Philosophy
What is philosophy?
•It is a set o f beliefs, religious or secular in accordance with which one tries to live.
•The term philosophy has been derived from two Greek words “ philos” meaning, “love” and
“Sophia” meaning “ wisdom”. Philosophy therefore means the love of wisdom.
Philosophy is a system of beliefs about reality. It is integrated view of the world. It includes
an understanding of the nature of existence, humankind, and its role in the world. Philosophy
is the foundation of knowledge. It provides premises by which man can discover truth, and
uses his mind to support his life. In conclusion we can say that philosophy is a critical
examination of reality characterized by rational inquiry that aims at the Truth for the sake
of attaining wisdom
Philosophy has been defined variously by scholars and thinkers:
Aristipus (435-356 B.C): “Philosophy is the ability to feel at ease in any society”.
Aristotle: “Philosophy is the science which investigates the nature of being, as it is in itself”.
Brightman: “Philosophy may be defined as the attempt to think truly about human
experience as
a whole and to make our whole experience intelligible”.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106-43 B.C): “Philosophy is the mother of all arts and the true
medicine
of mind”.
FEATURES
1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe, which are often held
uncritically.
2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held conceptions
and beliefs.
3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole.
4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of
words and concepts.
5. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for which
philosophers always have sought answers.
From the above discussion we came to know thatPhilosophy is systematic enquiry about the ultimate reality of the universe.
Philosophy is study of general principles & understanding of all that comes in the range of
human experience.
Philosophy is a living force.
It is a way of life.
It is the oldest and original discipline of thought.
It is a search for truth and reality.
It is based on enquire about life and existence.
It is logical in its approach.
It is ever growing and developing.
Philosophers try to see life as a whole.
Philosophy is related to condition of life and society.
Philosophy is a product of time and circumstances.
It is flexible in its approach.
Seeks the knowledge of whole
Science of knowledge
It is the study of metaphysics beyond one physical world and its relation with the physical
world.
Methods of philosophy include logic, symbolism, reflections, science and reason
MODES OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy as a discipline is more of an activity rather than a body of passive knowledge. In
other words, we learn philosophy by doing it, i.e. by philosophizing. So philosophy is an
activity. We can identify three modes of philosophy. These modes are the speculative, the
prescriptive and the analytic.
(a) Speculative Philosophy
In the first place, speculative philosophy is the mode of philosophy, which systematically
speculates about and upon all things. This mode of speculation is limitless as it deals with the real
as well as the abstract. Primarily therefore, speculative philosophy is interested in the search for
order, wholeness and linkages in the realm of experience. For instance, let us look at the
investigation started by the
Millesian philosophers. They wanted to discover the laws that governed the universe. They also
searched for explanations of life and creation. What method did they use?They made use of pure
reasoning. This was a typical example of speculation. They wanted to understand the mystery of
creation through speculation. This mode can be sub-divided into Metaphysics and Epistemology.
(b) Prescriptive Philosophy
In the second place, prescriptive philosophy seeks to set standards, grounds or criteria for the
judgement of values, conduct and art (Kneller, 1964). It seeks to establish the objectivity or
subjectivity of concepts such as good and bad, right, and wrong, beautiful and ugly e.t.c. In other
words, do these qualities adhere in things or are they mere projections of the individual mind?
Prescriptive philosophy also seeks to establish some fundamental laws for judging which actions
are worthwhile and which are not. For instance, why should education be concerned with
judgement of values? Education is a value-laden enterprise, as such values abound everywhere in
educational practice. These are the basis of any choice and decision making in all matters of
education. It will be worth a teacher’s time to be familiar with the value basis of the education,
which he imparts to the child.
(c) Analytic Philosophy
In the third place, analytic philosophy is concerned with the meaning of words. It analyses the
meaning of words such as education, teaching, learning, intelligence, indoctrination, freedom,
authority, curriculum, e.t.c In order to separate them into components. It endeavours to show where
appropriate and how inconsistencies may
Similarities between philosophy and science:
(i) Both are concerned with increasing our understanding of the nature of man and the universe;
(ii) Both are skeptical, critical and constructive;
(iii) Both employ the method of logical, coherent and systematic reasoning;
(iv) Both complement each other. For instance, whereas philosophy interprets or explains the
conclusions of science, science verifies the speculations of philosophy.
(B) Differences between Philosophy and Science:
(i) Science employs empirical means – observation, description and experimentation whereas
philosophy employs analytic means – the method of reasoning only. Thus, whereas science is
empirical, philosophy is interpretive.
(ii) Whereas, Science produces facts, philosophy is abstract because it deals with what we do not
know. Science on the other hand is concrete because it deals with what we can feel or see, or what
we have some degree of knowledgeabout;
(iii) Science is narrower in scope than philosophy.
(iv) Science looks at particular aspects of things. Philosophy is more holistic
JUSTIFICATION FOR THE STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION IN A
TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMME
1. Helps in engaging in thinking on the subject himself, he discovers other dimensions, which
other educators have neglected. He discovers for himself the limits, which formulas and
conventional wisdom have in educational issues.
2. Philosophy gives more weight to validity or soundness of an argument rather than to the
authority of the person arguing the case, it encourages the teacher to look at educational
problems more critically, clearing them of the confusions that personal interests, prejudices
and emotions usually introduce to educational discussions.
3. Philosophy of education helps at higher level of policy making and goal-setting for
education. It increases the ability of the teacher to influence educational policies under
which he operates, since by engaging in theoretical discussions of educational issues, he
himself can offer alternatives for action.
4. Philosophy of Education offers personal intellectual education to the teacher. The teacher
needs this type of education more than any one else.
5. philosophy of education helps in the development of a critical mind in the teacher and
promotes same in their students
Ken ya’s national philosophy
Ken ya’s national philosophy defines our country’s political, economic, social and cultural
values and lays down the values that are to be pursued for th e development and enhancement
of quality life. Ou r country’s national philosophy was formulated after independence. The
philosophical basis of the Kenyan society includes the overall objective of achieving social
justice that is;
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Freedom from want
Freedom from ignorance
Freedom from disease
Human dignity
Freedom of conscience
equal opportunities for all citizens
Equal distribution of national income.
At the time of independence and today the majorities of Kenyans were and are in chains of
poverty, ignorance and disease, education was meant and is still meant to free Ken yans from the
chains of poverty, ignorance, and disease.
After independence, harambee was adopted as a national motto for development. Harambee
symbolizes the concept of mutual social responsibility extended from the family to the whole
nation. It encourages people to work together for a common purpose.
Nyayo philosophy
The Nyayo philosophy enhances ethical and moral foundations of democratic African socialism.
The concept of peace, love, and unity emphasize the traditional subordination of self-interest and
the view that selfishness, arrogance and lack of humility are anti-social in the African traditional
society.
The tree tenets of Nyayo philosophy y (peace, love and unity) provide the foundations of
development:
•Peace. Where there is peace, there is stability and discipline resulting in investments, enterprise
and progress.
•Love. Where there is love, there is trust and readiness to work with others, learn from them and
contribute to the cause of nationhood.
•Unity. Where there is unity, there is strength rooted in the understanding of a common purpose,
loyalty, patriotism and mutual dependence.
Ken ya’s n ational philosophy also embodies the acceptance of the spirit of internationalism
asenshrined in the United Nations Charter. This is important in the global world. National
development and survival depend on the ability of a nation to relate and be able to work with
Other nations and share ideas.
According to the Kamunge report, education and training should:
•Prepare and equip Kenyans to be stron g nationalistic and patriotic towards national
independence, integrity and values.
•Education and training should foster positive international understanding and enable Ken yans
to cope with various foreign influences and remain true Ken yans.
•Develop national cultural programmes to educate and influence Kenyans and inculcate national
values and ideals
•Education and training should prepare Ken yans to be nationalistic and patriotic towards
national independence and values.
According to Kenya’s philosophy of education, the system of education should:
•Equal opportunities. Kenya’s philosophy of education stresses the need to develop an egalitarian
society by availing equal educational opportunities to ever y Kenyan r regardless of race, sex or
creed.
•Inculcate values. Kenya’s national philosophy of education reminds teachers and managers that
education should inculcate cultural, social, economic and political values.
•Development of an individual. According to the philosophy, education should develop an
individual who is committed to national, political and democratic values.
•United nation. Kenya’s philosophy of education says that education should create a nation
united in purpose.
•Removal of social injustice. Education should remove social injustice and disparities between
sexes, regions, social and economic groups.
•Education should prepare and re-orientate the youth to realize and practice the norms and
The concept of Education
Several scholars have come up with different meanings of the term ‘education’. Akinpelu (1981,
p184) describes ‘education as an initiation into a worthwhile activity’. Frankena, (1973, 21).states
that education takes place ‘when ‘X’ is fostering or seeking to foster in ‘Y’ some dispositions ‘D’
by method ‘M’
As Peters (1967, p.24-25) observes, ‘education is not a term like ‘gardening’ which picks out a
particular type of activity. Something of course, must be going on if education is taking place and
something must have been gone through for a person to emerge as an educated. For education is
associated with learning, not a mysterious maturation. But no specific type of activity is required.
A person can do it for themselves in a solitary confinement, or acquire it by constant activity in a
small group. One can be trained on their own by a tutor or be inspired by lectures given to five
hundred people .Education is equated to ‘reform’. Like reform, something worthwhile is being or
has been intentionally transmitted in a morally acceptable manner.
This implies that one who undergoes education must change for the better. We talk of a ‘poor’
education when we think that a worth-while job is being blotched or a ‘bad’ education when we
think that much of what people are working at is not worth-while. Education is opposed to training
in that training suggests the development of competence in a limited skill or mode of thought
whereas ‘educated’ suggests a linkage with a wider system of beliefs (Peters, 1967,
p.32).
By asserting that education entails ‘reform’ that makes someone better, Peter fails to specify
under which circumstances an individual becomes better and the procedure through which the
individual becomes better. The process through which knowledge and understanding is acquired
is not clearly elaborated. It is necessary for appropriate techniques to be adopted in the process of
knowledge acquisition .A system of education that is examination-oriented creates room for the
use of morally unacceptable methods of teaching, where the leaner is meant to memorize the
material that will assist them to pass examinations. Learners who undergo this education end up
being unable to make use of the knowledge and skills they have acquired. Yet for one to be
considered educated, the knowledge which an educated person has acquired cannot be inert. It
must characterize their way of looking at things. It is possible for one to know a lot of history in
the sense that they can give correct answers to questions in classrooms and examinations; yet this
might never affect the way they look at the buildings and institutions around them. We can describe
such a person as knowledgeable but not educated; for education implies that a person’s outlook is
transformed by what they know (Peters, 1967, p.31).
Marshall (1981, p.68) argues that for an activity to be regarded as education, it has to meet certain
criteria. Education is therefore an evaluative or normative concept-there is something good or
desirable about the process which is classified as education. Education is concerned with processes
that bring about a desirable state of affairs. As it is with Peter’s conception of education, Marshall’s
conception of education fails to clearly outline the procedure through which the education process
should take place. In Addition it ignores the cognitive approaches
used in the education process. ‘Being educated’ implies having a wider conception of what one is
doing, that is, being in a position to embrace the idea of ‘wholeness’. Education rules out onesided development.
Garforth (1979, p.85) considers education as a ‘process’. The term ‘process’ embraces all those
activities, which together constitute what might be called the mechanics of education. There are
various means by which education aims and objectives are successfully and practically realized.
The process of education entails other ‘sub-processes’ for instance skills of teaching, methods of
control, pedagogical techniques peculiar to different curriculum subjects. Education here implies
all the processes an individual undergoes directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally that
contributes in shaping him or her. To an extent this conception of education attempts to clearly
expound on this concept. However by claiming that education entails the processes that contribute
in shaping them, he ignores the normative aspect of education. This is because if an individual
undergoes processes that shape one into a bad person (say a social misfit) can this process be
equated to education?
Edalia (1990, p.75) considers education as the process of shaping individuals in terms of the culture
in which they live. The society hence plays a vital role in the shaping process. From these
conceptions, it is observable that in all of them:
i) The process of education has its aim outside the leaner.
ii) The leaner is treated like an object rather than a subject. The leaner is rendered a passive,
empty object which is pumped in with information to consume.
iii) The public criterion overrides private leaner’s concerns in the judgment of the worth of
education.
Freire in his view defines education as an inter-subjective process of becoming critically aware of
one’s reality. The inter-subjective process refers to the teacher and the leaner as subjects engaged
in some kind of dialogue. The concept of education adopted should emphasize on the leaner, the
teacher, teaching approaches and the criterion under which education process should be vetted.
These aspects are catered for in Njoroge and Bennaars conception of education.
Njoroge and Bennaars (1986,p.129-137) equate the term ‘education’ to a Latin word ‘educatio’
derived from the verb ‘educare’ which in the ancient Rome referred to as ‘rearing’ or’ bringing
up’.
To clearly understand the concept of education, they argue, requires an analysis of meaning
underlying it. This is because education is a complex concept that cannot be restricted to one
single characteristic. It refers to a ‘family of meanings’ for instance, growing up, instruction,
training and so forth. Also education- is a general concept; one cannot define education as
distinctly and as precisely as one defines the idea of a ‘triangle’ in mathematics. Furthermore,
education is a relational concept; it cannot be fully understood without relating it to the actual
situation in which it is used. For this reason the meaning of education has apparently changed from
one time to another, from place to place. Education is then a highly peculiar concept which cannot
be defined easily. This does not mean though that it cannot be defined at all. To define a concept
means to put boundaries or limits around it. Specifically, defining a concept means putting down
rules, conditions or criteria that must be met if the concept or word has to be used correctly.
In defining education, they adopt the R.S. Peters’ perspective. That education should:
Involve the transmission of what is worthwhile, of something that is thought valuable or
desirable. Peters calls this ‘the desirability condition’ of education.
Involve knowledge and understanding, and some kind of cognitive perspective. This is called ‘the
knowledge condition’ of education by Peters.
Education rules out certain procedures of transmission that lack willingness and voluntariness
on the part of the leaner. This may be called ‘procedural condition’ of education.
Peters therefore defines education as a change in status of an individual in order to become a more
useful member in society.
From Peters’ analysis, Njoroge and Bennaars arrive at four dimensions instead of conditions. They
observe that in Peters’ criteria-the normative, cognitive and procedural criteria all these
conditions must be fulfilled for any activity to be ‘named’ education. If any of these conditions is
not fulfilled in a particular case, one may give that activity any other name; e.g. training,
instruction, recreation, but one cannot call it education. The four dimensions adopted are:
The normative dimension, equates to R.S. Peters’ desirability condition.
Cognitive dimension, equates to knowledge condition
Dialogical dimension, equates to procedural condition)
Creative dimension, which generally speaking refers to methods and procedures used in the
course of the education process.
Njoroge and Bennaars (1987, p.234) define education as: The inter-subjective process of learning
to be a self-reliant person in society.
From the above analysis, it can be deduced that education entails communication, encounter,
participation and interaction (dialogue).Education is an inter-subjective process which emphasizes
on humanization. Through interaction the teacher should enable the leaner to be better than he or
she is. Another work, Schools in need of education, Bennaars expresses his deepest feelings about
the African child. Going by the title of the book, one wonders whether this is not a paradox. All
over the world, people expect the school to be centres of education, to instill knowledge to those
who go there, but here Bennaars seems to be telling us that it is the other way round. Why?
According to Bennaars, schools in Africa are facing a crisis, namely, a lack of an appropriate
pedagogy. This is on account of the existence of conflicting interests among the various actors and
stakeholders, that is, the school, the family, and the society at large. The result of this conflict or
of this competition is, as Bennaars sees it, a malignant growth of “non-education.” As a remedy,
Bennaars proposes a truly African pedagogy, which includes not only instruction but also the
social
vision
of
education.
Bennaars identifies another crisis of African pedagogy, that is, the lack of hope. As he sees it,
Africa is suffering from what he refers to as a “drunken boat” syndrome. In this metaphor,
African pedagogy is being likened to a ship captain who has no maps, nor other piloting
equipment. This situation engenders a feeling of hopelessness. No wonder, due to lack of hope ,
some African leaders seem to behave as if they have no will to set goals for their people. This is
why Bennaars recommends that for Africa to be able to face the challenges of the 21st century,
she must adopt a pedagogy that goes beyond the traditional pedagogy, namely, a pedagogy of
hope. According to him there is no alternative to the pedagogy of hope. Such a pedagogy will take
care of the four elements necessary for making education possible, that is to say, pedagogical
understanding, pedagogical intention, pedagogical atmosphere and pedagogical relation.
This type of education will cater for children in schools, in traditional set-ups, and even for the
neglected
ones
in
the
streets.
Finally, Bennaars attributes the problems of Africa to a lack of African pedagogy of caring. He
makes a plea for this type of pedagogy. This is in line with his unpublished work on the ethics of
caring which incorporates seven themes: namely:
(1) caring for oneself,
(2) for intimate others,
(3) for others/strangers,
(4) animals,
(5) plants/the living environment,
(6) human-made objects and
(7) ideas. In advocating a pedagogy of caring, Bennaars argues for reflective teaching which
attends mindfully to the social and political context of education, as well as to technical and
practical aspects of it. In introducing all these novel ideas in education, Bennaars does not wish
to be dogmatic. He is merely making an invitation to educators, especially in Africa, to reflect
more critically on their work.
This is an existential approach which means that the leaner should become a ‘conscious’ being, a
‘self’. By virtue of being self, he becomes self-reliant and independent. This study adopts the above
conception of education as it relates to all spheres of life.
Philosophy begins with wonder
-Socrates
Overview
Philosophy means "love of wisdom." It is made up of two Greek words, philo, meaning love, and
sophos, meaning wisdom. Philosophy helps teachers to reflect on key issues and concepts in
education, usually through such questions as: What is being educated? What is the good life? What
is knowledge? What is the nature of learning? And What is teaching? Philosophers think about the
meaning of things and interpretation of that meaning. Even simple statements, such as "What
should be learned? Or What is adolescence?" set up raging debates that can have major
implications. For example, what happens if an adolescent commits a serious crime? One
interpretation may hide another. If such a young person is treated as an adult criminal, what does
it say about justice, childhood, and the like? Or if the adolescent is treated as a child, what does it
say about society's views on crime?
Your educational philosophy is your beliefs about why, what and how you teach, whom you teach,
and about the nature of learning. It is a set of principles that guides professional action through the
events and issues teachers face daily. Sources for your educational philosophy are your life
experiences, your values, the environment in which you live, interactions with others and
awareness of philosophical approaches. Learning about the branches of philosophy, philosophical
world views, and different educational philosophies and theories will help you to determine and
shape your own educational philosophy, combined with these other aspects.
When you examine a philosophy different from your own, it helps you to "wrestle" with your own
thinking. Sometimes this means you may change your mind. Other times, it may strengthen your
viewpoint; or, you may be eclectic, selecting what seems best from different philosophies. But in
eclecticism, there is a danger of sloppy and inconsistent thinking, especially if you borrow a bit of
one philosophy and stir in some of another. If serious thought has gone into selection of strategies,
theories, or philosophies, this is less problematic. For example, you may determine that you have
to vary your approach depending on the particular learning needs and styles of a given student. At
various time periods, one philosophical framework may become favored over another. For
example, the Progressive movement led to quite different approaches in education in the 1930s.
But there is always danger in one "best or only" philosophy. In a pluralistic society, a variety of
views are needed.
Branches of Philosophy
There are three major branches of philosophy. Each branch focuses on a different aspect and is
central to your teaching. The three branches and their sub-branches are:
Branch
Metaphysics: What is the Epistemology: What is the nature Axiology: What
nature of reality?
of knowledge? How do we come values should
to know?
one live by?
Educational –Do you think human
beings are basically good
Examples
or
evil?
–What are conservative or
liberal beliefs?
–How would an anthropologist
look at this classroom? A political
scientist?
A
biologist?
–How do we know what a child
knows?
–Is
morality
defined by our
actions, or by
what is in our
hearts?
–What
values
should be taught
in
character
education?
–Ontology
What issues are related to
nature,
existence,
or
being?
Is
a
child
inherently evil or good?
How might your view
determine your classroom
management?
–Cosmology
What is the nature and
origin of the cosmos or
universe? Is the world and
universe orderly or is it
marked by chaos? What
would one or the other
mean for a classroom?
Knowing
based
on:
–Scientific
Inquiry
–Senses
and
Feelings
–From authority or divinity
–Empiricism
(experience)
–Intuition
–Reasoning
or
Logic
What reasoning processes
yield
valid
conclusions?
–Deductive: reasoning from
the general to the particular All
children can learn. Bret is a fifth
grader. He has a learning
disability. Can Bret learn?
–Inductive: reasoning from
the specific to the general. After
experimenting with plant growth
under varied conditions, stu-dents
–Ethics
What is good
and evil, right
and
wrong?
Is it ever right to
take something
that does not
belong to you?
–Aesthetics
What
is
beautiful?
How do we
recognize
a
great piece of
music?
Art?
Can there be
beauty
in
destruction?
Subbranches
conclude plants need water and
light
Think about it:
1. Why might the study of philosophy be particularly important to educators?
2. Which branch or branches of philosophy would you want to emphasize in your classroom?
Why?
3. Do you learn better deductively or inductively? Why do you think?
4. Can you think of other school-based examples for each of the branches and sub branches?
Epistemology.
What is Epistemology? It originates from two words “episteme” which
means “knowledge”
and “Lo gia” meaning to stud y. Epistemology is therefore, the study of
knowledge and how we
acquire knowledge ge. It answers the questions, what is knowledge and how
do we know?”
epistemology deals with the nature, source and validity of knowledge.
Epistemology is the study of theories of knowledge which philosophers
employ to explain the
nature of knowledge.
What is knowledge?
Knowledge is justified true belief.
In formation must meet the following three conditions to qualify to be called
knowledge. The
Conditions are:
•Belief conditions. Belief is a conviction or psychological state that
something is true or false.
•Truth condition. Truth means that the information or activity is in
accordance with reality or fact. For example mobile is a mobile if its
functioning.
•Evidence condition. Evidence refers to the justification given to satisfy the
claim. For example due to refraction n, a stick when put in water it will
appear bent.
Forms of knowledge.
1. Empirical (Scientific) knowledge. Knowledge obtained by human senses.
Valid and
reliable knowledge obtained through our senses and arrived at through the
process of
observation, measurement and experimentation.
2. Rational knowledge. Information obtained from human reasoning. It is
arrived at through
the process of inductive and deductive reasonin g.
3. Spiritual (revealed) knowledge obtained from divine source.
4. Ethical knowledge. Knowledge about morals.
LOGIC (IDEAL REASONING)
What is logic?
•It is about how we think. It is the study of correct and systematic reasoning.
We reasonso that we may avoid ambiguity, false statement and so that we
may communicatecorrectly.
•It is a science of reasoning.
•It is the ord er of thinking from general to specific or specific to general.
•Logic is the way to think so that we come to correct conclusions.
Importance of logic.
•Enables an individual to distinguish between tru e and false.
Without logic a person cannot distinguish between true and false. He cannot
throw out bad ideas because he cannot charge them as a bad.
Without logic, the mind would be cluttered with so many absurdities and
falsehood that if there were some truth, it would be lost in the garb age of
contradictions and fuzzy thou ghts.
•Enables an individual to avoid mistakes.
People make mistakes in reasoning. The mistakes in reasoning are known as
fallacies.
A fallacy is an argument that may appear to be true but after being closely
examined it
ends up to untrue. Fallacies occur when we make mistakes in the meaning of
terms we use in reasoning or when we make misleading conclusions based on
prior assumptions
or stereotypes. Such assumptions may have nothing to do with the subject at
hand.
Knowing the kind of mistake one could make in reasoning helps him or her
to avoid them. For example, if the best student in KSCE examination is from
Nairobi Province,
it is a fallacy to conclude that all students who sat for the KSCE exam passed
the exams.
•Logic enhances correct reasoning that assist to eliminate confusion during
teaching process.
•Assist in clarification of ideas, that is, knowledge of logic enhances
justification of arguments during discussions.
Four General or World Philosophies
The term metaphysics literally means "beyond the physical." This area of philosophy focuses on
the nature of reality. Metaphysics attempts to find unity across the domains of experience and
thought. At the metaphysical level, there are four* broad philosophical schools of thought that
apply to education today. They are idealism, realism, pragmatism (sometimes called
experientialism), and existentialism. Each will be explained shortly. These four general
frameworks provide the root or base from which the various educational philosophies are derived.
* A fifth metaphysical school of thought, called Scholasticism, is largely applied in Roman Catholic schools in the
educational philosophy called "Thomism." It combines idealist and realist philosophies in a framework that
harmonized the ideas of Aristotle, the realist, with idealist notions of truth. Thomas Aquinas, 1255-127, was the
theologian who wrote "Summa Theologica," formalizing church doctrine. The Scholasticism movement encouraged
the logical and philosophical study of the beliefs of the church, legitimizing scientific inquiry within a religious
framework.
Two of these general or world philosophies, idealism and realism, are derived from the ancient
Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle. Two are more contemporary, pragmatism and
existentialism. However, educators who share one of these distinct sets of beliefs about the nature
of reality presently apply each of these world philosophies in successful classrooms. Let us explore
each of these metaphysical schools of thought.
Idealism
Idealism: Metaphysical and epistemological doctrine that ideas or thought make up fundamental
reality
The philosophical doctrine that stems from the category of thought associated with ideas is
‘idealism’. Generally derived from the Greek word ‘idein’ meaning ‘to see’. The notion that reality
of everything lies in ideas, thought, & mind not in material thing.
ideas. It holds that the so-called external or real world is inseparable from mind, consciousness, or
perception
Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are the only true reality,
the only thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and
everlasting, the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind. Plato, father of Idealism, espoused
this view about 400 years BC, in his famous book, The Republic. Plato believed that there are two
worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and
universal. There is also the world of appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell,
taste, and sound, that is changing, imperfect, and disorderly. This division is often referred to as
the duality of mind and body. Reacting against what he perceived as too much of a focus on the
immediacy of the physical and sensory world, Plato described a utopian society in which
"education to body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which they are capable" as an ideal.
In his allegory of the cave, the shadows of the sensory world must be overcome with the light of
reason or universal truth. To understand truth, one must pursue knowledge and identify with the
Absolute Mind. Plato also believed that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at
one with the Universal Being. The birth process checks this perfection, so education requires
bringing latent ideas (fully formed concepts) to consciousness.
In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full
moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind:
literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through
lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help
students discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic
are used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is
developed through imitating examples and heroes
Implication Idealism for Education
Three main implications of Idealism for education:
1. An emphasis on theory before practice;
2. An emphasis on logical thinking;
3. A high value attached to liberal education.
. Theory before practice: educational implicationsThe principle that education should concentrate solely on conceptual and moral development is
an educational legacy of idealism.
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Theoretical subjects are valued more than practical ones in the curriculum.
Learners’ previous ideas are established.
Misconceptions are challenged.
Ideas are organized in a subject outline.
General theories are extracted from examples.
Theory is presented and then tested.
Learning is guided through dialogue and questioning.
Understanding ideas is emphasized over their memorization
Logical thinking
Logical thinking: educational implications
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Critical thinking is encouraged in schools.
Scepticism is a valued academic stance.
Educators search for a range of analytical tools.
Convergent and divergent thinking are developed as part of education.
Intellectual freedom and freedom of speech are prized by academic institutions.
Thinking is promoted as a generic transferable skill
Liberal education
Aristotle claimed that the good life can be achieved through an education in the liberal arts, where
knowledge is valued for its own sake and is its own reward.
Liberal education: educational implications
 Education is valued for its own sake rather than for its usefulness.
 A balanced curriculum is necessary to develop the whole person intellectually and morally.
 Some subjects are more highly valued than others – for example, the arts and humanities
 are valued over vocational subjects.
 Liberal education introduces learners to a range of disciplines and ways of thinking.
 Teaching is a complex human activity demanding personal characteristics and insight.
 Debate and discussion are encouraged in liberal classrooms
Demerits of Idealism
1. The common criticism regarding idealism is that it is an abstract & vague doctrine. It
avoids the realities.
2. Idealism is concerned with the ultimate end of life. It avoids the real problems in day to day
living.
3. Idealism lays more emphasis on thinking and mental activities. This increases the importance
of Intellectualism unnecessarily.
4. Idealism emphasizes upon the achievement of immortal values namely, Truth, Beauty and
Goodness. These values are not absolute.
5. Idealistic education gives more importance to teacher in relation to the child.
6. An idealistic method of teaching emphasizes cramming and rote memory.
7. In Idealistic education humanities are given greater importance for the spiritual development
of the child while the present age of science lays great stress upon scientific subjects in the
curriculum.
Merits of Idealism
1. Idealism has made signal contribution.
2. Idealistic education promotes universal education.
3. Idealistic education emphasizes the inculcation of highest values namely, Truth, Beauty and
Goodness. This will lead to the development of a moral character of the child.
4. The teacher is assigned a very important role.
5. Idealism leads to the development of the ‘self’ of an Individual.
6. Idealism respects the individuality of the child and tries to stimulate his creative energies
REALISM
Realism the external world of objects is not imaginary. It really exists, “Our experience is not
independent but determines reaction to the external objects. Experiences are influenced by the
external world which has real existence.”
The realistic movement in education started from the 16th century.
Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate reality is the world
of physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is objective-what can be observed.
Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father of
both Realism and the scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand
objective reality through "the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data." Aristotle
believed that to understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does not
change. For example, a rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in the
mind without being physically present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties with all other
roses and flowers (its form), although one rose may be red and another peach colored. Aristotle
also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to be able to reason about physical
events and aspects. The exercise of rational thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose for
humankind. The Realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world,
particularly science and mathematics. The teacher organizes and presents content systematically
within a discipline, demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus on
mastery of facts and basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students must also
demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically, using observation and experimentation.
Curriculum should be scientifically approached, standardized, and distinct-discipline based.
Character is developed through training in the rules of conduct.
Basic Principles
Following are the basic principles of realism.
Phenomenal world is real
Senses are the gateways of learning
Theory of Organism- realism animate and manimate substances make an organism.
Emphasis on experiment
Importance of Present Life
 Regularity in the material world
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Merits of Realism
1. It lays emphasis on practical knowledge
Realism gives emphasis to practical knowledge and functional knowledge. It is only such type of
knowledge which makes a person successful in life.
2. The aim of the development of a dynamic and adaptable mind
The aims of education given by realism may not be very exalting but atl east they are very useful and
important. To develop dynamic and adaptable mind to cope with life situationsis really a very
important aim.
3. Due importance to science and technology
Realism gives due importance to science and technology in its scheme of curriculum It is only science
and technology which can raise the standard of living of teeming millions throughout the world. No
nation can make progress without the help of science and
technology.
4. Progressive methods of teaching
Heuristic method, inductive-deductive method, correlation, Dalton plan etc. are all the gifts of realism
in the arena of methods of teaching. Each student is expected to investigate for himself rather than
to accept things dogmatically.
5. Proper concept of discipline
Realism favours impressionistic and emancipationsitic type of discipline. According to this school
discipline should be based upon love, sympathy and understanding rather than on authority.
6. Emphasis on objectivity
Realism lays emphasis on objectivity. It is an account of the efforts of the school of thought that
teachers encourage students to analyse the subject mater objectively.
7. Development of proper attitudes among the students
Realism advocates the development of proper attitude among the students like objective thinking
and rational judgement. Love, sympathy and fellow feeling are also emphasized.
8. Physical health
Should have a definite purpose. That of improving health and not only being the gentle manlysport.
9. Instructions are given on a uniform scientific method.
10. Emphasis on vocational education is in tune with the modern conditions and aspirations ofociety.
Demerits of Realism
There are some limitations which are as follows.
1. Emphasis on the immediate reality of the physical
2. Realism ignores the importance of emotions, imaginations etc. which are also equally important in
human life.
3. No place for intuition and meditation
According to realism all the knowledge is derived from observation and experimentation. It does not
accept the claims of intuition and meditation as a much superior source of getting knowledge.
4. More importance only to scientific subjects
Realism gives too much emphasis to science and technology and altogether ignores the importance
of the non-material. Subjects like art, culture, religion and mortality etc. but according to this critics,
science and technology do not by themselves have any value unless they serve as instruments for
developing our moral and aesthetic life.
5. No faith in eternal values and high ideals of life
Realism has no faith in eternal values and highest ideals of life. It has faith only in the harsh realistics
of daily
PRAGMATISM
One of the most important schools of philosophy of education is pragmatism. Pragmatism stands
between idealism and materialism a sort of compromise. Its origin can be traced from the Sophists
philosophers of ancient Greece who held that man is the measure of all things.
The term pragmatism derives its origin from a Greek word meaning to do, to make, to accomplish. So
the use of words likes ‘action’ or ‘practice’ or ‘activity’.
Experience is at the centre of the universe.
Pragmatism holds that whatever fulfils one’s purposes and develops his life is true.
Exponents of Pragmatism
1. C.B Pearce, 2. William James, 3 Schiller, 4. John Dewey.
Meaning of Pragmatism
Etymologically the word pragmatism is derived from the Greek word ‘pragma’ which means activity
or the work done. Some other scholars think that the word pragmatism has been derived from the
Greek word ‘pragmatikos’ which means practicability or utility.
Principles of Pragmatism
1. Truth is ever changing
Truth always changes according to time, place and situation. A certain thing which was true to a
person yesterday need not be the same for him today or will remain the sametomorrow.
2. Truth is formed by its result
Truth is not fixed and definite entity. The change in situations brings about new problems to be
solved by new thoughts and new efforts. Truth is not absolute or predetermined for all times to come.
3. Problems are the motives of truth
Human life is a laboratory where each individual undertakes various experiments to solve problems
he confronts, in his growth and development. The success of the experiment is a search for truth.
4. Emphasis on social and democratic value
Man is a social being. He is born in society and all his development takes place in society. Pragmatists
uphold social and democratic attitudes and values.
5. Opposition to fixed ideals and values
Ideals and values are not pre-determined and fixed. Values and ideals are man-made and they change
according to changes in circumstances, times and places. It has an indifferent attitude towards moral
and spiritual ideals and values.
6. Emphasis on the principle of utility
Any idea which is useful to us is proper and right. In case, it is of no use it is improper, wrong and
untrue.
7. Importance of man power
Man has the power to create an environment useful, beneficial and conducive for his own
development and welfare of society.
8.Importance of present and future
Man is an active being. He learns through his activities in his life. Ideas are born out ofactivities.
9. Faith in present and future
The past is dead and gone. Each individual has to solve the problems of his present and future.
10. Opposition to social customs and traditions
Old customs, traditions, restrictions and taboos are denied. It believes in the realities of life, human
intelligence and mental capacity which results in human welfare and happiness.
11. Faith in pluralism
The ideals and values which are testified by experiences are true and real. It believes in pluralism.
12. Reality in making
The attitude is optimistic
Pragmatism in Education
Education is not the preparation of a child for his future but it is life itself. Life is not possible without
education. Life here means social life. It is because man is a social animal. His activities are directed
and determined by the society by living there. So collective activities are organised in the school.
Participation in the collective activities gives him knowledge of social efficiency and sociability.
1. Education as life
Traditional education is dead and lifeless. The students are passive recipients without any dynamism
and push. Real knowledge can be gained by activity experiments and real life experiences.
2. Education as growth
Society is undergoing a process of continual change. Education should correspond its activities to suit
the changes in society. Education should develop the inherent capacities of the child according to his
interests, inclinations and aptitudes, so that he can create his own values to face the problem.
3. Education as continuous reconstruction of experiences
Bookish knowledge is condemned. Real knowledge is gained by experiments and experiences. They
transform the behaviour and personality of the child.
4. Education as social process
Education should develop desirable qualities that he is a sociable person. An individual gains more
knowledge from his interaction with his friends, family and society rather than the books.
5. Education as the responsibility of the state
Education is the birth right of the child. The state should shoulder the responsibility of the education
of the child otherwise the whole nation will suffer and lag behind.
3.2.4 Aims of Education
To pragmatism the aim of education is to provide dynamic direction and guidance to the child
according to his natural interests, aptitudes and capacities in the field of academic activities that he
grows up and develops more and more and is endowed with capacities to confront the ever changing
problems and challenges of modern life successfully achieving a happier, a better and a richer life.
For this education should develop such a dynamic flexible and adaptable mind which is always
resourceful and enterprising and is able to create new values for an unknown future. Following are
the some of the aim of pragmatism.
1. To reform and reconstruct the society
2. To enable the individual to adjust with the changing social environment
3. To develop the child fully according to his interest, abilities and needs
4. To create social efficacy in the child
5. To develop democratic values and ideals in the child
6. To provide educational opportunities to all citizens on equal footing
7. To instil habit of experimentation in the children
8. To remove social evils and make the society a good place for living
9. To enable the child to discover the truth himself
10. To make child self reliant
Merits
1. Construction of project method
A child, who indulges in various activities, is able to solve problems which cater to his natural
progress and development.
2. Importance of child
Child centred education where a great emphasis is laid in the development of the child’s individuality
by his own efforts.
3. Emphasis on activity
Pragmatism emphasizes upon activity rather than ideas. ‘Learning by doing’ is the method followed
here.
4. values in applied life
Education should prepare the child for the practice of values in life in an effective manner.
5. Social and democratic education
It induces a spirit of freedom, initiative, equality and also a sense of responsibility inrelation to rights
and duties of a citizen. It develops a love for democratic values and socialefficiency which brings
harmonious adjustment and development of personality.
6. Infusion of new life in education
It has revolutionized the process of education and infused a new life and zest in education.The
concepts of New Education, Progressive Education and Activity Centred curriculum are the
contributions of pragmatism.
7. Progressive and optimistic attitude
Pragmatism is a way of living which opposes old doctrines of Idealism and Naturalism, inspires the
individual to look ahead and create new values for a better and happier life.
Criticism
1. Difficulties of not accepting truth to be permanent.
Pragmatist philosophy does not treat truth as permanent and objective. Instead for pragmatists all
truth is relative to time and space. No philosophy is always true or correct. It has its utility only in a
particular set of circumstances.
2. Materialistic bias.
Pragmatism was born out of reaction to idealism, and consequently it manifests a distinctly
materialistic bias, in contradiction of the spiritual bias of idealist philosophy. At the same time,
pragmatists realize democratic ideals of freedom, equality and fraternity through education. But it is
difficult to understand how this can be done unless they accept an idealistic basis of his system of
education.
3. Absence of any aim of education.
According to pragmatists, education is life itself and it is not possible to determine any objective for
its continuous change in the pattern of living. This idea is also unbelievable.
Changes do take place immediately but they take time. Specific aims of life must be there before the
changes occur.
4. Excessive emphasis upon individual difference.
Modern educational psychology accepts in principle that the curriculum of education must take into
account the individual difference of children and that
For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this late 19th
century American philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and
Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that we learn best through
applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and
evolving, a "becoming" view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather,
truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (18391914), who believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to
indecisiveness.
John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He
believed that learners must adapt to each other and to their environment. Schools should emphasize
the subject matter of social experience. All learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and
circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively and contribute to a
democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order. Character
development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences.
For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and
projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together
to focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized
bodies of knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their
knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship,
daily living, and future careers.
Existentialism
The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual. The physical
world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual choice and individual
standards rather than external standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of what
we are. We define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We should
not accept anyone else's predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take responsibility
for deciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as
we make meaning of our lives.
There are several different orientations within the existentialist philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard
(1813-1855), a Danish minister and philosopher, is considered to be the founder of existentialism.
His was a Christian orientation. Another group of existentialists, largely European, believes that
we must recognize the finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile planet, rather than believing
in salvation through God. Our existence is not guaranteed in an after life, so there is tension about
life and the certainty of death, of hope or despair. Unlike the more austere European approaches
where the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with the certainty of the end of existence,
American existentialists have focused more on human potential and the quest for personal
meaning. Values clarification is an outgrowth of this movement. Following the bleak period of
World War II, the French philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre, suggested that for youth, the existential
moment arises when young persons realize for the first time that choice is theirs, that they are
responsible for themselves. Their question becomes "Who am I and what should I do?
Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter of personal
choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social context in which the learner must
confront others' views to clarify his or her own. Character development emphasizes individual
responsibility for decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not from outside
authority. Examining life through authentic thinking involves students in genuine learning
experiences. Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be measured,
tracked, or standardized. Such educators want the educational experience to focus on creating
opportunities for self-direction and self actualization. They start with the student, rather than on
curriculum content.
Think about It:
1. Which general or world view philosophy best fits with your own views of reality? Why?
2. What have you learned from the history of education that is related to these metaphysical
philosophies?
3. It is said that an image is worth a thousand words. What might be your image metaphor
for each of these world or metaphysical philosophies?
Educational Philosophies
Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and how we come to
know, there are four major educational philosophies, each related to one or more of the general or
world philosophies just discussed. These educational philosophical approaches are currently used
in classrooms the world over. They are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and
Reconstructionism. These educational philosophies focus heavily on WHAT we should teach, the
curriculum aspect.
Perennialism
For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the
great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any era.
The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not
changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching
these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to be
developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile education. The
demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring
disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized– the great works of
literature and art, the laws or principles of science. Advocates of this educational philosophy are
Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler,
who further developed this curriculum based on 100 great books of western civilization.
Essentialism
Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to
students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on
intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential
knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is similar in some
ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may change.
Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of society. It
should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--and "the basics," training students to read,
write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence policies.
Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help
students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. This
approach was in reaction to progressivist approaches prevalent in the 1920s and 30s. William
Bagley, took progressivist approaches to task in the journal he formed in 1934. Other proponents
of Essentialism are: James D. Koerner (1959), H. G. Rickover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978),
and Theodore Sizer (1985).
Progressivism
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content
or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active
experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the
world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning
through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context. Effective teachers
provide experiences so that students can learn by doing. Curriculum content is derived from
student interests and questions. The scientific method is used by progressivist educators so that
students can study matter and events systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on processhow one comes to know. The Progressive education philosophy was established in America from
the mid 1920s through the mid 1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of his tenets
was that the school should improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom
and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers with students, studentselected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority.
Reconstructionism/Critical
Theory
Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions and a
quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a
curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987)
was the founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He
recognized the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or
the capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. George
Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of preparing people for creating this
new social order.
Critical theorists, like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to overcome
oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a Brazilian whose
experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social
change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its victims, nor oppress
others. To do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the development of awareness to
overcome domination and oppression. Rather than "teaching as banking," in which the educator
deposits information into students' heads, Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry
in which the child must invent and reinvent the world.
For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience and
taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation,
and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues (particularly in social studies and
literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning
and bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies.
Naturalism and Curriculum.
Characteristics of Naturalist Curriculum:
Some of the characteristics are:
i) Child- centred. Subjects are selected according to the needs, interests and activities
of the child.
ii) Subjects which impart k nowledge about nature. In the natu ralist curriculum one can find
subjects which encourage children to learn more about nature like agriculture, gardening, art craft,
botany, science, chemistry, physics, geology, geography, and astronomy. The subjects are
interrelated with the activities of the child and with the life around the child.
iii) The curriculum allows the child to learn in a free atmosphere. The child learns in natural
settings. A child learns directly from nature through personal experiences.
iv) Curriculum contains subjects, which are useful for the present life situations, experiences and
interests of the child.
v) A child determines his or her curriculum. According to naturalism every child should be given
the right to determine his/ her curriculum.
vi) The curriculum is flexible. Naturalism does not advocate a rigid or fixed curriculum. The
curriculum can be changed according to the changing needs of the
child.
Naturalism and the teacher
According to Froebel the father of kindergarten, a school is a garden, the teacher is a gardener and
the child is a tender plant. The wo rk of the gardener is to provide manure and water the tender
plant. The plant does the work of growing. According to naturalism, nature is a great teacher.
Naturalism considers nature as the only supreme teacher in whose close contact the child develops
naturally.
Roles of a teacher:
According to naturalism the teacher performs the following roles:
•An observer. In a naturalistic system of education the teacher plays the role of an observer.
•A facilitator. The teacher’s role is to facilitate the process of the child’s growth and development.
The teacher also facilitates learning. The teacher only supplies materials and provides learning opp
ortunities under which learning takes place.
•A stage setter. He sets the environment in which education takes place.
•A symbol of right conduct.
Naturalism and discipline
Naturalism recommends the following forms of discipline:
•Unrestricted freedom to the child.
•External discipline is not recommended.
•Adults should not set standards or rules and regulations for children.
•Beliefs in discipline by natural consequences. Nature gives the consequences of the
activity in the fo rm of pleasure or pain.
Think about It:
1. Which of these educational philosophies would you describe as authoritarian? Which as
non-authoritarian? Why?
2. Each of the educational philosophies relates to one or more of the metaphysical world view
philosophies. What connections do you see?
3. Which educational philosophy is most compatible with your beliefs? Why?