LECTURE 4
ELECTRIC ENERGY
STORAGE (BATTERIES)
E L E N 2 0 1 E L E C T R I C C I R C U I T 1 ( D C C I R C U I T A N D T R A N S I E N T A N A LY S I S )
Kaycee B. Victorio, REE, RME
Instructor Of Electrical Engineering
Polytechnic University Of The Philippines, Manila
COURSE OUTLINE
 History
 Principle of Operation
 Classifications
 Capacity and Discharge
 Lifetime
 Sizes
 Hazards
 Chemistry
 Household Batteries
WHAT IS A BATTERY?
 An electric batter y is a device
consisting of one or
more electrochemical
cells that conver t stored
chemical energy into electrical
energy.
 Each cell contains a positive
terminal, or cathode, and a
negative terminal, or anode.
 Electrolytes allow ions to
move between the electrodes
and terminals, which allows
current to flow out of the
batter y to per form work .
WHAT IS A BATTERY?
 Worldwide batter y industr y
generates US$48 billion (2005)
in sales each year, with 6%
annual growth.
 Batteries have much
lower specific energy (energy
per unit mass) than
common fuels such as gasoline.
 Batteries deliver their energy as
electricity (which can be
conver ted ef ficiently to
mechanical work), whereas
using fuels in engines entails a
low ef ficiency of conversion to
work .
HISTORY OF BATTERIES
 In 1938, archaeologist
Wilhelm Konig discovered
the so-called Bahagdad
batteriesat Khujut Rabu,
outside Baghdad, Iraq. The
jars, which measure
approximately 5 inches
(12.7 centimeters) long,
contained an iron rod
encased in copper and
dated from about 200 B.C.
HISTORY OF BATTERIES
 The usage of "battery" to
describe a group electrical
devices dates to Benjamin
Franklin, who in 1748
described multiple Leyden
jars by analogy to a battery
of cannon (Benjamin
Franklin borrowed the term
"battery" from the military,
which refers to weapons
functioning together).
HISTORY OF BATTERIES
 Alessandro Volta described
the first electrochemical
battery, the voltaic pile in
1800. This was a stack of
copper and zinc plates,
separated by brine soaked
paper disks, that could
produce a steady current
for a considerable length of
time.
 Volta did not appreciate
that the voltage was due to
chemical reactions.
HISTORY OF BATTERIES
 Michael Faraday describes
that voltage produced by
batteries is the associated
corrosion ef fects at the
electrodes, in 1834.
HISTORY OF BATTERIES
 Daniell cell, invented in
1836 by British
chemist John Frederic
Daniell, was the first
practical source of
electricity, becoming an
industry standard and
seeing widespread adoption
as a power source
for electrical
telegraph networks.
HISTORY OF BATTERIES
 By 1898, the Colombia Dry
Cell became the first
commercially available
battery sold in the United
States. The manufacturer,
National Carbon Company,
later became the Eveready
Battery Company, which
produces the Energizer
brand.
ANATOMY OF
A BATTERY
•
Te r m i n al s
•
•
Cathode
Anode
• S e p a r a to r
• E l e c t r o ly te
• C o l l e c to r
• Load
CLASSIFICATION AND T YPES
 Primar y batteries, or primar y
cells, can produce current
immediately on assembly.
 These are most commonly
used in por table devices that
have low current drain, are
used only intermittently, or
are used well away from an
alternative power source.
 Disposable primar y cells
cannot be reliably recharged,
since the chemical reactions
are not easily rever sible and
active materials may not
return to their original forms.
Primary Batteries
 Zinc-carbon battery: The
zinc-carbon chemistry is
common in many
inexpensive AAA, AA, C
and D dry cell batteries.
 The anode is zinc, the
cathode is manganese
dioxide, and the
electrolyte is ammonium
chloride or zinc chloride.
Primary Batteries
 Alkaline battery: This
chemistry is also
common in AA, C and D
dry cell batteries.
 The cathode is composed
of a manganese dioxide
mixture, while the anode
is a zinc powder.
 It gets its name from the
potassium hydroxide
electrolyte, which is an
alkaline substance.
CLASSIFICATION AND T YPES
 Secondar y batteries, also
known as rechargeable
batteries, must be charged
before fir st use; they are
usually assembled with active
materials in the discharged
state.
 Rechargeable batteries are
(re)charged by applying
electric current, which
rever ses the chemical
reactions that occur during
discharge/use.
Secondary Batteries
 Lead-acid battery:
This is the chemistry
used in a typical car
battery.
 The electrodes are
usually made of lead
dioxide and metallic
lead, while the
electrolyte is a
sulfuric acid solution.
Secondary Batteries
 Lithium-ion battery:
Lithium chemistry is
often used in highperformance devices,
such as cell phones,
digital cameras and even
electric cars
 A variety of substances
are used in lithium
batteries, but a common
combination is a lithium
cobalt oxide cathode and
a carbon anode.
Secondary Batteries








Nickel-cadmiun (NiCd)
Nickel-zinc (NiZn)
Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH)
Gel batteries
Absorbed glass mat (AGM)
USBCell
Smart battery
Low -self discharge battery
CLASSIFICATION AND T YPES
 A wet cell battery has a
liquid electrolyte. Wet cells
were a precursor to dry
cells.
 A dr y cell uses a paste
electrolyte, with only
enough moisture to allow
current to flow. A dry cell
can operate in any
orientation without spilling,
as it contains no free liquid,
making it suitable for
portable equipment.
CLASSIFICATION AND T YPES
 M o l te n s a l t b a t te ri e s a r e p r i m a r y o r
s e c o ndar y ba t te ri e s t h a t us e a
m o l ten s a l t a s e l e c t ro lyte . Th ey
o pe ra te a t h i g h te m pe ra t ure s a n d
m us t be we l l i n s ulate d to ret a i n
heat.
 A r e s e r ve b a t te r y c a n be s to re d
un a s sembled ( un a c t ivated a n d
s uppl y in g n o powe r) fo r a l o n g
pe ri o d ( pe rh a ps ye a r s ). Wh e n t h e
ba t te r y i s n e e de d, t h e n i t i s
a s s embled ( e . g ., by a ddi n g
e l e c t roly te); o n c e a s s emble d, t h e
ba t te r y i s c h a rg ed a n d re a dy to
wo rk .
CAPACIT Y AND DISCHARGE
 Battery's capacity is
the amount of electric
charge it can deliver at
the rated voltage.
 The more electrode
material contained in
the cell the greater its
capacity.
 Capacity is measured in
units such as amphour (Ah).
CAPACIT Y AND DISCHARGE
 Batteries that are stored for
a long period or that are
discharged at a small
fraction of the capacity lose
capacity due to the presence
of generally irreversible side
reactions that consume
charge carriers without
producing current.
 When batteries are
recharged, additional side
reactions can occur, reducing
capacity for subsequent
discharges.
CAPACIT Y AND DISCHARGE
 C-rate is the multiple
of the current over the
current that a battery
can sustain for one
hour.
 A rate of 1 C means
that an entire 1 .6Ah
battery would be
discharged in one hour
at a discharge current
of 1 .6 A . A 2C rate
would mean a
discharge current of
3.2 A , over one halfhour.
LIFETIME: Self-discharge
 Disposable batteries
typically lose 8 to 20
percent of their original
charge per year when
stored at room
temperature (20°–
30 °C).
 Old rechargeable
batteries self-discharge
more rapidly than
disposable alkaline
batteries, especially
nickel-based batteries.
LIFETIME: Corrosion
 Internal parts
may corrode and
fail, or the
active materials
may be slowly
converted to
inactive forms.
LIFETIME: Physical Changes
 The active material on the
batter y plates changes
chemical composition on each
charge and discharge cycle,
fur ther limiting the number of
times the batter y can be
recharged.
 Some deterioration occur s on
each charge–discharge cycle.
Degradation usually occur s
because electrolyte migrates
away from the electrodes or
because active material
detaches from the electrodes.
LIFETIME: Charge/Discharge
 Fast charging increases
component changes,
shortening battery lifespan.
 If a charger cannot detect
when the battery is fully
charged then overcharging
is likely, damaging it.
LIFETIME: Environmental conditions
 Automotive lead–
acid rechargeable
batteries must endure
stress due to vibration,
shock, and temperature
range.
 "Deep-cycle" lead–acid
batteries such as those
used in electric golf carts
have much thicker plates
to extend longevity.
LIFETIME: Storage
 B a t te r y l i fe c a n b e ex te n d e d by
s to r i ng t h e b a t te r i e s a t a l ow
te m p e r a t u r e , a s i n
a re fri g era tor o r fre e z e r, w h i c h
s l ow s t h e s i d e r e a c t i ons. S u c h
s to r a ge c a n ex te n d t h e l i fe o f
a l k aline b a t te r i e s by a b o ut 5 %.
 Re c h a r ge ab le b a t te r i e s c a n h o l d
t h e i r c h a r g e m u c h l o n ge r,
d e p e n d i ng u p o n t y p e .
 To r e a c h t h e i r m a x imu m v o lt age ,
b a t te r i e s m u s t b e ret urn e d to ro o m
te m p e r a t u r e
 D i s c har ging a n a l k aline b a t te r y a t
250 mA at 0 °C is only half as
e f fi c i e nt a s a t 2 0 ° C .
BATTERY SIZES
Primary batteries readily available to consumers range from tiny button cells used for electric watches,
to the No. 6 cell used for signal circuits or other long duration applications. Secondary cells are made in
very large sizes; very large batteries can power a submarine or stabilize an electrical grid and help level
out peak loads.
HAZARDS
 A ba tte r y ex pl o sion i s ca us e d by
m i suse o r m a l func t ion, s uc h a s
a t te m pt i ng to re c h a rg e a pri m a r y
( n o n - rec harg eable) ba t te r y, o r
a s h o r t c i rc ui t .
 M a ny ba t te r y c h e mic als a re
co rro s ive, po i s ono us o r bot h . If
l e a ka ge o c c ur s , e i t h e r
s po n t a neously o r t h ro ug h a c c i de n t ,
t h e c h e m icals re l e ased m ay be
da n g e rous.
 M a ny type s o f ba tte ri e s e m pl oy
tox i c m a te ri als s uc h a s
l e a d, m e rc ur y, a n d c a dm i um a s a n
e l e c t rode o r e l e ct ro lyte .
 B a t te ri es m ay be h a rm ful o r fa t a l
i f s wa llowed.
FUTURE OF BATTERIES
 Efficient batteries
 Lightweight and
ergonomic
 Sustainable production
 Renewable energy
applications
HOMEWORK
1. The manufacturer’s specifications for a 12 -V storage battery
rate the maximum current the battery can deliver as 80 A.
What is the internal resistance of the battery?
2. The internal resistance of a 1 .5 -V zinc-carbon battery is found
to be 1 .5 Ω. What is the maximum current it can deliver?
3. A 6-V car battery provides a current of 4 A to a load for 8 min.
By how much is the chemical energy of the battery decreased
during this time?
4. The open-circuit voltage of a particular solar cell is 2.2 V, and
the short-circuit resistance (that is, a load resistor is zero) is
1 .1 A. What is the internal resistance of the battery? What is
the voltage supplied by the battery?
HOMEWORK
5. Suppose that a load resistor is connected across the terminals
of a real battery. What happened to the power dissipated in the
load resistor? Explain your answer.
6. In some of our considerations, we have neglected any internal
resistance of a voltage source, such as a battery. In fact,
batteries have appreciable internal resistance. This internal
resistance can be considered by including a resistor in series
with the battery. In this case, describe the relationship
between the battery terminals and the load resistance?
7. When a resistor is connected to a battery, a current of 2 A
exists. When an additional 15 Ω is added to the circuit in
series, the current drops to 0.4 A. What is the voltage of the
battery?
HOMEWORK
8. Read the white paper prepared by the Electrical Energy Storage
project team of International Electrotechnical Commission
entitled Electrical Energy Storage. Write an essay on the future
of electrical energy storage technologies, including batteries,
in reducing electricity costs, improving power supply reliability,
and maintaining and improving power quality, frequency and
voltage. Download the paper here:
https://basecamp.iec.ch/download/iec -white-paper-electricalenergy -storage/
FOR FURTHER READING
 All photos and illustration, unless other wise stated, were taken from the
internet.
 A gar wal, Anant, et al (2005). Foundations of Analog and Digital Electroni c
Circuits. Morgan Kaufmann Publisher s.
 Electric Power Research Institute (2010): Electric Energy Storage
Technology Options White Paper.
 Floyd, Thomas (2003). Principles of Electric Circuits. Prentice Hall, 7th
edition.
 Grob , Bernard (1992). Grob basic Electronics, 7 th edition. Ohio, US:
McGraw Hill Book Company.
 Hayt , William, et al. Engineering Circuit Analysis. McGraw Hill, 6th edition.
 M. Kawashima: Over view of Electric Power Storage, Internal paper of Tepco,
2011 .
 Nilson , James W. & Reidel , Susan A . (2011). Electric Circuits, 9th edition.
Singapore: Pear son Education South Asia Pte. Ltd.
NEXT MEETING
 Lecture 5 Series and Parallel DC Circuits
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Branches, nodes, loops, meshes
Series- and parallel-connected components
Kirchhoff’s voltage law and series DC circuits
Voltage division
Kirchhoff’s current law and parallel DC circuits
Current division
Kilohm-milliampere method
LECTURE 4
ELECTRIC ENERGY
STORAGE
E L E N 2 0 1 E L E C T R I C C I R C U I T 1 ( D C C I R C U I T A N D T R A N S I E N T A N A LY S I S )
Kaycee B. Victorio, REE, RME
Instructor Of Electrical Engineering
Polytechnic University Of The Philippines, Manila