O‘ZBEKISTON RESPUBLIKASI OLIY TA’LIM, FAN VA
INNOVATSIYALAR VAZIRLIGI
O’ZBEKISTON DAVLAT JAHON TILLARI UNIVERSITETI
XOLIKOVA MADINA ULUG`BEK QIZI
O`ZINIKI BO`LMAGAN KO`CHIRMA GAPNING AMERIKA BADIIY
DISKURSIDA TAQDIM ETILISHI
70230101 - Lingvistika (ingliz tili)
Magistrlik akademik darajasini olish uchun yozilgan
DISSERTATSIYA
Ish ko’rib chiqildi va
Ilmiy rahbar: Mustayeva G.S
himoyaga tavsiya etildi
Kafedra mudiri:
______________________
“____” ___________2023 yil
Toshkent-2023
MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND INNOVATION OF
THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
UZBEKISTAN STATE WORLD LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY
XOLIKOVA MADINA ULUG`BEK QIZI
THE PRESENTATION OF FREE INDIRECT SPEECH IN AMERICAN
DISCOURSE
70230101 - Linguistics (the English Language)
DISSERTATION
For academic master’s degree
The work has been discussed
Scientific advisor: Mustayeva G.S
And recommended for defense,
The Head of Department
_________________________
_________________________
“___” ______________2023 y.
Tashkent-2023
6
MINISTRY OF THE HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF
UZBEKISTAN
UZBEKISTAN STATE WORLD LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY
ABSTRACT OF THE MASTER'S DISSERTATION
Faculty: Masters department
Department: Linguistics (English)
Year: 2021-2023
Master’s Student: Xolikova M.U
Scientific advisor: Musatyeva G.S
Speciality: Linguistics
The topicality of the research is conditioned by the followings: 1. Methods of using free indirect speech in
research, that is analyzed sentences by general and in context; 2. Clarifying the distinctive features of free indirect
speech than others; 3. Proving that the use of free indirect speech in literary discourse is both a linguistic and a
cognitive process.
Aim and tasks of the research: The purpose and tasks of the research is to analyze in detail the usage of free
indirect speech represented in general and in context. In fact, at a time when the free indirect speech is represented
from the language of the character in the literary discourse, and is studied as a way of clearly and beautifully
delivering what the author wants to convey, I also aim to make my contribution to this work.
Subject and object of the research: 1. To show that a free indirect speech is translated into another language that
cannot be adequately described when it is presented in literary discourse. 2. To show with vivid examples the effects
of using free indirect speech in works of art. 3. To scrutinize the works of the authors and clarifying them through
examples regarding the use of the free indirect speech in American discourse.
Methods of the research: descriptive method, comparative analysis, cognitive-conceptual analysis, cross-cultural
analysis and critical analysis.
The degree of novelty of the research: In the research we considered the following. We learned that a free indirect
speech is not only an expression made up of grammar rules, but also a mental expression that causes a cognitive
process. Although this type of quoted sentence is widely used in literary discourse and is accepted by writers as a
narrative method that deserves recognition many times, its meaning may change slightly in the process of
translation, or the state of "dual voice" possibility of occurrence was determined.
Practical value and degree of embed: In the research we tried to shed light on the following. When free indirect
speech is utilized than other types of reported speech as third personage narration it stimulates the reader's inner
experiences. Free indirect speech allows almost unlimited access to the character's mind without requiring the author
to use the first-person point of view.
The results obtained. The achievements of the use of free indirect speech that are not one's own in the literary text
were justified. Examples were given of how much American writers use this method to increase the originality of
the work. The author's worldview, aesthetic views, spiritual image and personality are reflected in the composition
of the narrative structure of the work.
The structure of the dissertation consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusion, the list of used literature and
appendix.
General summary and recommendations. Free indirect speech that is not one's own gives almost unlimited access
to the character's mind without requiring the author to use the first person point of view. First-person narration has
its obvious limitations, not least of which is that it doesn't naturally correspond to seeing or experiencing anything
outside of what the hero sees or does. In contrast, a third-person narrative not only provides an outside perspective,
but also lends itself more to objectivity, as we can see the main characters from the outside and evaluate their selfperceptions in relation to the larger context of the story. Free indirect speech combines the advantages of the first
person with the third person narrative.
Scientific advisor: Mustayeva G.S
Master’s student:
Xolikova M.U
7
O’ZBEKISTON RESPUBLIKASI OLIY TA’LIM, FAN VA INNOVATSIYALAR VAZIRLIGI
OZBEKISTON DAVLAT JAHON TILLARI UNIVERSITETI
Fakultet: Magistratura bo’limi
Magistratura talabasi: Xolikova M.U
Kafedra: Lingvistika (Ingliz tili)
Ilmiy rahbar: Mustayeva G.S
(Ingliz tili integrallashgan kursi 3-kafedra)
O’quv yili: 2021-2023
Mutaxassisligi: Lingvistika (Ingliz tili)
MAGISTRLIK DISSERTATSIYASI ANNOTATSIYASI
Mavzuning dolzarbligi quyidagilarni o’z ichiga oladi: 1. Tadqiqotda o`ziniki bo`lmagan ko`chirma gaplardan
foydalanish uslublari, ya'ni gaplarni umumiy va kontekst ichida analiz qilish; 2. O`ziniki bo`lmagan ko`chirma gap
boshqa ko`chirma gaplardan turlicha bo‘lishini yoritish; 3. Badiiy diskursda o`ziniki bo`lmagan ko`chirma gapdan
foydalanish ham lisoniy ham kognitiv jarayon ekanligini dalillash.
Tadqiqotning maqsadi va vazifalari: Tadqiqotning maqsad va vazifalari o`ziniki bo`lmagan ko`chirma gaplarni
umumiy va kontekst ichida batafsil tahlil qilishdir. Aslida, o`ziniki bo`lmagan ko`chirma gap badiiy diskursda
personaj tilidan gapirilib, avtorning yetkazib bermoqchi bo`lgan gaplarini aniq va chiroyli yetkazib berish usuli
sifatida o`rganilayotgan bir paytda, men ham o'z hissamni qo'shishni maqsad qilganman.
Ilmiy ishning ob’yektiv predmeti: 1. O`ziniki bo`lmagan ko`chirma gapning badiiy diskursda qo`llanilgan vaqtida
uni boshqa tilga tarjima qilinganida yetarli darajada tasvirlanmasligini ko'rsatish; 2. Badiiy asarlarda o`ziniki
bo`lmagan ko`chirma gaplardan foydalanish samaralarini yorqin misollar bilan ko`rsatish; 3. O`ziniki bo`lmagan
ko`chirma gapning Amerika badiiy diskursida qo`llanilishi yuzasidan, avtorlarning ishlarini o`rganib, misollar orqali
yoritib berish.
Tadqiqot uslubiyati va uslublari: tavsifiy-analitik usul, qiyosiy usul, konseptual tahlil usuli
Tadqiqot natijalarining ilmiy jihatdan yangilik darajasi: Tadqiqotimda men quyidagilarni ko'rib chiqdim.
O'ziniki bo`lmagan ko`chirma gapning nafaqat grammatikka qoidalaridan tashkil topgan ifoda balki u mental ifoda
bo`lib, kognitiv jarayonga ham sabab bo`lishini bildim. Ko`chirma gapning bu turi badiiy diskursda keng qo`llanilib,
yozuvchilar tomonidan ko`p marotoba e`tirofga sazovor narrativ usul sifatida qabul qilingan bo`lsada, uning tarjima
jarayonida ma`no jihatidan biroz o`zgarib ketishi yoki “ikki ovozlik” holati yuzaga kelishi mumkinligi aniqlandi.
Tadqiqotning natijalarining amaliy ahamiyati va tatbiqi: Tadqiqotda quyidagilarni yoritishga harakat qilindi:
O`ziniki bo`lmagan ko`chirma gaplar boshqa ko`chirma gaplarga nisbatan avtor so`zlamoqchi bo`lgan fikrlarini
personaj tili bilan ifoda etganda, kitobxon ichki kechinmalariga turtki bo`lishi. O`ziniki bo`lmagan ko`chirma nutq,
muallifdan birinchi shaxs nuqtai nazaridan foydalanishni talab qilmasdan, qahramonning ongiga deyarli cheksiz
kirish imkonini beradi.
Ish tuzilishi va tarkibi. Dissertatsiya kirish qism, 3 ta bo’lim, xulosa, foydalanilgan adabiyotlar ro’yhati va
ilovadan iborat.
Bajarilgan ishning asosiy natijalari: Badiiy matnda o`ziniki bo`lmagan ko`chirma gaplarning ishlatilish yutuqlari
asoslandi. Amerika yozuvchilari qanchalik bu usuldan keng foydalanganda asarning o`ziga xosligi ortishi haqida
misollar berib o`tildi. Asarning bayon qilish strukturasiga O`BKG formalarini singdirib yuborishida ijodkorning
dunyoqarashi, estetik qarashlari, ma`naviy qiyofasi va shaxsiyati aks etib turadi.
Xulosa va takliflarning qisqacha umumlashtirilgan ifodasi: O`ziniki bo`lmagan ko`chirma gap, muallifdan
birinchi shaxs nuqtai nazaridan foydalanishni talab qilmasdan, qahramonning ongiga deyarli cheksiz kirish imkonini
beradi. Birinchi shaxsning nutq bayon qilishi o'zining aniq cheklovlariga ega, eng muhimi shundaki, u asar
qahramoni ko'rgan yoki qiladigan narsadan tashqarida biron bir narsani ko'rish yoki boshdan kechirish bilan tabiiy
ravishda mos kelmaydi. Bundan farqli o'laroq, uchinchi shaxs nutq bayoni nafaqat tashqi nuqtai nazarni beradi,
balki ob'ektivlikka ko'proq mos keladi, chunki biz bosh qahramonlarni tashqaridan ko'rishimiz va ularning o'zlari
haqidagi tasavvurlarini hikoyaning kengroq kontekstiga nisbatan baxolashimiz mumkin.
Ilmiy rahbar: Mustayeva G.S
8
Magistratura talabasi: Xolikova M.U
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………….....................
11
CHAPTER I. WAYS OF REPORTING SPEECH
1.1 Basic features of direct speech …………………………………….…..17
1.2 General characteristics of indirect speech....……………………21
1.3 Direct and indirect speech discourse functions ………..….…28
Outcomes of the first chapter………………………………...............……34
CHAPTER II. THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF FREE
INDIRECT SPEECH IN A LANGUAGE
2.1 The literary phenomenon of free indirect speech.……….….36
2.2 Free indirect speech as a linguistic problem…………………...40
2.3 Stylistic functions of free indirect speech in literary texts..48
Outcomes of the second chapter……………………………............…..…56
CHAPTER III. ANALYSIS OF PRESENTING FREE INDIRECT SPEECH
IN AMERICAN DISCOURSE
3.1 Free indirect discourse in early 20th century American literature......58
3.2 Free indirect speech markers in the works of American writers……….66
3.3 The implications of free indirect speech in American discourse………88
Outcomes of the third chapter………………………………………………89
CONCLUSION………………………………………………………...................9
1
9
THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE………………………………………...94
10
INTRODUCTION
The topicality of the research. In defining our problem more precisely, I
have already taken up a particular position regarding the basic principles of reported
speech modes. I believe that the structure of the reported speeches are different and
also convey distinct meaning stylistically as linguistic tool and mental tool.
The aim of the present paper. In this dissertation I aimed at proving that
although FIS is a type of reported speech, its use in literary discourse reveals more of
the stylistic aspect of the context, because the use of FIS depends not only on
grammar, but also on the writing style of the work. The writer expresses his thoughts
and opinions through FIS in the language of the character and has a direct impact on
the mind of the reader.
The task of the research- the following tasks have been set:
 To study basic theories and concepts of reported speech;
 To differentiate the modes of representing speech;
 To scrutinize the examples of free indirect speech represented in literary texts;
 To provide examples stressing the importance of free indirect speech in
literary context;
 To analyze the markers of free indirect speech in American discourse.
The object of the work. It is the aim of this research work based on these
principles, starting with the general characteristics of reported speech, ways of
reported speech as representing speech modes, and on the other hand, to compile
markers of free indirect speech demonstrated in the works of American writers.
The subject of the work is to prove my convictions that the general function of
communication must be considered as the function of coming to an understanding.
Actuality of the work is to present the general goals of our dissertation work:
 To study, analyze and sum up importance of usage free indirect speech in
literary discourse,
11
 To discover the exceptional features of free indirect speech delineated in the
works of American writers.
The scientific novelty of the performed research work. Typically, the use of Free
indirect speech allows virtually unlimited access to the character’s consciousness
without requiring the author to use the first-person point of view. First-person
narration has its obvious limitations, not the least of which is the fact that it’s
naturally incompatible with seeing or experiencing anything outside of what the
character sees or does. In contrast, third-person narration not only provides an
external perspective, but is more naturally suited to objectivity, as we can see the
main character from the outside and assess their representations of themselves
against the broader context of the narrative. Free indirect speech combines the
benefits of first-person with those of third-person narration.
The theoretical and practical significance of the work: the material of the
research can be used in delivering lectures and practical lessons on Grammar,
Stylistics, Text Linguistics, Text Analysis, in implementing research works,
textbooks and manuals.
Methodological basis of the research consists of theoretical issues of scientists and
linguists in the sphere of grammar, pragmatics, stylistics, cognitive linguistics,
comparative linguistics, cultural linguistics, text linguistics, etc.
The following methods of research were used in the work:
- descriptive method
- comparative analysis
The structure of the research. Structurally the dissertation paper consists of
introduction, three chapters, conclusion, the list of used literature and appendix.
The first chapter deals with the theoretical background of grammar and
stylistics, grammatical principles and their role as to differentiate types of reported
speech.
12
The second chapter goes over certain conventions of free indirect speech in
American discourse, its literary naming in history and stylistic functions in
presenting speech.
In the last chapter, basics on various works of American authors utilized free
indirect speech as mostly narrative tool by third person.
13
CHAPTER I. WAYS OF REPORTING SPEECH
1.1. Basic features of direct speech.
The general question of the relationship among types of reporting speech
represents a problem which has to be settled in every linguistic theory. In its general
form, it cannot be the object of this paper. Instead, I will start from a concrete
example which demonstrates especially clearly the complicated relationship among
each type of reported speech, an example direct, indirect and free indirect speech.
Basing myself on the analysis of this example within ways of reporting speech, I will
then try to generalize the findings.
Reported speech is how we represent the speech of other people or what we
ourselves say. There are two main types of reported speech: direct speech and
indirect speech.
Direct speech repeats the exact words the person used, or how we remember their
words:
Barbara said, “I didn’t realise it was midnight.”
In indirect speech, the original speaker’s words are changed.
Barbara said she hadn’t realised it was midnight.
In this example, I becomes she and the verb tense reflects the fact that time has
passed since the words were spoken: didn’t realise becomes hadn’t realised.
Indirect speech focuses more on the content of what someone said rather than their
exact words:
“I’m sorry,” said Mark. (direct)
14
Mark apologised. (indirect: report of a speech act)
In a similar way, we can report what people wrote or thought:
‘I will love you forever,’ he wrote, and then posted the note through Alice’s
door. (direct report of what someone wrote)
He wrote that he would love her forever, and then posted the note through Alice’s
door. (indirect report of what someone wrote)
I need a new direction in life, she thought. (direct report of someone’s thoughts)
She thought that she needed a new direction in life. (indirect report of someone’s
thoughts)
Speech reports consist of two parts: the reporting clause and the reported clause. The
reporting clause includes a verb such as say, tell, ask, reply, shout, usually in the past
simple, and the reported clause includes what the original speaker said.
Reporting clause
Reported clause
William said,
“I need your help.”
Then a man shouted,
“Get out of there, fast!”
The postman said
he had a package for us.
Clarissa told me
she’s thinking of moving to Canada.
Direct speech, also known as direct discourse, refers to the reporting of someone's
exact words using quotation marks. Here are a few examples of direct speech in
discourse:
Sarah said, "I can't wait to go on vacation next week!"
John asked, "What time does the movie start?"
The teacher shouted, "Stop talking and pay attention!"
Mary exclaimed, "I won the lottery! Can you believe it?"
15
Tom remarked, "That's a beautiful painting."
The coach instructed the team, "Work together and give it your all!"
Jane pleaded, "Please don't leave me alone in the dark!"
The professor stated, "The exam will be held next Monday."
Michael shouted angrily, "I can't believe you lied to me!"
The child asked, "Can I have a cookie, Mom?"
In each of these examples, the exact words spoken by the person are directly quoted
using quotation marks to indicate that they are speaking. Direct speech allows for a
more immediate and engaging representation of someone's words in a discourse.
Moreover, English allows you to convey someone else's statement in two ways:
using direct (Direct Speech) and indirect speech (Reported Speech).
Direct speech (Direct Speech) is one of the ways of transmitting someone else's
speech, in which the speaker (writer) completely preserves its lexical and syntactic
features, without adapting them to his speech. Thus, direct speech and the speaker's
speech are clearly distinguished, for example: Hamlete responded to Horatio: “There
is special providence in the fall of a sparrow” (“Hamlet” Shakespeare).
Direct speech is always presented by the speaker (writer) as an exact, verbatim
speech. Direct speech can reproduce not only someone else's speech, but also some
past or future statements of the speaker himself, for example: I told you about it
yesterday: “I couldn’t go with you to the theater”.
How direct speech can be framed some unspoken thoughts: “What a good
presentation” - some of us thought.
Direct speech conveys not only the vocabulary and syntax of someone else's
speech, but also retains someone else's style and even someone else's intonation, for
example: "This Herman," continued Tomsky, "is a romantic character; he has the
profile of a Napoleon and the heart of a Mephistopheles. It is said he has at least
16
three crimes on his conscience. But how pale you are" (Pushkin "The Queen Of
Spades").
A sentence with direct speech consists of two parts: the speech of a stranger and
the words of the author that accompany direct speech. These parts are connected
without union, united by intonation and meaning.
Direct speech, also known as direct discourse or quoted speech, refers to the
presentation of someone's exact words within a sentence or a paragraph. It is
commonly used in writing to directly quote what someone has said, capturing their
speech or dialogue accurately. Here are the basic features of direct speech:
Quotation marks: Direct speech is enclosed within quotation marks (" " or ' '), which
serve to indicate that the words are being directly quoted. The opening quotation
mark is placed at the beginning of the quoted speech, and the closing quotation mark
is placed at the end.
Example: John said, "I'll be there at 5 p.m."
Exact wording: Direct speech aims to reproduce the speaker's words verbatim,
maintaining the original wording and meaning as closely as possible. It is important
to be accurate and faithful to the original speech.
Example: Sarah exclaimed, "I can't believe we won the game!"
Punctuation: Punctuation marks inside the quotation marks reflect the original
speaker's words. Commas, periods, exclamation marks, and question marks are
placed within the quotation marks, except in specific cases where the punctuation is
part of the overall sentence and not part of the original speech.
Example:
"I love chocolate," she said.
He asked, "Are you coming with us?"
17
Reporting verbs and phrases: Direct speech is often introduced by reporting verbs or
phrases that attribute the speech to a specific person. These verbs can include "said,"
"asked," "replied," "shouted," "whispered," and so on.
Example: Tom replied, "I don't know the answer.
Capitalization: The first word of the quoted speech is capitalized, regardless of its
position in a sentence.
Example: She asked, "How are you today?"
Changes in tense and pronouns: When reporting direct speech, the tense and
pronouns may need to be adjusted to match the rest of the sentence or the narrative.
For example, present tense in direct speech may change to past tense when
incorporated into the overall narrative.
Example:
Direct speech: "I am going to the store," he said.
Indirect speech: He said that he was going to the store.
It's important to note that the rules for punctuating and formatting direct speech can
vary slightly depending on the style guide or conventions used in a particular
language or region. Free indirect speech, also known as indirect discourse or
reported speech, is a narrative technique commonly used in literature and discourse
to blend the voice of the narrator with the thoughts, feelings, or expressions of a
character. It allows the reader to experience a character's perspective while
maintaining a sense of narration. While free indirect speech is primarily a literary
device, it can also be observed in American discourse, particularly in creative
writing, journalism, and informal conversations.
In American discourse, the presentation of free indirect speech can vary depending
on the medium and context. Here are a few ways it may manifest:
Creative Writing: American authors often employ free indirect speech to provide a
deeper understanding of characters' inner thoughts and emotions. They may
18
seamlessly blend the character's voice with the narrator's, creating a hybrid style. The
use of italics, quotation marks, or changes in tense or perspective can indicate the
shift into free indirect speech. This technique allows writers to convey characters'
viewpoints while maintaining narrative control.
Example: In a novel, the author might write, "John looked at the clock. Was it
already that late? He wondered if he would make it in time for the meeting."
Journalism: Journalistic writing typically aims for a more direct and objective style.
However, in feature articles or opinion pieces, journalists may employ free indirect
speech to convey the perspectives and opinions of individuals involved in the story.
Quoting individuals without using explicit quotation marks or attributions can create
a sense of free indirect speech while still maintaining journalistic integrity.
Example: In an article about a political rally, a journalist might write, "The crowd
surged forward, chanting slogans and demanding change. Their frustration was
palpable, a reflection of the growing discontent within the nation."
Informal Conversations: In everyday conversations, free indirect speech can occur
naturally as individuals express their thoughts, beliefs, or experiences using a mix of
direct speech and indirect narration. People may adopt the language, tone, or style of
a particular person they are referring to, blurring the line between their own voice
and that of the person they are quoting.
Example: During a discussion about a recent movie, someone might say, "I watched
the film, and this character, he's like, 'I don't care what happens anymore.' And you
know, you could feel the exhaustion in his voice, like he's just given up."
It's important to note that the use of free indirect speech in American discourse is not
limited to these examples. The presentation can vary depending on the author,
speaker, or context, and different mediums may have their own conventions. The key
aspect is the blending of the narrator's voice with the character's perspective,
allowing for a nuanced and immersive
Here are a few examples of direct speech in American discourse:
19
"I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they
will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character." Martin Luther King Jr.
"Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country." John F. Kennedy
"Yes we can!" - Barack Obama
"I'm not a crook." - Richard Nixon
"Tear down this wall!" - Ronald Reagan
"I am the way, the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through
me." - Jesus Christ
"I did not have sexual relations with that woman." - Bill Clinton
"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are
endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life,
Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." - Declaration of Independence
"We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight
in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender!" Winston Churchill
"Make America great again!" - Donald Trump
These examples showcase a range of direct speech, including famous speeches,
political statements, historical quotes, and religious teachings that have had an
impact on American discourse.
1.2. General characteristics of indirect speech.
Communicating with people, we constantly receive some information from them,
which we subsequently pass on to someone else. Several options can be used to
transfer it. Of course, you can simply explain the thought in your own words in the
way1.
Indirect speech, also known as reported speech or reported discourse, is a
fundamental aspect of language that allows us to communicate the words, thoughts,
and intentions of others. It is a means of reporting or paraphrasing someone else's
1 Banfield, Ann. Narratiie Stylie and thie GSrammar lf Diriect and Indiriect Spieiech. olundatlns lf Languagie, sll. 10,
Nl. 1 (May, 1973).
20
speech or writing, while conveying the essence of their original message. General
characteristics of indirect speech are explored and I am shedding light on its key
features and providing examples to illustrate its usage.
Verb Tense Changes:
One of the primary characteristics of indirect speech is the shift in verb tenses. When
reporting someone's words, the tenses are typically changed to reflect the time of
reporting. For example:
Direct speech: "I am going to the store."
Indirect speech: She said that she was going to the store.
Pronoun Changes:
Indirect speech often involves changes in pronouns to match the perspective of the
reporter. The first and second-person pronouns are usually converted to third-person
pronouns. For instance:
Direct speech: "You should study harder."
Indirect speech: She told him that he should study harder.
Reporting Verbs:
Indirect speech employs reporting verbs, such as "say," "tell," "ask," or "mention," to
introduce the reported speech. These verbs can vary depending on the context and
the type of speech being reported. For example:
Direct speech: "I will attend the meeting," he said.
Indirect speech: He said that he would attend the meeting.
Word Order Changes:
In indirect speech, the word order is often altered to conform to standard sentence
structures. Interrogative sentences become declarative, and the order of the subject
and verb is usually inverted. Consider the following example:
Direct speech: "Where are you going?" she asked.
Indirect speech: She asked where he was going.
Modals and Adverbs:
21
Modal verbs and adverbs may require changes when converting direct speech into
indirect speech. Modal verbs like "can" or "may" often change to "could" or "might,"
while adverbs indicating time or place may need adjustment. For instance:
Direct speech: "I can help you tomorrow," he said.
Indirect speech: He said that he could help him the following day.
Reporting the Speaker's Attitude:
Indirect speech allows for the reporting of the speaker's attitude or opinion by using
appropriate reporting verbs and adverbs. This enables the reporter to convey the tone
or mood of the original speaker. For example:
Direct speech: "I love this movie!" she exclaimed.
Indirect speech: She exclaimed that she loved the movie.
Backshift of Reporting Verbs:
In some cases, the tense of the reporting verb itself can change. This is known as
backshifting. For instance:
Direct speech: "I am happy," he said.
Indirect speech: He said that he was happy.
Changes in Time and Place Expressions:
When reporting indirect speech, time and place expressions are adjusted to match the
context of the reporting. Consider the following example:
Direct speech: "I'll meet you here tomorrow," she said.
Indirect speech: She said that she would meet him there the following day.
Conditional Sentences:
Indirect speech can also be used to report conditional sentences. The condition and
its corresponding consequence are typically retained, but with appropriate changes to
verb forms and pronouns. For example:
Direct speech: "If you study hard, you will pass," the teacher said.
Indirect speech: The teacher said that if he studied hard, he would pass.
Reporting Thoughts and Feelings:
Indirect speech allows for the reporting of thoughts, feelings, and beliefs.
22
Narrative style is interesting from both the standpoint of literary stylistics as well as
from that of the theory of communication in the theory 2. Indirect speech, also known
as reported speech or indirect discourse, is a common linguistic feature used in
communication. It allows individuals to convey someone else's speech or thoughts
indirectly, rather than quoting them verbatim. This essay explores the general
characteristics of indirect speech in American discourse, highlighting its
significance, structure, and examples. Indirect speech refers to the act of reporting or
paraphrasing someone's words or thoughts without using their exact wording.
1. The primary purpose of using indirect speech in American discourse is to convey
information or relay a message while providing context and maintaining a certain
degree of politeness.
2. Change in Verb Tense and Pronouns:
In indirect speech, there is a typical shift in verb tense and pronouns when reporting
someone's words. Direct speech often uses present tense and the first-person pronoun
"I," whereas indirect speech generally employs past tense and the third-person
pronouns "he," "she," or "they." For example:
- Direct Speech: "I love this movie."
- Indirect Speech: He said that he loved that movie.
3. Reporting Verbs and Reporting Clauses:
Reporting verbs play a vital role in indicating indirect speech. Common reporting
verbs in American discourse include "say," "tell," "explain," "mention," and "ask."
They provide cues to the speaker's intentions and emotions. Additionally, reporting
clauses, such as "that," "whether," or "if," are often used to introduce the reported
speech. For instance:
- Direct Speech: "I will go to the party," he said.
- Indirect Speech: He said that he would go to the party.
4. Changes in Time and Place References:
2 Bray, J. Thie “Dual slicie” lf orieie Indiriect Disclursie: A Rieading Expierimient. Languagie and Litieraturie, ill. 16, Nl. 1,
(2007).
23
When reporting indirect speech, there is often a shift in time and place references.
This alteration ensures that the reported speech aligns with the perspective of the
speaker. Consider the following example:
- Direct Speech: "The meeting is at 10 a.m. tomorrow," she said.
- Indirect Speech: She mentioned that the meeting would be at 10 a.m. the next day.
5. Modifying Adverbs and Adjectives:
In American discourse, indirect speech allows individuals to modify adverbs and
adjectives to accurately represent the speaker's intention or emphasis. This
modification helps convey the reported speech while adding personal interpretations.
For example:
- Direct Speech: "I am very excited," he said.
- Indirect Speech: He said that he was extremely excited.
6. Politeness and Hedging:
Indirect speech is often used to convey politeness and hedging in American
discourse. By paraphrasing or indirectly reporting someone's words, individuals can
soften the impact of potentially confrontational or controversial statements. It allows
for diplomatic communication while respecting the speaker's perspective.
7. Indirect Speech in Conversational Narratives:
In everyday conversations, indirect speech is extensively used to recount stories,
share experiences, and relay information. This use of indirect speech helps maintain
the flow of the narrative and adds richness to the discourse. Consider the following
example:
- Direct Speech: "She told me, 'I met John yesterday.'"
- Indirect Speech: She told me that she had met John the previous day.
8. Quoting vs. Indirect Speech:
While direct quoting provides an exact reproduction of someone's words, indirect
speech offers flexibility and contextualization. American discourse often employs
indirect speech to provide a comprehensive understanding of the reported speech,
allowing for personal interpretation and narrative style.
9. Indirect Speech in Media and Politics:
24
Indirect speech is frequently employed in American media and political discourse to
report statements made by individuals or public figures. Journalists and
commentators use indirect speech to convey information accurately while providing
their own analysis. Here are the examples of indirect speech in American discourse:
1. He said he would come to the party.
21. She expressed her disappointment
2. She told me she had seen the movie.
that he hadn't called.
3. The teacher mentioned that the exam 22. He mentioned that he had heard the
would be next week.
news from a friend.
4. He informed us that the meeting had 23. She informed me that the store was
been rescheduled.
closing early.
5. She stated that she was not feeling 24. He reminded me to buy groceries on
well.
the way home.
6. He commented that the weather was 25. She suggested that we take a
beautiful.
vacation together.
7. She mentioned that she had read the 26. He advised against investing in that
book.
company.
8. He admitted that he had made a 27. She recommended that I try the new
mistake.
restaurant.
9. She confessed that she had broken the 28. He proposed that we start a new
vase.
project.
10. He claimed that he didn't know 29. She asked if I could lend her some
anything about it.
money.
11. She explained that she couldn't 30. He wondered why she hadn't replied
attend the event.
to his email.
12. He suggested that we should go out 31. She requested that I bring the
for dinner.
documents to the meeting.
13. She advised me to study harder for 32. He suggested that we go for a walk
the exam.
in the park.
14. He requested that I send him the 33. She asked if I knew the way to the
report by email.
25
15. She urged me to be careful while train station.
driving.
34. He wanted to know if I had seen the
16. He asked if I had seen his keys.
latest episode.
17. She wondered where he had gone.
35. She mentioned that she had visited
18. He inquired about the time of the her grandparents over the weekend.
meeting.
36. He explained that he couldn't attend
19. She wanted to know if I had finished the party due to a prior commitment.
the project.
37. She informed me that the concert
20. He questioned why she had made had been canceled.
that decision
38. He stated that he would be late for
the meeting.
39. She admitted that she had made a
mistake in the calculations.
40. He confessed that he had taken the
last piece of cake.
1.3. Direct and indirect speech discourse functions in literary texts.
Direct and indirect speech are two forms of representing speech or dialogue in
literary texts. They serve different discourse functions and have distinct effects on
the reader's experience. Let's explore the detailed analysis of direct and indirect
speech discourse functions in literary texts:
Direct Speech:
Direct speech involves the direct quotation of a character's words or thoughts using
quotation marks. It presents dialogue in its original form and offers immediacy and
authenticity to the reader. Some discourse functions of direct speech include:
a. Characterization: Direct speech allows the reader to experience the unique voices,
personalities, and mannerisms of the characters. It provides insights into their
emotions, attitudes, and motivations, enhancing their characterization.
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b. Dramatic Effect: Direct speech adds drama and intensity to a scene. It can
heighten tension, create suspense, or evoke strong emotions by conveying the
character's words exactly as they are spoken.
c. Verisimilitude: Direct speech lends credibility and realism to a literary work. By
presenting dialogue in a direct manner, it mimics real-life conversations and makes
the story feel more authentic.
d. Showing, not telling: Direct speech enables the writer to show the reader what is
happening through dialogue instead of merely telling them. It allows for the
expression of thoughts, feelings, conflicts, and interactions between characters,
making the narrative more engaging.
Indirect Speech:
Indirect speech involves the reporting or paraphrasing of a character's words or
thoughts, without using quotation marks. It provides a summary or a retelling of the
dialogue. Some discourse functions of indirect speech include:
a. Narrative Distance: Indirect speech creates a sense of narrative distance by
separating the reader from the direct experience of dialogue. This can be useful when
the writer wants to control the pace or tone of the narrative, or when they want to
maintain a more objective or distant perspective.
b. Authorial Voice: Indirect speech allows the author to interject their own voice and
perspective into the narrative. It enables them to interpret or filter the character's
words, providing commentary, insight, or analysis, which can deepen the reader's
understanding of the story or themes.
c. Time and Space Compression: Indirect speech condenses the dialogue, presenting
a summary or a concise version of the original conversation. This compression can
be effective when the writer wants to move the story forward quickly or emphasize
other narrative elements.
d. Focalization: Indirect speech can reflect the narrator's point of view or the focal
character's perception. It allows the writer to shape the reader's understanding of the
events by selectively reporting the character's words or thoughts, emphasizing
certain aspects or omitting others.
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In literary texts, the choice between direct and indirect speech depends on the
writer's intention, narrative style, and the desired impact on the reader. Both forms
have their unique functions and contribute to the overall storytelling and
characterization within the work.
In literary texts, the choice between direct and indirect speech depends on several
factors, including the author's stylistic preferences, the narrative voice, the desired
effect on the reader, and the specific context in which the dialogue or speech is being
presented.
Direct speech, also known as direct discourse or quoted speech, involves
reproducing the exact words spoken by a character within quotation marks. It
provides a sense of immediacy and allows the reader to experience the character's
speech directly. Direct speech is often used when the author wants to emphasize the
authenticity and emotional impact of the character's words. It is commonly employed
in dialogue between characters or when recounting a character's direct speech or
monologue.
On the other hand, indirect speech, also referred to as indirect discourse or
reported speech, involves summarizing or paraphrasing what a character said without
using their exact words. Instead of using quotation marks, indirect speech is typically
introduced by verbs like "said," "asked," or "replied." Indirect speech is often used to
provide a concise summary of a character's speech or to narrate past events. It allows
the author to filter the character's words through the narrative voice, providing
interpretation and insight into the character's thoughts and emotions.
The choice between direct and indirect speech depends on the author's intended
effect. Direct speech can create a sense of immediacy, intimacy, and authenticity,
allowing the reader to experience the character's words firsthand. It can be
particularly effective in conveying strong emotions, capturing dialogue dynamics, or
emphasizing important plot points. Indirect speech, on the other hand, offers more
control and distance, enabling the author to shape the narrative and provide their
own interpretation of the character's speech.
28
Direct and indirect speech are both used in literary texts to convey different
discourse functions. Here are some examples of how they are used:
1. Direct Speech:
Direct speech involves quoting the exact words spoken by a character. It is used to
provide a sense of immediacy and authenticity to the dialogue, allowing readers to
experience the character's voice directly. Direct speech can serve various functions
in literary texts, such as:
- Revealing character traits: "I can't believe you did that," she exclaimed, her voice
filled with anger.
- Advancing the plot: "I love you," he whispered, finally confessing his feelings.
- Establishing atmosphere or mood: "It's a dark and stormy night," the old man
muttered.
- Creating tension or conflict: "You'll never get away with this!" he shouted, his face
red with fury.
- Conveying humor or irony: "Well, isn't this just perfect?" she said, rolling her eyes.
2. Indirect Speech:
Indirect speech involves reporting or paraphrasing someone's words, rather than
quoting them directly. It is often used to summarize or narrate a character's speech,
thoughts, or conversations. Indirect speech serves various functions in literary texts,
including:
- Providing a summary of dialogue: He told her that he couldn't believe what she had
done.
- Offering insight into a character's thoughts: She wondered if he truly loved her,
considering his hesitant confession.
- Reflecting on past events: He recalled how the old man had muttered about the
impending storm.
- Showing the narrator's perspective: He thought to himself that the situation couldn't
get any worse.
- Presenting a character's inner monologue: "Well, that's just great," she thought,
rolling her eyes.
29
In American literature, both direct and indirect speech discourse functions are
commonly employed to convey various narrative and stylistic effects. Here are some
examples of these functions in American literature:
Direct Speech Discourse Functions:
1. Dialogue: Direct speech is frequently used to depict conversations between
characters, allowing readers to experience the characters' interactions firsthand. For
instance, in "The Great Gatsby" by F. Scott Fitzgerald, direct speech is employed
extensively to portray the dialogues between the characters during social gatherings
and intimate conversations.
Example: "I hope she'll be a fool -- that's the best thing a girl can be in this world, a
beautiful little fool." - Daisy Buchanan in "The Great Gatsby"
2. Authenticity and Realism: Direct speech is utilized to create a sense of
authenticity and realism in the portrayal of characters. By presenting characters'
words verbatim, authors can capture their unique voices, accents, and idiosyncrasies.
In Mark Twain's "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn," direct speech is used to reflect
the dialects and speech patterns of the diverse characters encountered by Huck and
Jim.
Example: "'All right, then, I'll go to hell' -- and tore it up." - Huckleberry Finn in
"Adventures of Huckleberry Finn"
Indirect Speech Discourse Functions:
1. Narrator's Reflection: Indirect speech allows the narrator to offer their
interpretation or reflection on a character's words, thoughts, or actions. This
technique provides insight into the narrator's perspective and helps shape the readers'
understanding of the narrative. In J.D. Salinger's "The Catcher in the Rye," the
protagonist Holden Caulfield often provides indirect accounts of conversations,
expressing his opinions and judgments.
Example: "She asked me if I'd like to have a Coke with her, so I said yes, and then
we sat down at this doughnut place." - Holden Caulfield in "The Catcher in the Rye"
2. Narrative Summary: Indirect speech is employed to summarize lengthy
conversations or events, condensing the information for narrative efficiency. It
30
allows authors to skip over irrelevant or less significant details while still conveying
the essence of the conversation. In "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee, the
narrator Scout Finch often summarizes the conversations she overhears or events she
witnesses.
Example: "Miss Maudie and Miss Stephanie Crawford had long visits in the yard
when it was first daylight. Miss Maudie would play her voice into a melody, and
Miss Stephanie's footsteps always fell in time with it." - Scout Finch in "To Kill a
Mockingbird"
To sum up, direct and indirect speech cannot be clearly distinguished with
respect to their function in discourse. Both report types can be used for multiple
communicative purposes. However, in certain situations, speakers seem to prefer one
type of report over the other.
Outcomes of the first chapter
To gain a better understanding of the factors that influence speakers’ choice of
direct or indirect speech, experimental studies are needed in which the situational
parameters are systematically controlled and varied.Both direct and indirect speech
have their own unique functions in literary texts, and authors choose the appropriate
form based on the desired effect and the narrative context.Ultimately, the decision to
use direct or indirect speech is a matter of narrative style and the specific
requirements of the story being told. Skilled authors often employ a combination of
both techniques to create a well-rounded and engaging narrative. Indirect speech is
frequently employed in American media and political discourse to report statements
made by individuals or public figures. Journalists and commentators use indirect
speech to convey information accurately while providing their own analysis. The
above-mentioned examples demonstrate how direct and indirect speech discourse
functions are employed in American literature to enhance characterization, evoke
emotions, and shape the narrative. They offer different ways of presenting dialogue
and engaging readers with the story. Direct speech refers to the reporting of
someone's words or speech using quotation marks, while indirect speech involves
reporting someone's words without quotation marks and often with some changes in
31
tense, pronouns, or adverbs. Both direct and indirect speech can serve various
functions in discourse, such as conveying information, reporting statements,
expressing opinions, or portraying emotions. The choice between direct and indirect
speech depends on factors like the speaker's intention, the context, and the
relationship between the speaker and the reported person. In certain situations,
speakers may show a preference for using one type of report over the other. For
example, direct speech might be favored when the speaker wants to emphasize the
exact words or tone used by the reported person. This can add authenticity,
vividness, or dramatic effect to the discourse. On the other hand, indirect speech may
be preferred when the focus is more on the reported content or when the speaker
wants to distance themselves from the reported words. It's important to note that the
use of direct or indirect speech is not strictly defined and can vary across different
languages, cultures, and individual communication styles. The choice between the
two types of speech reporting depends on the specific context and the speaker's
communicative goals. The choice between the two types of speech reporting, direct
speech and indirect speech, depends on the specific context and the speaker's
communicative goals. Here's a breakdown of each type: Direct speech: In direct
speech, the exact words spoken by someone are reported within quotation marks.
This form of speech reporting aims to provide a verbatim account of the speaker's
words. Direct speech is commonly used in narrative writing, dialogue in fiction, and
when quoting someone in journalistic reporting or interviews. It can add immediacy
and authenticity to the reported speech. Indirect speech (also known as reported
speech or indirect discourse): In indirect speech, the speaker's words are reported
indirectly, without using quotation marks. The reported speech is often introduced by
a reporting verb (e.g., said, told) and can involve changes in verb tense, pronouns,
and other modifications. Indirect speech is commonly used in news reporting, formal
writing, and when paraphrasing or summarizing someone's speech. The choice
between direct speech and indirect speech depends on various factors: Accuracy: If
the speaker's precise words are essential for conveying a specific meaning or
capturing the speaker's style or tone, direct speech may be preferred. Focus: Direct
32
speech can draw attention to the speaker and their exact words, making it suitable for
emphasizing a particular statement or highlighting a speaker's perspective. Indirect
speech, on the other hand, may shift the focus more towards the content of the
speech rather than the speaker. Context: The choice between the two types may also
depend on the medium or genre of communication. Direct speech is more commonly
used in informal or creative contexts, such as fiction or dialogue-driven writing.
Indirect speech is often used in formal or professional contexts, such as news
reporting or academic writing. Reporting style: The speaker's communicative goals
and their personal writing style can also influence the choice. Some writers or
journalists may prefer the immediacy and authenticity of direct speech, while others
may opt for the concise and more formal nature of indirect speech. Overall, the
selection between direct speech and indirect speech is based on the writer's intention,
the desired effect, and the context in which the reported speech is being used.
CHAPTER II. THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF FREE
INDIRECT SPEECH
2.1. The literary phenomenon of free indirect speech
Free indirect speech is a narrative technique used in literature that allows the
blending of a character's thoughts and speech with the narrator's voice. It is a
distinctive style that offers a unique perspective and deep insight into the character's
mind. In this chapter, we will explore the emergence and development of free
indirect speech as a literary device, tracing its origins and analyzing its evolution
over time.
1. Origins of Free Indirect Speech:
The origins of free indirect speech can be traced back to the works of early
novelists, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries. Authors like Jane Austen,
Gustave Flaubert, and Charles Dickens employed a form of indirect discourse that
33
bridged the gap between the character's thoughts and the narrator's voice. This
precursor to free indirect speech laid the foundation for its future development.
2. The Rise of Free Indirect Speech:
The term "free indirect speech" was coined by the French critic Charles Bally
in the early 20th century, but the technique itself had been in use for quite some
time. As literary modernism gained prominence in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, writers like Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, and Marcel Proust pushed the
boundaries of narrative style and experimented with free indirect speech to create a
more subjective and intimate narrative experience.
3. Characteristics and Function of Free Indirect Speech:
Free indirect speech combines elements of both direct and indirect discourse.
It allows the narrator to convey a character's thoughts, feelings, and perspectives in a
seamless manner. By blending the character's voice with the narrator's, free indirect
speech creates a sense of immediacy and emotional depth, providing readers with a
more nuanced understanding of the character's inner world.
4. Evolution and Adaptation:
Free indirect speech has continued to evolve and adapt over time. In the latter
half of the 20th century and into the 21st century, writers like Salman Rushdie, Toni
Morrison, and Zadie Smith have employed free indirect speech in their works,
infusing it with their unique cultural and stylistic sensibilities. The technique has
found a place in various genres, including postcolonial literature, magical realism,
and contemporary fiction, demonstrating its versatility and enduring relevance.
5. Critical Reception and Influence:
Free indirect speech has been the subject of much critical analysis and
scholarly debate. Scholars have examined its psychological and narrative
implications, exploring how it shapes readers' understanding of characters and their
subjective experiences. The technique's influence can also be seen in other art forms,
34
such as film and television, where directors and screenwriters employ similar
strategies to provide audiences with insight into characters' minds.
Furthermore, Free indirect speech is a literary technique that allows an author to
blend the perspectives of a narrator and a character, creating a unique narrative
voice. It is a way of representing a character's thoughts, feelings, and expressions
while still maintaining the overall voice of the narrator. Free indirect speech provides
a sense of immediacy and intimacy, allowing readers to delve into the character's
inner world.
Traditionally, narratives are presented in one of three ways: direct speech, indirect
speech, or the narrator's voice. Direct speech uses quotation marks and explicitly
attributes the words to a character, while indirect speech reports the character's
words indirectly, often with phrases such as "he said" or "she asked." In contrast,
free indirect speech blurs the boundaries between the character's thoughts and the
narrator's voice.
In free indirect speech, the narrator adopts the language, thoughts, and
expressions of the character without explicitly marking them as such. The character's
perspective is seamlessly integrated into the narrative, allowing readers to experience
the story through the character's lens while still benefiting from the narrative voice.
This technique provides insight into the character's thoughts, motivations, and
emotions, while also maintaining the overall coherence and flow of the narrative.
An example of free indirect speech can be seen in Jane Austen's novel "Pride and
Prejudice." Consider the following passage:
"Elizabeth, having rather expected to affront him, was amazed at his gallantry; but
there was a mixture of sweetness and archness in her manner which made it difficult
for her to affront anybody."
Here, the phrase "rather expected to affront him" and the observation about "a
mixture of sweetness and archness in her manner" reflect Elizabeth Bennet's
perspective. However, the narrative voice remains distinct and is not explicitly
attributed to Elizabeth.
35
Free indirect speech allows authors to create a deeper connection between
readers and characters by immersing them in the character's consciousness. It
provides a rich and nuanced portrayal of the character's thoughts and emotions,
offering a more intimate understanding of their experiences. This technique has been
widely employed in literary works to bring characters to life and enhance the reader's
engagement with the narrative. Free indirect speech is a narrative technique
commonly found in literature, including American literature. It refers to a blending
of the narrator's voice with the thoughts, feelings, or speech of a character, creating a
unique narrative perspective that blurs the lines between direct and indirect
discourse.
In traditional storytelling, authors typically employ either direct speech
(quotation marks indicating direct speech) or indirect speech (reporting a character's
speech without quotation marks). Free indirect speech, however, allows the author to
convey a character's inner thoughts or dialogue in a way that combines both the
character's perspective and the narrator's voice.
American literature has seen notable examples of free indirect speech, with
authors utilizing this technique to provide insights into characters' consciousness and
subjective experiences. Here are a few examples from prominent American authors:
1. James Joyce - "Ulysses" (1922): Joyce extensively employed free indirect
speech to delve into the minds of his characters, particularly in the character of
Leopold Bloom. This technique allowed Joyce to blur the distinction between the
character's thoughts and the narrator's voice, creating a stream-of-consciousness
narrative.
2. William Faulkner - "The Sound and the Fury" (1929): Faulkner employed free
indirect speech in his novel to offer multiple perspectives and showcase the inner
thoughts of different characters. Through this technique, he revealed the complex
and fragmented nature of his characters' minds.
3. Virginia Woolf - "Mrs. Dalloway" (1925): Woolf utilized free indirect speech
to explore the inner lives and experiences of her characters. By merging the
36
character's thoughts with the narrator's voice, she created a fluid and introspective
narrative that highlighted the characters' psychological depth.
4. Toni Morrison - "Beloved" (1987): Morrison employed free indirect speech to
depict the fragmented memories and perspectives of her characters. This technique
allowed her to delve into the complex history and psychology of her characters,
particularly in the context of slavery and its aftermath.
These examples illustrate how free indirect speech has been employed by
American authors to offer unique narrative perspectives and delve into the
complexities of their characters' consciousness. By blending the voices of the
narrator and the character, this technique enables a deeper exploration of a
character's thoughts, emotions, and subjective experiences, contributing to the rich
tapestry of American literature.Free indirect speech is a narrative technique used in
literature where the narrator conveys the thoughts, feelings, and speech of a
character using a mix of the character's voice and the narrator's voice. This technique
blurs the line between direct and indirect speech, giving the reader a sense of
immediacy and intimacy with the character's inner world. While American literature
is vast and contains numerous examples of free indirect speech, here are a few
notable instances:
1. "The Great Gatsby" by F. Scott Fitzgerald:
- "He smiled understandingly—much more than understandingly. It was one of
those rare smiles with a quality of eternal reassurance in it, that you may come
across four or five times in life. It faced—or seemed to face—the whole external
world for an instant, and then concentrated on you with an irresistible prejudice in
your favor."
2. "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee:
- "Ladies bathed before noon, after their three-o'clock naps, and by nightfall were
like soft teacakes with frostings of sweat and sweet talcum."
3. "The Catcher in the Rye" by J.D. Salinger:
37
- "The sun was coming in through the curtains and it was making these long stripes
on the floor. I was tappin' my foot pretty near to the beat of old Ernie's piano. Boy,
was he playin' that thing nice!"
4. "Beloved" by Toni Morrison:
- "She is a friend of my mind. She gather me, man. The pieces I am, she gather
them and give them back to me in all the right order."
5. "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" by Mark Twain:
- "I felt so lonesome I most wished I was dead. The stars were shining, and the
leaves rustled in the woods ever so mournful."
These examples illustrate the use of free indirect speech in American literature,
allowing the narrator to seamlessly blend the character's perspective and the
narrator's own voice to create a more engaging and intimate reading experience. Free
indirect speech is also known as reported speech, indirect narration, or indirect
discourse. In grammar, when you report someone else’s statement in your own
words without any change in the meaning of the statement, it is called indirect
speech. Quoting a person’s words without using his own word and bringing about
any change in the meaning of the statement is reported speech.
Look at the following sentences:
Direct Speech
Indirect Speech
She says, “I eat an apple a day.”
She says that she eats an apple a day.
He will say, “My brother will help her.”
He will say that his brother will help
her.
We said, “We go for a walk every day.”
We said that we went for a walk every
day.
You say, “I went to London yesterday.”
You say that you went to London the
previous day.
They said, “We have completed our They said that they had completed their
homework.”
homework.
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Free indirect style is a powerful literary device that emerges readers deep within
the mind of a character. When done effectively, it blends the voices of the narrator
and the character making them seem like one-in-the-same. By using free indirect
style and engaging readers in the mind of the character, empathy is created which
ultimately leads to an emotional response.
2.2 Free indirect speech as a linguistic problem
Free indirect speech, also known as reported or indirect discourse, is a linguistic
phenomenon commonly found in narrative fiction. It refers to a style of speech or
thought presentation where the narrator adopts the thoughts or words of a character
without explicitly signaling that it is a direct quotation.
From a linguistic perspective, free indirect speech presents an interesting
problem because it blurs the boundaries between direct and indirect speech. It creates
a hybrid form of discourse that combines the characteristics of both direct and
indirect speech, resulting in a unique narrative voice.
One of the main challenges of free indirect speech is identifying the speaker or
thinker of the reported words or thoughts. Unlike direct speech, where the attribution
is clear and explicit, free indirect speech requires the reader to infer the source of the
discourse. The narrator's voice and the character's voice blend together, making it
sometimes difficult to determine who is speaking or thinking.
Another linguistic issue with free indirect speech is the change in tense, person,
or pronoun reference. When the narrator adopts a character's perspective, there can
be a shift in verb tenses or pronoun references that reflect the character's point of
view. This can create ambiguity and confusion if not properly handled.
Furthermore, the use of free indirect speech can vary across different languages
and literary traditions. Some languages have more explicit markers or grammatical
constructions to indicate reported speech, while others rely more heavily on
contextual clues. Understanding the conventions and norms of a particular language
or literary tradition is crucial for interpreting and analyzing free indirect speech.
39
Despite these challenges, free indirect speech adds depth and complexity to
literary texts. It allows for a more intimate portrayal of characters' thoughts and
feelings while maintaining a narrative distance. By blending the voices of the
narrator and the characters, free indirect speech contributes to the overall narrative
style and tone, providing a unique linguistic experience for readers. Free Indirect
Discourse often features oral speech markers, such as hedges, hesitation pauses or
pause-fillers: e.g. They laughed. Yeah, a jack-handle or so might save a lot of
trouble. Before I came by They’d been waving frantically at traffic for three hours3.
Free indirect speech, also known as indirect discourse or narrated monologue, is
a literary technique that allows an author to blend the perspectives of a character and
a narrator. It is a form of speech representation where the narrator conveys the
thoughts, feelings, and speech of a character, while maintaining some elements of
the narrator's voice. Free indirect speech is often used to provide insight into a
character's inner world and subjectivity, blurring the boundaries between the
character's voice and the narrator's voice.
From a linguistic perspective, free indirect speech presents interesting
challenges and opportunities in literature. Here are some key aspects to consider:
1. Blurring of voices: Free indirect speech blurs the distinction between direct
speech (quoting a character's words) and indirect speech (reporting a character's
words). The narrator adopts the character's perspective, allowing readers to
experience the character's thoughts and emotions, while still maintaining the
narrative distance of the third-person narrator.
2. Stylistic flexibility: Free indirect speech allows authors to play with different
styles and registers of language. The language can shift seamlessly from the
character's idiosyncratic speech patterns, vocabulary, and syntax to the more neutral
language of the narrator. This flexibility enables authors to create nuanced portrayals
of characters and their unique voices.
3 Pascal, Rly. Thie Dual slicie. orieie indiriect spieiech and its functlning in thie 19th cientury Eurlpiean Nliiel.
Manchiestier Uniiiersity Priess, 1977.
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3. Perspective and subjectivity: Free indirect speech is a powerful tool for
conveying a character's perspective and subjectivity. By embedding the character's
thoughts and emotions within the narrative, readers gain access to the character's
inner world, creating a sense of intimacy and empathy. This technique helps to
deepen characterization and explore complex psychological states.
4. Ambiguity and interpretation: The use of free indirect speech can introduce
ambiguity and multiple interpretations. The blending of voices can create tension
and uncertainty, as readers navigate between the character's perspective and the
narrator's interpretation. This ambiguity can enrich the reading experience and
encourage active reader engagement.
5. Narrative control: Free indirect speech allows authors to exercise narrative
control by selectively revealing or concealing information. Through the
manipulation of language and voice, authors can guide readers' understanding and
shape their interpretations. This technique gives authors a powerful tool for
managing the flow of information and constructing the overall narrative.
6. Cultural and historical considerations: Free indirect speech is not limited to a
specific time period or cultural context. It has been used by authors across different
literary traditions and eras. However, the specific linguistic features and conventions
associated with free indirect speech may vary depending on the historical and
cultural background of the work. Analyzing the use of free indirect speech can
provide insights into the author's engagement with their linguistic and literary
heritage.
Apparently, free indirect speech poses intriguing linguistic challenges and
opportunities in literature. By blending the voices of characters and narrators,
authors can delve into the depths of character psychology, manipulate narrative
perspectives, and invite readers into a richly textured literary experience.
Free indirect speech, also known as indirect discourse or narrated monologue, is
a literary technique commonly used in American literature. It involves the blending
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of a character's thoughts, feelings, or speech with the narrator's voice, creating a
hybrid narrative style. This technique blurs the boundaries between direct speech
(quotation marks) and indirect speech (reported speech), resulting in a distinctive
and subjective narrative perspective. Here are a few examples of free indirect speech
in American literature:
1. "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee:
In this classic novel, Harper Lee employs free indirect speech to convey the
thoughts and experiences of the young protagonist, Scout Finch. The narrative
seamlessly shifts between Scout's innocent and observant voice and the more mature
and reflective voice of the adult Scout, who serves as the novel's narrator.
Example:
"She never kissed me good night, and she would be frowning when she slept.
Button up your overcoat, I thought, and you two prune." (Scout's thoughts blend with
the narrator's voice.)
2. "The Catcher in the Rye" by J.D. Salinger:
J.D. Salinger's iconic novel is renowned for its first-person narrative style,
which heavily relies on free indirect speech. The protagonist, Holden Caulfield,
shares his experiences and thoughts, frequently blending them with the voice of the
narrator.
Example:
"I'm always saying 'Glad to've met you' to somebody I'm not at all glad I met. If
you want to stay alive, you have to say that stuff, though." (Holden's thoughts blend
with the narrator's voice.)
3. "Beloved" by Toni Morrison:
Toni Morrison employs free indirect speech to depict the internal thoughts and
emotions of various characters in the novel, allowing readers to intimately connect
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with their experiences. The narrative voice often merges with the characters' voices,
blurring the boundaries between them.
Example:
"She is a friend of my mind. She gather me, man. The pieces I am, she gather
them and give them back to me in all the right order." (Sethe's thoughts blend with
the narrator's voice.)
These examples illustrate how American literature frequently utilizes free
indirect speech to create a deeper sense of immersion, intimacy, and subjectivity
within the narrative. By blending the characters' perspectives with the narrator's
voice, this technique allows for a more nuanced exploration of their inner worlds and
enhances the reader's understanding of the story.
2.3. Stylistic functions of free indirect speech in literary texts
Free indirect speech is a narrative technique widely used in literary texts to
represent the thoughts, feelings, and perspectives of a character within the
framework of third-person narration. It blurs the boundaries between direct and
indirect speech, allowing the narrator to merge their voice with that of the character.
The stylistic functions of free indirect speech in literary texts include:
1. Character immersion: Free indirect speech enables readers to immerse
themselves in the character's mind and experience the story through their
perspective. By adopting the character's language and thoughts, the narrative
becomes more intimate and subjective, enhancing the reader's emotional connection
with the character.Character immersion through free indirect speech is a narrative
technique used in literary discourse to enhance the reader's engagement and
emotional connection with the characters. It is a stylistic device that allows the
author to merge the perspectives of both the narrator and the character, blurring the
lines between the two.
Free indirect speech, also known as free indirect discourse or indirect interior
monologue, is a narrative mode that combines elements of both direct and indirect
43
speech. Instead of directly quoting the character's thoughts or feelings, it presents
them indirectly, while still maintaining some of the character's voice and language.
By employing free indirect speech, authors can achieve several effects:
1. Intimate access to the character's mind: Free indirect speech grants readers
direct access to a character's thoughts and emotions, enabling them to experience the
story through the character's perspective. This immersion allows readers to delve
into the character's psyche and gain a deeper understanding of their motivations,
desires, and fears.
2. Blurring of the narrator's voice: In traditional third-person narration, the
narrator's voice remains distinct from the characters'. However, with free indirect
speech, the narrator's voice merges with the character's voice. This creates a more
subjective and personal narrative style, where the reader can inhabit the character's
consciousness while still being aware of the presence of the narrator.
3. Enhanced characterization: Free indirect speech enables authors to reveal the
character's inner thoughts and feelings in a more nuanced and authentic manner. It
allows for the expression of unfiltered emotions, contradictions, and subconscious
musings, offering readers deeper insights into the character's personality and
psychology. This technique often leads to more complex and realistic
characterizations.
4. Reader engagement and empathy: By immersing readers in a character's mind
through free indirect speech, authors can evoke empathy and emotional resonance.
Readers become active participants in the story, connecting with the character's
experiences on an intimate level. This emotional connection enhances the reader's
engagement, making them more invested in the character's journey and the overall
narrative.
5. Narrative perspective and subjectivity: Free indirect speech can be used to
convey a character's perspective on events or to present a subjective view of the
world. It allows authors to showcase the character's biases, prejudices, and limited
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understanding of the world, adding depth and complexity to the narrative. This
technique can also create dramatic irony, where readers are aware of information that
the character may not possess.
In summary, character immersion through free indirect speech in literary
discourse serves to deepen the reader's connection to the characters, provide insights
into their minds and emotions, and create a more engaging and subjective narrative
experience. It is a powerful tool for authors to explore the complexities of human
nature and enhance the overall impact of their storytelling.
2. Stream of consciousness: Free indirect speech can mimic the flow of a
character's thoughts and create a stream-of-consciousness effect. The narrative might
lack formal punctuation or follow a nonlinear structure, reflecting the character's
mental processes, associations, and inner monologue. This technique provides
insight into the character's psychological state and adds depth to their portrayal.
Stream of consciousness and free indirect speech are two distinct narrative
techniques employed in literary discourse. While they serve different functions, they
can be combined to create a unique narrative style that offers insights into a
character's thoughts and emotions. Let's explore each technique individually and
then discuss their potential function when used together.
1. Stream of Consciousness:
Stream of consciousness is a narrative technique that presents a character's
thoughts, feelings, and sensations in an uninterrupted and often unstructured flow. It
aims to depict the inner workings of a character's mind, replicating the spontaneous
and often chaotic nature of human thought processes. Through stream of
consciousness, authors can delve deep into a character's psyche, revealing their
innermost desires, fears, and associations.
The function of stream of consciousness in literary discourse is to provide a
subjective and introspective perspective on the events and experiences portrayed in
the narrative. By immersing readers in the character's consciousness, the technique
45
enables a more intimate understanding of their personality and worldview. It can also
evoke a sense of empathy or identification with the character, as readers are given
direct access to their thoughts and emotions.
2. Free Indirect Speech:
Free indirect speech is a narrative technique that blends the characteristics of
both direct and indirect speech. It allows the author to convey a character's thoughts
or speech indirectly, while still capturing their voice and perspective. In free indirect
speech, the boundary between the narrator's voice and the character's voice becomes
blurred, creating a narrative style that merges both external observation and internal
reflection.
The function of free indirect speech in literary discourse is to provide a nuanced
and layered portrayal of a character's consciousness. By adopting the character's
language, syntax, and perspective, the technique offers insights into their mindset
and enables readers to experience the world through their subjective lens. It allows
for a more authentic representation of the character's thoughts, while still
maintaining a narrative distance and flexibility.
3. Stream of Consciousness by Free Indirect Speech:
When stream of consciousness and free indirect speech are combined, the
narrative style becomes even more introspective and psychologically rich. This
hybrid technique allows authors to present a character's thoughts and feelings in a
manner that mimics the immediacy and depth of their inner monologue. It merges
the immersive qualities of stream of consciousness with the narrative flexibility of
free indirect speech.
The function of stream of consciousness by free indirect speech in literary
discourse is to create a heightened sense of psychological realism. It enables authors
to delve into the complexities of a character's mind, capturing the fleeting and
associative nature of their thoughts while maintaining narrative coherence. This
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technique can deepen the reader's engagement with the character and enhance their
understanding of their motivations, conflicts, and growth throughout the narrative.
Overall, the combination of stream of consciousness and free indirect speech
offers a powerful means of exploring the intricacies of human consciousness in
literary discourse. It allows authors to present characters in a more nuanced and
authentic manner, while immersing readers in their inner worlds.
3. Blurring of narrator and character: Free indirect speech blurs the line
between the narrator's voice and the character's voice. The narrator adopts the
character's language, syntax, and vocabulary, incorporating their idiosyncrasies into
the narrative. This fusion of voices allows the narrator to convey the character's
perspective while maintaining an objective narrative stance, creating a unique and
dynamic narrative style.The blurring of narrator and character through free indirect
speech is a narrative technique commonly employed in literary discourse. It involves
a blending of the narrator's voice with the thoughts, feelings, and perspectives of a
particular character, creating a unique narrative effect. This technique allows the
reader to experience the story from the character's point of view while still
maintaining the overall presence of the narrator.
Free indirect speech (also known as free indirect discourse or represented
speech) is a style of writing that combines elements of direct and indirect speech. It
allows the author to convey a character's inner thoughts and emotions in a way that is
more dynamic and engaging than traditional indirect narration.
By using free indirect speech, the author can seamlessly transition between the
objective voice of the narrator and the subjective voice of the character. This
technique blurs the boundaries between the two, enabling the reader to access the
character's consciousness while still being aware of the overarching narrative
framework.
The blurring of narrator and character through free indirect speech has several
functions in literary discourse:
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1. Immersion and Identification: By merging the narrator's voice with the
character's perspective, free indirect speech immerses the reader in the character's
thoughts and experiences. This creates a deeper sense of identification with the
character and fosters a stronger emotional connection.
2. Psychological Insight: Free indirect speech allows the author to delve into the
character's psyche, providing insights into their desires, motivations, and internal
conflicts. The blurring of the narrator and character enables the reader to gain a more
nuanced understanding of the character's personality and emotional state.
3. Narrative Subjectivity: The use of free indirect speech emphasizes the
subjective nature of the narrative. It highlights the character's individual
interpretation of events, rather than presenting an objective account. This
subjectivity adds layers of complexity to the story, as different characters may
perceive and interpret the same events in distinct ways.
4. Stylistic Variation: The blurring of narrator and character through free indirect
speech introduces stylistic variation into the narrative. The language and tone can
shift to reflect the character's voice, allowing for greater diversity in the writing
style. This variation can enhance the overall richness and texture of the literary
discourse.
5. Irony and Ambiguity: Free indirect speech can create irony and ambiguity by
juxtaposing the narrator's voice with the character's thoughts. The reader may
perceive a discrepancy between what the character thinks or feels and what the
narrator presents, leading to a deeper exploration of the character's true intentions or
emotions.
Overall, the blurring of narrator and character through free indirect speech adds
depth, intimacy, and complexity to literary discourse. It allows for a more immersive
reading experience, offering insights into characters' inner worlds while maintaining
the broader narrative framework.
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4. Irony and satire: By using free indirect speech, authors can employ irony and
satire effectively. The juxtaposition of the character's thoughts, beliefs, or intentions
with the narrative context can highlight contradictions, hypocrisy, or the gap
between appearance and reality. Free indirect speech provides a subtle way to
critique characters or society by allowing readers to discern the dissonance between
what is said and what is meant.Irony and satire are two powerful literary devices
used to critique and comment on society, human nature, and various aspects of life.
When combined with free indirect speech, they become even more effective in
conveying the author's intentions and engaging the reader. Let's examine the function
of irony and satire through the lens of free indirect speech in literary discourse.
1. Irony:
Irony is the expression of meaning using language that signifies the opposite,
typically for humorous or emphatic effect. Free indirect speech allows the narrator to
merge their voice with the character's perspective, blurring the line between the two.
This technique enables the author to employ irony more effectively by presenting the
character's thoughts and perceptions in a way that allows readers to discern the
intended irony.
For example, consider a character who claims to be an expert in a particular field
but constantly demonstrates incompetence through their actions. The use of free
indirect speech allows the author to reveal the character's true nature and create
ironic juxtapositions between their self-perception and their actual abilities. This
technique engages readers by allowing them to perceive the irony for themselves,
leading to a deeper understanding and enjoyment of the narrative.
2. Satire:
Satire is a literary technique that uses humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to
criticize and expose human vices, follies, or societal shortcomings. Free indirect
speech serves as a powerful tool for satirical writing because it allows the author to
present the character's thoughts, biases, and flaws while maintaining a certain
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narrative distance. This technique enables the author to create satirical portraits of
characters or situations without explicitly stating their criticism, relying instead on
the readers' interpretation.
By adopting the character's perspective through free indirect speech, the author
can expose and satirize various aspects of society or individuals. Satire often aims to
provoke reflection, challenge prevailing norms, and prompt readers to question the
status quo. Free indirect speech contributes to this process by immersing readers in
the character's mindset, inviting them to critically analyze the character's beliefs and
behaviors and, by extension, their own.
In summary, when combined with free indirect speech, irony and satire in
literary discourse gain depth and impact. Free indirect speech allows authors to
seamlessly blend their voice with the character's perspective, enabling the effective
use of irony and satire. This technique engages readers, encourages critical thinking,
and enhances the overall literary experience by creating layered narratives and
incisive social commentary.
5. Narrative perspective and focalization: Free indirect speech allows for the
manipulation of narrative perspective and focalization. By adopting the character's
point of view, the narrator can shape the reader's understanding of events, presenting
a subjective and biased account. This technique allows for multiple perspectives
within a single narrative, offering a nuanced portrayal of different characters'
experiences and enhancing the complexity of the storytelling.Narrative perspective
and focalization, along with the use of free indirect speech, are important literary
devices that shape the discourse and narrative style in works of literature. Let's
explore each of these concepts and their functions in more detail:
1. Narrative Perspective:
Narrative perspective refers to the point of view from which a story is told. It
determines who is narrating the story and the relationship between the narrator, the
characters, and the events being described. The narrative perspective can be
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classified into three main types: first person, third person limited, and third person
omniscient.
- First person perspective: In this perspective, the story is narrated by a character
within the story, typically using the pronoun "I." It provides a direct and intimate
connection between the reader and the narrator, offering insights into the narrator's
thoughts, emotions, and subjective experiences.
- Third person limited perspective: With this perspective, the narrator is an
external voice that observes the story but focuses on the thoughts and experiences of
a single character. It allows the reader to have a deeper understanding of that
character's inner world while maintaining some distance from other characters.
- Third person omniscient perspective: This perspective involves an all-knowing
narrator who can access the thoughts and feelings of multiple characters. It provides
a broader view of the story and allows for a more comprehensive understanding of
different characters' perspectives and motivations.
The narrative perspective influences the reader's engagement with the story,
shaping their interpretation and emotional connection to the characters and events.
2. Focalization:
Focalization refers to the specific point of view through which the events and
characters in a story are perceived and presented to the reader. It focuses on the
perspective from which the story is filtered and experienced. Focalization can be
categorized into two main types: internal focalization and external focalization.
- Internal focalization: Also known as internal perspective, this type of
focalization aligns the reader's perspective closely with that of a particular character.
The reader sees and experiences events through the character's senses, thoughts, and
emotions, which creates a subjective and immersive narrative experience.
- External focalization: External focalization involves presenting the story from
an external viewpoint, detached from any specific character's perspective. The reader
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perceives the events and characters from an objective or distanced standpoint, often
relying on visual or auditory descriptions without direct access to characters'
thoughts and emotions.
Focalization allows authors to shape the reader's perception and understanding of
the story by choosing which character's perspective to emphasize and how much
access to their inner world is granted.
3. Free Indirect Speech:
Free indirect speech (also known as free indirect discourse) is a narrative
technique that blurs the boundaries between the narrator's voice and a character's
voice, combining elements of direct and indirect speech. It allows the narrator to
convey a character's thoughts, feelings, and speech in a way that blends with the
narrative voice.
By using free indirect speech, the author can provide a more nuanced and
subjective portrayal of characters. It allows for a seamless transition between the
narrator's voice and a character's perspective, blurring the distinction between the
two. This technique enables the reader to experience the character's inner world
while still maintaining some distance or objectivity through the narrative voice.
The function of free indirect speech in literary discourse includes:
- Characterization: Free indirect speech allows the reader to gain direct insight
into a character's thoughts, emotions, and motivations. It helps develop and deepen
the reader's understanding of the characters' complexities and enhances their
engagement with the narrative.
- Subjectivity: The use of free indirect speech can evoke a sense of subjectivity,
capturing the character's unique voice and worldview. It creates a more intimate
connection between the reader and the character, fostering empathy and emotional
resonance.
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In literary discourse, narrative perspective refers to the point of view from which
a story is told, while focalization refers to the perspective through which events are
perceived or filtered. Free indirect speech is a narrative technique that allows the
author to blend the thoughts and feelings of a character with the narrator's voice.
Together, these elements serve various functions in shaping the reader's experience
and understanding of the story.
1. Character immersion: Free indirect speech allows readers to inhabit the minds
of characters by presenting their thoughts and emotions in a more intimate and
immediate manner. This technique blurs the boundaries between the character's
perspective and the narrator's voice, enhancing the reader's connection with the
character's inner world.
2. Subjectivity and bias: Narrative perspective and focalization influence the
reader's understanding of events by presenting them through a particular lens. Free
indirect speech can convey a character's subjective experience, biases, and
limitations, giving readers insight into their unique perspective. This technique adds
depth to characterization and helps readers navigate the complexities of multiple
viewpoints.
3. Irony and ambiguity: Free indirect speech can create a sense of irony and
ambiguity. By blending the character's thoughts with the narrator's voice, the
technique allows for juxtapositions and contradictions. The reader becomes aware of
the character's intentions, contradictions, or subconscious thoughts, which can create
tension and dramatic irony.
4. Narrative control: The choice of narrative perspective and focalization
influences the information the reader receives and when they receive it. The author
can control the flow of information and manipulate the reader's understanding of
events by selectively revealing or concealing certain details. Free indirect speech
allows for a nuanced presentation of information, as the narrator can disclose or
interpret events through the character's perspective.
53
5. Empathy and emotional engagement: Free indirect speech enables readers to
empathize with characters and understand their emotions more deeply. By blending
the character's thoughts and feelings with the narrator's voice, readers gain access to
the character's internal struggles, desires, and motivations. This emotional
engagement facilitates a more immersive reading experience.
6. Stylistic variation: Narrative perspective and focalization by free indirect
speech offer stylistic variation within a narrative. By shifting between different
characters' perspectives or utilizing different focalizers, the author can create a
diverse range of voices, tones, and narrative styles. This adds richness and
complexity to the overall literary discourse.
In summary, narrative perspective and focalization by free indirect speech serve
several functions in literary discourse. They facilitate character immersion, convey
subjectivity and bias, create irony and ambiguity, allow for narrative control,
enhance empathy and emotional engagement, and provide stylistic variation. These
techniques contribute to the overall depth, complexity, and impact of the story on the
reader.
6. Psychological depth and empathy: Free indirect speech provides a means for
exploring a character's inner world, revealing their desires, fears, and motivations.
By delving into their thoughts and emotions, the narrative creates a sense of
psychological depth, allowing readers to empathize with the character's struggles and
conflicts. It fosters a greater understanding of the character's complexities and
encourages a more profound emotional engagement.
Psychological depth and empathy are two crucial elements in literary discourse
that help create a deeper understanding of characters and their experiences. Free
indirect speech is a narrative technique that plays a significant role in achieving this
effect. Free indirect speech refers to a narrative style where the thoughts, feelings,
and perspectives of a character are presented indirectly, merging with the voice of
the narrator. It allows readers to access a character's inner world while maintaining a
certain level of narrative distance. By blending the character's voice with the
54
narrator's, free indirect speech provides a unique perspective that enhances
psychological depth and empathy.
One of the key functions of psychological depth in literary discourse is to delve
into the complexities of human nature and emotions. By employing free indirect
speech, authors can offer insights into a character's psyche, revealing their desires,
fears, and motivations. This technique allows readers to form a deep connection with
the character and understand their actions and decisions on a more profound level.
By experiencing the character's thoughts and emotions firsthand, readers can
empathize with their struggles and relate to their experiences.
Free indirect speech also enables authors to create a sense of intimacy between
the reader and the character. By blending the character's voice with the narrator's, the
narrative becomes a fusion of objective observation and subjective experience. This
fusion encourages readers to emotionally invest in the character's journey and fosters
a heightened sense of empathy.
Additionally, free indirect speech helps bridge the gap between the interior and
exterior worlds of a character. It allows authors to depict the character's inner
thoughts and emotions while still maintaining a narrative structure. This technique
provides a more nuanced portrayal of a character's inner life, revealing the internal
conflicts, contradictions, and complexities that shape their actions. By presenting
both the character's inner thoughts and their external behavior, free indirect speech
adds depth and authenticity to their portrayal, making them more relatable and
human.
In summary, the function of psychological depth and empathy through free
indirect speech in literary discourse is to immerse readers in a character's inner
world, fostering a profound understanding and emotional connection. By blending
the character's voice with the narrator's, authors can provide a rich portrayal of a
character's thoughts, emotions, and motivations, allowing readers to empathize with
their experiences and gain a deeper appreciation for the complexities of human
nature.
55
Apparently, free indirect speech serves as a powerful stylistic tool that enriches
the texture of a literary text, deepens characterization, and offers unique perspectives
and insights into the human experience. It allows for a nuanced exploration of the
complexities of language, thought, and emotion, enhancing the overall literary
experience for readers.
Outcomes of the second chapter
Summing up, it is necessary to point out that it is distinctively literary not
because it is exclusive to literary text, for that is demonstrably not so, but rather
because the essential character of literature itself is inscribed in miniature within it.
From the standpoint of the theory of literature and literary stylistics, it is an authentic
style that serves to convey the message in its special way. This style presents a
reader with a difficult challenge. In order to make sense of the complex text with the
reader has to transcribe the written sentences into oral forms, but as he/she does so,
he/she becomes more and more entangled in the verbal net. The emergence and
development of free indirect speech as a literary device have transformed the way
authors convey characters' thoughts and perspectives. From its early origins in the
works of 18th and 19th-century novelists to its contemporary usage by modern
writers, free indirect speech has enriched the narrative landscape, offering readers a
more intimate and empathetic understanding of fictional characters. As literature
continues to evolve, the exploration and utilization of free indirect speech are likely
to remain an integral part of the writer's toolkit.Overall, free indirect speech serves as
a powerful stylistic tool that enriches the texture of a literary text, deepens
characterization, and offers unique perspectives and insights into the human
experience. It allows for a nuanced exploration of the complexities of language,
thought, and emotion, enhancing the overall literary experience for readers. Indeed,
free indirect speech is a powerful stylistic tool in literature that can greatly enhance
the texture of a text, deepen characterization, and provide unique perspectives and
insights into the human experience. Free indirect speech is a narrative technique that
allows the author to blend the narrator's voice with the thoughts, feelings, and
56
perspectives of the character, creating a seamless and intimate narrative experience.
It is a mode of presenting characters' inner thoughts and speech without the use of
explicit quotation marks or direct attribution. Instead, it merges the character's voice
with the narrator's voice, resulting in a fluid and dynamic narrative style. One of the
primary benefits of using free indirect speech is its ability to enrich the texture of a
literary text. By allowing the narrator to seamlessly shift between their own voice
and the voice of the character, the author can create a more layered and complex
narrative. This technique adds depth to the storytelling by immersing the reader in
the character's perspective while maintaining the broader narrative framework. It
creates a sense of intimacy and immediacy, making the reader feel intimately
connected to the character's thoughts and experiences. Moreover, free indirect
speech plays a crucial role in deepening characterization. By directly accessing a
character's thoughts and emotions, it provides valuable insights into their
motivations, desires, and conflicts. This technique allows readers to understand the
character's internal struggles, their true intentions, and their unique worldview.
Through free indirect speech, the author can develop complex and multi-dimensional
characters, fostering empathy and enabling readers to relate to their experiences on a
deeper level. In addition, free indirect speech offers unique perspectives and insights
into the human experience. It enables authors to explore the complexities of human
psychology and emotions by delving into the inner workings of characters' minds.
This technique can unveil the gap between what characters think and what they say,
revealing hidden contradictions, desires, and vulnerabilities. By exposing the internal
contradictions and intricacies of human thought, free indirect speech can shed light
on universal themes such as love, identity, power, and morality, providing readers
with profound insights into the human condition. Overall, free indirect speech is a
valuable tool for writers, as it enhances the texture of a literary text, deepens
characterization, and offers unique perspectives and insights into the human
experience. Its ability to seamlessly merge the voices of the narrator and the
character creates a rich narrative tapestry, allowing readers to intimately engage with
the story and its characters at a profound level.
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CHAPTER III. ANALYSIS OF PRESENTING FREE INDIRECT SPEECH IN
AMERICAN DISCOURSE
3.1 Free indirect discourse in early 20th century American literature
Free indirect speech (FIS) is a narrative technique used in literature where the
thoughts, feelings, or speech of a character are presented indirectly by blending the
character's perspective with the narrator's voice. While FIS is primarily associated
with literary analysis, its presence in American discourse can provide interesting
insights into the rhetorical and communicative strategies employed by speakers.
Here is an analysis of presenting free indirect speech in American discourse:
1. Expressing Subjectivity: FIS allows speakers to express subjective thoughts or
opinions while maintaining a certain level of detachment or plausible deniability. By
presenting thoughts indirectly, speakers can convey their perspective while avoiding
direct ownership or responsibility for the expressed ideas. This can be particularly
useful in political or controversial contexts, where speakers may want to present
their views without explicitly endorsing or committing to them.
2. Strategic Plausibility: FIS offers speakers the ability to present ideas or
arguments that may not be widely accepted or politically viable. By couching these
ideas within the narrative technique, speakers can present alternative viewpoints or
challenge prevailing norms without directly endorsing or promoting them. This can
be a way to test the waters, introduce new ideas, or engage in subtle persuasion
without fully committing to a particular stance.
3. Blurring Boundaries: FIS blurs the boundaries between the speaker and the
character or narrator, creating a sense of ambiguity or multiplicity in the discourse.
This can be used to create a sense of distance, irony, or uncertainty. By presenting
ideas indirectly, speakers can invite interpretation and leave room for multiple
perspectives, allowing listeners or readers to engage with the discourse in a more
active and participatory manner.
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4. Building Empathy: FIS can be employed to evoke empathy or emotional
connection by immersing the audience in a character's thoughts or experiences. By
adopting the character's perspective, speakers can create a more intimate and
relatable narrative, fostering a deeper connection with the audience. This technique
is often used in storytelling, personal anecdotes, or when discussing sensitive or
emotional topics.
5. Shaping Discourse and Narrative: FIS can be employed to shape the overall
discourse or narrative structure. By using this technique, speakers can control the
flow of information, manipulate the audience's interpretation, or guide the narrative
in a particular direction. By blending the character's voice with their own, speakers
can subtly influence the audience's perception and understanding of the topic being
discussed.
6. Engaging Audience Imagination: FIS invites the audience to actively engage
their imagination, as they must interpret and decode the indirect speech to grasp its
meaning fully. This participation can create a more engaging and interactive
experience for the audience, drawing them into the discourse and fostering a sense of
co-creation.
It's important to note that the use of FIS in American discourse may not be as
prevalent as in literary works, as political speeches, news reporting, and public
discourse tend to rely more on direct and explicit communication. However,
elements of indirect speech and narrative techniques can still be observed in the
strategic deployment of rhetorical devices, storytelling techniques, and narrative
framing.
Additionally, Free indirect discourse, also known as indirect interior monologue
or free indirect style, is a narrative technique commonly used in literature,
particularly in the early 20th century. It involves blending the thoughts, feelings, and
perspectives of a character with the narrator's voice, creating a unique and subjective
narrative experience.
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Early 20th-century American literature saw the emergence of several prominent
authors who employed free indirect discourse in their works. Here are a few notable
examples:
1. Virginia Woolf: Woolf's modernist novel "Mrs Dalloway" (1925) showcases
her masterful use of free indirect discourse. The narrative voice seamlessly
transitions between the perspectives of different characters, allowing readers to delve
into their inner thoughts and emotions. This technique enhances the stream-ofconsciousness style for which Woolf is renowned.
2. William Faulkner: Faulkner is celebrated for his use of innovative narrative
techniques in his novels, and free indirect discourse is often employed to great effect.
In "The Sound and the Fury" (1929), Faulkner employs multiple narrators, each with
their unique voices and perspectives, often blurring the line between character and
narrator. This technique provides insight into the characters' subjective experiences
and adds complexity to the storytelling.
3. Ernest Hemingway: Hemingway's spare and economical prose style in works
such as "The Sun Also Rises" (1926) and "A Farewell to Arms" (1929) is enhanced
by his use of free indirect discourse. While his narrative voice remains distinct,
Hemingway subtly incorporates the thoughts and feelings of his characters, creating
an immersive reading experience.
4. F. Scott Fitzgerald: Fitzgerald's masterpiece, "The Great Gatsby" (1925),
employs free indirect discourse to offer readers a glimpse into the minds of the
characters. Through this technique, Fitzgerald conveys their desires, aspirations, and
inner conflicts, deepening the understanding of the story's themes of wealth, love,
and the American Dream.
5. Gertrude Stein: Stein's experimental writing style, particularly in works like
"The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas" (1933), incorporates free indirect discourse
as she blurs the boundaries between narrator and character. This technique
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challenges traditional narrative structures and invites readers to question the
reliability of the voice guiding the story.
These authors and others of the early 20th century leveraged free indirect
discourse to explore the interior lives of their characters, capture shifting
perspectives, and create a more intimate and psychologically rich reading
experience.Free indirect discourse is a narrative technique in which the thoughts and
expressions of a character are presented indirectly, blending the character's voice
with the narrator's voice. This technique allows the reader to experience the
character's perspective while still maintaining the overall narrative voice. Here are a
few examples of free indirect discourse in early 20th century American literature:
1. "The Great Gatsby" by F. Scott Fitzgerald (1925):
- "He knew that when he kissed this girl, and forever wed his unutterable visions to
her perishable breath, his mind would never romp again like the mind of God. So he
waited, listening for a moment longer to the tuning-fork that had been struck upon a
star."
2. "To the Lighthouse" by Virginia Woolf (1927):
- "She had not wanted him to come; she had been thinking all the way upstairs.
And if he did, what would she do? She had done nothing all these years. Five of
them now since they had been in the same room together at night; and for what? She
had nothing to give him."
3. "The Sun Also Rises" by Ernest Hemingway (1926):
- "It was like certain dinners I remember from the war. There was much wine, an
ignored tension, and a feeling of things coming that you could not prevent
happening. Under the wine I lost the disgusted feeling and was happy. It seemed
they were all such nice people."
4. "The Sound and the Fury" by William Faulkner (1929):
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- "The three little girls in the doorway watched him, suspended in the act of
shutting the gate; watched him wearing that grave and timeless hat, watched him
with the same complete detachment that he was watching them, as though they were
figures of a remembered scene."
5. "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man" by James Joyce (1916):
- "He began to beat the frayed end of his ashplant against the base of a pillar. Had
Cranly not heard him? Yet he could wait. The talk about him ceased for a moment; a
few students murmured together. They had surely spoken quietly enough not to be
heard in the street."
These examples showcase how free indirect discourse allows the reader to access
the character's thoughts and feelings while still being part of the overall narrative
voice of the author.
Free indirect discourse, a narrative technique that merges elements of both direct
and indirect speech, played a significant role in early 20th century American
literature. This literary device, also known as "interior monologue" or "narrated
monologue," allowed authors to intimately explore the thoughts, feelings, and
perspectives of their characters while maintaining a narrative distance. By blending
the character's voice with the narrator's voice, free indirect discourse created a
unique narrative perspective that had a profound impact on the development of
modernist literature.
One of the notable features of free indirect discourse is its ability to blur the
boundaries between the narrator and the character. Instead of presenting the
character's thoughts and emotions through direct quotation or the detached voice of
an omniscient narrator, free indirect discourse allowed authors to seamlessly blend
the two. This technique enabled authors to present the character's inner world in a
more nuanced and immediate way, providing readers with a deeper understanding of
their psychology.
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In early 20th century American literature, authors such as William Faulkner,
Ernest Hemingway, and Virginia Woolf employed free indirect discourse to great
effect. Faulkner, in particular, used this technique extensively in his novels, such as
"The Sound and the Fury" and "As I Lay Dying." Through the use of free indirect
discourse, Faulkner delved into the minds of his characters, capturing their
fragmented thoughts and stream of consciousness. This allowed him to depict the
complex inner lives of his characters while maintaining a distinct narrative voice.
Hemingway, on the other hand, utilized free indirect discourse in a more
restrained manner. His sparse and concise prose often conveyed the thoughts and
emotions of his characters through subtle hints and gestures. By employing free
indirect discourse selectively, Hemingway created a sense of understatement and
subtext, leaving much unsaid and relying on the reader's interpretation.
In the case of Virginia Woolf, free indirect discourse became a crucial tool for
her exploration of the inner lives of her characters, particularly in her novel "Mrs.
Dalloway." Through the use of this technique, Woolf presented the thoughts and
perspectives of multiple characters, offering insights into their complex inner worlds.
The fluidity of free indirect discourse allowed her to seamlessly transition between
characters' minds, creating a rich tapestry of consciousness and emphasizing the
interconnectedness of human experiences.
Overall, free indirect discourse in early 20th century American literature
provided authors with a powerful means of accessing the interiority of their
characters. By merging the voices of the character and the narrator, this narrative
technique opened up new possibilities for exploring psychological depth and
subjective experiences. Through the use of free indirect discourse, authors were able
to capture the complexities of human thought and emotion, shaping the trajectory of
modernist literature and leaving a lasting impact on the literary landscape.Free
indirect discourse in early 20th-century American literature indeed offered authors a
powerful tool for delving into the interiority of their characters. This narrative
technique allowed writers to blend the perspectives of both the narrator and the
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character, granting readers a more intimate understanding of the characters' thoughts,
emotions, and motivations. By employing free indirect discourse, authors could
create a psychological depth that enriched their storytelling and provided a nuanced
portrayal of their characters' inner lives.
In free indirect discourse, the narrator's voice merges with the character's voice,
blurring the line between the two. This technique enables authors to convey a
character's thoughts, feelings, and observations indirectly, while still maintaining the
narrative distance and perspective of a third-person narrator. By seamlessly
integrating the character's consciousness with the narrator's voice, writers could
explore the complexities of human psychology and delve into the intricacies of their
characters' minds.
Early 20th-century American authors, such as William Faulkner, Virginia Woolf,
and Ernest Hemingway, among others, effectively employed free indirect discourse
to illuminate the interiority of their characters. Faulkner, in works like "The Sound
and the Fury," skillfully employed this technique to provide readers with a profound
understanding of his characters' inner struggles and fragmented mental states. Woolf,
in novels like "To the Lighthouse" and "Mrs. Dalloway," used free indirect discourse
to traverse the thoughts and perceptions of her characters, capturing the ebb and flow
of their consciousness. Hemingway, too, utilized this technique in works like "The
Sun Also Rises" and "A Farewell to Arms" to convey his characters' internal turmoil
and emotional landscapes.
Through free indirect discourse, these authors could explore the depths of their
characters' minds, offering readers an intimate glimpse into their desires, fears, and
uncertainties. This narrative technique facilitated a richer understanding of the
characters' motivations, shaping readers' empathetic connection with the story. By
accessing the interiority of their characters in such a direct and immersive manner,
authors of early 20th-century American literature were able to create nuanced and
psychologically complex narratives that continue to resonate with readers to this day.
3.2 Free indirect speech markers in the works of American writers
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Free indirect speech (FIS), also known as indirect discourse or narrated
monologue, is a narrative technique commonly used in literature. It blends the
thoughts or speech of a character with the voice of the narrator, creating a unique
style that allows readers to experience the character's perspective while maintaining
a narrative distance. FIS markers are linguistic devices or cues that indicate the shift
from the narrator's voice to the character's voice.
Here are some examples of American writers known for their effective use of
free indirect speech markers in their works:
1. William Faulkner: Faulkner's novels, such as "The Sound and the Fury" and
"As I Lay Dying," employ FIS to delve into the minds of his characters. He often
uses subtle markers like shifts in syntax, vocabulary, and sentence structure to
indicate the transition from the narrator's voice to the character's perspective.
2. Virginia Woolf: Although British-born, Virginia Woolf's works, such as "Mrs.
Dalloway" and "To the Lighthouse," are notable for their innovative use of FIS. She
employs interior monologues and stream-of-consciousness techniques, blurring the
boundaries between the narrator and the characters. Her use of punctuation, such as
ellipses and dashes, serves as markers for FIS.
3. Ernest Hemingway: Hemingway's spare and concise writing style often
includes FIS markers, though they are less overt compared to other authors. In works
like "The Old Man and the Sea" and "A Farewell to Arms," he uses simple sentence
structures and minimalistic descriptions to indirectly convey the characters' thoughts
and emotions.
4. Toni Morrison: Morrison's novels, including "Beloved" and "Song of
Solomon," showcase her skillful use of FIS markers to depict the inner lives of her
characters. She employs shifts in verb tense, pronouns, and imagery to seamlessly
blend the narrator's voice with the character's perspective.
5. David Foster Wallace: Known for his complex and experimental writing style,
Wallace employs FIS markers throughout his works, particularly in his magnum
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opus "Infinite Jest." He combines various techniques, such as footnotes, parentheses,
and abrupt shifts in tone, to signal the presence of free indirect speech.
These authors have demonstrated their mastery of FIS markers, enabling readers
to engage with the characters' thoughts and emotions in a profound and immersive
manner.
Free indirect speech, also known as indirect discourse or narrated monologue, is
a narrative technique commonly used in literature where the narrator adopts the
language and style of a character's thoughts or speech within the overall narrative.
This technique allows the reader to experience the character's perspective more
intimately. While free indirect speech markers can vary in different works, here are
some examples from the works of American writers:
1. "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee:
"I reckon if he'd wanted us to know it, he'da told us. If he was proud of it, he'da
told us." (Scout's thoughts)
2. "The Catcher in the Rye" by J.D. Salinger:
"Boy, it began to rain like a bastard. In buckets, I swear to God." (Holden's
narrative voice)
3. "Beloved" by Toni Morrison:
"She is a friend of my mind. She gather me, man. The pieces I am, she gather them
and give them back to me in all the right order." (Sethe's thoughts)
4. "The Great Gatsby" by F. Scott Fitzgerald:
"I'm inclined to reserve all judgments, a habit that has opened up many curious
natures to me and also made me the victim of not a few veteran bores." (Nick
Carraway's narration)
5. "The Sound and the Fury" by William Faulkner:
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"When the shadow of the sash appeared on the curtains it was between seven and
eight o'clock, and then I was in time again, hearing the watch." (Quentin Compson's
stream of consciousness)
These examples illustrate how American writers employ free indirect speech
markers to create a more immersive reading experience by directly conveying a
character's thoughts or speech within the narrative structure.
Free indirect speech, also known as indirect discourse or free indirect style, is a
narrative technique commonly used by American writers to create a more immersive
reading experience. It involves blending the narrator's voice with the thoughts,
speech, or perspective of a character, thereby blurring the line between the narrator
and the character. By employing free indirect speech markers, writers can directly
convey a character's thoughts or speech within the narrative structure, allowing
readers to experience the story more intimately.
Here are some ways American writers employ free indirect speech markers to
enhance immersion in their narratives:
1. Blurring the narrative voice: American writers often use language and syntax
that mirrors a character's thoughts or speech, merging the character's perspective
with the narrator's voice. This blurring of the narrative voice makes it feel as if the
character's thoughts or speech are seamlessly woven into the story.
2. Eliminating explicit speech tags: Instead of using explicit speech tags like "he
said" or "she thought," American writers rely on free indirect speech markers to
indicate the character's thoughts or speech. This allows for a more fluid and
immediate representation of the character's internal world.
3. Intimate character perspective: By directly conveying a character's thoughts or
speech, writers bring readers closer to the character's experience. This technique
allows readers to delve into the character's emotions, motivations, and worldview,
fostering a deeper connection with the story and its characters.
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4. Reflecting character's voice and style: Each character may have a unique voice
and style of thinking or speaking. American writers use free indirect speech markers
to adopt the linguistic patterns, vocabulary, and tone of a particular character, giving
readers insight into their personality and enhancing the authenticity of their
portrayal.
5. Seamless integration with narrative structure: Free indirect speech markers are
seamlessly integrated into the narrative structure, flowing naturally within the text.
They do not disrupt the overall storytelling but rather enhance it by providing
glimpses into a character's inner thoughts and dialogue.
6. Shifting perspectives: American writers employ free indirect speech markers
to shift perspectives between different characters within a scene or throughout the
story. This technique allows readers to experience events and interactions from
various viewpoints, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the narrative
and its characters.
7. Engaging the reader's imagination: By employing free indirect speech
markers, writers encourage readers to actively engage their imagination. The implicit
nature of conveying a character's thoughts or speech requires readers to infer
meaning and make connections, fostering a deeper engagement with the story.
Overall, the use of free indirect speech markers by American writers serves to
immerse readers in the narrative by directly conveying a character's thoughts or
speech within the storytelling structure. This technique brings readers closer to the
characters, enhances the authenticity of their portrayal, and allows for a more
intimate and engaging reading experience.The use of free indirect speech markers by
American writers indeed serves to immerse readers in the narrative by directly
conveying a character's thoughts or speech within the storytelling structure. Free
indirect speech is a narrative technique that blurs the line between the narrator's
voice and the character's voice, creating a more intimate and immediate connection
between the reader and the character.
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In free indirect speech, the narrator adopts the language, style, and perspective of
a particular character, allowing the reader to experience the story through that
character's lens. This technique enables readers to gain direct insight into a
character's thoughts, emotions, and inner world, enhancing their understanding and
empathy.
By using free indirect speech markers, such as internal monologue, direct speech,
or the character's specific language patterns, American writers can seamlessly blend
the character's voice with the narrator's voice. This technique offers a subjective and
personal perspective, as if the reader is inhabiting the character's mind. It allows
readers to feel as though they are intimately involved in the character's experiences
and thought processes, fostering a deeper engagement with the story.
Furthermore, free indirect speech markers provide a sense of immediacy and
authenticity to the narrative. By directly conveying a character's thoughts or speech,
readers experience the story as it unfolds in real-time, heightening the emotional
impact and making the narrative more vivid. This technique can be particularly
effective in capturing the nuances of a character's voice, their unique speech patterns,
and their idiosyncrasies, which contribute to the authenticity and believability of the
character.
Overall, the use of free indirect speech markers by American writers serves as a
powerful tool to immerse readers in the narrative by bridging the gap between the
reader and the character. It free indirect speech markers provide a sense of
immediacy and authenticity to the narrative.Free indirect speech (also known as
indirect discourse or reported speech) is a narrative technique that blends elements of
direct speech and indirect speech, allowing the author to convey a character's
thoughts or speech while maintaining the narrative voice. It provides a sense of
immediacy and authenticity to the narrative by immersing the reader in the
character's perspective. Here are some examples of free indirect speech markers that
enhance the immediacy and authenticity of the narrative:
1. Verb tense shifts:
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- "He thought to himself, 'I can't believe this is happening.'"
- "She wondered if she had made the right decision."
2. Pronoun shifts:
- "He looked at her and thought, 'Why did she do that?'"
- "She gazed into the mirror, wondering who she had become."
3. Direct thoughts or inner monologue:
- "He sighed, *Why is this so difficult?*"
- "She clenched her fists, *I have to do this!*"
4. Intimate vocabulary or colloquial language:
- "He looked at the pile of work and muttered, 'This is gonna be a long night.'"
- "She glanced at her phone and thought, 'Crap, I'm running late again.'"
5. Sensory or experiential descriptions:
- "He watched the waves crash against the shore, feeling a sense of calm wash over
him."
- "She smelled the aroma of freshly baked bread, her stomach grumbling with
hunger."
6. Partial or fragmented thoughts:
- "He stood there, frozen, unable to form a coherent response."
- "She saw him approaching and felt a mix of excitement and anxiety, *What do I
say?*"
7. Character-specific language or idiosyncrasies:
- "He assessed the situation and said to himself, 'Okay, buddy, time to put on your
game face.'"
- "She studied her opponent, thinking, 'Well, ain't he a piece of work.'"
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These markers blur the line between the narrator's voice and the character's
voice, providing a direct window into their thoughts, emotions, and observations.
They create a more immediate and authentic reading experience, enabling readers to
connect with the characters on a deeper level.
3.3 The implications of free indirect speech in American discourse
Free indirect speech (FIS) is a narrative technique used in literature to represent a
character's thoughts or speech in a way that blends their perspective with the
narrator's voice. While FIS is primarily a literary device, it can be interesting to
consider its potential implications in American discourse, particularly in the realm of
public communication and media.
1. Subjectivity and Perspective: FIS blurs the line between the narrator's voice
and the character's voice, creating a subjective and often unreliable narrative
perspective. Similarly, in American discourse, the use of FIS-like techniques can
introduce subjectivity and bias, influencing how information is presented and
received by the audience. This can shape public opinion and impact political and
social debates.Free indirect speech, a narrative technique that blends the voice of the
narrator with the thoughts and feelings of a character, plays a significant role in
shaping subjectivity and perspective in American discourse. By allowing readers to
inhabit the minds of characters while maintaining a narrative distance, free indirect
speech creates a complex interplay of voices, ideologies, and viewpoints.
In American discourse, the implications of free indirect speech are multifaceted.
Firstly, it enables authors to convey a character's subjective experience while
simultaneously highlighting the character's embeddedness within a larger social and
cultural context. This technique allows for a nuanced exploration of individual and
collective perspectives, challenging the notion of a singular "truth" or objective
reality. By presenting a character's thoughts and emotions in their own language and
style, free indirect speech provides insight into their unique subjectivity, while also
revealing the influence of cultural, social, and historical forces on their worldview.
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Moreover, free indirect speech can be used to blur the boundaries between the
narrator's voice and the character's voice, resulting in a blending of perspectives.
This technique allows authors to subtly inject their own opinions, biases, and
ideologies into the narrative without overtly imposing them. The reader is positioned
as an active interpreter, navigating between the narrator's perspective and the
character's perspective, thereby challenging preconceived notions and fostering
critical thinking.
In American discourse, where diverse voices and conflicting viewpoints are often
present, free indirect speech allows for a rich exploration of different ideological
positions. It can expose the biases and limitations of characters' perspectives while
also shedding light on their underlying motivations, desires, and fears. By immersing
readers in a character's consciousness, free indirect speech fosters empathy and
understanding, encouraging readers to consider alternative viewpoints and question
their own assumptions.
However, it is crucial to recognize that free indirect speech is not immune to
power dynamics and the potential for manipulation. Authors can strategically
employ this technique to advance their own agendas or reinforce dominant
narratives. The selection and portrayal of certain characters' thoughts and feelings, as
well as the choice of narrative focalization, can shape the reader's interpretation and
influence public opinion.
In conclusion, the implications of free indirect speech in American discourse are
far-reaching. This narrative technique enables a complex interplay of subjectivity
and perspective, challenging the notion of a singular truth and facilitating a nuanced
exploration of diverse voices and ideological positions. By immersing readers in
characters' consciousness while maintaining narrative distance, free indirect speech
fosters empathy, critical thinking, and a deeper understanding of the complexities of
human experience. However, its usage also demands a critical awareness of power
dynamics and the potential for manipulation, underscoring the importance of
discernment and active interpretation in engaging with American discourse.The
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implications of free indirect speech in American discourse can introduce subjectivity
and perspective in various ways. Here are a few examples:
1. Character Narration: Free indirect speech allows the narrator to merge their
voice with that of the character, blurring the line between the two. This technique
enables the expression of the character's subjective thoughts and emotions. For
instance, in a political discourse, if a character states, "This candidate's policies are
revolutionary," it reflects both the character's perspective and their subjective
evaluation of the candidate's policies.
2. Implicit Bias: Free indirect speech can subtly convey the narrator's biases or
prejudices through the character's thoughts or speech. By presenting the character's
perspective as their own, the narrator can indirectly influence the reader's perception.
For example, if a character describes an immigrant as "suspicious" or "threatening,"
the reader may absorb these biases as part of the narrative, even though they are not
explicitly endorsed by the narrator.
3. Irony and Satire: Free indirect speech allows for the use of irony and satire by
presenting a character's thoughts or statements in a way that contrasts with the
narrator's voice or the general context. This technique can introduce a critical or
humorous perspective on a particular topic or individual. By employing irony, the
author might highlight the absurdity or contradictions present in American discourse.
4. Multiple Perspectives: Free indirect speech can convey the perspectives of
different characters within the narrative. Each character may have their own
subjective views, opinions, and biases. By utilizing this technique, authors can
present a diverse range of voices and highlight the complexity of American
discourse. For example, in a debate about healthcare, one character might argue
passionately for universal coverage, while another character might vehemently
oppose it, showcasing the divergent perspectives in the discourse.
5. Reader Interpretation: Free indirect speech invites readers to actively engage
with the text and interpret the characters' thoughts and feelings. Different readers
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may perceive and interpret the characters' perspectives differently based on their own
background, beliefs, and experiences. This subjective interpretation adds an
additional layer of subjectivity to the discourse.
These examples illustrate how free indirect speech can introduce subjectivity and
perspective into American discourse, shaping the way readers perceive and engage
with the narrative.
2. Manipulation and Rhetoric: FIS allows the narrator to manipulate the
reader's perception by subtly guiding their interpretation of the character's thoughts
and speech. Similarly, in American discourse, the use of FIS-like techniques can be
employed for persuasive purposes or to influence public opinion. Politicians, media
outlets, and other communicators may strategically use language to shape narratives
and advance their agendas.Free indirect speech (FIS) is a literary technique that
allows the narrator to blend the character's thoughts and speech with their own
narrative voice. In the context of American discourse, the implications of free
indirect speech can involve manipulation and rhetoric. Here are some examples of
how manipulation and rhetoric can be employed through free indirect speech in
American discourse:
1. Biased Representation: By using FIS, a narrator can subtly inject their own
biases and opinions into a character's thoughts or speech, shaping the reader's
perception of the character and their ideas. This can be a form of manipulation, as
the narrator guides the reader towards a particular viewpoint without explicitly
stating it.
Example: In a political novel, the narrator might use FIS to present a
character's thoughts on immigration as filled with fear and prejudice, thereby
influencing readers to adopt a negative stance on immigration.
2. Emotional Appeal: FIS can be utilized to evoke emotions and manipulate
readers' responses by aligning them with a character's thoughts or sentiments. By
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presenting emotional content through a character's perspective, the narrator can sway
readers' opinions and actions.
Example: In a persuasive speech or essay, the author might employ FIS to
convey a character's intense grief and anger regarding a social issue, aiming to elicit
a sympathetic response from the audience and motivate them to take action.
3. Distortion of Truth: Free indirect speech can be used to distort facts or present
selective information, manipulating readers' understanding of a situation. By
blending the narrator's voice with a character's thoughts, the narrator can introduce
subjective interpretations or omit crucial details, leading to a biased representation of
events.
Example: In a news article about a political scandal, the writer may employ FIS
to present a character's thoughts on their innocence while ignoring contrary
evidence, thus influencing readers' perceptions and potentially distorting the truth.
4. Persuasive Techniques: Rhetorical devices can be effectively employed
through free indirect speech to enhance persuasive impact. Techniques such as
repetition, exaggeration, and appeals to authority or emotion can be incorporated into
a character's thoughts or speech, subtly influencing readers and strengthening the
argument.
Example: In a political speech, a candidate might use FIS to present a character's
internal monologue, repeatedly emphasizing their opponent's flaws and painting a
vivid, exaggerated picture of the negative consequences of their policies, aiming to
sway the audience towards their own position.
It's important to note that the use of manipulation and rhetoric through free
indirect speech is not inherently negative or unethical. These techniques can be
employed in literature, political discourse, or persuasive writing to engage and
influence audiences. However, it is crucial for readers and listeners to be aware of
these techniques and critically analyze the information presented to form wellrounded opinions.
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3. Intimacy and Identification: FIS can create a sense of intimacy between the
reader and the character, as it allows the reader to access the character's inner
thoughts and feelings. Similarly, in American discourse, the use of FIS-like
techniques can establish a sense of personal connection between the speaker and the
audience. This can enhance empathy, identification, and the ability to resonate with
the message being conveyed."Intimacy" and "identification" are key concepts in the
analysis of free indirect speech in American discourse. Here are some examples that
illustrate these concepts:
1. Intimacy:
In free indirect speech, the narrator's voice blends with the character's voice,
creating an intimate connection between the reader and the character. For example,
in a novel, the narrator might adopt the character's point of view and use their
language and thoughts. This closeness allows readers to experience the character's
emotions and perspectives more intimately. An example could be a passage where
the narrator says, "She gazed into his eyes, her heart pounding with anticipation.
Would he finally confess his love?" This intimate portrayal helps the reader
empathize with the character's emotions and fosters a deeper connection.
2. Identification:
Free indirect speech enables readers to identify with characters by presenting their
thoughts and feelings as if they were their own. By adopting the character's language
and viewpoint, the narrator facilitates a sense of identification. For instance, in a
first-person narrative, the reader becomes immersed in the character's mind and
shares their experiences. An example of identification through free indirect speech
might be, "I couldn't believe what I was seeing. My heart raced, and my palms grew
sweaty." By using the first-person perspective and describing physical sensations,
the reader can identify with the character's emotions and feel personally invested in
their story.
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These examples highlight how free indirect speech in American discourse can
create intimacy and foster identification between readers and characters. By blurring
the lines between the narrator's voice and the character's voice, this narrative
technique deepens readers' engagement and emotional connection with the text.In the
context of the implications of free indirect speech in American discourse, intimacy
and identification play crucial roles. Free indirect speech, also known as free indirect
discourse, is a narrative technique that allows the reader to experience a character's
thoughts and emotions through a blend of direct and indirect speech.
Intimacy refers to the sense of closeness or familiarity that readers develop with
characters when they are exposed to their inner thoughts and feelings. Free indirect
speech enhances intimacy by providing a direct glimpse into a character's mind,
bypassing the need for explicit narration or dialogue. This technique enables readers
to empathize with the character's experiences, thoughts, and emotions, fostering a
stronger connection between the reader and the text.
Identification, on the other hand, involves readers projecting themselves into the
narrative and aligning their own experiences and perspectives with those of the
characters. Free indirect speech facilitates identification by blurring the boundaries
between the narrator's voice and the character's voice. By immersing readers in a
character's stream of consciousness, free indirect speech allows them to perceive the
world through the character's perspective, creating a sense of shared understanding.
The importance of intimacy and identification in the implications of free indirect
speech in American discourse lies in their potential to shape the reader's
interpretation and reception of the text. When readers feel intimately connected to a
character and can identify with their thoughts and emotions, they are more likely to
engage with the text on a deeper level. This engagement can lead to greater empathy,
understanding, and critical analysis of the themes, ideas, and social issues presented
in the discourse.
In the American context, where diverse perspectives and experiences are integral
to the national identity, free indirect speech can be a powerful tool for promoting
77
empathy and bridging gaps in understanding. By allowing readers to inhabit the
minds of characters with different backgrounds, beliefs, and viewpoints, free indirect
speech can challenge preconceived notions, expand empathy, and foster dialogue
across ideological boundaries.
Overall, the intimacy and identification fostered by free indirect speech in
American discourse can contribute to a more nuanced understanding of complex
issues, promote empathy and inclusivity, and encourage readers to critically engage
with diverse perspectives.
4. Ambiguity and Plurality of Meanings: FIS often leaves room for
interpretation, as the blending of voices can create ambiguity and multiple layers of
meaning. Similarly, in American discourse, the use of FIS-like techniques can lead
to different interpretations of messages, allowing for diverse perspectives and
fostering critical thinking. However, it can also create confusion or be exploited to
manipulate interpretations. The implications of free indirect speech in American
discourse are multifaceted, and one aspect that contributes to this complexity is the
ambiguity and plurality of meanings it can convey. Free indirect speech is a narrative
technique that allows the narrator to blend their own voice with the thoughts,
feelings, and language of a character. This technique often blurs the boundaries
between direct and indirect speech, creating a rich and nuanced narrative style.
In the context of American discourse, where various perspectives, ideologies,
and cultural backgrounds intersect, the use of free indirect speech can give rise to
multiple interpretations and understandings. The ambiguity arises from the fact that
the narrator's voice and the character's voice become intertwined, making it
challenging to determine whose thoughts or words are being expressed. This
ambiguity can be seen as a reflection of the inherent complexities and contradictions
within American society.
Moreover, free indirect speech allows for the plurality of meanings by providing
insights into different characters' perspectives within a single narrative. It enables
readers to experience the story through multiple subjective lenses, gaining access to
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the thoughts, emotions, and biases of various individuals. This plurality of meanings
reflects the diverse nature of American discourse, highlighting the existence of
different viewpoints, identities, and experiences.
The implications of this ambiguity and plurality of meanings are significant. On
one hand, it encourages readers to critically engage with the text and actively
interpret the layers of meaning embedded within the narrative. It prompts them to
consider different perspectives and understand the complexities of the issues
discussed in the discourse. This can foster empathy, tolerance, and a deeper
appreciation for the diversity of voices present in American society.
On the other hand, the ambiguity and plurality of meanings can also lead to
confusion, misinterpretation, and manipulation. Different readers may extract
varying interpretations from the text, potentially leading to disagreements and
miscommunication. In the realm of public discourse, this can be exploited to shape
narratives, advance particular agendas, or generate controversy.
In conclusion, the implications of free indirect speech in American discourse
encompass both the ambiguity and plurality of meanings it can convey. While it
encourages a deeper understanding of diverse perspectives, it also presents
challenges in interpretation and communication. Acknowledging and navigating
these complexities is essential for engaging in constructive and inclusive dialogue
within American society.The implications of free indirect speech in American
discourse can give rise to ambiguity and plurality of meanings in various ways. Here
are some examples:
1. Pronoun reference: Free indirect speech often involves the use of pronouns,
which can lead to ambiguity in identifying the referent. For instance, consider the
sentence, "He thought it was a brilliant idea." Without clear attribution, it is
uncertain who the pronouns "he" and "it" refer to, creating multiple possible
interpretations.
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2. Irony and sarcasm: Free indirect speech allows authors to convey irony and
sarcasm through indirect expressions. This can introduce ambiguity as the intended
meaning may differ from the literal interpretation. For example, the sentence, "What
a wonderful surprise!" could be read as either genuine enthusiasm or sarcastic
disbelief, depending on the context.
3. Contextual inference: Free indirect speech relies on readers' ability to infer the
context and intentions of the character speaking. This can lead to multiple
interpretations and a plurality of meanings. For instance, the sentence, "She
reluctantly accepted the invitation," could indicate both a genuine lack of enthusiasm
or a polite acceptance with hidden reservations, depending on the context and
characterization.
4. Subtext and hidden motives: Free indirect speech allows for the portrayal of
characters' inner thoughts and emotions. This can create ambiguity as characters may
have hidden motives or conflicting emotions that are not explicitly stated. Readers
must infer the underlying subtext, resulting in multiple possible interpretations.
5. Cultural references and allusions: Free indirect speech may incorporate
cultural references and allusions that carry multiple layers of meaning. These
references can be open to interpretation and may be understood differently by
different readers. For instance, a character saying, "I feel like Romeo and Juliet," can
imply both passionate love or a doomed relationship, depending on the reader's
familiarity with the play.
6. Linguistic indeterminacy: Free indirect speech often mimics the fluidity and
subjectivity of thought, blurring the boundaries between different speakers' voices.
This can introduce linguistic indeterminacy, making it challenging to attribute
specific thoughts or statements to a particular character, thereby allowing for
multiple possible interpretations.
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These examples illustrate how free indirect speech in American discourse can
create ambiguity and plurality of meanings, challenging readers to actively engage
with the text and consider various interpretations.
The ambiguity and plurality of meanings in free indirect speech play a significant
role in American discourse, as they contribute to the richness and complexity of
communication. Free indirect speech refers to a narrative technique that allows the
blending of a character's thoughts or speech with the narrator's voice, creating a
fusion of perspectives. This technique introduces a level of ambiguity and plurality
of meanings that can have profound implications for the interpretation and
understanding of discourse.
1. Nuance and Depth: Ambiguity and plurality of meanings in free indirect
speech enable the expression of nuanced and complex ideas. By merging the
character's voice with the narrator's, the technique allows for the portrayal of subtle
emotions, thoughts, and attitudes. This ambiguity invites readers or listeners to
engage actively with the text, encouraging critical thinking and multiple
interpretations. It deepens the intellectual and emotional impact of the discourse,
making it more thought-provoking and engaging.
2. Polyphony of Voices: Free indirect speech facilitates the representation of
multiple voices and perspectives within a single narrative. This plurality of meanings
reflects the diversity and complexity of real-life conversations and debates. By
incorporating different voices, including those of characters with varying
backgrounds, beliefs, and values, the discourse becomes more inclusive and
representative of a broader range of experiences. This inclusivity fosters empathy
and understanding, as readers or listeners encounter different viewpoints and are
challenged to consider alternative perspectives.
3. Subversive Potential: The ambiguity and plurality of meanings in free indirect
speech can also have subversive implications. By blending the narrator's voice with
that of the character, the technique allows for the expression of dissenting or
unconventional ideas within the framework of the narrative. This subversion
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challenges established norms and ideologies, encouraging readers or listeners to
question dominant discourses and explore alternative interpretations. It opens up
possibilities for social critique, cultural commentary, and the exploration of complex
themes and issues.
4. Reflecting Linguistic Reality: Free indirect speech mirrors the complexity of
language and the intricacies of everyday communication. In real-life conversations,
meaning is often negotiated through context, tone, and subtle cues, leading to a
multiplicity of interpretations. By incorporating ambiguity and plurality of meanings,
free indirect speech captures this linguistic reality, making the discourse more
authentic and relatable. It acknowledges the inherent subjectivity of language and
encourages a more nuanced understanding of the complexities of human
communication.
5. Enhancing Creativity and Artistry: The ambiguity and plurality of meanings in
free indirect speech contribute to the aesthetic qualities of literary and artistic works.
By leaving room for interpretation and imagination, it encourages readers or listeners
to actively participate in the creation of meaning. The openness and expansiveness of
multiple interpretations allow for a more engaging and rewarding artistic experience.
This creative potential stimulates intellectual curiosity, promotes critical thinking,
and adds depth and richness to the discourse.
In conclusion, the importance of ambiguity and plurality of meanings in free
indirect speech lies in their ability to foster nuance, represent diverse perspectives,
challenge established norms, reflect linguistic reality, and enhance creativity. These
qualities make American discourse more engaging, thought-provoking, and
inclusive, enriching both the cultural and intellectual landscape of the nation.
5. Narrative Construction: FIS shapes the narrative by merging the character's
voice with the narrator's voice. In American discourse, the use of FIS-like techniques
can contribute to the construction of narratives, influencing public understanding of
events, issues, and individuals. This can affect public memory, historical
interpretation, and collective consciousness.The implications of free indirect speech
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in American discourse are deeply intertwined with the narrative construction of
meanings. Free indirect speech is a literary technique that allows the narrator to
blend their voice with the thoughts and emotions of the characters, creating a unique
narrative perspective. This technique has significant implications for American
discourse, as it shapes the way meanings are constructed and conveyed.
One key implication of free indirect speech is its ability to blur the boundaries
between the narrator and the characters. By adopting the voice of the characters, the
narrator can subtly influence the interpretation of events and ideas. This blending of
perspectives can lead to a nuanced portrayal of different viewpoints and ideologies,
enabling the reader to engage with a multiplicity of meanings. In American
discourse, this can be particularly relevant when exploring complex social, political,
or cultural issues, as it allows for a more comprehensive understanding of various
perspectives.
Furthermore, free indirect speech enables the construction of subjective
meanings within the narrative. By delving into the inner thoughts and emotions of
characters, the narrator can convey subtle nuances and implicit meanings that might
be missed through direct exposition. This technique can be employed to highlight the
subjective experiences and perceptions of individuals, thereby enriching the
discourse with a deeper understanding of human motivations, desires, and conflicts.
In American discourse, free indirect speech can also serve as a tool for social
commentary and critique. By adopting the voices of characters from diverse
backgrounds, the narrator can shed light on the social and cultural dynamics at play.
This technique can expose the underlying power structures, biases, and inequalities
within society, challenging dominant narratives and encouraging a more critical
engagement with the text. Through the use of free indirect speech, American
discourse can become a platform for exploring and questioning prevailing ideologies
and social norms.
However, it is important to note that the implications of free indirect speech in
American discourse are not without challenges. The blending of perspectives and
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subjective meanings can create ambiguity and interpretive complexities. Different
readers may derive different understandings from the same narrative, leading to
potential misunderstandings or conflicting interpretations. Additionally, the use of
free indirect speech requires skillful writing and careful narrative construction to
ensure that the intended meanings are effectively conveyed.
Apparently, the implications of free indirect speech in American discourse are
significant in the construction of meanings. This literary technique allows for a
blending of perspectives, the exploration of subjective meanings, and the potential
for social critique. While it presents challenges in terms of interpretation, when
employed effectively, free indirect speech can enrich American discourse by
providing a more nuanced understanding of complex issues and fostering critical
engagement with the text.The concept of free indirect speech plays a significant role
in the narrative construction of meanings in American discourse. It allows authors to
subtly convey the thoughts, feelings, and perspectives of their characters, blurring
the boundaries between direct speech and indirect narration. Here are a few
examples of how free indirect speech is employed to construct meanings in
American literature and discourse:
1. "The Great Gatsby" by F. Scott Fitzgerald:
In this classic novel, Fitzgerald expertly employs free indirect speech to reveal the
inner thoughts and desires of his characters. For instance, when describing Jay
Gatsby's extravagant parties, the narrator states, "There was music from my
neighbor's house through the summer nights. In his blue gardens men and girls came
and went like moths among the whisperings and the champagne and the stars." By
adopting the perspective of the narrator, the reader gains insight into the narrator's
fascination with the glamorous world of Gatsby's parties and the allure it holds for
the characters.
2. "Beloved" by Toni Morrison:
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Morrison's novel utilizes free indirect speech to delve into the minds of its
characters, particularly Sethe, a former slave haunted by her past. Through the
blending of the narrator's voice and Sethe's thoughts, Morrison constructs layers of
meaning. For example, as Sethe remembers the traumatic experience of her baby's
murder, the narrator interweaves Sethe's internal dialogue with the external
description: "124 was spiteful. Full of a baby's venom." This technique allows
readers to feel the intensity of Sethe's emotions while simultaneously grasping the
physical and symbolic significance of the house.
3. Contemporary Political Discourse:
Free indirect speech is not limited to literature; it also finds its way into political
discourse. Politicians often employ this narrative technique to influence public
perception and shape meaning. For instance, a politician may use phrases such as
"Some people say" or "Many believe" to indirectly present their own opinions or
political agenda. By attributing statements to an unspecified group, they distance
themselves from direct responsibility while still conveying a particular perspective.
In all these examples, the use of free indirect speech in American discourse
allows for the nuanced construction of meanings. It enables authors and speakers to
provide readers and listeners with a deeper understanding of characters, events, and
ideas, while also leaving room for interpretation and personal connection.
It's important to note that while FIS is primarily a literary technique, drawing
parallels to American discourse highlights the potential influence of narrative
strategies, language use, and communication techniques on public opinion,
persuasion, and the shaping of societal narratives..
The narrative construction of meanings and the implications of free indirect
speech play significant roles in American discourse. Both concepts contribute to
shaping and conveying messages, perspectives, and ideologies within literary and
non-literary texts, including political speeches, news articles, and social media posts.
Understanding the importance of narrative construction and free indirect speech in
85
American discourse is crucial for comprehending the underlying meanings and
power dynamics within these forms of communication.
1. Shaping Perspectives: Narrative construction allows writers and speakers to
shape the way their audience perceives events, characters, and ideas. By selecting
specific details, framing narratives, and using literary devices such as symbolism or
foreshadowing, authors can influence readers' interpretations and judgments.
Similarly, in American discourse, politicians, journalists, and influencers
strategically construct narratives to shape public opinion, advance agendas, or
reinforce existing beliefs. The narrative construction of meanings enables the
manipulation of perspectives, influencing how events and issues are understood and
evaluated by the audience.
2. Implicit Conveyance: Free indirect speech is a narrative technique that blends
the narrator's voice with a character's thoughts or speech. This technique allows for
the implicit conveyance of meaning, as it blurs the boundaries between the narrator's
perspective and the character's viewpoint. In American discourse, this technique can
be observed in political rhetoric or media narratives that employ indirect speech to
express biases, assumptions, or shared cultural values. By using free indirect speech,
speakers and writers can subtly convey ideas without explicitly stating them, making
the communication more persuasive or emotionally impactful.
3. Ideological Influence: Narrative construction and free indirect speech can
perpetuate or challenge dominant ideologies within American discourse. By shaping
narratives and utilizing free indirect speech, communicators can reinforce existing
social, political, or cultural norms, or subvert them. For example, a news article may
construct a narrative that aligns with a particular political ideology, framing events to
support a specific viewpoint. Conversely, free indirect speech can be employed to
critique or question dominant ideologies, offering alternative perspectives or
challenging societal norms. The narrative construction of meanings and the use of
free indirect speech thus become tools for ideological negotiation within American
discourse.
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4. Emotional Engagement: Narrative construction and free indirect speech are
powerful tools for emotional engagement within American discourse. By crafting
compelling narratives and utilizing free indirect speech to convey characters'
emotions, communicators can evoke empathy, provoke emotional responses, and
influence public sentiment. Emotional engagement is particularly effective in
political campaigns, social justice movements, or persuasive speeches, as it taps into
the audience's values, aspirations, and fears, leading to a greater impact on public
opinion and behavior.
In summary, the narrative construction of meanings and the implications of free
indirect speech are crucial in American discourse. They shape perspectives,
implicitly convey meanings, influence ideologies, and foster emotional engagement.
Recognizing and analyzing these narrative techniques can help us critically examine
and understand the underlying dynamics of communication within American society,
politics, and culture.
Outcomes of the third chapter
To sum up, Irony in the Works with Free Indirect Discourse Narrative based on
the observation of two of Austen’s works, I conclude that Johnson’s Chatman’s
findings on Emma and Pride and Prejudice shows that the use of free indirect
discourse causes the narrative to experience an extrapolation, meaning that the facts
supposedly known at the beginning is used to draw conclusion about unclear matter.
Extrapolation can also be understood as a construction on judgment or opinion
which does not have conclusive information. In Emma, extrapolation builds the
reader’s expectation, making the reader hope that Mr. Knightley is indeed attracted
romantically to Emma. The facts in the narrative only indicate that Mr. Knightley’s
awkward gesture is interpreted by the narrator as a gesture that shows his interest on
Emma. In Chatman’s finding, such extrapolation builds speculation on the series of
causes that trigger Mr. Darcy’s engagement with Elizabeth. The speculation built on
the facts which are merely Elizabeth’s guesses potentially shapes a perception that
that is actually how the enjoyment comes to its form. The effects of such
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extrapolation reveals the irony seen when the proofs that is presented as facts are just
assumption. In Dettmar’s review on The Dead, the irony is also apparent due to the
use of free indirect discourse narrative. Irony is present on the gap between Gabriel’s
utterance and the narrator’s. In Tripmaster Monkey, internal focalisation used
mediates Wittman’s cynicism towards Chinese ethnicity. It also provides space for
Wittman to avoid himself from being stereotyped as Chinese. Overall, the series of
stereotyping of Chinese ethnicity is Wittman’s critical view on multicultural
America. We can irony whenever Wittman is avoiding being identified as Chinese,
because it is at that moment the contrast between two cultural identities Chinese and
American are juxtaposed and compared. The narrative construction of meanings and
the use of free indirect speech are indeed crucial in American discourse for several
reasons. Both of these literary techniques play a significant role in shaping the way
ideas are conveyed and received, ultimately influencing public opinion and discourse
in the United States. The reasons are listed below: 1. Subjectivity and Perspective:
The narrative construction of meanings allows authors, journalists, and speakers to
present information from a particular perspective or point of view. By adopting a
specific narrative structure, they can influence how events, characters, and ideas are
interpreted by the audience. This subjectivity is particularly relevant in American
discourse, where diverse viewpoints and narratives often clash. Different narratives
can shape the understanding of historical events, political issues, and societal
phenomena, ultimately influencing public opinion. 2. Empathy and Identification:
Free indirect speech, a technique commonly used in literature, enables readers or
listeners to engage with a character's thoughts and feelings while maintaining the
narrative voice. This technique fosters empathy and identification with the character,
allowing the audience to connect emotionally with the story. In the context of
American discourse, this technique can be employed to bridge gaps in understanding
between different groups by presenting diverse perspectives and fostering empathy.
It can also be used to challenge or question prevailing narratives by offering
alternative viewpoints. 3. Framing and Interpretation: The construction of narratives
and the use of free indirect speech also play a crucial role in framing and interpreting
88
events or ideas. The way information is presented can shape how it is understood and
evaluated by the audience. By carefully selecting the words, tone, and narrative
structure, communicators can influence the perception and interpretation of events or
issues. In American discourse, this framing can be used strategically to advance
specific political, social, or cultural agendas. 4. Context and Cultural Understanding:
Narratives and free indirect speech are deeply rooted in cultural and contextual
understanding. By employing familiar narrative structures or employing free indirect
speech to mimic certain speech patterns, communicators can tap into cultural
references and shared experiences that resonate with the audience. This connection
to cultural and contextual knowledge helps to convey meaning more effectively,
facilitate understanding, and establish a sense of shared identity. In American
discourse, this is particularly relevant due to the country's diverse cultural landscape
and the need to bridge gaps in understanding among different communities. In
summary, the narrative construction of meanings and the use of free indirect speech
are crucial in American discourse because they allow for the subjective shaping of
ideas, foster empathy and identification, influence framing and interpretation, and
tap into cultural and contextual understanding. These techniques have a profound
impact on public opinion and shape the ongoing conversations and debates that
define American discourse.
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that free indirect speech is a narrative technique
commonly employed in literature and fiction writing, rather than being directly
related to American discourse or a specific cultural context. However, FIS can be
observed in various forms of written and spoken communication, including
American discourse. Free indirect speech is a narrative style that allows the author or
speaker to blend the perspectives of the character and the narrator, blurring the
distinction between direct and indirect speech. It enables the author to convey the
89
character's thoughts, feelings, and speech patterns while maintaining the overall
narrative voice. This technique provides a nuanced and subjective portrayal of
characters' inner experiences. In American discourse, such as novels, short stories, or
even everyday conversations, free indirect speech can be utilized to convey a
character's point of view or to indirectly express the author's opinion on a particular
topic. By adopting the character's voice and thought processes, the author can subtly
influence the reader's interpretation and evoke empathy or understanding. For
example, in an American novel, a character's internal dialogue might be presented
using free indirect speech to provide insight into their motivations or mindset. The
author may employ distinctive language patterns or colloquialisms associated with
that character's background or region to create a more authentic representation. In
everyday American discourse, free indirect speech can manifest in indirect
quotations or reported speech that incorporates elements of a person's speech style or
thought processes. It allows the speaker to relay someone else's words or thoughts
while infusing their own perspective or interpretation. It's important to note that free
indirect speech is a literary device primarily used in written texts, and its presence in
spoken American discourse might not be as explicitly identifiable. However, the
underlying concept of blending perspectives and conveying subjective experiences
can still be observed in various forms of communication, including speeches,
interviews, or even informal conversations.Free indirect speech is a narrative
technique that blends elements of direct speech and indirect speech, allowing the
author to convey a character's thoughts or speech while maintaining the narrative
voice. It is widely used in literature and discourse across different cultures, including
American discourse. In American discourse, the presentation of free indirect speech
can vary depending on the context and the medium of communication. Here are a
few ways in which free indirect speech is commonly presented in American
discourse: Quotation marks: One of the most common ways to present free indirect
speech in American discourse is through the use of quotation marks. When a
character's thoughts or speech are being directly quoted, quotation marks are
employed to indicate that the words are being presented as they were spoken or
90
thought by the character. Verb tense and pronouns: Another way to present free
indirect speech is by using changes in verb tense and pronouns. Instead of explicitly
quoting the character, the narrative voice shifts to reflect the character's thoughts or
speech. This technique allows for a seamless blending of the character's perspective
with the overall narrative. Indirect markers: Sometimes, American discourse
employs indirect markers to indicate free indirect speech without explicitly quoting
or shifting verb tense. These markers can include phrases such as "he thought," "she
wondered," or "they mused," which convey that the following text represents the
character's thoughts or speech. Contextual clues: In some cases, American discourse
relies on contextual clues to signal free indirect speech. These clues can include
changes in the narrative voice, the use of colloquial language or dialect, and the
inclusion of internal monologue or stream of consciousness elements. By providing
these contextual cues, the author allows the reader to infer that the text represents the
character's thoughts or speech. It's important to note that the presentation of free
indirect speech in American discourse is not limited to these examples, and authors
often employ a combination of techniques to convey a character's thoughts or
speech. The specific presentation style can also vary across different literary works,
genres, and individual authors' writing styles. In American discourse, free indirect
speech is commonly presented through various techniques to convey the thoughts or
speech of a character indirectly. Here are some of the most common ways to present
free indirect speech: Narrative Integration: The narrator seamlessly incorporates the
character's thoughts or speech into the overall narrative without explicitly indicating
the shift. The character's words or inner monologue blend with the narrator's voice,
making it challenging to distinguish between the two.
Third-Person Limited
Perspective: The story is narrated from a third-person point of view, focusing
primarily on one character's perspective. The narrator conveys the character's
thoughts and speech using a mix of the character's voice and the narrator's voice.
Blending of Voices: The narrator combines the character's thoughts or speech with
their own narrative voice, blurring the boundaries between the two. This technique
creates a sense of intimacy and subjectivity. Direct Thought Attribution: The
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narrator explicitly attributes the character's thoughts or speech to the character, using
phrases like "she thought" or "he wondered." This technique clarifies the shift from
the narrator's voice to the character's voice. Quoted Indirect Speech: Instead of
blending the character's thoughts or speech with the narrator's voice, the narrator
explicitly quotes the character's words, usually using quotation marks. This
technique creates a clear separation between the narrator's voice and the character's
voice. These are some of the common ways to present free indirect speech in
American discourse. Obviously, the choice of technique depends on the narrative
style, the context, and the desired effect of the author.
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