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A Review of Literature on
Choral Tone, Intonation, and the Application of Solo Techniques
Lauren Spavelko
Literature Review
Secondary Methods
Dr. Richard Edwards
Ohio Wesleyan University, 2010
Delaware, Ohio
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Choral directors are perpetually seeking new ways to understand and teach the fundamental
principles of singing to their choirs. Effective directors know that a strong grasp of these techniques
lays the foundation for free, healthy singing and allows students to progress to more advanced
musical skills.
This review is meant to evaluate and share published materials regarding the challenges and
the teaching of the fundamentals of tone production and intonation, as well as the application of solo
singing techniques in the ensemble to improve these fundamentals. By reading these materials,
directors can review the basics of these skills, learn new exercises and strategies to teach these skills,
consider varying points of view on choral sound, and determine the effectiveness and appropriateness
of borrowing solo techniques to address these skills in the ensemble.
Tone Production
Choral Pedagogy by Dr. Brenda Smith and Dr. Robert Thayer Sataloff includes a chapter
entitled “Voice Building for Choirs.” It includes brief descriptions and suggested exercises of four
areas which affect tone production: Relaxation, Posture, Breathing, and Resonance. The authors
emphasize the need to teach and review these principles in the warm-up in order to establish good
singing habits. The following table summarizes some of this content:
Element
Definition/Importance
Recommended Exercises
Relaxation
Singers arrive to rehearsal with
numerous distractions and tired
bodies. Relaxation prepares and
energizes the body and focuses the
mind for rehearsal.
1. Brief massage of the neck, back, and
shoulders
2. Touch the toes and hang from the hips;
slowly bring the torso up to an erect
position.
3. Stretch the arms and legs, twist the torso,
and rotate the head gently to ease tension.
4. Rake imaginary leaves. Shovel snow.
Posture
Posture determines the position of
every aspect of the vocal instrument,
1. Pretend books or fruits are balanced on
the head.
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just as instrumentalists must learn to
hold their instruments. Weight must be
centered and equally distributed
throughout the body. The body must be
tall, broad, and balanced. Good posture
eliminates tension and optimizes
support of the breathing apparatus
(abdominals, back, and chest).
2. Carry imaginary plates at shoulder height.
Keep eye contact with both sides to maintain
erect posture and release neck tension.
3. Use the arms to imitate the motions of a
mighty tree in a strong storm.
Breathing
The breath must enter a relaxed throat
and body and leave in a steady,
flexible stream. The breath must be
low, deep, and thorough, and singers
must maintain the physical sensation
of inspiration and expansion while
expelling air. Choral directors must be
wary of any phrase or action which
would suggest “holding” or
“controlling” the breath, which often
translates into tension.
1. Imagine blowing over a hot beverage or
bowl of soup to cool it.
2. Attempt to whistle.
3. Blow out candles on a cake.
4. Blow up a balloon or ball.
5. Use extended hissing to silence a crowd.
6. Have the choir echo a pattern of unvoiced
consonants.
7. Use laughing patterns to relax abdominals
and engage breath energy.
8. Sigh, pant, and yawn.
Resonance
Meaning, “to sound against.”
Resonators in the singing voice
include the pharynx, oral cavity, and
nasal cavities. This is largely learned
by sensation, and a singer must trust
these sensations in order to create his
best tone. Often, it is intended to refer
to “the sensation of phonation in the
region of the face and head.”
Phonation is the production of sound
at the laryngeal level, while resonance
occurs in the vocal tract.
1. Begin in the upper middle range of the
voice and do descending exercises. Sigh,
yawn, and hum.
2. Practice lip trills or French nasals on
simple patterns.
3. Place the hands on the body sides of the
nose. Speak and sing sounds conceptualizing
them as buzzing.
4. Sing descending patterns using the voiced
consonants f, v, th, or z.
Once these principles are established, the authors elaborate on their concept of choral sound
in the following chapter, “Choral Singing: The Singing Voice and the Choral Tone.” According to
Smith and Sataloff, the choral tone “gives little emphasis to the singer's formant, neutralizing
idiosyncrasies of individual singers to create a blend of voices” and is achieved when “a choir
combines its corporate properties of voice, intellect, and musicianship, filtered and molded by the
conductor” (138). In other words, once good tone production is demonstrated, the next step in
achieving proper choral sound is striving for unity, which is affected by factors such as vowel shape,
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blend, and the director's decisions favoring and downplaying tendencies of individual voices within
the choir.
Another effective guide is Tim Seelig's Quick Fixes: Prescriptions for Every Choral
Challenge! This is an accessible, straightforward handbook for common challenges in the choral
rehearsal. In comparison to Choral Pedagogy, it is more practical, specific, and diagnostic. The table
of contents lists broad categories as chapter titles and common errors as subheadings for easy
searching. In each chapter, Seelig offers a brief explanation of the element, discusses mistakes, and
suggests solutions. The book also includes a section at the end of each chapter for the director to note
and comment on his favorite exercises and to suggest his own, functioning as a type of workbook.
The first four chapters address similar key elements of tone production: Posture/Alignment,
Breathing, Phonation, and Resonance. The following table paraphrases selected comments and
exercises to correct and affect these elements:
Chapter 1:
Posture/Alignment
Singers are vocal athletes, so time must be devoted to stretching, beginning
with the large muscle groups. We should not just jump into using one of our
smallest muscles, the vocal folds.
The List:
• Feet – 6-8 inches apart
• Knees slightly bent
• Thighs “pushed” into the floor for grounding
• Hands at the sides (the seam of the pants or skirt)
• Pelvis tucked slightly to elongate the spine
• Chest high and expanded
• Shoulders dropped back gently
• Chin below the horizontal (i.e. not sticking out unnaturally)
• Head erect with no tension (like a bobblehead)
• Eyes are bright and smiling
• Mind is engaged
With Seelig's method, it is obvious how he systematically approaches posture
from the ground up to ensure that all checkpoints are met.
1. Hug/Row – Hug yourself, row back as if rowing a boat, then drop the arms
to the side.
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2. “Faux” activities – Get singers' bodies energized by imitating sports (ex:
jog, bowl, swim, javelin throw, etc.)
Chapter 2:
Breathing
Breath is the fuel for singing, and it is one of the first aspects directors should
address when the sound is not as it should be. Breathing must be a
combination of intercostal and abdominal antagonism.
1. Farinelli – Borrowed from the famous castrato, it addresses phrasing,
legato, etc. - Let the arms hang at the sides. Inhale for 8 counts and raise arms
to shoulder height. Roll shoulders once, pant for several seconds, take in
another pint of air, and repeat. Exhale slowly while lowering the arms
(optional: hiss or sing). Keep the sternum elevated until all breath is gone.
2. Air Elevator – Focuses on low breathing – Place one hand sideways in front
of the body where the lowest ribs attach (the ground floor). Take a high
shallow breath and raise the hand to the 4th floor. Release and return to the
ground floor. Breathe deeply and lower the hand to the sub-basement.
Chapter 3:
Phonation
Singing is kinesthetic and relies on muscle memory. Optimal phonation means
that the laryngeal area is as relaxed as possible. Once breath is established, the
vocal folds must be trained for breath pacing.
Seelig has a different exercise for each type of sound, or to experience and
contrast different types of phonation. Examples:
To practice easy onsets of tone on a consistent airstream, practice “The
Scream.”
If the sound is tight and constricted, use “Blow Your Finger/Bumblebee.” This
involves isolating phonation. Select a passage and sing as if blowing out a
candle with no words, then on lip trill, then on “oo” with a similar amount of
air, and finally with text.
To contrast a flabby or breathy sound with a tight, pinched sound, do “Breath
Pacing.” This models both extremes, which the choir imitates, then does it
“just right” with efficient phonation.
Chapter 4:
Resonance
Resonance is partially determined by the conductor's preference; the director
will coach the sound he wants to hear. Seelig stresses resonance aural
modeling—much of what we hear on popular radio does not access the
pharynx (throat) as a beautiful, rich chamber, so directors need to expose
singers to appropriate models of this tone.
1. Kindergarten Fix – Break the usual habit by doing the opposite. Sing a
scale. Lower the chin while ascending, and raise it while descending.
2. Woofer Tweeters – Instead of asking of a brighter or darker tone, use a
physical model. Sing a forward “ah” vowel with a finger pointed forward, then
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shift a backwards “aw” vowel as the finger moves backwards. Use this a
“tuning knob” to indicate how singers should adjust their vowels.
3. The Three Bears of Space – Use the story of the three bears to demonstrate
sounds that are too bright, too dark, and just right.
The final resource, Peter R. LaPine's article “The Relationship between the Physical Aspects
of Voice Production and Optimal Vocal Health,” published in Music Educators' Journal, discusses in
detail the function of healthy vocal folds and phonation. This is valuable knowledge for directors,
and can even be shared with choirs. Singing is more abstract than any other instrument because the
voice is hidden from view. Young singers may have misconceptions about how the voice works, and
educating them about the physical function of the voice can increase their understanding of tone
production and make them more aware of the sensation of their singing instrument. LaPine also
includes information on care for the voice and when to seek medical treatment.
Intonation
Intonation problems are frequently rooted in tone production issues, and this should be the
first aspect assessed when intonation is poor. But after these possibilities have been ruled out, what
are the other causes? How can a director guide the choir in careful listening and teach the necessary
skills to adjust pitch in a healthy manner? The following resources suggest strategies and tips to
improve intonation from various perspectives.
“Tuning the Choir,” an article by Curtis Hansen and published in the periodical Music
Educators' Journal, discusses many possible causes of poor intonation. He discusses issues which
contribute to general out-of-tune ensemble singing, and also specifies which elements contribute to
the flatting and sharping of pitches. This article is valuable because the director must have knowledge
of the possible problems in order to effectively diagnose them. These issues are summarized in the
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following list:
•
•
•
Generally Out-of-Tune
• Soloists who sing with wide vibrato in the choir setting
• Compatibility of Choir and Key – Each choir will favor particular keys. Sometimes,
adjusting the key by a half step in either direction will make it more comfortable for the
choir to sing and will greatly improve intonation.
• Compatibility of Choir and Tempo – If the piece is ever felt to be “dragging,” especially
in a slow piece, intonation will suffer. The music must flow and have energy.
• Carelessness in singing challenging intervals – In particular, descending minor thirds and
major sevenths are too low, while minor sevenths and perfect fourths are too high.
• Unity of vowels
Flat
• Lack of breath support, breathy tone, or wasted air. Choral singers must learn to “steal”
breaths in order to maintain consistent air support.
• Tonal “scooping” - Singers approach the pitch from beneath and slide up to the pitch.
This often results in a tone which hovers below the true pitch.
• Posture – Drooping posture often reflects the physical and mental condition of the singer.
As posture sags, so will intonation.
• Compositions in like or related keys – Singing one piece after another which is tonally
similar can result in tonal deafness. This mentality essentially means that the choir has
ceased to listen carefully because they have had no relief from the tonal center.
Sharp
• Tension, anxiety, overexertion, and excitement
• Excessive volume
• Large ascending intervals
• Ascending accidentals
Hansen addresses many common pitfalls in this article, and also states that well-tuned choirs are
composed of singers who collectively sing in a similar manner. This sound may be characterized by
narrow vibrato, rich color, and similar vowel shape.
Another article which directors will find valuable is “Choral Intonation: More than Meets the
Ear” by Steven Powell, also published in Music Educators' Journal. Powell takes a different
approach to intonation problems, breaking it down into tuning vertically and horizontally. Using both
approaches provides students with a more comprehensive aural concept. In this sense, Powell has
moved past the physical aspect and addresses the listening component of intonation.
Vertical intonation (harmonic tuning) involves the tuning of chords within the ensemble.
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Vibrato must be narrow, but not necessarily absent. Powell offers musical examples and suggests
working on tuning intervals in the following order: octaves, fifths, thirds, sixths and fourths, seconds
and sevenths.
Horizontal intonation (melodic tuning) is akin to traditional sightsinging training. The
fundamental intervals in this approach are the whole step and half step. From here, singers learn
progressively larger intervals. He briefly evaluates the solfege and number-reading systems.
In addition to these tuning concepts, Powell also acknowledges that faulty tone production
and discrepancies in vowel color result in poor intonation. Again, this is a return to fundamentals. If
tone production is not efficient, then this must be addressed before other possibilities of poor
intonation can be considered.
James Jordan and Matthew Mehaffey's book Choral Ensemble Intonation: Method,
Procedures, and Exercises is one of the most comprehensive materials on a single choral issue. The
book, which elaborates on Jordan and Mehaffey's strategies in detail, is also accompanied by a DVD,
so that directors may view their approach in practice, and an octavo of musical exercises for directors
to employ with their own choirs. They expand upon the basic ideas of vertical and horizontal
intonation, champion the use of solfege, and systematically move from major, minor, and modal
scales. The book and octavo provide numerous resources to implement these techniques in the
classroom.
One interesting aspect is the emphasis on aural context. Jordan and Mehaffey criticize
traditional sightsinging approaches for pure “interval replication,” which does not provide an aural
context for the singer. In experimenting with their choirs, they realized that the tuning of particular
intervals changes based on the context of the tonality. For instance, the choir may be able to sing a
descending minor third (sol-mi) perfectly in tune, but this does not mean that all descending minor
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thirds (e.g. fa-re, re-ti) will be in tune (4). They also explain, “Choral directors constantly ask for
higher thirds (mi) and leading tones (ti)... A choir will never sing mi high enough until it hears mi in
relation to do in a major tonality. To learn to hear ti in tune, the choir must experience what ti sounds
like against the sonority of do” (6). It is not enough that directors tell the students when and how to
correct an intonation problem—they must understand why and have the experience of adjusting
intonation in each context. Mehaffey sums up their strategy well: “The goal of this approach is not to
teach music reading, but to teach music hearing” (xiii).
Solo Techniques in the Choral Ensemble
Most directors would agree that the concept of sound for solo singing and for choral singing
are different—and necessarily so. The needs for each setting are not the same, and singers must be
able to adjust. Soloists often need to project over other singers or instruments to be heard, while
choral singers need to modify their sound to compromise with their neighbors' in order to blend. But
what are the characteristics and preferences for these various styles? Is there anything choral
directors might learn from solo technique which could improve the choral tone and intonation as
well?
Elizabeth Elkholm conducted an experiment examining the effects of these different singing
techniques on choral sound. Elkholm published a study entitled “The Effect of Singing Mode and
Seating Arrangement on Choral Blend and Overall Choral Sound” in the Journal of Research in
Music Education, in which 37 choral conductors, 33 voice teachers, and 32 professional instrumental
(non-vocal) musicians evaluated solo, soloistic choral, and blended choral singing. Voice teachers
evaluated the solo, soloistic choral, and blended choral sounds for individual voices, and all judges
evaluated the ensemble singing. Seating arrangements and conductors were also variables in the
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experiment. The experimental ensemble was composed of university singers with experience in solo
and choral singing. In all, the choir sang four pieces representing four different time periods in each
manner and in each seating arrangement. A total of 160 recordings and excerpts were used in the
study, which were evaluated by the 102 professional musicians and instructors. Judges rated their
preference for each type of singing based on the recordings in seven different criteria: blend, diction,
dynamic range, phrasing, pitch, rhythm, and overall tone.
The results revealed some patterns in the evaluations. Choral conductors generally preferred
blended singing in six of the seven categories. Voice teachers had a slight preference for blended
singing only in the blend category. Instrumentalists showed no consistent preference. What is more
intriguing and relevant are the specific comments from the judges and the choristers. There were two
common criticisms of the two choral singing modes (soloistic versus blended): 1) a lack of freedom
of vocal production (50 for blended, 41 for soloistic), and 2) intonation inaccuracy (47 for blended,
39 for soloistic). In both of these cases, soloistic singing was preferred, in spite of the general
preference for blended singing, especially among the choral conductors. This is interesting to note
because it refers back to the fundamentals of tone production (specifically phonation) and intonation,
yet the blended choral sound which prevails in many ensembles did not meet these criteria quite as
effectively as soloistic choral singing.
Additionally, Elkholm explains, “Those who preferred blended singing appreciated the
'lightness,' 'clarity,' and 'control' of the tone and found soloistic tone too 'heavy,' 'aggressive,' and
'overdone.' Those who preferred soloistic singing appreciated the 'fullness,' 'freedom,' and 'vibrancy'
of the tone and found blended singing too 'restrained,' 'thin,' and 'lifeless'” (131). From the ensemble's
perspective, choristers praised blended singing for “increased ability to attend to dynamics,
intonation, and vocal tone and not having to compete with other singers to be heard,” while soloistic
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singing was valued for “greater freedom of phonation, enhanced breath support and projection, and
better intonation” (132).
So how is this information valuable to directors? First, it supports the long recognized
variations in the fundamental techniques of solo and choral singing. Second, it demonstrates that
each style has its strengths and deficits, both for the listening audience and for the singers. Perhaps, if
choral directors could merge elements of the soloistic and blended choral styles, a compromise could
arise which supports free and healthy tone production, increases intonation accuracy, and enriches the
overall choral sound.
Some solo techniques can indeed be borrowed for the choral ensemble. Laurier Fagnan
published an article entitled “Chiaroscuro Resonance Balancing: The Bel Canto Answer to Choral
Tone and Intonation Problems” in the peer-reviewed Choral Journal. Fagnan discusses the effects of
bel canto on choral diction, blend, and intonation. He also discusses an experiment which he
conducted, shares his findings, and poses practical applications of the technique for choral rehearsals.
Fagnan argues that there is benefit in borrowing techniques from bel canto, which is rooted in
the Italian singing tradition and is the most widely taught singing technique in private voice studios
in the United States today. He explains, “Bel canto masters advocated chiaroscuro (bright-dark,
clear-warm) resonance balancing, encouraging the best qualities of both extremes of timbres to be
present in the voice at all times” (52). This technique results in a tone which is rich, beautiful, and
consistent throughout the registers. Indeed, some of the fundamentals of bel canto tone production fit
perfectly with the goals of choral singing. For instance, bel canto pedagogues recognize that some
vowels, such as [i] and [e], are naturally brighter and clearer (chiaro), while vowels such as [o] and
[u] are naturally darker and warmer (oscuro). Bel canto singers strive to blend darker elements in to
brighter vowels and vice versa, resulting in the balanced chiaroscuro tone. Is this not precisely what
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choral directors wish to achieve when teaching choral blend?
Fagnan criticizes other approaches to choral blend because they result in a bland sound.
Recall that Smith and Sataloff argue that the choral tone must neutralize the “idiosyncrasies of
individual singers to create a blend of voices.” Fagnan, on the other hand, believes that the best
choral sound can be achieved by simultaneously teaching choristers a unified manner of singing
which also exploits the best aspects of each voice. He elaborates, “The group's vocal sound becomes
colorless as individual tonal characteristics are removed so that particular choristers' voices will not
be heard. There is no reason to have a Stradivarius sound like a cigar-box violin so that both will
sound the same” (53). Bel canto technique exploits the best qualities of each voice to create a fuller
choral sound.
Fagnan supports this claim with a spectrogram, which visually represents the harmonics
which are being activated, indicating the relative resonance of a tone. The following graphs show a
phrase sung on the words “Et Spiritu Sancto” before and after applying the bel canto technique; it is
plain that the tone is fuller and more resonant throughout in the phrase in the second graph (see
below).
Additionally, Fagnan comments, “In general, too much attention in choral singing is centered
on having everyone sing the right note and far too little on producing a tone that is alive with the
presence of a complete and unified harmonic spectrum... [during the experiment] consistency of tone
and stability of intonation consequently began to settle in as singers concentrated more on resonance
quality...” (55). As evidenced by the spectrogram and Fagnan's findings, the bel canto technique
taught primarily to solo singers increased resonance, enrich the choral tone, and improved intonation
in the ensemble as well.
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Conclusion
This literature review has demonstrated that there are abundant materials available to aid the
director in teaching singing fundamentals and achieving the optimum choral sound. While some of
these materials express differing opinions, all have merit and should be considered as each director
develops his own concept of choral sound.
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Bibliography
Books
Jordan, James and Matthew Mehaffey. Choral Ensemble Intonation: Method, Procedures, and
Exercises. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc. (2001).
Seelig, Timothy. Tim Seelig's Quick Fixes: Prescriptions for every choral challenge. Nashville,
TN: Shawnee Press. (2009).
Smith, Brenda and Robert Thayer Sataloff. Choral Pedagogy. San Diego: Singular Publishing
Group. (2000).
Periodicals
Hansen, Curtis. “Tuning the Choir.” Music Educators Journal, Vol. 51, No. 2. (NovemberDecember 1964): 85-89.
LaPine, Peter R. “The Relationship between the Physical Aspects of Voice Production and
Optimal Vocal Health.” Music Educators' Journal, Vol. 4, No. 3. (January 2008): 24-29.
Powell, Steven. “Choral Intonation: More than Meets the Ear.” Music Educators Journal, Vol.
77, No. 9. (May 1991): 40-43.
Peer-Reviewed Journals
Elkholm, Elizabeth. “The Effect of Singing Mode and Seating Arrangement on Choral Blend and
Overall Choral Sound.” Journal of Research in Music Education. (2000)
Fagnan, Laurier. “Chiaroscuro Resonance Balancing: The Bel Canto Answer to Choral Tone and
Intonation Problems.” Choral Journal. (November 2008): 51-61.