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NYPL RESEARCH LIBRARIES
3 3433 08757658 7
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VEO
( Hode
THE
PRACTICAL STONE-CUTTER
AND
MASON'S ASSISTANT.
BEING A COLLECTION OF EVERYDAY EXAMPLES
SHOWING
ARCHES, RETAINING WALLS, BUTTRESSES, SKEW -ARCHES,
VAULTS, DOMES AND SEMI-DOMES,
QUOINS, GROINS, ETC.,
WITH EXPLANATIONS OF THE MOST APPROVED AND
ECONOMICAL METHODS OF WORKING THEM OUT ;
TOGETHER WITH
A COPIOUS DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOLS USED BY STONE,
CUTTERS,
SHOWING METHODS OF USE , ETC., ETC.
Fio
BY FRED T. HODGSON,
ARCHITECT,
AUTHOR OF
>
“ THE STEEL SQUARE AND ITS USES, ” “ PRACTICAL CARPENTRY,
BUILDERS' GUIDE,” “ PLASTER AND PLASTERING," ETC. , ETC.
OVER ONE HUNDRED EXPLANATORY ILLUSTRATIONS.
13
NEW YORK :
ry
LibraCOMPANY.
THE INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION
ic
,
t York Pu9bl
Copyrigh search 189 , by John
777C9I2RC8 EAST 67th STREET
ULATI
NDGEP
A
RTME
NT
66 THE
THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY
1544723
ASTOR , LENOX AND
TILDEN FOUNDATIONS
B
1941
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75576
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693
PREFACE .
H2
volume is the outcome of many questions that have been put to
HIS little
THIS
me by inquiring, progressive masons during my quarter of
of experience as editor of a building journal.
a century
No matter how good a me
chanic a man may be, if he practices his profession he will meet almost every
day with conditions that will tax his skill to the utmost to conquer ; and in
order to help him to surmount these new—to him-conditions with as little
trouble as possible, the contents of this little volume has been compiled.
The information given herein is not by any means original, for I take it
that little new matter on the subject under discussion can be advanced ; but
CTO2.RACDNSTFER
71941
the best and most concise methods and descriptions, from my point of view ,
are here presented, so far as they extend.
It is not presumed that the whole ground is covered, or, indeed, that a
large portion of it has been touched in these pages. The art of masonry is
an extensive one, and a dozen volumes of the dimensions of this one would
barely suffice to discuss the subject thoroughly. It is claimed, however, that
the treatise presented contains enough useful matter, if well studied by the
young workman , to enable him to accomplish any ordinary work that he
may be called upon to do .
To the advanced mason who has had much experience in the erection of
large buildings,
reminder, for it
experience have
overcome them ;
this work does not contain much to commend it, except as a
is to be supposed that all masons of twenty or thirty years'
had to wrestle with all the problems presented—and have
but to the young and progressive mason and stone-cutter
the book will prove an invaluable companion.
In this compilation I have drawn freely from Gwilt, Harvey, Lawrence,
Ira Baker, Warren , Seddens, Rondelet and others, and I hereby acknowledge
my indebtedness to their works, and may say in conclusion that in several
instances I have modified and modernized their methods, and added some
few things that have been found to suit our time to better advantage.
F. T. H.
New YORK, N. Y. ,
1897 .
1
CONTENTS,
Page.
INTRODUCTORY.-- Art of Building in Stone ; Cyclopean Masonry of the Ancients ;
Stonehenge ; The Pyramids ; Gothic Cathedrals ; Meaning of the word "“
ma
son ; " Hints to the Young Workman
CHAPTER I . -_ DESCRIPTION OF Tools. - Waller's Hammer ; Spalling Hammer ; Scab
bling Hammer ; Puncheon ; Stone Axe ; Granite Pick ; Finishing Axe; Mason's
8
Saw ; Polishing and Grinding :
CHAPTER II.- GENERAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES. -Fine Axe Work ; Hammer-blocked
Work ; Hammer-faced Work ; Lewis Bolts, with Plug and Feathers ; Cleavage of
Stones ; Mitering Tools and Rules ; Mallets ; Steel Squares ; Marking Hammers ;
Chisels ; Points and Straight-edges ; How to Make a Trae Surface
12
CHAPTER III.-- SQUARING SURFACES . — How to Apply the Winding Strips ; How to Ob
tain Correct Twists for Skew Work ; Headers and Stretchers ; Bedding Stones ;
A Word on Bonding ; Square Rubble ; Retaining Walls
15
CHAPTER IV . – BATTERS, QUOINS AND TOGGLES . - Description of Battered Work ; Bat
tered Angles ; Methods of Obtaining Proper Shape of Stones ; Explanation of
Curved Arches ; Toggled Arches ; Locked Keystones ; Voussoir and Keystones
18
CHAPTER V .-- ARCHES. —Arches for Windows, Doors and Bridges ; How to Lay Out a
Semicircular Stone Arch ; Templates for Lap-over Stones ; Theory of the Arch
by different Authors ; Segmental Arch by Points ; Splayed Arches ; Skew-backs 23
CHAPTER VI. - RAMPANT ARCHES. -Rampant and Oblique Arches ; Rules for Laying
out Arch-stones for Raking Arches ; Development of Soffits .
CHAPTER VII. - OBLIQUE ARCHES. - Sections of a Cylinder ; Development of Arches ;
Stilted Arch ; Elliptical Arches ; How to Describe an Ellipse ; The Trammel ;
Arches by Ordinates ; Gothic Arches ; Moresque Arches ; Ogee Arches
27
30
CHAPTER VIII. — FLAT, SEGMENTAL AND IRREGULAR ARCHES.-Voussoirs and Key
stones ; Step Arches ; Tie Rods ; Surbased Vaults ; Semicircular Arch Centering ;
Inverted Arches ; Equilibrium of Arches
36
CHAPTER IX . - SEMI- DOME AND BARREL Vaults . – Subterranean Conduit, Tusculum ;
The Cloaca Maxima of Rome ; Vaults of the Tower of London ; Barrel Vaults ;
Spherical Cupolas ; Roman Centering ; Baths of Antoninus ; Basilica of Con
stantine
CHAPTER X. -ANNULAR AND RAKING VAULTS . -Ring-shaped Vaults ; Raking Vaults
and their Development ; Methods of Laying Out the Stones for the Work ; Rak
ing Work with Toggle Joints ; Skew-raking Vault ; Soffits and Bed Moulds .
40
42
CHAPTER XI .-WORKING THE STONES. — Methods to Show Developments ; How to
Work a Section of a Raking Arch ; To Form a Groin of a Skew Lunette ; Vaults
at right angles to each other ; Welsh Groins and How to Lay Them Out ; Pro
ducing Prisms
49
Fülliini ( ; i .
CITY OF NEW YORK .
PRACTICAL MASONRY
AND
STONE - CUTTING .
INTRODUCTORY .
HE art of building in stone is one of great antiquity, dating
far beyond historic periods; indeed, of its early history
nothing positive is known, and there is but little to be met
with which may be conjectured as the earlier work of
the mason . When we come to the period in history of
human civilization in which historical records are given
we find the art of masonry well advanced, and strange to
say, the earliest examples we do know of are the most mag
nificent specimens of the art, and to this day no nation has
授
excelled the ancient Egyptians in stone-cutting, whether
we consider the size of materials or the exactness of the work; for be it
remembered the Egyptians did not use mortar in their best works, yet so
close and perfect were the joints that only a keen observer could see them.
The Cyclopean masonry of the older Greece and Italy, of Mycenæ,
Stonehenge and the far East, evidence a knowledge of masonry, well ad
vanced, and show the foot-prints of gifted races of whose existence we can
but imagine, and were it not for the silent witnesses – the work of their
hands — that remain in spite of the destructive agencies of time and man ,
the modern world would never know of the busy world that had preceded
it.
These monuments in stone, the work of early masons, attest to the
great industry, skill and advancement of former races, and, as a recent
writer eloquently says of these ancient stone-cutters: " Thegreat of Egypt and
Chaldea are goneand forgotten, but the scattered stones of Thebes and Baby
lon attest their ancient grandeur andopulence. The lines of the Acropolis can
still be defined, and the arches of the Coliseum furnish inexhaustible quar
ries for the regeneration of modern Rome. Stonehenge, the Roman wall ,
and the Gothic cathedrals, indicate the successive steps of England's
growth, and the old stone tower of Newport reveals a Norse discoverer of
America.
The Cave of Shechem marks the inception of the Jewish religion ,
and the ruins of Iona point the extreme outpost of the monasticism of the
.
Middle Ages. In modern times the quays of Antwerp, the public buildings
of Lyons, and the smooth surface of the Simplon road, create the grandest
memories of the great Napoleon ."
5
i
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
6
The mason is neither a founder of dynasties nor a shaper of empires,
but his work leaves an index of the characteristics and peculiarities of the
people, and from the relics of his achievements the archæologist reads a
pre-historic account of his race and traditions. ' It was the stone-cutter
that gave us our present knowledge of ancient Egypt, and we are indebted
to him for much that we know of the past of Mexico , Peru and Central
America.
The masonry of the Greeks and Romans was very much like ours, both
in bonding and in face work. They made use of rubble work, coursed work
and ashler, the latter being used chiefly for exterior face work, the inside
being " backed up" with rubble work.
The early medieval masonry was generally of very bad construction ,
being in fact little better than common rubble, with an occasional use of
herringbone work. The Normans and Spaniards improved somewhat on
this, but even they did poor work, and it was not until Gothic architecture
made considerable advance that masonry began to resume its ancient quali
ties, and by the fifteenth century some of the grandest stone work in mod
ern Europe was erected. In recent years the requirements of commerce
and civilization have opened up a field in engineering science that gave
opportunities to the mason the ancients did not possess, in the building of
bridges, waterworks, piers, docks and other large engineering works for
canal and railway purposes. In " ye olden tyme” the work of the mason
was confined to the building of temples, tombs and public monuments ;
whereas, he is now employed on a thousand kinds of work, ranging all the
way from a sewer to a nation's capitol ; and the proportion of skilled work
men in the manipulation of stone to the number of inhabitants is now
eight or ten times as great as it was a thousand years ago, and the increase
bids fair to continue as the world grows older and the good qualities of
stone for building purposes become better known .
A mason, properly speaking, means a builder, which is evident from the
connection between the French words macon , a mason; maison , a house, and
maisonner , to build houses; but in England and in this country it is custom
ary to look upon a mason and a stone-mason as one and the same, a builder
in bricks always being called a bricklayer. In general terms our War and
Public Works Departments, when asking for proposals for stone-work, no
matter ofwhatkind or how specified, schedule it under the head of masonry;
and so all the various branches of stone-cutting, granite-working, carving in
stone, stone-dressing, building and walling with stone in any manner, are
known as stone-work or masonry, and the man who performs the work is
known as a mason . Webster's definition of the word masonry is, first, “ The
art or occupation of a mason , ” second, “ The work or performance of a
mason , as when we say, the wall is good masonry.”
In tracing the details of the work of the mason as a handicraftsman we
may succeed in tracing the steps by which what may be called the rough
and ready to hand methods when , by careful observation of the effects of
different methods at command, we gradually see the position in which per
fection has been attained in the art of working stones, and how its practice
has become based on fixed and accepted principles. These principles have
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
7
thus raised masonry to the dignity of a science ; so that from the art and
skill in working stones, and placing them in position in the structures in
which they are used, the workman will arrive at that point at which he has
legitimately earned the title of mason.
In preparing this work for the practical mason it is our purpose to
give a series of diagrams, drawings and descriptions, illustrative of masonry,
considered both as an art and a science, and to this end the best writers in
this and other countries have been consulted, and such use made of their
labors, as, in the opinion of the writer, will be best adapted to the require
ments of the practical worker ; and to the labors of others on this subject
will be added our own experience and knowledge in stone building and
working, which extends over many years of active work among masons.
One of the first things a young man desires to know when he starts on
his career as a mason is the name of each tool, method, stone and material
he comes in contact with, and his initial efforts are generally directed to
that end, and while it is not our intention to publish a glossary of terms
used in masonry , at this point, it will not be out of place to give a few ex
planations as we proceed, in order that the reader may better understand
the subject-matter: The face of a stone is that portion of it that is exposed
to view when in the wall.
The bed or beds of a stone are the sides that
transmit the pressures, that is, the top and bottom sides of the stone, and
these sides are the surfaces which correspond in direction with its planes
of stratification .
The back , side and bed-joints are the top, bottom , sides
and back end of a stone prepared for the wall. A dressed stone is one that
has been prepared for the wall, either by tool or hammer. Dressed work is
known by several terms, designating the kind of dressing or finish, all of
which will follow in proper place.
The next thing the young workman will desire to know is of the tools
he will be called upon to employ, and in order to arm him with this infor
mation we will illustrate and describe a number of mason's tools now in
general use .
3
)
What
WEAR
.
CHATEAU DE COURSEULLE (CALVADOS).
rnur KIT Urint
CITY OF NEW YORK.
CHAPTER I.
DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS.
HE first tool likely to be used by the young mason will be a waller's
T
hammer similar to the one shown at Fig. 1 .
One face of this too!
is flat, and is used for weighty shaping the stone, the other end is
ax or wedge -shaped , and is intended for smoothing or hammer-dressing
the surfaces.
It is capable of being used by either one or two hands,
as the handle is from twelve to sixteen inches long.
These hammers
may be of different weights according to the kind of work they are
wanted for. A spalling hammer (Fig. 2) is somewhat different in shape
from a waller's hammer, and is used for bringing stones nearer to the shape
required. A scabbling or scappling hammer (Fig. 3 ), is different than either
of the others. This is chiefly used by granite workers. It has one face
about 472x172 inches, and is used for knocking off irregular angles, the
other end being made pointed or pick-shaped, and is used for weighty
working the face of the stone to a better shape. This hammer generally
weighs from twenty to twenty-four pounds. Both hammers (Figs. 2 and 3)
are more used in the quarry where the stones are obtained than by the
mason on the building.
Granite is dressed by means of heavy picks and axes, after having been
roughly shaped by the scabbling hammer, the workman striking the
face of the stone squarely, thus picking up a small portion of stone at
each blow.
Mouldings, carvings, rebates and flutings, are wrought with
steel-pointed chisels and points of various shapes and sizes, the heads of
which are pounded with a small ham
mer (Fig. 4) called a mash hammer.
Another tool called a scabbling pick
is sometimes used (Fig. 5) . It is gen
erally employed in taking off the more
excessive irregularities on hammer
FIG . I.
faced work. Close picked or finely
picked, dabbed or daubed work , is done
with a fine-pointed tool, or with a sort of a hammer having a number of
fine points or chisels in it, similar to the one shown at Fig. 6. This tool
leaves the surface of the stone even and pretty smooth. The puncheon
(Fig. 7) is a blunt pick which is sometimes used to bring the work to a fine
face .
Picked work is a style of work that is smooth on the face.
Fine
axed work is work that is fairly smooth on the face, but having small
ridges running on the surface parallel to each other.
Finished axed is the finest kind of surface work before polishing, and
is produced with a hammer having a number of tools bound in it that are
chisel pointed, similar to hammer shown at Fig. 8. These chisels or tools
are made of thin strips of the best steel, properly tempered and sharpened,
and are so arranged that they may be removed when blunted and
8
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
9
put in their place, or they may be sharpened and put in place again for
further service .
There are a number of other tools the granite worker will require, and
we will take them up in the proper place when we come to it. We may,
however, say that sometimes the mason may have to saw a slab of granite
for some special purpose, which is done with a saw whose edges are tooth
less (Fig. 9) , or occasionally having a slightly jagged edge. When employed
it is drawn backwards and forwards like any other saw, and cuts the stone
by its own weight, the operation
being greatly facilitated by some
clean sharp sand, which is carried
into the saw cut by water trickling
down an inclined plane. This is a
very tedious job, and in granite one
FIG . 2 .
inch in a day of ten hours would
be a good day's work. Fortunately there is very little stone-sawing by
hand these days, machinery being employed for the purpose very largely.
Polishing granite is performed by rubbing, first with fine sand and water,
under an iron rubber, then with emery, and lastly with putty and flannel.
All plain surfaces and running mouldings are generally polished by
machinery, but carved and broken surfaces must be done by hand. Gran
ite and other hard stones always show off to the best advantage when
polished, but if such a high finish
is considered too costly it is bet
ter not to waste money upon a
too fine face, which only destroys
the beauty of the grain , and pro
duces a flat monotonous surface.
FIG . 3.
Most kinds of granite are
surface finish . The effect
faultless
almost
and
susceptible of a beautiful
of this finish in contrast with the hammered faced granite, as monuments
where a tablet is surface polished, or lines of lettering are in brilliant con
trast with the dull gray of the unpolished stone, is very fine, especially so
when the shafts or columns are thus finished, the bases being hammered
and the capitals carved.
Columns, balusters, vases, and other cylindrical work made from gran
ite or other hard stones, are polished in a sort of lathe which differs but
little from the lathes used by the machinist, only that it has no continuous
1
FIG . 4.
bed , and that the
tail block revolves
as well as the head
block . There is no
carriage slide, rest,
or other appurten
ances of that sort.
The whole work is
FIG . 5.
driven by aid of cog wheels , and the speed required to make good work is
at the rşte of 235 to 250 feet per minute , giving to a twelve -inch column
IO
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING
about seventy turns a minute, and any work thirty- six inches in diameter
about twenty - five turns a minute. To center and swing a column in the
lathe requires much judgment and skill, and many devices are resorted to
in accomplishing this feat, but in all cases, the work should be centered
and balanced as nearly as possible.
As the mason will never be called upon to make a lathe for grinding and
polishing, it will not be necessary to further describe the lathe here, or the
manner of working it, more than to give the general outline of the methods
and materials used. By a device attached to the lathe there is a supply of
quartz sand applied in a rubbing manner to the work, at a slight pressure,
with a drip of water falling on the stone all the time. This is kept up
until the “ stunts” bruises and chisel marks are all taken out, and the sur
face shows a uniform color. At this point all the sand is cleaned away,
and the work well washed with clean water , after which emery of 40 or 60
grade, is applied instead of sand, and it takes about half a pound of this
for every superficial foot of work to be polished, so that a column ten feet
long and three
feet diameter
ninety
superfi
cial feet - would
require from
FIG . 6 .
forty - five to fifty
FIG. 7 .
pounds. This is
all purposely weighed out at one time, and is never added to during the
entire process . When the grinding is finished other rubbers are applied to
the work, faced with felt, and on these is fed ordinary marble polish of
oxide of tin and water until the surface of the column shines like glass
and reflects like a mirror. The time to prepare a granite column and fin
ish it, is dependent somewhat on the exactness of the work previous to its
being put in the lathe, but the usual time is from forty to fifty hours, di
ameter and length making but little difference , as the work is simultaneous
and the surface speed the same under all conditions .
In polishing flat surfaces or running mouldings , wagons and pendu
1
lums or rubbers are used ; the
wagons for flat surfaces and
the pendulums for mouldings,
or such flat work as may not
be suitable for polishing on
FIG . 8 .
the wagon .
The wagon is a carriage
running upon rails, in which the pieces of stone to be polished are fixed,
having uppermost the surface to be wrought. Above this surface there
are inner shafts placed perpendicularly, at the lower end of which are fixed
rings of iron like quoits. These irons rest upon the stone, and when the
shaft revolves they rub the surface of the stone and abrade it. At the
same time the wagon travels backwards and forwards upon the rails, so as
to expose the whole surface of the stone to the action of the cutters. The
pendulum is a frame hung with heavy hinges to the ceiling, and to this
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
II
frame are attached iron rods moving in a horizontal direction . In the line
in which these rods move, and under them, the stone is firmly placed upon
the floor.
Pieces of iron
MILION
are then loosely attached to
the rods, and allowed to rest
upon the surface of the
stone .
When the whole is
set in motion the frame
swings to and fro over the
surface, and dresses and
Masons Saw
polishes it evenly. The iron
rods may be so adjusted
FIG. 9.
that they will form almost
any sort of a moulding. Of course the usual finishings with emery and
felt follow this process before the work is complete.
These remarks on polishing granite are not given so much because they
will be of service to the general workman, but because it may so happen
that he may sometime have to do some polishing, and should that be the
case these few instructions will not come amiss.
LE
A
LUCIA
DELLA
ROBBIA .
CHAPTER II .
GENERAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES .
ESIDES the tools already shown for working granite there are a
B
number of others, some of which will suggest themselves to the
workman, and some of which we show here. Fig. 10 by some
workmen is called a puncheon. It is a sort of a blunt pick, and is used for
making a finer face on the stone than can be made with a hammer. Fig.
Il shows a sort of blunt double axe.
This tool is used to work off the
inequalities left by the pick. It should weigh about nine pounds, and have
a good elastic handle to work it with. This tool makes parallel lines on
the work, and is used in quoins, rebates, cornices, mouldings and other
work of a like kind .
Fine axed work is done by this tool, but this species of work requires
much skill and care to make good work. Hammer-faced, hammer- shaped
or hammer-blocked work is done with the scabbling or spalling hammer.
Squared stones for the quoins, or face of a wall, are
merely left rough from the hammer, as shown in the
A stone of this kind, trimmed on the
center of Fig. 12 .
edges and worked with the single axe, Fig. 11 , is termed
a hammer- faced ashlar, the term ashlar in such a case,
FIG. 10
being taken to mean squared blocks, twelve or more
i
inches on the face. Squared stones under twelve inches
deep are often called shoddies.
It is usual to run a strip or draught of smooth surface, an inch or more
in width, round the margin of squared stones, even when dressed only with
the hammer or pick, in order that they will lie close on each other when
in place. When worked this way they are said to be hammer -faced, or, as the
case may be, with draughted margins. These margins ( see Fig. 12.) are
wrought with the axe as before explained.
It frequently occurs that the mason has to split his stuff before working
it , and in granite this can best be done by sinking holes — sometimes called
pool-holes—along the proposed
line of fracture, at distances
apart, varying with the hardness
of the stone, and then driving
gads (Fig. 13) and wedges (Fig.
FIG . II .
14 ) of iron into them, or by
means of iron plugs and feathers, Fig. 15. The pool-holes are either drilled
with what is termed a jumper, which is a long bar of iron with a steel point
to it, made like a cold chisel, and is worked by one man , who merely raises
it, slightly turns it, and lets it fall with its own weight alone ; or with a similar
but shorter bar called a boring bit, which is held and turned by one man while
another keeps up a succession of blows upon it with a heavy sledge-hammer
weighing about fourteen pounds, or a boring hammer of about ten pounds.
I2
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE - CUTTING .
13
Single-handed boring bits and hammers, light enough to be worked by the
same man , are also used when the stone is not too hard or too large.
Most stones have certain lines of cleavage, easily recognized by the ex
pert, along which they will split more readily than in any other direction ,
and it is along these lines the pool-holes should be drilled . With a suffi
cient number of holes, and gads, and wedges, purposely driven home, a
good cleavage is sure to occur.
So far we have dealt with granite only, or stone equally hard ; now,
however, we will describe the methods and tools
used in working the softer stones.
Generally the term freestone is given to all
that class of stones that admit of being freely
worked by the mason with his mallet and chisels,
so the term applies to the greater number of
FIG.
12 .
building stones, such as sandstones and limestones, etc. One of the prin
cipal tools required by the freestone mason is a banker, or stone-bench, on
which he places the stone while working it. Next he must have a mallet
made of wood, similar to the one shown at Fig. 16. This is used to beat
the chisels, and takes the place of a hammer. There are several reasons
why a wooden mallet is used instead of a hammer ; the most important of
which is, that it does not batter or destroy the heads of the chisels as much
as a steel hammer would, it has a greater surface, and is not so liable to
miss the tool ; there is an elasticity in
the blow when given by a mallet that
FIG. 13.
FIG . 14.
does not exist when given by an iron or
steel tool, and which is indispensable
when doing certain kinds of work.
For working freestone the mason requires a large number of chisels,
varying in size and shape and weight. The pitching tool (Fig. 17) has a
beveled instead of a cutting edge. This is used with the mash hammer
for roughly breaking off the irregularities along the edge of the stone,
leaving it with a sort of rock -face appearance.
Points and punches (Fig. 18) are made of iron, with steel points, and
are used for picking or punching the surface of a stone. These are
made with points of various shapes, from sharp to blunt points with ends
a quarter of an inch broad. The pointed tools are generally worked with a
mallet, and the blunt point tools with the hammer.
Plug
The chisel proper (Fig. 19) has a cutting edge, vary
ing from a quarter of an inch to two inches in width ,
and sometimes even wider. These go by different names,
such as the inch tool, the boaster, which is generally two
inches wide, and the broad tool , which is wider than the
Feathers
V
boaster. Sometimes the term chisel is used for all tools
FIG . 15.
up to two inches , and all tools measuring over that are
termed tools or boasters .
For laying out work the mason requires a pocket rule—which should be
made of brass or steel, and should be two feet long, with only one joint in
it - straight edges, bevels, templets, moulds and squares, among the latter
14
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
should be counted the steel-square. Nearly every
mason of American extraction uses the steel-square,
while but few foreigners do. The steel-square
when properly understood makes an excellent bevel,
anexceedingly good calculating machine, and can be
made very useful when handled properly. I would
FIG. 16 .
advise every mason to get a copy of “ The Steel
Square and Its Uses” -it may be had for $ 1—
and study it ; it will repay the labor and cost.
Rough stones, intended for better work,
are placed on the banker or bench in blocks
of the required dimensions, either weighed
off or sawn, as the case may be; then the
workman begins by bringing to a plane sur.
face one of its largest sides, which will gener
ally form one of its beds.
Its required shape
having been laid out on the surface, either with FIG 17.
FIG. 18.
FIG . 19.
the square or with a template, chisel drafts are
sunk across the ends of one of the adjacent faces, and by means of a square or
level, as the case may be, other drafts are made
and a second face is formed . The position of a
third side if desired is then determined, and its
FIG. 20.
face worked in the same manner (Fig. 20 ), and
this process is repeated until the block is
brought to its required shape.
To form a plane surface when it is of con
siderable size: make two diagonal drafts, as a, b, c, d , Fig. 21. These run
across the surface, and are connected by cross drafts, as a d, and cb.
The
superfluous stone is then knocked off between the drafts, until the surface
coincides in every part with a straight-edge, which is placed on the stone
in a number of positions.
When the surface is small a chisel
draft is sunk on one edge of the stone,
and a parallel straight-edge placed upon
it.
Then another draft is made on the
opposite edge, and a similar straight
edge is placed on that, and the work is
FIG . 21 .
tried and wrought until the top edges of the straight-edges coincide, in which
case the two drafts are in the same plane, or out of wind, and when the center
of the stone is dressed down between the drafts to the same plane, the work is
complete. If we want to give a wind or twist to the surface of a stone, we
first prepare two rules, one with parallel, and the other with divergent
edges, the amount of divergence depending on the distance at which they
are to be placed apart . These rules are sunk into drafts across the ends of
the stone, until their upper edges are out of winding. The extremities of
the shafts are connected by additional shafts along the sides of the block,
the surface of which is then knocked off until it coincides throughout with
a straight-edge applied in a direction parallel to that of the drafts.
CHAPTER III .
SQUARING SURFACES .
HE diverging rule is called the winding-strip, and the rules when
used together are called twisting-rules or twisting-bats. The
T:
parallel rule will, of course, be simply a parallel straight edge,
while the form of the diverging rule will be that of a triangle with a rec
tangle added to it. The difference in the rules, and the manner of apply
ing them is illustrated at Fig. 22 . As the parallel portion of this rule has
nothing to do with the twist or wind whatever, we shall speak of it only as a
straight line, and the winding strip as a triangle, which will simplify our
explanations very much .
In building oblique or skew bridges with spiral courses the latter are
worked so that their winding beds form portions of spiral planes, and the
accurate determination of the twist is a problem of the greatest importance.
Later on an attempt will be made to illustrate clearly the manner in which
the proper lines are found for cutting the joints necessary to form skew
and other arches, but it is just as well to explain at this point that to
thoroughly understand the methods offered the student must possess a fair
knowledge of geometry.
The simplest kind of stone-cutting is obviously that which concerns
itself with the production of plane surfaces, and of rectangles and other
similar bodies bounded by plane surfaces. Perhaps the easiest form is that
of a cube or rectangle similar to that shown at Fig. 23 .
If such a stone is
designed for any particular place, it is, while in the rough , chosen large
enough, then the surface A B C D is brought to a true plane, then A BE
F is wrought to a right angle to the first side formed . The two lines, BC
and B F, are then marked by the square perpendicular to the arris or edge
A B, and these lines determine the face B C F G. The opposite face is
similarly obtained by drawing the lines A D and A E, each perpendicular
to the arris B A. Lastly, by carrying these dimensions of the stone upon
the corresponding arrises the remaining surfaces are easily worked. Stones
that are thin are not the best for building purposes where they have to
resist any great pressure, and architects and engineers do not care to place
them where there is much strain. Considered mechanically in relation to
what is known as " statics,” stones that have a cubic form , or square, offer
the more resistance to the forces resting upon them when used in a wall or
building. But cubes would have the great drawback of not being able to
form a good bond, so that it is necessary to sacrifice somewhat in order to
be able to make a compact wall by good bonding. A just medium in the
matter of shape should, where stones of proper size
can be had, be adhered to, and upon this point we
cannot do better than quote from Rondolet , the great
French authority on such matters :
NO. 22 .
1. For stones of a tender nature, a length and a breadth of
from once to twice the space between the upper and lower
beds may be given .
15
16
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
2. Stones having greater consistence than the above, may have a length or breadth
of from one to three times the distance between the beds.
3. For hard stones, from one to four times theaforesaid space may be allotted ; and
4. For extra hard stones, even five times the space between the beds may be allowed
for their length or breadth .
It is necessary that the reader should be familiar with the terms gener
ally used by masons as applied to blocks when prepared for the wall, and
to that end the following explanations are given : The horizontal surfaces
of each block (as laid) are termed the " upper " or " top bed ," as A , Fig. 24 ,
and the " lower" or " bottom bed,” B. The
surface that is visible in the front of the wall
F
is the “ face, ” and this will be in the direction A
괴
of the length of the stone in a " stretcher ," B,
Fig. 25 , or of its breadth in a " header," A ,
Fig. 25. The opposite side is the back , and
D
the remainder " sides,” or ends , according as
the blocks are headers or stretchers .
Fig . 23
The
angles of the stone are termed " arrises," or singly " arris. "
In preparing for and building a wall of whatever description the follow
ing axioms are all important:
1. In any wall, whatever the stones forming it, must be so disposed
that their beds are perpendicular to the direction of the force which acts
upon and tends to compress them .
2. So far as the nature of the work will permit the
beds and the headings of the joints should be plane
surfaces, because plane surfaces are more easily formed
correctly than any other.
3. In order that the stones may have the greatest
power of resistance possible their surfaces where ap
FIG . 24.
plied to each other should touch equally throughout,
as experience shows that stones superposed upon each other have the
greater power of resistance as the bearings may be more perfect, in other
words, as, in consequence of their surfaces being very level , they touch at
a greater number of points.
4. Whatever the work may be the adjacent faces of the stones should
always form right angles, never acute ones, unless there are imperative rea
sons for departure from this rule.
From these rules it follows :
1. That the beds of the stones forming
a perpendicular wall should be disposed
horizontally, because the stones have to
sustain the weight of the courses above
them, which act vertically .
FIG. 25 .
2. That the beds and the joints should
be plane surfaces .
3. That the beds should be dressed with the greatest care, so that the
stones should have an equal bearing throughout.
4. That the forms of the stones should be rectangular parallelopipedons,
so that all their contiguous faces may be right angles or " square."
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
17
It is also necessary that all the stones of a course across the wall be of
the same height, so as to admit of beding, but it does not follow that each
course should be of the same height, in the direction of its length, as in
squared rubble built up to course , which see.
Retaining walls (or revetments) and breast walls bring in other forms of
block than the rectangular kind used in ordinary walls. The former are
employed, as their name implies, in retaining the earth on the sides of em
bankments or sloping grounds ; and also of sea-walls, and to bound docks
and wharves, etc. One face of these walls has usually a slope or " batter."
This is sometimes called a “ talus wall,” from a French architectural term ,
signifying a slope. The horizontal distance between the foot of the slope,
or batter, and that of a plumb line passing
through its upper extremity, is called the
amount of batter, and the plumb line from
the top of the batter line to the level of its
foot is termed the vertical of the batter.
Re
taining walls are often made with a batter of
one part base to six parts of perpendicular,
that is about two inches to the foot out of
plumb. This proportion, however, is not al
The batter is formed at
ways adhered to.
FIG . 26.
the side opposed to the pressure exercised.
Fig. 26 exhibits a section of a retaining wall of this kind, furnished with a
parapet .
出
NOUVEL HOTEL-DE -VILLE DE PARIS .
CHAPTER IV .
BATTERS, QUOINS AND TOGGLES.
I
F the batter should be very slight the beds of the stones may be con
tinued horizontally to the face of the wall itself. But in such a case
it is evident that the beds make two unequal angles with the battering
face of the wall, of which angles one will be acute, a form which is above
all others objectionable in masonry . In order to avoid this prejudicial
form the beds may be worked plane until within about two or three inches of
the battering face of the wall, then from that point formed perpendicularly to
the face of the wall, as at BC, Fig. 27. This plan ofavoiding an acute angle
is not, however, without drawbacks. In the first place it diminishes the
horizontal surface or bed, by which each stone reposes on that below it ;
and, secondly, each stone comes into contact with that next to it at an
irregular surface. If it were possible to secure exactness, this might be of
little consequence ; but if, for instance, the obtuse salient angle , A B C , is not
worked to a perfect equality with the re -entering angle, with which it should
agree, the upper stone will not have an equal
bearing along its whole extent, and the super
incumbent weight of the upper portion of the
wall may tend to fracture at that point the
stone which has the unequal bearing, or
cause it to slip on the inclined part of the bed.
It is well, therefore, to avoid much irregu
DE
larity of this kind, unless circumstances render
it inevitable .
It is well in ystone-cutting to augment as
M '
much as possible plane surfaces as joints where
stones come into contact, to avoid making the
stones touch at curved or unequal surfaces,
and to avoid acute angles wherever practicable.
To escape the acute angles which the bat
tering face of the revetment wall under
FIG . 27.
consideration would make with the earth, the part of the stone which
enters it may be cut vertically at the point D. It is still better to let
the stone be of sufficient size, D E , Fig. 27, so that the vertical plane, E N,
may be worked on it. Although the first plan takes less stone the second
gives much more solidity .
To form the first stone of the wall, shown at Fig. 27 , the lower bed , " U " N "
M ", Fig. 28, is first dressed so that it is equal to the rectangle S ' U'N'M', Fig.
27 ,which shows the horizontal projection of the stone to be cut. The two sur
faces, S " U " P " and M " N " Q ", Fig. 28, are then dressed perpendicular to thelow
er bed. A template of tin or zinc should then be made of the exact figure, A "
BC" DE" U " S", which gives the exact profile required for the stone.
18
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING.
19
being placed upon the face, S " U" P", in
such a manner that S U' falls on S ” U ”,
the contour ( A ' B' C" D" E" U " S') of
the template is traced upon the block,
and the operation is repeated upon its
N opposite surface. The stone is then
+
M
dressed down to this outline in such a
.
that a straight-edge applied
transversely from face to face will coin
cide with the surfaces everywhere, and
manner
FIG. 28.
the stone is finished .
The others used in
the wall require no further description .
А
In some cases a wall is comprised be
tween two vertical planes which are not
parallel, in others which make an angle with
each other, as Fig. 29. In such a wall the
beds of the stones will of course be, as in
MO
a straight wall, horizontal in all their extent
in each course, but vertical joints perpen
dicular to any of these faces would make
an acute angle with the other face. To
avoid this these joints, A' B ' M' N', are
taken a certain distance toward the oppo
site face of the wall, and the cutting then
k"
Q'
P
FIG . 29.
directed
perpendicularly to that face, as at B'C
N' U' .
In producing suitable stones for this
HE
purpose a block is selected of sufficient
size to include the rectangle P Q O M' ,
FIG . 30.
which is the plan of the required stone.
Having dressed the top and bottom beds
parallel, and so that their distances apart
is equal to the height A S, a template of the form A' B'C' U' M' N' is ap
plied and marked off, both on the upper and lower beds, H " K " X " Z "
and M" O" P " 2 ", Fig. 30.
The superfluous stone having been then re
moved the block is left the required shape.
In a wall of the preceding kind, having also a batter, Fig. 31 , two tem
plates will be required for working the stones. These are first dressed as
in the last instance. The template formed to the plan D'S' U'N' M' P',
is then traced round on the two beds and the stone dressed to the lines.
A
second template, BCDE US, is then cut to the required form ,this being
then set off on the two faces, S " U " Z ", and M" N" X ", Fig. 32. The
remainder of the operation is self-evident.
It is supposed the student has sufficient knowledge of geometry to be
able to describe, on a larger scale, all the diagrams presented, and to under
stand the various methods of forming arches and curves, and of under
standing their relations to each other. This being understood, we now
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTIN
20
.
enter that department of the art of stone-cutting
where such knowledge will be found to be of
great value :
Fig. 33 exhibits a number of forms of arches,
but not by any means a full list ; a thorough
knowledge of these, however, will enable the
B
reader to understand the rest without much
difficulty.
DE
In preparing stones for the lintel or
flat arch shown at Fig. 34, where the arch is
concealed within the thickness of the stones
themselves, as indicated by the dotted lines, B
shows the top of the lintel, giving the thickness
of the radiating
joints, and that
of the square
FIG. 31
joints on each
side of the hidden arch .
At C is a view
0
of the soffit, exhibiting the joints perpen
dicular to both faces of the lintel, the radi
ating and vertical joints both terminating
in these lines.
D is the first abutment
FIG . 32 .
stone above the pier, E the first lintel
stone, and G the keystone. Duplicates of D and E are required for the
other side, in reverse order. The stones here given show the manner of
securing by “ joggles,” these being only continued for half the depth of
the block, in order to regulate the soffit.
At Fig. 35 another method
of forming a lintel is shown.
This method, however, is rare
RIGHT
SEMICIRCULAB
ly employed in this country,
though sometimes it is found
EQUILATERAL
FLAMBOUYANT
in old work.
Fig. 36 exhibits
GOTHIC
GOTHIC
another method which has much
to commend it. At Fig. 37 an
interior elevation of a square
headed doorway is shown. The
faces A' A " and B' B' shown on
the plan are the outside reveals
THREE CENTER ARCH
of the doorway ; the narrow fil
lets C
C " and D' D " are the re
bates to lodge the thickness of
the door ; the distances C " Aland
LANCET GOTHIC
D ' B' which separate the rebate
from the reveal are its depth ;
the splayed sides toward the in
FLAT GOTHIC
terior of the wall allow the door
to be more conveniently opened
than if they were straight. The
FIG. 33 .
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE- CUTTING .
21
uppermost stone of the door-jamb rests on the wall and forms the abutment
of the arch . The voussoir next to this is the springer.
square-headed door formed of stone voussoirs
It is better for a
the thickness of vertical dimension of the
head, or lintel should be equal to at least two
fifths of the width of the doorway, for only a
part of the joint of each voussoir receives a
solid abutment from the wall ; that is, the part
of each joint which is above an arc of a circle
drawn from the center, where the joints of the
voussoirs converge. The ends of the vous
soirs below this arc are really only a load, and
not a help to the safety of the archway. The
center of convergence for the joints of the
BAL
voussoirs is usually the apex of an equilateral
triangle, formed on the opening A B.
Fig. 38 shows how a flat arch is destroyed ;
the joints gape at the bottom part of the key
E
stone and at the upper part of the springer,
so that the first voussoir turns round its lower
FIG . 34.
arris next to the springing line. To prevent this, the first voussoir is often
made with an elbow, as shown on the left hand of Fig. 37, the weight of
the wall above the elbow helping to keep this voussoir firm , so that it partly
belongs to the jamb of the archway. On the right-hand side of Fig. 37
is shown the manner sometimes
employed in jointing the voussoirs
when perpendicular to the soffit of
the arch ; but such devices are al
ways objectionable. The better
way is to make the joints of the
voussoirs simple planes, and just
ease them at their lower part by
rubbing, so that from the dotted
FIG. 35.
arc downwards they come not into
close contact at all events. Broken
bed -joints must never be used for the
keystone, for this should be made
rather longer than required, and
rammed home as tight as possible.
X
The cutting of the keystone at the
FIG. 36.
back should be done on the work
will be found very easy to execute.
after the stone is in its place, which
As to the use of elbows , it is more a
question of taste than of utility ; if used , they must be worked with the
AL
22
PRACTIC
MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
greatest care, and bedded in cement, so as to prevent any danger of un
equal pressure in settling.
Referring back to Fig. 37 , let us cut the voussoir A MQRST.
The
stone from which it will have to be cut must be as long as the thickness
5
M
‫ܘܘ‬
LITU
FIG . 37 .
R' R" of the wall (see plan at foot of Fig. 37) , and its end faces must be at
least equal to the dotted line X Z Y M, which comprises the elevation of
the voussoir . That stone is shown in perspective at Fig. 39.
Let x m m' x ' be its natural bed in the quarry ; we work that surface to
a true plane, and delineate thereon the face of
the joint M Q, Fig. 37. This is the polygonal
figure q q'mm' g g h g , Fig . 39 , which
we get by making q h =Q H , q q = R ' R', q'
m ' = Q M, m' m " = M M, m'g' = M G, g'g":
GG. Then, with the help of a steel square
we work the two end planes x my z and x '
m ' y' z' of the stone, and draw on both of
them the outline of the stone in elevation ;
these outlines are a mqrst and a' m' q' r' s'
FIG. 38.
ť ' , Fig. 39. We can now work the lower bed
joint at a t t' a' of the voussoir, thanks to the
directing lines a t and a' t', across which we can lay our straight edge. We
shall cut in the same way the sides stt's', sri's',rqa'
r.
As to the soffit of the voussoir, we might begin
by working the whole of the surface a m m'a', and
then from that pass on to the rebate and the splay.
But this would involve a waste of labor, as part of
the surface a mi m' a' will have to be removed .
To
avoid this, on the plane of the lower joint at t'a', we
delineate t t' a' a " l' 1 " k t, the real oultine of that
face by making a' a " = A ' A', a " l = AL , 1'1"=G'G ",
and then we have all the directing lines a' a " and
FIG . 39 .
m' m ", a " l' and m " g ', 1' 1 " and g'8", 1' k " and g' h
required for working the planes which form the soffit of the voussoir .
CHAPTER V.
ARCHES .
N speaking of the arch we have considered it only as carrying a wall
over some opening, as over a door or a window ; but there are many
other uses to which the arch is applied, as in bridges, domes, vault
ing, cupolas, sewers, waterways and flying buttresses, and many other
things. So far we have given only a few examples, and those of the forms
most employed ; it will be in order then to give some examples of arches,
domes, apexes, vaults, etc. , so that the student will not be caught napping
if called upon to construct something out of the ordinary line.
At Fig. 40 I show an arch that is
E
in perfect equilibrium, or, in other
T
words, an arch that will sustain itself.
It is supposed to be in a straight wall
over a door or window.
To obtain
the correct form for the voussoirs a
template for the face of each stone
must be prepared from the working
drawings, as shown at Fig . 41.
B
A
For
each voussoir a stone is then selected
of sufficient length, and of superficial
face capable of admitting of the ap
FIG . 40 .
plication of the template. The upper
bed is then to be dressed . Two lines are then marked at a distance apart
equal to the thickness desired for the arch , and the two faces at right angles
or square with the upper bed are worked . The template is now applied to
each of these faces and traced around , all the superfluous stone outside the
outline being removed until a straight edge, applied in rotation at all por
tions of the traced outlines , touches either face of the voussoir equally .
It must be borne in mind that between the points m n many points of di
vision should be marked on the stone , as these will assist in determining
the parallelism of all positions of the rule .
The investigation of the equilibrium of arches in connection with the
laws of statics is of great importance, in order to insure stability. It is
only within a comparatively recent period, however, that the subject has
received the attention to which it is entitled. The question does not,
indeed, appear to have entered into the heads of ancient architects, who
based their great works on imitative faculty, and secured good results by
means of experience and a sort of mechanical intuition alone. It must,
however, be borne in mind that the stability of their works is frequently
the result of lavish expenditure of material, which they considered the
surest method of securing stability. At the present day we look to the
results of scientific investigation to give us formulæ for obtaining an equal
or greater degree of stability with the smallest amount of material.
23
Vitru
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE - CUTTING .
24
vius, the celebrated Roman writer on
architecture, makes no allusion whatever
to the statical conditions of the arch ;
and subsequent writers have left us
equally in the dark . It was not until
D
m
ne
1695 that scientific investigation of the
m
arch began , when De la Hire wrote his
" Treatise on Mechanics." The subject
was then taken up by French , English
and German scientists , and afterwards
by our own Count Rumford, Dr. Frank
n
m
FIG. 41 .
lin, and lastly by Trautwine and Has
well, until we now have all the know
ledge of the arch required for practical purposes. The theories first formu
lated by Rondelet, a celebrated Frenchman, are the ones generally accepted
as being the most correct. We shall, if space permits, give a brief resume
of some of the formulæ , when treating of vaults .
There is a way of finding the joints of a flat, or segmental arch, which
may be noticed here. Let the curve A X, Fig. 42 , represent the arch .
This must first be divided into a number of equal parts equivalent to the
beds of voussoirs desired , at the points B C D E F, bc.
From the point
A, with any convenient radius, describe an arc at b, and from c, with the
same radius, describe a similar arc, intersecting the first arc at p. Join B
b, and the line connecting them will form the first joint. To find the sec
ond joint, describe with the same radius, and from B and D respectively as
centers, arcs intersecting at c , and connect Cc, which line will indicate the
second joint. Proceed in a similar
manner for the third and following bo
joints until all are found. For the
a
skewbacks, or joints at the abutments,
A a, X x, proceed thus : With a rad
FIG . 42 .
ius equal to B 6, and from A as a center , describe an arc at a ; with B as a
center , with the radius A b, describe another arc intersecting the first at a.
If A a be now connected the line will show the springing bed. The bed
of the opposite springer of the arch X x, may be found in an analogous
manner .
The joints of the voussoirs of other forms of arch may be
arrived at with proximate accuracy by setting off points in a given curve at
equal distances on each side of the position of the intended joint , and using
these joints as centers , describing therefrom arcs of any radius , which
intersect above the curve . The point of intersection being then connected
with the corresponding division of the curve will give the bed of the vous
soir . Of course the length of the line will not necessarily correspond with
that of the joint desired .
The following diagrams illustrate a semi-circular archway , splayed, and
with reveals, and having the splay arched with a segment, in order to give
room for the opening of doors or gates having the height of the front arch .
This method is taken from Nicholson's Encyclopedia, and so far as I know,
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
25
has never been improved on. Suppose
Fig. 43 to be the elevation which shows
a semi-circular archway over the open
ing, A being the imposts, B the reveal,
and C the splayed recess.
Fig. 44, A
BCD, shows the plan of the arch , A
e showing the depth of the impost, ef
g indicating the reveal, and , C the
splay. Describe the arch of the head
A ' E' B', and that of the reveal a' db',
and
at
C
the extremities C D of the
splay draw the perpendiculars CF and
D Gʻ, in which find the points F' and
G' in the following manner : Describe
FIG. 43.
the arch of the splay I' K', make I' L '
equal to 8 C ; perpendicular to I' L ', draw L ' K'; make M'F and N'
G' each equal to L' K', and through the points F' G' trace the arch as flat
as may be necessary to allow the door to swing open.
The most complicated joint in this problem is O' P ', formed by the arc
of the reveal and that of the splay. To draw the joint mould for this,
from the point h draw h Q' perpendicular to A B: meeting O' P' in Q '.
Draw I' S' perpendicular to I' L', and Q S' and P T parallel to I' L '; join
T' S' intersecting the arc in U'; draw U' V' parallel to PT', meeting the
joint line O ' P' in V', and V' is the point in which the stone will form an
angle.
Draw the line of the impost a b , and the reveal
cd, draw U' W'
perpendicular to l' L'; make hi, on the splay of the jamb, equa to I' W ',
and draw i k parallel to A B ; make k l equal to O'V', m n equal to O' P',
join d1, 1 n, and a b cd n will be the form of the joint, and all the joints
which are cut in this forked angle are found in the same manner.
For the mould of the second joint, make m p equal to X Y, and join d
p. To cut one of
the first stones :
With the head
Y
e
mould, B', O ', P ',
N', prepare an arch
3
stone, as at Fig. 45,
whose length is
equal to a m on
M
W
L
NI
the plan ; apply the
mould of the plan,
a
I A , cfg, CK , on
the under bed, and
f
9
on the upper bed
h
the joint mould 2
a b c dlm x.
K
wa
K
с
m
P
MA
On
the soffit of Fig.
n
FIG. 44.
45 ,
draw
a
6
to mark the thick
26
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
ness of the impost, and, on the rear or tail of the stone, draw e d , repre
senting N' P ' on the elevation. Then , to hollow out the concave surface
of the reveal, with a curved bevel b' l' (see Fig. 44 ), draw the curves efg
h, Fig. 45. By the lines b c, cd, d k, dress that side which will be ter
minated by k h, making use of a curved template cut to bl, Fig. 44, which
apply from time to time till the forked joint is formed, and, the whole of
the superfluous stone being cut away , it will appear in the form of Fig. 46.
The other stones in this arch are formed in like manner .
In Fig.
47 1
show an arch which
is quite common in
stone schools and
other public build
ings , over windows ,
doors, and other en
trances . In work
of this kind a tem
plate showing the
shape and dimen
FIG . 45
sions of each vous
FIG . 46.
soir, key - stone and skew -back , should be provided before work is com
menced . The template may be made of tin, sheet iron or zinc.
The face, soffit or underside of an arch of this kind may be left smooth
and plain , or it may be carved to suit
the style of building or to harmonize
with other ornamentation. This style
of arch may be made over any opening
of reasonable dimensions.
The manner
of shaping the voussoirs to receive the
full width of stretchers as shown, tends
to give strength and homogenity to the
whole structure. This style of construc
tion was much in vogue during the
period of the Renaissance , and many
FIG . 47
examples now remaining to us show such
an abundance of ornamentation as to be excessive .
og
CHAPTER VI .
RAMPANT ARCHES.
O far I have only shown methods for the formation of arches whose
faces are parallel. It is often necessary to construct arches where
S°
the walls vary in thickness, and where the faces of the arch on each
side of the wall must show on the same plane. There are also arches,
whose spring lines may be in different planes, giving us what is termed,
“ rampant arches. ” We may also be confronted with various forms of
skew arches, arches in circular walls, arches in battering walls ; and again
with skew arches of great width, such as are needed for railway bridges
and other engineering purposes .
D
In Fig. 48, let us suppose that the
trapezium , or irregular wall a b, a' b ', is
the plan of the opening of an arch
formed in a wall, the two vertical faces
of which , cd, ef, are not parallel to each
other. Fig. 48 also represents an eleva
tion of this semi -circular arch upon a
)
1
1
plane perpendicular to the axis of the
arch .
The cylinder of the intrados hav
ing for directrix the semi-circle ACB,
the penetration in the face c d of the
wall will be a semi-circle equal to the cen
ter, and projecting horizontally by the
8 h
49
FIG. 48.
right line a b ; the penetration in the face e f will be a semi-ellipse pro
jected horizontally by a' b', and as that curve forms part of the cylinder of
2
the intrados, its vertical projection coincides
Let us suppose that the arch
in the illustration is reversed, in order to
with the curve .
e
show the arrangement of the intrados better.
To trace one of the stones, Fig. 49 for ex .
fample, that which is on the right of the key
stone, take as the plan 4' 4 ", which represents
FIG. 49
the greatest length of the arch-stone. Then ,
having squared the two faces, D E F 5 4 is applied, and the stone, Fig. 49,
1
treated as if for an ordinary arch. Lastly, the proper dimensions should
be set off on each arris from the plan, and a
thus all the points necessary for the deter
mination of the obliquity of the skew face
g.3
B
are obtained .
This plan is, however, sometimes at
tended with much inconvenience. ' If, as
is often the case, full- sized drawings are
made on boards, it would in many cases
FIG . 50.
be impossible to take them to the spot where the stones are being cut.
27
It
CAL
PRACTI
28
Y
MASONR
AND STONE -CUTTING .
is true that for right -lines, memoranda of the lengths could be taken , but
this would not avail for curves, so the following means may be adopted :
E
1
The section by the vertical plane
cd being perpendicular to the gener
atrixes of the cylinder which forms
the intrados, will be the right section
8
А.
of that cylinder. This curve , paral
lel to the vertical plane of the pro
jection, is projected upon the plan in
its actual dimensions .
The arcs A 1 ,
I 2, etc. , being carried one after the
FIG. 51 .
other upon
50 , present
curve .
It
that if the
the right line A B. Fig.
the development of the
must be borne in mind
points of division are too
distant it becomes necessary to take intermediate points. The right lines
A A, I I , 22 , perpendicular to A B, represent in the development the
generatrixes of the intrados. Their length will be given by the plan of
the arch, and the figures A A', A' B will be the devel
opment of the soffit.
H
Suppose, then, that an arch-stone has been cut as
if it were for a straight arch , a template of the in
TID
trados, or the development of the soffit, is made of
cardboard, zinc, or other flexible material . This
template is then applied to the curved soffit of the
arch-stone, and made to coincide with the correspond
A
FIG . 52 .
ing arc of the vertical face. Then pressing lightly upon the template , it is
made to assume the curvature of the soffit of the voussoir , and the one
corresponding to the oblique face of the wall is then traced on the soffit of
the arch- stone .
It is easy to construct in a similar way , and of full size, templates of
all the joints according to the beds 5 F, 4 D, Fig. 48, and if the template
be applied to the right and to the left upon the two beds of the arch- stone
from the soffit, this will be sufficient to define the position of the oblique
A full sized drawing may be arranged as at Fig. 50. Here it is sup
posed that the template of the joint of each arch - stone is turned round
face.
upon one of its inner arrises , so as to indicate the development of the bed
more clearly.
No practical difficulty can be found in the
F
FIG . 53
construction of templates of this kind. Thus,
for example, for those by which to cut the
bed following the arris ( 4' 4") :-First take the
length of the joint 4 D, Fig. 48, then take
the length 4 g upon A B on plan Fig. 50.
The right line g g ', Fig. 50, equal to g' g ",
Fig. 48, is then constructed , and there is but to draw the fourth line 4' 8 ',
Fig. 50, and the work is complete. The other templates are constructed
in a similar manner.
It is also possible to set off the horizontal template
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
29
& g, h H', Fig. 48, upon the full-sized drawing, and to apply it to the
stone ; but this would be of no further use than to complete the tracing
of the oblique cut ; because, as three points suffice to determine a plan ,
it is clear that the soffit and a single template are sufficient for the mason's
guidance.
A similar system may be followed in the construction of an arch in a
battering wall, as Fig. 51. Let us suppose this arch to be an ordinary
semi-circular one, as in the preceding example. The right line, O P, is a
section of the battering face in a vertical plane, as the line o p in plan.
That section , as it extends to the left upon the elevation, is determined
by the inclination, more or less great, which is desired to give the batter.
In the plan Fig. 51 , the arch is supposed
to be viewed from below. To make the plan
from a point of the battering face, point 2
for example, a horizontal line 2 2' , drawn to
the face of the batter, must be imaginedfrom
the point 2. This line meets the right line,
OP, in a point 2' projected horizontally upon
o p, and shown by a horizontal circular arc
F
FIG . 54.
on the plan p p'. Lastly , a parallel from the point of the battering face
indicates the diagonal projection of the point 2. The other points of the
batter are similarly constructed .
The development of the soffit, and the formation of the joint templates,
Fig. 52, are similar to those detailed for the preceding arch.
The arch being symmetrical, it will be sufficient to draw half the devel
opment and the template, as they will serve for both sides of the arch.
Figs. 53 and 54 show the obliquity of a voussoir of each arch described,
having the situation of the one on the right of the keystone, Fig. 48.
CHAPTER VII .
OBLIQUE ARCHES.
HE following, which is termed an " abridged " method of " laying Sut "
T"
an oblique arch , is taken from " Gwilt's Encyclopedia of Architec
ture." It is named " abridged " because it yields by a rapid operation
the moulds of the soffits and joints within the plan of the arch :
Let ABCD, Fig. 55 , be the plan. Divide A B in E into two
equal parts, and draw E F parallel to A A ". Then from A draw
A G perpendicular to A C ; prolong D B to G ; divide A G into two
equal parts in the point H.
From H as a center describe the arc A
F G, which divide into youssoirs, and draw the joints from the cen
ter H. Draw lines from each soffit parallel to EF, and below the line CD ;
the moulds for the soffits are comprised between the parallels of the key,
and those of the joints are traced on the sides of the plan as follows: To
find the moulds of the soffits through the point 2 , draw 2 N parallel to G
H. To find on RS the point N, through the point K draw K L, also
parallel to GH. To find on 2 T the point M , and on RS the point L,
draw the front line of the second soffit M N, and the front line of the first
I L. The back of this sheeting soffit is formed by the same operation be
low the plan . The mould of the key is formed by two lines, RS, 2 T ; and
the front and back lines of the plan A B C D ; the two moulds of the sof
fits N M, TS, and L I, X V , serve to trace the two stones on each side,
observing only that the lower arrises of the soffit on the side A C, become
those of the top on the side B D, or that the under arris of one side may
be that of the other side by reversing the mould, which will have the same
effect. To fiud the moulds of the beds or joints, prolong N 2 to meet D G,
to find the point P, and through it and the point E draw the front of the
second joint P 2 ; prolong L M to G D to find O, through which and the
point E draw the front of the point 0 3. Proceed in the same manner to
find the back of the other joints, which are sufficient also to trace the
stones by reversing them. It is not absolutely necessary to cut out the
moulds of the soffits and joints, but the angles may be taken by bevels,
and applied to the stones. The heads are prepared, as usual, with the
moulds of the head of the straight arch.
It must be observed that in this
arch the face or front differs from a straight arch, being formed by different
sections of a cylinder.
If we take in Fig. 56, the manner of constructing a semi-circular
headed arch in a circular wall, as, for instance, a round tower, we will
suppose ABCD to be a plan of that portion of the wall or tower where
the arch is to be placed. Bisect the arc A B, and through this point of
intersection draw a line, E F, parallel to the line of the jambs G H or I K.
Through any point, as L in the line E F, draw M N perpendicular to E F.
Produce the lines G H and I K respectively to meet the line M N in the
points O P, and the line O P will be bisected in L. From L as a center,
with the radius L O or L P, describe the semi-circle O Q P. Divide this
arc from L for the joint lines , and let fall perpendicular of the same to the
30
1
1
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
inner face of the circular wall C D.
21
These will be transferred to the uever
opment RS , in same manner as
before described
'C
1
Zo
kun
X
FIG. 55
FIG. 56.
The most simple form of arch next to the semi-circle is the segmental ,
the basis of whose outline is the segment of a circle. The method by
which this curve may be generated is shown at Fig. 57. Let A B represent
the span, and CD the rise to soffit of key S. The tangental line B D is
first bisected at the point G, and the vertical line D C produced indefi
nitely and at right angles to the line of springing, A B. A steel
square, E, may now be placed so that one of its sides coincides with the
2
0
line BG, and in such a manner that a
line from G may be drawn by the square
in the direction G0-at right angles to
BD — and produced until it cuts the line
D C at O. This latter point is the cen
ter from whence the segmental curve A
can be described, and also that from
8
which the beds of the arch stones must
spring as shown in the sketch. Seg
mental arches are often used in founda
FIG . 57.
tions, in order to relieve pressure in some
soft places, or carry the weight of walls from one point to another .
There are many forms of segmental arches, indeed , the segmental arch
is in more common use than any other form . The " stilted arch ” (Fig.
58) , so-called because of its not being a true segment of a circle, was
much used by French and Italian architects, but is seldom employed by
either English or American builders. It has no claim to beauty and
lacks constructive stability.
The elliptical arch, which is a modern innovation , and which took its
rise in the building of some of our great modern bridges, is noted for its
beauty of outline and its difficulty of execution , and in these points it
leaves all ancient works far in the rear.
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE - CUTTING .
32
There are many methods by which
an ellipse may be described, and in
order that the workman may have a
knowledge of some of them we will pro
ceed to illustrate and describe a few of
them , and will, further on , describe others.
The simplest method of describing
an ellipse is by use of a trammel, or by an
ellipsograph, but the latter is out of the
question, so far as practical work is con
cerned .
FIG. 58.
The trammel consists of two
principal parts, the fixed parts in the form of a cross, EFGH, Fig. 59,and the
movable piece or tracer, k l xm . The fixed piece is made of two rectangular
bars or pieces of wood of equal thickness, joined together so as to be in the
same plane. One side of the frame is so formed that a groove is made, which
forms a cross.
In the groove two studs, k and l, are fitted to slide
freely, and carry attached to them the tracers k l m. The tracers should be
made to slide through a socket fixed to each stud, and provided with a
screw or wedge, by which the distance apart of the studs may be regulated .
The tracer has another slider, m, also adjustable, which carries a point or
pencil. The instrument is used as follows: Let A C be the major and H
B the minor axis of an ellipse ; lay the cross
of the trammel on these lines, so that the cen
ter lines of it may coincide with them ; then
G
adjust the sliders of the tracer so that the dis
tance between k and m may be equal to half
the major axis, and the distance between land
m equal to half the minor axis ; then by mov
Fig. 59
F
ing the bar round the pencil , the slides will describe half the ellipse , and
by moving the point k into the arm D F the whole figure may be delineated .
Another method of describing an ellipse is shown in Fig. 60. This is
done by using a string, as follows : Let AB
be the major or longer axis, and D C the
minor or shorter axis, and F G the two foci ;
take a string, EGF, and pass it over the pins
FG, and tie the ends together, so that when
doubled it may be equal to the distance from
the focus F to the end of the axis B ; then
putting the pencil in the right or doubling of
36 the string at H, and carrying it round, the
Fig.60
al
e
d
curve may be traced.
This method is based
upon a well-known property of the ellipse, that the sum of any two
lines drawn from the foci to any points in the circumference is the same.
An elliptical arch may be drawn to any two given dimensions by differ
ent arcs or circles in the following manner : Let A B, Fig. 61 , be a hori
zontal line equal to the span of the required arch. Bisect this line in C by
the perpendicular line D Е, the portion of this line indicated by C D being
made equal to the height of the arch from the line of springing to the
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
Draw the perpendicular line A F parallel and equal
crown of the soffit.
D
f
33
to CD.
In CE make C G equal to CD ;
H
let the lines A F and AC be each divided
ET
0
into two equal parts, and through the di
vision of A Cat X draw GH ; also through
M
the division of A Fat Z, draw D Z, cutting
G Hat H. Bisect the line HD by a per
Fig. 61
pendicular, I E, and from E, with the ra
dius E H or E D describe the arc H DK L.
Draw F L parallel to A B ; join L B, and produce the line of junction to
cut the arc HDKL ; join F K, cutting the horizontal line A B in M, and
make F N equalto FM . Join F N, and produce the line to meet the arc
HD KL. From M as a center, and with the radius M K, describe the
arc K B, and from N as a center, and with the radius N A, describe the arc
A O H. The elliptic curve, A O HD K B, will be the arch required.
C
The outline of the arch now being ob
tained, it will be necessary before proceed
ing to work to find the lines for the given
number of voussoirs, which may be done
as follows: Suppose A CB, Fig. 62, to be
the arch.
First find the centers from which
Fig.62
the portions of the curve have been struck
-in this case DEF-as they would be found at the drawing of the arch .
Join D Е and produce the line until it meets the arch at H. Join D F in
a similar manner, and produce it to meet the arch in G. The curve A C B
must now be divided into as many parts as it is desired to have voussoirs
from the center E, then draw lines through the various points of division
in the curve between A and the point H where the line D E produced
cuts the arch. From the center, D, draw lines to all the points situated
between H and G. Finally draw lines from F through the divisions of
that position of the arc between C and B. The lines thus obtained from the
three different centers will be the beds of the arch-stones, or in other
words, the joints from the soffits to the extrados.
When the arch is very large it may be advisable to increase the number
of centers from which it is drawn. Thus, let A B C, Fig. 63, represent an
arch of great size. Here, besides the
с
main center D, from which the soffit
of the crown is struck, we wish to find
a couple of intermediate points, from
which each half of the supplemental
8
Fig.63
curve can be struck , as at E G and F
N
H, these centers being then used to
draw lines through all the divisions
of the arch as before.
These examples for describing el
liptical arches are sufficient to enable
the student to lay out any ordinary work . More complicated examples
for elaborate works will be given further on.
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
34
At Fig. 64, I show a method of describing the ordinary four-centred
Tudor arch . Let A B be the span of the arch. Divide this line into
four equal parts at A1 , I 2 , 23, and 3 B. Then with the distance
I
3
as
a radius, and the points 1 and 3 respectively as centers,
describe the arcs i D and 3 D. Connect 1 D and 3 D by right lines,
and produce the latter beyond D. Let fall from the points 1 and 3 on
the line A B, perpendicular to that line , cutting the lines i D and 3 D in
E and F ; now, from the point A 1 , and with the radius i A, describe the
arc A G, and with the radius F G draw the remainder of this arc G C.
The other side of the arch is got in a similar way.
Fig. 65 is another example of a Tudor arch, drawn from four centers ,
and obtained by a similar process to that just described.
It is not often the horseshoe or Moorish arch is used in this country,
though there are a few buildings in each of our large cities that are built
!2.
FIG.65
FIG.64
A4
EC
in the Moorish or Saracenic style of architecture, where the horseshoe style
of arch shown at Fig. 67 is made use of. Fig. 66 is the horseshoe arch
pure and simple, while Fig. 67 shows a more complicated Oriental style,
and one made much use of in Cairo and Algeria. In both cases the great
est span is not at the line of springing, but at a point above it. From A
midway on this line (Fig. 66), the curve of the crown of the arch is struck,
the lower portions of the curve being struck from centers in the prolonga
tions of this line outside the arch at Band
o
m
To
C.
The bulbiform Arabian arch at Fig. 67 ,
which is probably of Tartar origin , is struck
from four centers .
The line A B is divided
OHOUDÜOU
into four parts, as A 1 , I 2, 2 3 , and 3 B, of
which i and 3 forni centers from wliich the
curves of the sides of the arch are struck.
The upper outer curvature is obtained by the
aid of centers, on a line C D parallel to A B,
and touching the crown of the arch.
FIG . 66
These Moresque arches when employed
are generally very highly enriched ; a celebrated example is found over
a doorway in Tarragona, in Spain. The Alhambra, the remains of a palace
of the Moorish sovereigns of Grenada, presents other notable examples.
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
35
Gothic arches of the simpler forms are usually struck from two cen
ters, within or without the arch. In many cases the arches take a compound
and more elaborate form , as at Fig. 68. It will be seen that the curves of
this arch are struck from four centers in a manner not unlike the Arabian arch
just described. This form of arch was greatly in vogue during the
early part of the Fourteenth Century ; the effect is extremely light and
elegant, but it is probably one of the worst forms of arch that has ever
been executed, because in the upper part the true principle of arch con
struction is reversed, the voussoirs being turned with their thicker ends
toward the opening, where they would have a tendency to fall inwards.
The Moorish and other builders of the East, however, who employed this
species of arch, took care to make the upper curve of such dimensions
that it was constructed with few joints ;
and the Gothic architects of the Fourteenth
and Fifteenth centuries, who adopted a
bolder contour, filled it in with tracery, by
which any inward thrust was successfully
resisted. The horseshoe arch was frequently
used in the East, but its only advantage, if
А
it has any, must be found in asthetic rea
sons .
Down to the level of its center, or
centers, it behaves under a strain like an
ordinary arch, the turning of its haunches
FIG . 67
inwards below that point not tending in the slightest degree to diminish
its horizontal thrust. The lower voussoirs are held in position chiefly
through the adhesive power of the cement , and the extent to which they
are held , or inserted in the wall . Any movement taking place in the
haunches must tend to drive them
together.
Keystones , when of
greater size than the other vous
soirs of an arch, will certainly in
1
crease its stability, and can be
treated in a pleasing way as orna
mental features. Many architects
object to their introduction at all
in pointed arches, and urge the pro
priety of a vertical joint. There is
no doubt that this expedient
makes the work much easier, and
inaccuracies in setting out less
liable to detection, especially where
there are many mouldings to be
FIG . 68
brought to joint and mitre.
In
old work there are abundance of
precedents for both methods of construction, but I am inclined to favor
the keystone , partly because it reduces the number of joints, but chiefly
because it obviates the necessity of working the stone to a feather-edge at
the crown .
CHAPTER VIII .
FLAT SEGMENTAL AND IRREGULAR ARCHES.
HAVE touched somewhat on the flat or lintel arch in previous papers
1
and shown , to some extent, the manner in which the materials were
prepared for them. I supplement the examples given with a few
others, simple in form and easy of application: Fig. 69 is a straight arch
suitable for a door or window not more than five feet in width.
The shape
of the arch complete is a trapezium, A B C D. The center O is ob
tained by continuing the lines D A and C D until they bisect at O,
which gives the center from which all the lines for voussoirs are drawn.
Fig . 70 is another form of arch and is much stronger than Fig.
69.
To construct this form , divide the intrados into an
uneven
Fig. 72
Fig. 69 .
Fi:
73
с
IA
Fig. 70
rig . 3
Fig. 71
number of equal parts; produce the sides of the pier beyond A and B, and
draw the line C D. From the points of division draw perpendiculars, as
K, and from D K, draw the joints. It will be observed that the pressure
is thus brought to be as much as possible downward instead of outward,
since the main bearing of the arch or lintel is on the horizontal top of the
pier EF.
Fig. 71 is another example of an arch in which increased strength is
given by increasing the depth of the voussoirs as they approach the key
stone. The method of laying out this lintei will be easily understood by the
student.
Fig. 72 exhibits an example of an arch formed by a segment of a circle.
This method is frequently employed in the constructlon of short spar
36
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
N
37
bridges. It will be seen that the
intrados having been divided into the
required number of parts, the joints
for the voussoirs, which are radii of
B
arc, are carried up, and are intersected
in groups by the horizontal courses of
the stonework.
PIER
FIER
Fig. 73 shows semi- elliptical arch,
the curves of which may be con
FIG. 75.
structed in any of the methods I have
explained. To find the direction of
the joints, which must be perpen
dicular to the curve, divide the intrados into the required number of equal
parts, and from the foci F and F draw lines to each of these points, as at
It will be noticed that this
JRON
C
WORRAOSUT
GHT
A; bisect the angle thus formed, and the bisection A C will be one of the
points required .
is an illustration of a surbased
vault, the height of the crown
being less that half the spring
TIE ROD
FIG. 70 .
ing width .
Fig. 74 shows a rampant
or raking arch. To draw the
ABUT MENT
CORNER OR
ISOLATED PIER
PIER
intrados of this, the height of
the imposts A and B being given, draw the line A B, joining the im
posts, and bisect it in C. At C draw a vertical line, and make C D equal
to C B. From E draw a line at right angles to A B, intersecting hori
zontal lines, drawn at A and B in E and F,which will be the centers required.
Draw the arc D B with the radius E D and the arc D A with the radius
F D. Divide the intrados into the required number of equal parts, and the
joints will be radii of the arc in which they are contained.
In Fig. 75 I show a segmented arch constructed on the very best prin
ciple. A C shows the span; BD, the rise; A B C, the soffit or intrados;
AOL C , the face, and A O and C L, the skewbacks. The joints are shown
in proper place and are radius,
and the joints at the springing
NIN
VIT
ASUN
WINT
VOIN
NNNAN
lines , EOM and ELN, form
the spandrels, and the stones
used in filling these places
Fig. 76 shows an arch
WEDGE
WEDGE
ASTAN
, RDS
where there is no abutment
FIG . 77
STANDARDS
are called " spandrel- filling" or
" paunching ."
on one side, while the other
side is reinforced by a solid
mass of masonry . The method
of securing this arch, and its purposes are too apparent to require of further
explanation .
L
TICA
PRAC
38
Y
ONR
MAS
NE -CUTTING .
AND STO
Fig. 77 exhibits a semi-circular arch with a method of centering
shown.
It is usual for the carpenter to make and put in place all centers;
but it sometimes happens that the mason is obliged to set the centers ,
and even make them—and the example rendered will give some idea as to
how the work should be done, if the mason is ever called upon to under
take the task .
The examples given are ample to give the working mason a fair in
sight into the proper methods of constructing the arch pure and simple,
and it would now be in order, did space permit, to enter in a more diffi
cult field and consider some methods of erecting niches, semi-domes,
domes, cylinders, bridges, skew -arches, spires and other like work; but I
must confine myself to a few .
With regard to the stability of an arch, much depends upon the
wedge -like form of the voussoirs, so the greater the difference between
the extrados and the intrados, the less tendency is there for any of the
stones to become dislodged. Hence an elliptical arch will be more stable
than a segmental one of equal span, be cause in the former we reduce the
span of the great arch by connecting it with two portions of shorter
radius and greater curvature at the haunches. The elliptical form of arch
is therefore generally preferred in the construction of bridges and viaducts.
A four- centered arch of the same span would be structurally inferior,
if its
apex were kept down to the same level as the crown of
an elliptical arch , because the joints of its voussoirs would be quite
as steeply inclined, while its curvature would be less. It would, how
ever, be preferable to a drop arch of the same height and span, for the
same reasons that an elliptical arch is superior to a segmental one.
It
seems improbable, however, that the segmental form of arch will become
extensively used in stone work.
When the arch is used in tunnel construction, the abutments form re
taining walls, and have a curved section imparted to them to overcome the
thrust exerted by the side earth. This tends to drive their lower extrem
ities together, a tendency which is resisted by mens of inverted arches.
Thus the entire tunnel becomes a hollow cylinder where curvature varies
according to the amount of strain impinging upon its various parts.
Regarded as features in an architectural composition, the forms of
arches should be in harmony with the general lines of a building. We are
accustomed to seeing the lancet form associated with the shapely pointed
pinnacles and spirelets peculiarly connected with the Thirteenth Century
Gothic work. The ogee arches of a later period suited the styles when
the ogee pinnacles and florid ornamentation prevailed; while the flat four
centered and deep arches were appropriately used in conjunction with flat
pitched roofs. In the Eastern types of architecture, various styles of ogee
and horseshoe are employed, and are strikingly suggestive of the outlines
of those stupendous " onion " domes which the Oriental builders affected,
and with which most of their ornamentation was designed to harmonize.
Among early Italian examples, the pointed arch prepared the eye for
the sharp contour of the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore. In St. Paul's
Cathedral, London , the semi-circular arches in the dome were designed to
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
39
harmonize with the rounded form of the dome above, and the same princi
ple was wisely carried out in our own Capitol at Washington, and its
omission at St. Peter's at Rome is generally acknowledged to be a defect.
In forming arched openings in circular walls the thickness and cury
ature of the latter must be taken into consideration in regulating the
width of the openings. A straight line drawn upon the plan through the
center of the drum midway between the piers of an opening, and cut at the
bisection of the thickness of the wall, shows the center of the soffit above,
which must fall well within a straight line connecting the external angles
of the piers. Steep pointed arches are safest for openings in circular walls,
and lintels are least desirable.
The functions of a horizontal arch are precisely the same as those of a
vertical one.
As the latter sustains a weight, so the former sustains a
pressure, and conveys that pressure to the points of abutment. This is
exemplified in semi-circular or segmental area walls, or in the back walls of
underground cellarage which in both cases act as retaining walls, being
curved upon their horizontal instead of vertical section as one of the side
walls of tunnels. Sometimes these are in single points of abutment, the
horizontal arch being completely self-sustaining. This is the case with
cylindrical cisterns, wells or like constructions which present an equal re
sistance to the pressure of the earth all around, or with the walls of round
towers, which, being equally strong in every part, require no quoins.
Sim
ilarly, every course of stone in a dome is a perfect ring of a horizontal
arch all around, and sustains itself against the possibility of falling inward.
In using inverted arches the conditions of equilibrium are reversed, but
the results are precisely similar. By a vertical arch the weight of the wall
above is transferred to the piers, and from thence to the foundations. These
two piers being loaded to such an extent, have only to overcome the re
sistance of the ground covered by their footings or the beds of the concrete
below. Hence, in the case of a very heavy load, the whole structure might
sink to an appreciable extent. If, however, a horizontal arch be turned
from pier to pier, having proper spandrils and footings under it, this arch
will encounter the upward resistance of the earth between the two piers,
and by transferring that resistance to its haunches, will prevent the piers
from sinking unduly.
If the piers were less heavily weighted the arch
would do no harm, as it would then be subjected to less resistance, and
would in consequence exert less thrust; but if the piers were of insufficient
mass, they might be in danger of being thrust out of position . If the in
verted arches were built without spandrils they might suffer dislocation,
which would render them useless, even if the movement did not seriously
affect the superstructure.
Inverted arches are not often necessary in situations above ground,
though there are instances where they have been used, mostly for the
purpose of strengthening some building that required it. When it is
necessary to invert an arch above ground, the situation, circumstances
and conditions will settle the mode of procedure and suggest to the builder
all the requirements.
We will now leave the ordinary arch with its many forms and appli
cations, and enter into a field of masonry where the knowledge already
attained will prove of service.
CHAPTER IX.
SEMI- DOME AND BARREL VAULTS .
L
ET us imagine an apse which is finished by a barrel vault ending in a
semi-dome is presented for us to deal with. Semi-domes may be con
structed in two ways, but generally they are constructed exactly like
an ordinary dome with horizontal courses similar to the example
shown at Fig. 78, with beds forming zones of vercical cones, the
SECTION
apices of which are at the center of the spher
ical cupola, as can be seen by examining the
models of cupolas made by this class of ma.
sonry. The surface of the bed-joints resem
bles exactly that of half a sphere, the several
stones of the same course are simply vertical
planes, namely, the meridian planes which
pass through the vertical axis of the dome ,
as may be seen in the plan ; the courses of the
semi-dome following the courses of the barrel
vault and the surface of the bed -joints is
continuous, although it belongs to a plane in
the barrel vault and a cone in the semi- dome.
Fig. 79 shows a simple barrel vault, or,
as the French call it, " a cradle vault ."
PLAN
FIG . 78.
It is also known in some localities as a " waggon vault.” This kind
of construction may be scientifically defined as a vault which is formed
by the surface of some regular solid around a single axis, and springs from
the two opposite walls presenting a uniform , concave surface along its
length. Such were the vaults that the Romans frequently used to cover
their baths and clocæ , as in the early examples of a subterranean conduit
of Tusculum, and the Cloaca Maxima of Rome. The Romans soon dis
covered how bare and void of effect was the simple barrel vault, and aspired
to better things. The cylindrical vault reappears in the buildings of the
Mediæval builders, especially the Normans, thanks, probably, to the ease
with which it could be constructed. The cylindrical vaulting of the Grand
Cathedral of Cologne is an extremely interesting specimen of the barrel
vault ; so also is the nave of the chapel of the White Tower, London. A
room below the chapel is also vaulted in the same manner. Remains of
Roman barrel vaulting are extant in Sherborne Castle, Dorset, and in many
other places in England and on the Continent.
It has often been observed that while a vault, or a dome, seems to the
ordinary spectator a work which must have presented many difficulties in
the
course of erection , on the contrary, little difficulty is experienced in
their construction if the master mind has been trained for the purpose.
Nevertheless, in ordinary vault or domical construction one adjunct that has
been held by the later builders as indispensable entails an amount of cost
and labor which detract much from the apparent ease and simplicity of
the operations of vaulting and doming. I allude to the wooden centering
employed during building, which are usually of a very massive and sub
stantial character, so much so, indeed, that many treatises exist dealing
40
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
41
solely or mainly with the principles and
formation of these necessary evils . One
treatise, particularly adapted to Ameri
can practice, was prepared by Owen
McGinnes, and is published in New
York. It is a question of much interest spots
to the modern builder when he looks at
FIG. 79 .
either the originals or illustrations of great works of antiquity, to ask how the
ancients managed to raise their enormous vaults without immense prepara
tory expenses in the building of centers. Violet le Duc well says : " When we
examine one of the great vaulted Roman edifices, such as the Baths of Anton
ius, of Caracalla , or of Diocletian , the basilica of Constantine at Rome , etc. , we
are at first disposed to believe that to support such vast superstructures an
enormous load of wood --some centers of prodigious power -were requi
site ; and , following as a matter of course , great preparatory and sunk outlay .
Nevertheless , an attentive study of these vaults teaches us, on the contrary ,
that their builders , practical before everything, have been able to form these
immense concretions by the aid of means alike economic and marvelously
simple . If we take the pains to analyze these large Roman vaults , semi-circu .
lar, groined , or domical , we find that the curved surfaces, apparently uniform
and homogeneous , are formed of a number of brickwork ribs and even cells ,
of which the intervals are backed with rubble and mortar.” Thus , in order
to raise a vault of great size , it was only necessary to provide a certain
number of comparatively light centers of carpentry and unite them by super
posed stout planks , upon the surface of which the vault was constructed .
c
At Fig. 80 I give an ideal perspective sketch of the Roman plan . A
portion of the wall is laid before the centering is started, the feet of the
struts resting in the masonry just
below the springing line. Upon a
series of comparatively light centers
the stout planks A are placed. On
T109
these latter in turn the arch itself is
built, the voussoirs being stones or
burned tiles B , of large superficial
area compared with their thickness.
At intervals ribs of brick or terra cotta
are thrown across this facing of arch
stones from side to side of the vault,
as shown at C , and these are connected
by longitudinal partitions (D) of simi
FIG. 8o.
lar material to the ribs. The compart
ments thus formed were filled in with
a thick backing of rubble masonry ,
as shown at E. It would seem that the latter set with sufficient rapidity to
obviate any prejudicial effect of shrinking in the timber of the centers.
when the latter were struck, the vault remained without any further settle
ment, unique and so stable that some so formed have endured successfully
the passing of over two thousand years and the vicissitudes of natural decay.
CHAPTER X.
ANNULAR AND RAKING VAULTS.
NOTHER form of vault is the Annular vault, which is simply a bar
rel vault built on a circular plan , as shown at Fig . 81. From the
necessity of the plan shape some skill will be required in finding the
joints to form a vault of this kind. The outside of the ring has all the
A
properties of domes, and may be constructed on the same lines . On the
other hand the inside of the ring forms a fan vault, the joints of which radiate
from the axis , and therefore each stone forms a wedge which will fall out of
place if not held by connection
with outer wall .
The rules for
working the stones required for
these sort of vaults, are some
what difficult to master, and
further in , in connection with
cupolas and quoins I will give hist
subject a little more explanation .
A vault is said to be raking
when its generators are inclined
instead of level , as in the vaults
that support stairs or flights of
steps. Let Fig . 82 , A' L' M' B'
FIG . 81 .
be the face of an arch on the plane of the ground line A B, then according
to Lawrence Harvey's method, we make A' A' be the height , and AC the
base of the raking spring line of the vault , the hypothenuse of the right
angle triangle constructed on these two lines will give the inclination of the
generators of the vault.
Draw these generators on a vertical plane, EG,
parallel to the generators of the raking vault . The elevation on the plane
EG is shown on Fig . 84. E' G " will be the springing line of the vault , or
the trace of the plane from which the vault springs. A' B' will be the trace
of that plane on the wall face, and G H will be the trace of the same plane
at the level of the ground line. The imposts which carry the vault are in
clined planes projected on plan on the rectangles A CGE, and BD HF.
Lastly, draw on Fig . 84 the section G ” X " of the horizontal barrel vault
penetrated by the raking vault .
Now, having drawn the arch stones on the wall face, project Fig. 84 in
L " L '', M " M '", the joint lines parallel to the springing line E G " . This
gives their real length . In the same way the arrises P ' P ", Q " Q '", may
have their lengths at the extrados, defined. There will then only remain
to find the widths of the bed-joints, and the soffits of each arch stone , and
to do this the square section of the vault has to be drawn .
To draw a square section , take a plane Y " E F perpendicular to the
generator EG" of the vault, it will cut the joint lines I m, Fig. 84. When
this plane of section is turned down round its horizontal trace, E F , the
points of section will come in lm , Fig . 83. These points are found by tak
ing
42
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
43
A a=Ee" . KIFE I", V m= E m " ; and through these points the square
section is drawn . Similarly the points p q, of the arrises of the extrados
are found, and then the lines l p , m q, will measure the width of each bed
joint .
To develop the cylindrinal soffit as shown at Fig. 85, rectify the square
section u l m b, Fig . 83, as an indefinite line, Fig . 85 , on which carry the
lengths a, la, l, m2, equal to the lengths of the arcs a l, lm, Fig. 83; then
CSU
ARE
Q " R'
Fig. 84 ,
2
s' P'
m.
B'
N
TIO
SEC
E'
Fig. 82,
LINE
GRCUND
А
B
К
D
a
Fig. 83
mт
D
T
erect perpendiculars to that line, one which carries lengths equal to each
part of the joint lines from the section plane, Fig. 84 ; take therefore a, A,
= é E ', 1, L2 = 1" L ", m , Ez = m " M ", and also a , Az = e " G " , 1 , L2 = 1"
L '" , m , M , = m " M " . Then draw on the development the curves A , L , M ,
B2 , A , L , M , B , of the face arch and the intersection with the horizonta!
barrel vault . On the same diagram draw the moulds of the bed -joints, the
widths of which are found in Fig . 83, raking 92 Q2 =
l", as the face
M2
L2
Mg
Le
B2
az
ma
P,
Se
Pg
S.
b
m
M,
Mo
L,
В.
Ag
FIG . 85 .
RO
FIG . 86.
44
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE -CUTTING .
arch the end Q, M, will be a straight line ; as the side of the vault Q3 M, will
be a curve which can be drawn with the help of an intermediate point.
In cutting the stone for this work let L ' M' QR'S P' , Fig. 82 , be the
stone to be wrought. There are two methods. By the first work a prism
Fig. 88
of section 1 mgrsp,
Fig . 83 , and of a length
at least equal to Q " Y', '
Fig. 84. Then on the
faces of that prism ap
ply the soffit and bed
moulds. This will give
the arrises of the two
ends of the stone . The
Fig. 87
end forming the face
arch is a plane , the end
1
forming the soffit of the
horizontal barrel vault
will be worked with a
straight edge.
The
other method (Fig. 86)
uses bevels cut to the
angle l m q and m ip,
Fig . 89,
Fig. 83. Starting from
the operation plane l m
of the soffit, the bed
joints are worked by
means of the bevels,
and the moulds are applied as in the first method. The soffit is worked by
means of a template cut to the curve lom, Fig. 83 .
As given in the former figure, the horizontal barrel vault is supposed to
be in concrete .
If it be
in stone the
jointing
would have to be con
nected similar to the con
nections in a Welsh
groin .
It is to be noticed
that the bed -joints, as
drawn, are not normal in
FIG. 90 .
ing vault.
the intrados of the rak
They might be made so ; but then they would be no more
normal to the face of the arch .
If the raking vault be of some length, then it would not be advisable to
let the stones rest on raking bed -joints, for they would tend to slip down
and exercise a great pressure on the horizontal vault below. To prevent this
defect the arch stones should be cut as in Figs . 87 , 88 , 89 , where the spring
ers rest on horizontal planes and each stone is made with elbows to hold the
stone of the course above it .
But, as shown on the plan of the soffit (Fig.
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE-CUTTING .
45
89) some stones, and especially the course of keystones, should be left
plain without elbows.
A better way of finishing the bottom end of a raking vault is to use one
horizontal lunette as a transition from a raking vault to the horizontal barrel
vault. The appearance is more elegant, and the thrust of the raking vault
is thereby relieved as at Fig. 90.
The preceeding example, and the one following, are taken from Mr.
Lawrence Harvey's treatise on the subject of vaults, etc. , published in
London , because of their being more simple and much clearer than any
thing on the subject to be found in Gwilt or in the works of French
authors.
Another difficult vault to prepare stone for is the “ Skew raking
vault ” which intersects a horizontal barrel vault .
To construct a vault
of this description, let A L M B, Fig. 91 , be the face arch placed in
the elevation plane of the drawing . Let EG , A C, B D , F H be the hori
zontal projections of the two raking imposts of the vault . The jambs of the
arch not being at right angles with the wall face, the arch is therefore skew .
Let G H be the springing line of the horizontal barrel vault , and let it be
the level of the plane of our plan , in which arrangement we should have
drawn A B of the elevation at a height E e above the ground line ; but as
the projections required for the working of the stone will not be on this ele
vation , I keep it down at the lower level in order to render the drawing more
compact .
Let the bed -joints be planes taken through the radaii O L, O M , and
through the corresponding generators of the cylindrical soffit, although
these planes are not normal to the intrados.
Now select a new vertical projection plane parallel to the sides of the
oblique arch , and make thereon another elevation . Let E X, Fig. 93 , be
the ground line of that new elevation plane, and place above it the springing
line E' F' of the arch at its proper level = E E. Then E' G , A' C' , B'D' ,
F' H' will be the elevation of the raking imposts of the arch .
To draw the
joint line starting from L, project I in I' , Fig . 93, then make I'L' = IL .
From the point L' thus found draw L' L " parallel to E' G. All the other
arrises of the stones are drawn in the same way .
In the new elevation of
the face arch the joint lines N' L' , P' M' prolonged, must pass through O' .
To find the points when the joint lines L'L" , M' M " cut the soffit of the
barrel vault , draw X Y center line of that vault ; cut the vault by two verti
cal planes , Y V , YH, the one perpendicular to X Y, the other parallel to
the sides of the raking arch . The first section will be the circle U V ; the
second is an ellipse , which , laid down on the drawing round the line Y H
takes the position H B' W. This elliptical section can be delineated as fol
lows : Cut the vault by a vertical plane parallel to its center line; it will give
a horizontal line. The level of that line is a a' in the square section . It is
therefore the same for B B' in the elliptical section.
Once the elliptical section is drawn, cut it out in cardboard or zinc , then
if
were to place it in the structure vertically on the line I y , Fig. 92 ,
with its foot y on the springing line, the cardboard section would necessarily
cut the joints starting from L.
We draw this operation on the elevation ,
46
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i
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE - CUTTING .
47
Fig . 93 , by laying the cardboard section on that elevation with the bottom
of the section in y' and its ground line H Y coinciding with y' X. When
the section meets, L' L ' gives the point of intersection, L " . The same
operation will give every other point of the intersection of the raking arch
with the soffit of the barrel vault. The bed -joints, N " L " and P ' M " , are
arcs of ellipses and may be delineated by finding, by the same method,
intermediary points between the two extremities .
To obtain the line S' S " , tangent to the curves of the face arch and groin,
take a plane tangent to the cylinder and perpendicular to the second eleva
tion plane. To do this, draw G g perpendicular to Ex , and take a plane
through the lines Gg and G E, the vertical trace of that plane (Fig. 91 ) is
eg . Draw a tangent s o parallel to e g ; s is the starting point from which
the required generator will begin .
To develop the soffit of the arch we require the square section . To find
the square section cut the raking arch by the plane FKR (Figs. 92 , 93) at
right angles with the generators of the arch. This plane will cut the point
belgle
line L'L ", I y in a point the elevation of which is l', and which is placed in
a vertical plane of which I y and the distancc of l to the hinge of rotation is
equal to Kl, Fig. 93. Thus, all points of the square section can be found .
The section of the right hand arch stone which will be considered in the
cutting is b mpgf.
For soffit and bed moulds, set off any straight line (Fig. 95) carry the
distances a' l', l' m', m' b', equal to the arcs a l, I m, m b of the square sec
tion ; then draw , at right angles with the base line, the lines d ' A' and d' C,
I L' and I' I " , m' M' and m' M ", V B' and ' D ', respectively, equal to the
lines of the same names on Fig . 93 . Then draw the curves A' L' M' B' and
C'L " M " D' ; which are the outlines of the developed soffit, and which give
the soffit moulds. For the bed moulds take m' ' equal to m p of the square
section, and make ţ' P' equal to the same lines on Fig. 93. The side M' P'
will be straight ; the side M " P " will be a portion of an ellipse, the curve of
which can be delineated by a few supplementary points found by the same
method . By turning down the center line for each bed the points O' and O "
are obtained, where the joint lines would pass if prolonged. It will be seen
by this drawing that the greatest length of the right-hand stone is contained
between the dotted lines starting from P' and H' .
In working the stones it is the safest way to first cut a prism having the
square section for its base, and of the length of the stone as shown.
DES
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ig
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CHAPTER XI .
WORKING THE STONES.
A
S stated before, in working the stones it is the safest to cut a prism
having the square section for its base, and the length of the stone as
shown in Fig . 95. Then by applying on that prism the several
moulds found, the outline of the stone is delineated . The wall face is easily
worked to a plane.
The cylindrical face belonging to the soffit of the barrel
vault is marked with a straight-edge, guided by marks easily obtainable
from the drawing, and then placed on the stone.
Another method, and a shorter one, of working out the same problem is
given herewith . In the foregoing method the usual octagonal projections
are used ; in this one take the second elevation plane on FH, Fig . 97 , and
project the raking arch thereon parallel to the generators of the barrel vault .
Then all the joint lines are limited on one side by the straight line F' Z' ,
which represents the wall face, and on the other side by the elliptical section
of the barrel vault .
To find the square section, cut the raking arch by the plane, F' R K,
perpendicular to the generators of the arch. This plane will cut the joint
212
line M in a point situated in the vertical plane Tu. When the section is
turned down , the point of intersection, m, will come somewhere on that
line. The distance of that point to the hinge of rotation is equal to that of
a line drawn at right angles from g to the joint line M. The elevation of g
is g Fig . 98 ; the length required is there g m , which carried from g , gives
m of the square section . Thus all other points of the square section are
formed .
For the soffit and the bed moulds, the developments are made on the
same principles used in the former methods , only that the distances to be
carried are a' F' and a ' H' , I'M ' and I' M " , and m ' M ' and m' M " , 6' F' and b'
H of Fig . 98. The stone are worked in a manner similar to the methods
before given .
If we wish to form a groin by the intersection of a skew lunette in a bar
rel vault, which is sometimes necessary in sewers or tunnels which are
crossed at an acute or obtuse angle, we proceed as follows : Let o' o be the
direction of the vaulted subway-Fig. 100. If, as in the diagram , the face
of the lunette - Fig . 104-be skew with its direction, and for appearance
sake, be made semi-circular, with joints radiating from the center, then the
right section-Fig. 101—will be an ellipse, and the joints will not be nor
mal to the surface of the vault .
We may , on the contrary, assume that the
right section is circular, and then the outside face of the arch will be ellip
tical. Whichever alternative be assumed, it must be remembered that the
development of the surface of the vault can only be found by the means of.
the right section .
The division of both vaults in arch-stones will be done as in the case of
vaults met at right angles ; the groin will again be found by cutting both
vaults by a series of horizontal planes, such as l' l ", m ' m " , n' n " , Figs. 104,
49
15440213
-
p"
fig.. 104
N "
Fig.105
1
1
1
n
s
Level of the Crow of the lange
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1
21
TV
1
19: 101
1
!
t
gon
e
I canyone
.
lar
Fig.106
文
B.
V.N.Tu Paxe
B₃
seg. 102
UU
As
3
Ns
- Fig .103
50
TTING
PRACTICAL MASONRY AND STONE - CUTTING .
51
105, each of which will cut both vaults along straight lines, the intersection
of which will give the points l, m , n , of the groin . The tangents to the
curve of the groin on plan are found by exactly the same methods as when
the vaults meet at right angles , either by the method of the plane of
the normals , or by the method of intersection of the plane tangent to each
of the cylinders .
In order to get a proper development of the soffit shown at Fig . 102 ,
exhibit the right section Fig . 101 first, then make a , A , = A , A , I , = al,
P2 m3 = um 1 V2 N3 = Un
– 6 , B2
b B. This series of points will
give the line of the groin on the developed surface of the soffit.
Each division of this development will give us the soffit mould of the re
spective arch-stones.
In drawing the bed moulds , the depth of each point must be taken on
the right section , Fig . 101 , and not on the face arch , Fig . 104. Thus , on
Fig. 102 v , N, = v'v" of Fig . 101, and N, P, = v'n" , v, n' . The
lengths , Fig. 102 , N, N3 , P2 P3 , N2 P3 are taken from the plan 100” equal
to the distance of the points NP , Þ , from the line a B. The curves nz N3 ,
P3 Pz formed by the intersection of the bed with the soffit and extrados of
the larger vault are found, exactly as in the cases of Welsh groin , indeed,
they are portions of ellipses , but of which we have conjugate diameters
It is observed that the ellipses formed by
the intersections of the beds with the soffit of the vault have got the one
conjugate diameter o o in common, and that tangents taken on points where
lines are parallel to the other conjugate diameter, cut the ellipses, will meet
in one point, such as O in the diameter, for O will be in every case given by
the intersection of the horizontal trace of plane m " O (Fig . 105) tangent to
the larger cylinder with the center line of the smaller vault , which is the
such as O o and O X , not axes .
horizontal trace of all the planes of the bed -joints.
In working the stones , Fig . 102 , the face mould must be taken from the
square section as shown at Fig.101 . We begin by producing a prism , the
base of which is equal to the plane of the stone, and the height of which is
equal to the level of the highest and lowest points , such as u' and n ", Fig.
101. The working of the stone is simple when the vaults meet at right
angles , though sometimes it may be necessary to change the line of joints
to meet conditions .
These matters, however, the workman will be able to
successfully meet , if he has followed us closely through these chapters,
whenever he is confronted by changes alluded to .
There will , of course , be many things in stone construction that
workmen will meet with that are not provided for in the foregoing papers,
but to provide for every contingency , or indeed a majority of them , would
occupy more space than is at our command , so for the present we end here.
ar
Libr
ublic
York P
AT
NTP
323 EAST BIPSTREET
CIRCULATING
DEPARTMENT
THEY TELL HOW TO DO IT !
The Books in the following list are all thorough , practical and fully up to the
times .
They will be sent to any part of the world, postpaid, on receipt of price.
Additional lists are issued from time to time, and will be sent free to any address.
INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION COMPANY ,
16 THOMAS STREET
The Steel Square and Its Uses.
By FRED. T. HODGSON , Editor of “ The Operative Build
er." Third and Enlarged Edition. Illustrated by nearly
one hundred large and clear engravings. Cloth , gilt ...$ 1.00
No more cutting and trying ! This is the only practical
work on the steelsquare and its uses ever published. It is
thorough, accurate ,clear and easily understood . Confound
ing terms and scientific phrases have been religiously
avoided where possible, and everything in the book has been
made so plain that a boy of twelve years of age, possessing
ordinary intelligence, can understand it fromendto end .
This new edition , just issued , is illustrated by nearly one
hundred handsome engravings, showing how the square
may be used for solving nearly every problem in the whole
art of carpentry. Tho carpenter who possesses this book
need not waste time and material “ cutting and trying."
He can lay out his work to a hair's breadth, and “ cut to the
line . "
The work is absolutely indispensable to every person who
may have to use a carpenter's square . Joiners, cabinet
makers, brick layers, stone cutters, plasterers, lumber
dealers, amateurs , and all who build a fence, tinker a gate,
or make a chicken coop will find something in this little
book that will help and aid them to do their work better and
more intelligently than they could without a knowledge of
its contents .
The work shows how the bevels , cuts and lengths of any
and all kinds of hip , valley and jack rafters may be obtained
NEW YORK .
Hand - Saws. How to SET AND FILE.
How TO
SELECT AND HOW TO USE .
By FRED. T. HODGSON , editor of " The Operative Builder,"
author of “ The Steel Square and Its Uses ,” “ The Builders
Guide and Estimators' Price Book," " Practical Carpentry ,"
Illustrated by over seventy - five engravings.
etc., etc.
Being a complete guide for selecting , using and filing all
kinds of hand -saws , back saws, compass and key -hole saws ;
web , hack , and butchers' saws ; showing the shapes, forms,
angles, pitches and sizes of saw teeth suitable for wll kinds
of saws, and for all kinds of wood , bone, ivory and metal ; to
gether with Hints and Suggestions on the Choice of Files,
Saw -sets, Filing -clamps , etc., and other matters pertaining
of all classes of hand and..oth
to the car
mana
er
e and
Clot
$ 1.00
, gilt.. gement
saws .
h
This work is intended more particularly for operativo car
carriage builders and wood
penters, joiners, cabinet makers,
onals
s
workers generally, amateur or professi
Stair -Building Made Easy.
.
FOR YOUNG
SIMPLE, PLAIN , AND
MAY BE LEARNED IN AN HOUR .
CARPENTERS AND JOINERS .
Being a full and clear description of the art of building
the bodies, carriages and cases for all kinds of stairs an
steps together with illustrationsshowing themaner of lay
ing out stairs, forming treads and risers, building cylinders,
in the simplest manner; also how stair -strings, raking
preparing strings; with instructions for making carriages
mouldings and all kinds of mitres may be " cut " exactly,
with theleast possible labor.
Many difficult and troublesome mathematical problems
forcommon, platform , dog -legged and winding stairs. To
which is added an Illustrated Glossary of Terms used in
stair -building and designs for newels , balusters, brackets,
stair -mouldings and sections of handrails. By FRED. T.
HODGSON, editor of “ The Operative Builder.
Cloth ,
can be solved by the use of this tool , and the methods of
solving them are shown in this work . It describes how
painting, plastering and brick work can be measured , and
how many mechanical difficulties can be overcome with
great ease. It explains how ellipses, parabolas, octagons,
circles and many other figures may be described by the
steel square .
It is safe to say that this dollar book will easily enable
any intelligent mechanic to save ten dollars in time and
material during the first three months that he has it in use.
No other book on carpentry and joinery contains half as
much REAL PRACTICAL MATTER in double the space .
Steel Squares and Their Uses.
Being a description of the various steel squares and their
uses in solving a large number of mechanical problems in
constructive carpentry, joinery , sheet metal work , cut stone
or brick work . “ Also showing how many geometrical and
gilt ..
$ 1.00
This work takies hold at the very beginning of the subject,
and carries the student along by easy stages until the entire
subject of stair -building has been unfolded, so far as ordi
nary practice can ever require. This book , and the follow
ing one on HAND-RAILING, Cover nearly the whole subject
of STAIR -BUILDING.
A New System of Hand Railing.
Or, How to Cut Hand Railing for Circular and otherStairs,
Square from the Plank , without the aid of a Falling Mould.
The system is new, novel, economic and easily learned.
Rules, instructions and working drawings for building rails
for seven different kinds of stairs are given. By AN OLD
STAIR -BUILDER . Edited and corrected by FRED. T. HODGSON.
$ 1.00
Cloth, gilt ..
other problems may be solved by the use of the steel square.
By FRED. T. HODGSON , editor of “ The Operative Builder .”
$ 1.00
Finely illustrated . Cloth ...
This forms Part II of “ The Steel Square and Its Uses,"
but is not in any senge a substitute for the First Part,
which still remains what it always has been -- a necessity
to every intelligent workman . It is an extension and en
largement of the original work, giving new problems, new
methods and new wrinkles for shortening work and in
creasing the accuracy of the workman . It is illustrated in
the same handsome manner which characterized the First
Part, to which it forms a companion volume.
With these two volumes in his possession the workman
has at command the entire practical mathematics of con
struction , and is prepared to lay out any piece of work more
The Builder's Guide.
The Builder's Guide and Estimator's Price Book . Being a
compilation of current prices of lumber, hardware, glass,
plumbers' supplies, paints, slates, stones, limes, cements ,
bricks, tin , and other building materials ; also , prices of
labor and cost of performing the several kinds of work ro
quired n building, together with prices of doors, frames,
sashes, stairs, mouldings, newels, and other machine work.
To which is appended a large number of building rules,
data , tables and useful memoranda, with a Glossary of
Architectural and Building Terms. By FRED. T. HODGSON,
editor of “ The Operative Builder,' author of " The Steel
. $ 2.00
Square and Its Uses, " etc., etc. 12mo, cloth ...
easily, quickly and accurately than it can be done by any
other method .
Practical Carpentry .
Illustrated by over three hundred engravings. Being a
guide to the correct working and laying out of all kinds of
carpenters' and joiners' work ; with the solutions of the
various problems in hip -roofs, gothic work, centering,
splayed work, joints and joining, hinging , dovetailing,
mitering, timber splicing, hopper works, skylights, raking
mouldings, circular work , etc. , etc .; to which is prefixed a
thorough treatise on “ Carpenter's Geometry." By FRED. T.
HODGSON, editor of “The Operative Builder ," author of
Carpenter's and Joiner's Pocket Com
panion.
Containing rules, data and directions for laying out work ,
and forcalculating and estimating . Compiled by THOMAS
MOLONEY, Carpenter and Joiner. Cloth ..
.50c.
This is a compact and handy little volume, containing the
most useful rules and memoranda, practically tested by
many years' experience in the shop, factory and building :
also a TREATISE ON THE FRAMING SQUARE. It is by a thor
oughly practical man , and contains enough that is not easily
found anywhere else to make it worth more than its price to
every intelligent carpenter.
“The Steel Squaro and Its Uses," "The Builder's Guide
and Estimator's Price Book ," " The Slide Rule and How to
. $ 1.00
Use It, " etc., etc. Cloth , gilt .....
This is the most compiete book of the kind ever published .
time
same
,
at
and
the
and
reliable
,
practical
thorough
It is
is written in a style so plain that any workman or appren.
tice can easily understand it.
Hints and Aids to Builders .
Hints and Aids in Building and Estimating, giving hints
and prices ; tells how to measure, explains building terms,
and , in short, contains afund of information for all who are
28C
interested in building . Paper...
CATALOGUE OF INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATIONS .
2
Easy Lessons in Architecture .
Easy Lessons ; or, the Stepping Stone to Architecture.
Consisting of a series of questions and answers explaining
progress of Archi
in simple language the principles and
tecture from the earliest times.
By THOMAS MITCHELL.
Illustrated by nearly one hundred and fifty engravings.
Cloth , gilt..
..50c .
The present work is probably the best architectural text
book for beginners ever published The numerous illustrat
ive engravings make the subject very simple , and prevent
all misunderstanding. It tells about the different styles ,
their peculiar features, their origin, and the principles that
New edition with American additions.
of any kind . It is one of the cheapest and best books ever
published , and contains over 1,000 hints, suggestions, meth
ods, and descriptions of tools, appliances and materials.
All the rules, recipes and directions have been carefully re
vised and corrected by practical men of great experience,
80 that they will be found thoroughly trustworthy. It con
tains many of the recipes recently sold at from $5 to $ 500
each .
Cloth, gilt ..
$ 1.00
Workshop Companion .
A Collection of Useful and Reliable Recipes, Rules, Pro
underlie their construction .
Dwellings for Village and Country .
With General Descriptions and Detailed Estimates. By
S. B. REED, Architect. Author of “ House Plans for Every
body, ' “ Cottage Homes,” etc. , etc. 149 illustrations , in
cluding 35 dwellings, complete . 121 pages, 8in. by 11in. ,
fine paper, handsomely bound in cloth , with ornamental
covers ..
information for those who are engaged in the manufacture,
superintendence, or construction of furniture or wood -work
.. $ 1.50
Books giving designs for dwellings and costly residences
have been published by the score, but few are to be found
in the market that deal with the lower -priced cottages, or
give itemized estimates of the cost of such buildings.
“Dwellings for the Village and Country,” however, has en
tered the field , and fully supplies the want.
Water-Closets.
A Historical, Mechanical, and Sanitary Treatise. By
GLENN BROWN, Architect, Associate American Institute of
....... $ 1.00
Architects. Neatly bound in cloth , gilt title ..
This book contains over 250 engravings, drawn expressly
for the work by the Author . The drawings are so clear that
the distinctive features of every device are easily seen at a
cesses, Methods, Wrinkles and Practical Hints for the House
hold and the Shop. Paper, 35C .
This is a book of 164 closely prir ted piges, forming a dic
tionary of practical information for mechanics, amateurs,
housekeepers, farmers - everybody, It is not a mere collec
tion of newspaper clippings, but a series of originaltreatises
on various subjects, such as alloys, cements, inks, steel,
signal lights, polishing materials and the art of polishing
wood, metals, etc .; varnishes, gilding , silvering, bronzing,
lacquering, and the working of brass , ivory, alabaster, iron,
steel, glass, etc.
Workshop Companion
Part II,
A Collection of Useful and Reliable Recipes, Rules, Pro
coses , Methods, Wrinkles and Practical Hints for the House
hold and the Shop. Paper, 35c.
This is an extension of the first part and contains subjects
which have not been discussed in the earlier volume. These
two volumes contain an immense amount of practical in
struction on matters in regard to which information is con
stantly desired by amateurs and practical men.
glance , and the descriptions are particularly full and
thorough . The paramount importance of this department
The Practical Assistant.
of the construction of our houses rendərs all comment upon
the value of such a work unnecessary .
scribed above, nandsomely bound together in cloth , with
Plaster ; How to Make and How to Use.
Amateur's Handbook.
Illustrated with numerous engravings in the text and
three plates, giving some forty figures of ceilings, centre
pieces, cornices, panels, and soffits. Being a complete
guide to the plasterer in the preparation and application
of all kinds of Plaster, Stucco, Portland, Hydraulic, Rosen
dale and other Cements, Lime of Teal, etc. , etc. To which is
added an Illustrated Glossary of Technical Terms used by
plasterers , with hints and suggestions regarding the work
This is Parts I and II of the WORKSHOP COMPANION de
. $ 1.00
gilt title . Price ....
Amateur's Handbook of Practical Information .
For the
Workshop and Laboratory. Second Edition . Greatly en
.15c .
larged . Neatly bound .
This is a handy little book containing just the informan
tion needed by amateurs in the workshop and laboratory .
Directions for ma sing alloys, fusible metals , cements, glues ,
etc. , and for soldering , brazing, lacquering, bronzing, stain
ing, mixing and preparation of Scagliola and colored $mor
1.00
ing and polishingwoods, temperingtools, cutting and work
skins,
ing glass, varnishing, silvering , gilding, preparing
directions for
An invaluable book for plasterers, bricklayers, masons,
builders , architects and engineers.
preparing polishing powders, freezing mixtures , colored
lights for tableaux . solutions for rendering ladies' dresses
incombustible , etc. There has also been added a very large
tars of various kinds. Cloth , gilt ....
The Hardwood Finisher.
With Rules and Directions for Finishing in Natural Colors ,
and in Antique, Mahogany, Cherry , Birch, Walnut, Oak, Ash ,
Redwood, Sycamore, Pine, and all other Domestic Woods.
Finishing, Filling, Staining , Varnishing, and Polishing.
Also, Miscellaneous Rules for Dyeing, Gilding , and Bronzing.
Compiled and Edited by FRED. T. HODGSON , Editor of The
Operative Builder," lato Editor of “ The Builder and Wood
worker," and of “ The Cabinetmaker and Upholsterer. ”
. $ 1.00
Illustrated, 12 mo., cloth .....
In these days of “ Hardwood Finish ," the carpenter and
joiner who does not make himself acquainted with all the
new and latest methods of working and finishing our native
woods is handicapped , and will not be as likely to receive as
much money for his day's work as the workman who “ knows
etc., etc.
The new edition contains extended
number of new and valuable recipes.
" The Workshop Companion, ” Part I, just described ,
contains ALL the matter that is to be found in the Amateur's
Handbook
Mechanical Draughting .
The Student's Illustrated Guide to Practical Draughting.
A series of practical instructions for machinists, mechanics ,
apprentices and students at_engineering establishments
and technical institutes .
By T. P. PEMBERTON , Draughts
man and Mechanical Engineer. Illustrated with numerous
$ 1.00
engravings. Cloth , gilt ..
This is a simple yet thorough book , by a draughtsman of
twenty - five years ' experience. It is intended for beginners
and self-taught students, as well as for those who pursue
the study under the direction of a teacher.
all about it.
This book is written to enable the workman to know, who
does not know, as well as for the man who does know , but
who desires to know more ; and, to the American workman's
credit be it said, in this last class there are many.
Lectures in a Workshop.
By T. P. PEMBERTON, formerly Associate Editor of the
“ Technologist ; " Author of • The Student's Illustrated
Guide to Practical Draughting." With an appendix con
The Practical Upholsterer.
taining the famous papers by Whitworth on “ Plane Metal
This work contains a number of original designs in drap
ery and upholstery , with full explanatory text and an im
mense number of working illustrations. 12 mo. , handsomely
.. $1 00
bound in cloth, price
.....
It gives a description of tools , appliances and materials.
It tells how to upholster chairs, parlor furniture, bedroom
furniture, etc. It contains rules for cutting bed-hangings,
window -curtains, door -hangings, blinds, and for measuring
and cutting carpets. Gives arithmetical calculations for
cutting carpets, curtains, etc. , mantleboard drapery, fes
toons, and, in short, everything pertaining to upholstery.
There is nothing, published in this country that is so
thorough and complete in the instructions given for uphols
Screw Threads ; " " Address to the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Glasgow ; " " On Standard Decimal Measures of
$ 1.00
Cloth, gilt..
Lengths
We have here a sprightly, fascinating book , full of valu
able hints, interesting anecdotes and sharp sayings. It is
not a compilation of dull sermons or dry mathematics, but &
live, readable book . The papers by Whitworth , now first
inade readily accessible to the Americanreader, form the
basis of our modern system of accurate work .
ng, as this book .
Hints for Cabinet -Makers , etc.
Hints and Practical Information for Cabinet -Makers , Up
holsterers, and Furniture-men generally, together with a
description oi all kinds of finishing, and full directions
therefor, varnishes , polishes, stains for wood, dyes for wood ,
gilding , silvering, recipes for the factory, lacquers, metals,
marbles, etc., pictures, engravings, etc., miscellaneous.
This work contains an immense amount of the most useful
lic Surfaces of True Planes ;
on “ The Uniform System of
A Book About Books .
Practical Notes on the Selection , Use, and Care of Books .
for book -buyers, students, and
Intended as a popular guide
..30c
all lovers of good reading . Cloth ......
It is illustrated with three full- page engravings , one being
a reproduction of the first wood engraving of which there is
any record ; the second is an exceedingly curious woodcut
representing the birth of Eve, and the third is an engraving
of one of the curious “ horn books” of the seventeenth cen
tury . This is a readable, gossipy book , full of literary anec
dotes, and containing alsoa great deal of practical inform
ation, useful to every one that owns or expantain own books.
al