ARISTOTLE
Human Actions
• Aristotle wants to make three crucial
points about human actions in general:
• a. Human actions have ends (or purposes
or goals): We can always ask an agent
'Why are you doing that?' For example,
why are you taking this class? Why do you
work? Why do you regularly exercise?
Aristotle is of course talking about our
deliberate actions.
• b. Our ends/ purposes/ goals are
hierarchically ordered. We do one action
for the sake of another, and that latter act
we do for the sake of yet another goal and
this new latter act we do for the sake of
still another goal, etc.
• c. Our ultimate end is happiness (or
Eudaimonia).
• Aristotle claims that the series of goals
above cannot continue indefinitely.
The Nature of Human Happiness:
• a. For Aristotle, human beings are happy
when they function as human beings
ought to function. That is, they are happy
when they act in accordance with what
they are.
• b. Human beings are essentially or
uniquely rational beings. This is what we
are, not just how we are.
For Aristotle, our rationality essentially defines our human beingness.
• c. Thus, human beings are happy when
they are fulfilled as rational beings ought
to be fulfilled.
• And they are fulfilled if and only if they are
virtuous.
• Humans are virtuous when they engage in
the excellent use of reason and
consistently follow the moral virtues.
• To directly quote Aristotle: And what we
said before will apply now; that which is
proper to each thing is by nature best and
most pleasant for each thing; for man,
therefore, the life according to reason is
best and most pleasant, since reason
more than anything else is man. This life
therefore is also the happiest.
What are (moral) virtues?
• Virtues are those characteristics which, if
cultivated, make us flourish. Examples are
justice, charity, courage, moderation,
patience.
How do we identify virtues?
• A virtue is the mean between two vicesthe vices of deficiency and excess. This is
the famous Aristotle's Doctrine of the
Mean.
An Example
•
•
•
•
•
Courage
Fear
Confidence
Cowardice
Foolhardiness
The Mean Doctrine Applied
• Vices.................Virtues.............Vices
Cowardice.......Courage.......Foolhardiness
Stinginess.....Generosity.......Prodigality
Anorexia..........Moderation...........Gluttony
Shamelessness..Modesty......Bashfulness
Injustice............Justice...............Injustice
• Please note, however, that there is No
Application of the Mean Doctrine to the
following: Adultery and Murder.
• Why?
• As Aristotle claims, these cases are
always, in whatever proportion, morally
impermissible. They do not fall on any
continuum.
How do we acquire virtues?
• a. For moral virtues, the slogan is
'Practice, Practice, Practice': We become
morally virtuous- courageous, moderate,
etc- by consistently performing virtuous
actions. We develop good moral habits by
our consistency.
• b. Intellectual virtues, however, can be
taught. (Aristotle is considered the father
of logic in Western culture.) We can teach
people how to reason well in their practical
affairs.
• c. In addition to both intellectual and moral
virtues, Aristotle holds that we ought to
develop the right attitudes and
dispositions.
Happiness consists of both:
• a. Leading a good life: That is, being
virtuous with the right attitudes and
dispositions. and
• b. Having a good life: Good friends, good
health, fairly decent children.
An Addendum
• Note also that for Aristotle, the doctrine of
the mean does not apply the same way to
everyone- circumstances do matter. What
is generous for me, for example, is not the
same as what will be generous for you or
Oprah Winfrey.
• http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotleethics/