Lentils
2. Cookies
3. Flour
4. Beans
5. Pepper
6. Rice
Who passed the package?
Stacey started the game.
Spot the sequence
92–93 Thinking inside the box
A blue, an orange, and a blue
flower complete the sequence.
Tips and tricks
3 6
2 7
Missing pieces
The four missing puzzle pieces are
J, K, G, and F.
J
K
G
8
1
1 9 2
3 5 4
Starter Sudoku
4 7
8 6
5
9
Slightly harder
1
7
6
4
5
3
4
9
9 3 1 7 8 6
5 7 6 1 2 4
2
5
3
9
4
5
8
6
7
3
1
2
2
8
5
8
2
9
7
6
1
3
4
7
2
8
8
3 5
4
6
4 7 8
9 1
4
3
6
2
1
8
9
5
7
6
1
3
2
5
9
1
9
7
4
3
5
6
2
8
4
9
8
1
6
7 2
3
6
2
9
5
8
1
7
4
3
5
4
1
7
9
2
8 6
7
5
3
6
4
9
2
8
1
9
8
7
6
1
3
5 4
8
1
4
7
2
3
5
9
6
3
6
2
8
4
5
9 1
Now try this
What to do
16
21
F
7
17
15
Perfect pairs
7
15
8
15
6
3
5
2
3
1
5
9
17
17
19
3
9
6
9
7 4
4
14
13
14
11
8
9
8
9 1 4
3 2 8
8 2 7
5 6 9
2
8
9
5
6
7
3
4 1
6
7
3
1
9
5
4
8 2
9
1
5
8
4
2
7
3 6
5
8
2
4
7
3
6
9
1 5
3
5
3
2
4
7
1
6
9 8
2
4
6
8
2
5
9
1
7 3
7
7
9
1
6
8
3
2
5 4
15
27
25
8
6
7
12
3
8
3 5
1 4
Getting tricky
4
9
28
6
9
3
21
11
8
28
7
3 5
16
18
9
6
8
17
13
6
7
15
8
5
8
6
15
7
29
9
9
17
17
7
28
9
24
7
9
5
4
9
8
3
17
9
8
7
6
8
8
2
1
9
187
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
96–9
97 Think of a number
Puzzliing pyramid
120
70
30
25
Pass or fail?
Eleven strawberries balance one
pineapple and three bananas.
Susan receives ten points for each
of the correct questions, which gives
her 150 points. But she got five wrong
and five points are deducted for each,
making a total of 25.
50
26
44
The weighing game
14
5
24
12
9
12
150 – 25 = 125
9
3
Susan has passed the test.
Only one chance
54 x 3 = 162
Flower power
Add the three
largest numbers
and then multiply
them with the
smallest.
5
105
05 6
7 10
8
Pineapple = 5 strawberries
Orange = 4 strawberries
Apple = 3 strawberries
Banana = 2 strawberries
Dazzling stars
Pieces of eight
Multiple fractions
888 + 88 + 8 + 8 + 8 = 1,000
The answer is 5.
1
2
3
4
102–103 Seeing in 2-D
104–105 Thinking in 3-D
Up and down
Different angles
Four triangles
Basket A will move up and
and Basket B will move down.
The two matching shapes
are A and F.
The pencils are moved
into a 3-D shape called
a tetrahedron (triangular
pyramid) with a triangle
at the base and three
triangular sides.
Five into four
A
F
View from the top
Upside-down triangle
e
The correct overhead
position is F.
Bottoms up
The color of the
face-down side in the
third picture is green.
Equal division
Boxing clever
Box C shows the correct
pattern of fruit.
188
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
Find the shape
Shape A shows the
remaining pink section.
128–129 Are you a creative spark?
A dotty challenge
114–115 Having a word
Odd ones out
ǩcat and cone
7KHUHVWDUHERDWUHODWHG
ǩstapler and ruler
<RXFDQǢWXVHWKHPWRZULWH
ǩMoon and Sun
$OOWKHUHVWDUHSODQHWV
ǩdolphin and sea horse
7KH\DUHQRWELUGV
ǩrun and laugh
7KHRWKHUVDUHQRXQV
Quick comparisons
ǩ%LUGLVWREHDNDVKXPDQ
LVWRPRXWK
ǩ(\HVDUHWRVLJKWDVQRVH
LVWRVPHOO
ǩ,QLVWRRXWDVRIILVWRRQ
ǩ3HQLVWRLQNDVEUXVKLVWRSDLQW
ǩ7ULF\FOHLVWRWKUHHDVELF\FOH
LVWRWZR
Like and unlike
LIKE
ǩKXQJU\DQGVWDUYLQJ
ǩWLUHGDQGVOHHS\
ǩVFDU\DQGVSRRN\
ǩVLOO\DQGIRROLVK
UNLIKE
ǩSUDLVHDQGVFRUQ
ǩHGJHDQGFHQWHU
ǩUDWLRQDODQGLOORJLFDO
ǩOHDYHDQGUHWXUQ
Natural talent
4—B 7KHVXUIDFHVWUXFWXUHRIDORWXV
OHDIVWRSVZDWHUDQGGLUWIURPEXLOGLQJ
XSRQWKHSODQW7KLVKDVLQVSLUHGD
W\SHRISDLQWWKDWLVVHOIFOHDQLQJ
1—E7KHEXOOHWWUDLQǢVXQLTXH
QRVHFRQHGHVLJQZDVLQVSLUHGE\
WKHEHDNRIDNLQJȌVKHU7KHGHVLJQ
HQDEOHVWKHWUDLQWRJRIDVWHUXVH
OHVVHQHUJ\DQGUHGXFHQRLVHOHYHOV
5—C $IWHUVWXG\LQJWKHZD\DFDWǢV
H\HVUHȍHFWHGOLJKW3HUF\6KDZ
GHYHORSHGKLVFDWVH\HURDGUHȍHFWRU
LQ7RGD\FDWVH\HUHȍHFWRUVDUH
XVHGWKURXJKRXWWKHZRUOG
2—D 0HUFHGHV%HQ]KDVGHYHORSHG
DFRQFHSWFDUEDVHGRQWKHDQJXODU
ERG\VKDSHRIWKHWUXQNȌVK7KH
VKDSHPDNHVWKHFDUVSDFLRXVEXW
OLJKWZHLJKWDQGLWXVHVOHVVIXHO
Lateral thinking
3—A6KDUNVNLQLVPDGHXSRIWLQ\
WRRWKOLNHVFDOHVWKDWDOORZVKDUNV
WRJOLGHWKURXJKWKHZDWHU7KLV
IHDWXUHKDVEHHQXVHGE\VZLPVXLW
Fill in the blanks
KLGHRXVWDOOEORRGFXUGOLQJ
VHFRQGJULSSHGFKDQFHVKRFN
JOLPSVHVXUSULVHȍHZ
Riddle A:5RPHRDQG-XOLHWDUH
JROGȌVK7KH\GLHGZKHQWKHLUERZO
IHOODQGVPDVKHGWRSLHFHV
Riddle B: 7KURZWKHEDOOVWUDLJKW
XSLQWRWKHDLU
Riddle C:7KHPDQǢVKRUVHZDV
QDPHG:HGQHVGD\
144–145 What makes
you tick?
160–161 Body talk
Male or female brain?
AǟVXUSULVHBǟDQJHU CǟKDSSLQHVV
DǟGLVJXVWEǟKDWUHGFǟVDGQHVV
,I\RXDQVZHUHGǤ\HVǥWRWKUHH
RUPRUHTXHVWLRQV\RXKDYH
SUHGRPLQDQWO\IHPDOHEUDLQVNLOOV
)HPDOHEUDLQVWHQGWREHEHWWHUDW
XQGHUVWDQGLQJHPRWLRQVIHHOLQJV
DQGUHDGLQJERG\ODQJXDJH0DOH
EUDLQVJHQHUDOO\KDYHWKH
DGYDQWDJHZKHQLWFRPHVWR
XQGHUVWDQGLQJPDSVDQGWHFKQLFDO
PDWWHUVDQGQRWLFLQJGHWDLO*LUOV
FDQKDYHPDOHW\SHEUDLQVDQG
ER\VFDQKDYHIHPDOHW\SHEUDLQV
EXWPRVWRIXVKDYHDXQLTXH
PL[WXUHRIVNLOOVVRPHZKHUH
EHWZHHQWKHWZRW\SHV
Body clock
118-119 Words aloud
PDQXIDFWXUHUVWRKHOS
FRPSHWLWLYHVZLPPHUV
VKDYHFUXFLDOVHFRQGV
RIIWKHLUWLPHV
*LYH\RXUVHOIIRXUSRLQWVIRUHDFK
$WKUHHIRUHDFK%WZRIRUHDFK&
DQGRQHIRUHDFK'
6—11 points<RXǢUHDQLJKWRZOZKR
OLNHVWRVWD\XSODWHEXWPDNHVXUH\RX
GRQǢWPLVVRXWRQVOHHS*HWWLQJ
HQRXJKVOHHSLVLPSRUWDQWǟLI\RX
GRQǢW\RXPD\EHJUXPS\DQG\RXU
VFKRROZRUNPD\VXIIHU
12—18 points <RXǢUHQHLWKHUDQRZO
RUDQHDUO\ELUGEXWKDYHVHQVLEOH
VOHHSLQJKDELWV
19—24 points<RXǢUHDQHDUO\ELUGDQG
ZDNHXSUHDG\WRVHL]HWKHGD\ǟEXWWU\
QRWWRGLVWXUEWKHRWKHUV
Figuring faces
Sham smiles
6PLOHV$&DQG(DUHIDNH
Body language
A—Dishonesty
3HRSOHRIWHQȌGJHWZKHQWKH\DUH
O\LQJVRZDWFKRXWLIVRPHRQHUXEV
DQH\HSOD\VZLWKWKHLUKDQGVRU
IHHWRUSXOOVDQHDU
B—Mimicking
:KHQSHRSOHJHWDORQJUHDOO\ZHOOWKH\
RIWHQXQFRQVFLRXVO\FRS\HDFKRWKHUǢV
ERG\ODQJXDJH
C—Dominance
$UHOD[HGDQGIRFXVHGSRVWXUHRIWHQ
PHDQVWKDWWKHSHUVRQIHHOVVXSHULRU
RUSRZHUIXO
D—Aggression
$ȌJKWPD\EHRQWKHFDUGVZKHQWZR
SHRSOHIDFHHDFKRWKHUDQGVWDUHZKLOH
WKHLUERGLHVDUHWLOWHGVOLJKWO\DZD\
IURPHDFKRWKHU
E—Defensiveness
&ORVHGSRVWXUHVDUHDJRRGLQGLFDWLRQ
RIGHIHQVLYHQHVVǟORRNRXWIRUIROGHG
OHJVDQGDUPVFURVVHGDQNOHVDQG
FOHQFKHGKDQGV
F—Submission
6K\RUHPEDUUDVVHGVWDQFHVDUH
FRPPRQZKHQVRPHRQHLVEHLQJ
VXEPLVVLYHǟSHRSOHRIWHQORRNDW
WKHJURXQGDQGVRPHWLPHVKLGH
WKHLUKDQGV
189
(c) 2011 Dorling Kindersley. All Rights Reserved.
reflexes 17, 45, 185
relativity, theory of 72–73
relaxation 157
religion 88
repetition 77
retina 24, 25, 185
riddles 129
robots 180–181, 185
rocket science 108–109
Rosetta stone 122–123
routine 163
Rubik’s Cube 101, 105
S
saliva 40, 43
scanning techniques 19,
174–175, 185
scientific thinking 12, 82
self-awareness 138–139
of animals 177
semicircular canals 35, 52
senses 6, 19, 24–57,
185
shapes
recognition of 15, 29
rotating (3-D) 101
sharks 168
sign language 112, 177
sixth sense 56–57
skin 44–45, 53
sleep 10, 18
dreams 57, 150–151
sleepwalking 151
smell 40–43, 63, 148
snakes 61
social skills 116, 140, 153
somatic sensory cortex 19, 44,
53, 185
soul, concept of 138
sounds 34–37
space
conditions in 37, 42
rocket science 108–109
spatial skills 6, 13, 82,
100–105, 185
spectrum 25, 185
speech see language
spinal cord 16, 17, 185
sports 82, 101, 164–165
squirrels 176
stapes 35, 36
stereotypes 61, 185
stomach 52
storytelling 117, 119,
128, 132
stress 148, 157
strokes 173, 174
Sudoku 92
superstitions 89
surgery 174–175
T
taste 40–43
taxi drivers, London 103
tears 153
telepathy 56, 185
temperature 47
termites 176
testosterone 144
thalamus 10, 41, 44,
156, 185
thinking 7, 18, 60–61
conscious and unconscious
61
creative 130–131
energetic 131
inspired 57
language and 117
lateral 129, 130
logical and illogical
86–91
machines and 180–181
mathematical 12, 82,
94–95
in pictures 100
rational 12
scientific 12, 82, 117
visual 130
3-D (three-dimensional)
100–101, 104–105, 185
tire, pneumatic 107
tongue 40, 43, 112
toolmakers 176
touch 44–47
treasure hunt 133
triggers 163
tumors 174, 175
twins 56, 140
U
unconscious mind 148–149, 185
universe 95
V
Velcro 106
visual skills 66, 112, 119, 130
see also eyesight
visualization 164
vocal cords 112
von Braun, Wernher 108–109
W
Wernicke’s area 18, 19,
112, 185
wheel, invention of 107
Williams, Venus and Serena
21
word games 114–115,
118–119
writing 12, 120–121, 135
Credits
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Niki Foreman, Karen Georghiou, Fran Jones,
Ashwin Khurana, and Eleri Rankine for
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Willis for retouching; Mark Longworth for
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design; Jaime Vives Piqueres for help with
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