Human
Behavior
in
Organizations
(affect) I will start to look for another job
that can make me feel at ease and offers
Chapter 4 Attitudes, Emotions, and Ethics
career opportunities for me. (behavioral
intent). I believe that I just don’t fit with the
Attitudes
•
culture
An attitude is a psychological tendency
expressed when we evaluate a particular
entity with some degree of favor or
disfavor.
•
Attitude refers to the feeling,
predisposition, and outlook of an
individual towards various situations
and circumstances. It can be positive,
negative, or neutral depending on the
situation and how the individual sees
it.
Attitude acts as a precedent of
behavior. It focuses mainly on the
feelings that surface when confronted
with various situations before we elicit
an action or behavior. For example,
when someone treats you poorly in
work, your feeling towards that
person and situation is what you call
attitude.
•
of
this
work
environment.
(cognitive)
Cognitive Dissonance
• A state of tension produced when an
individual
experiences
conflict
between attitudes and behavior.
• It refers to the discomfort or mental
tension that arises when a person
holds conflicting beliefs, attitudes,
values, or when their actions and
beliefs are incongruent.
The ABC Model
The
ABC
components
Model
of
proposes
attitudes:
three
affect,
behavioral intent, and cognitive.
●
●
●
●
For
Affect - is an emotional component
of attitude as it refers to the feelings
toward
something
or
some
circumstances.
A
psychological
tendency
expressed by evaluating something
with a degree of favor or disfavor.
Behavioral Intent - refers to intent
actions and movement caused by
attitude.
Cognitive - refers to an individual's
thoughts and behavior towards
something that affects their attitude.
example, I
don’t like this work
Attitude Formation
●
Attitudes are learned. Our responses
to people and issues evolve over
time.
Two
major
influences
on
attitudes are direct experience and
social learning.
●
Direct
Experience
-
Direct
experience with something strongly
influences attitudes toward it.
●
Social learning - The family, peer
groups, religious organizations, and
culture
shape
an
individual’s
environment anymore and I feel like I am
attitudes indirectly.
not growing here career wise anymore.
- Culture also plays a definitive role
in attitude development.
experiences. It has been treated both
Attitude and Behavior
•
•
as
general
attitude
and
concerned
dimensions of the job: Salary, the
organizational behaviorists and social
Work itself, Promotion opportunities,
psychologists for quite some time.
Supervision, Co-workers
has
five
as
satisfaction
behavior
with
and
The correspondence between attitude
specific
Attitude and behavior are closely
related as attitudes can sometimes
Measures of Job Satisfaction
Job Descriptive Index (JDI) - This
predict the way someone behaves
within
•
a
the
organization.
If
an
index
measures
the
specific facets
of
employee has a positive attitude
satisfaction by asking employees to respond
towards working, we can expect them
“yes, ” “no, ” or “cannot decide” to a series of
to perform better than the rest, and
statements describing their jobs
not if negative attitudes are shown.
Minnesota
Within
(MSQ)
an
organization,
we
are
Satisfaction
Questionnaire
This survey also asks employees to
interacting with other people who are
different
respond to statements about their jobs using
attitudes, and behave differently. For
a five-point scale that ranges from very
an organization to efficiently function
dissatisfied to very satisfied
different
from
us,
have
as one, it is necessary to foster a
healthy environment that can build
Rewards influence both satisfaction and
positive attitudes that can affect
performance.
Employees
performance and behavior of an
valuable
employees who receive rewards that are
Work Attitudes
Attitudes
receive
rewards are more satisfied. In addition,
employee.
•
who
at
work
are
important
contingent on performance tend to perform
because, directly or indirectly, they
better.
affect work behavior. Chief among
satisfaction
the
rewards is that the rewards are valued by
things
that
employees’
work
demanding
jobs
negatively
attitudes
over
affect
are
which
The
employees
key
and
and
to
influencing
performance
are
tied
both
through
directly
to
performance.
employees have little control.
ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP VERSUS
Job Satisfaction
•
Job satisfaction is a pleasurable or
COUNTERPRODUCTIV
E
WORK
BEHAVIOR
positive emotional state resulting from
Job satisfaction encourages OCB -
the appraisal of one’s job or job
the behavior that is above and beyond the
call of duty. Satisfied workers are more likely
gossiping
about
others,
to want to give something back to the
sabotaging others’ projects
and
organization—that is, to engage in OCBs
Negative events in the business world, such
because they want to reciprocate their
as downsizing and technological insecurities,
positive experiences.
are generally considered responsible for
•
Job satisfaction connects to other
important
outcomes.
spikes in counterproductive work behavior
•
Dissatisfied
Layoffs - act of temporarily or
workers are more likely to skip work
permanently terminating the
and quit their jobs, driving up the cost
employment of a group of
of turnover. Furthermore, dissatisfied
employees
workers report more psychological
organization.
and
medical
problems
than
•
do
within
an
Perceived Unfairness
satisfied employees.
•
One
factor
that
leads
to
dissatisfaction at work is a misfit
of
an
individual’s
the organization’s values, or a lack of
three kinds of organizational commitment:
person–organization fit. People who
affective, continuance, and normative.
feel that their values don’t mesh with
Affective Commitment - an employee’s
the organization’s values experience
intention
job
because of a strong desire to do so. A belief
dissatisfaction
Job
and
eventually
to
remain
in
an
organization
in the goals and values of the organization, a
satisfaction
organizational
encourages
citizenship
behavior
willingness to put forth effort on behalf of the
organization, and a desire to remain a
member of the organization.
(OCB)—behavior that is above and
Continuance Commitment - An employee’s
beyond the call of duty.
tendency to remain in an organization
Which is defined as any voluntary,
because
attitude driven behavior that violates
Sometimes employees believe that they will
organizational norms and causes
lose a great deal of their investments in time,
some
effort, and benefits if they leave.
degree
organization,
•
strength
identification with an organization There are
Counterproductive work behavior (CWB)
•
The
between an individual’s values and
leave the organization
•
Organizational Commitment
of
harm
coworkers,
to
the
or
he
Normative
cannot
afford
Commitment
-
to
leave.
perceived
supervisors.
obligation to remain with the organization.
CWB can include calling in sick when
Individuals
you’re not, coming in late, putting little
commitment
effort into your work, taking property
because they feel they should.
from
"Commitment
work
without
permission,
who
stay
experience
with
unlocks
the
the
normative
organization
doors
of
imagination, allows vision, and gives us the
Target Characteristics - Individuals with low
'right stuff' to turn our dreams into reality. "
self-esteem are more likely to change their
James Womack
attitudes in response to persuasion than are
individuals with high self-esteem. Individuals
PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE
•
who hold very extreme attitudes are more
The days of command-and-control
resistant to persuasion, and people who are
management, in which executives
in a good mood are easier to persuade.
simply told employees what to do, are
•
over. In the past, managers or bosses
Message Characteristics - Suppose you
used
to
want to persuade your employees that an
employees, and that was how things
unpopular policy is a positive change.
worked. But now, things are different.
Persuasion is a delicate skill. Undisguised
Nowadays, managers need to be
deliberate attempts at changing attitudes
good at convincing and influencing
may drive
their employees.
opposite direction. This is most likely to occur
Through persuasion, one individual
when
(the source) tries to change the
communication feels her or his freedom is
attitude of another person (the target)
threatened.
to
just
give
orders
employees’
the
target
of
attitudes in the
the
persuasive
in regard to a certain issue (the
message). Certain characteristics of
Cognitive Routes to Persuasion - The
the source, target, and message
source, target, and message characteristics
affect the persuasion process.
are weighed differently in the two cognitive
routes to persuasion, the central route and
the peripheral route, as shown in the
elaboration likelihood model of persuasion in
Figure 4.2. The routes are differentiated by
the amount of elaboration, or scrutiny, that
the target is motivated to give to the
message.
Source
Characteristics
-
Three major
affect
The central route to persuasion - involves
persuasion: expertise, trustworthiness, and
direct cognitive processing of the message’s
attractiveness.48 A source who is perceived
content. In this route, individuals think
as an expert is particularly persuasive.
carefully about issues that are personally
characteristics
of
the
source
relevant. The listener may nod his head at
strong arguments and shake his head at
weak
ones.
Logical
and
convincing
arguments are needed to change attitudes
are
perceived
as
negative,
the
by this route.
opposite can be true. Emotions, in
turn, impact both work attitudes and
Peripheral Route to persuasion - The
work behaviors.
individual is not motivated to pay much
Moods
attention to the message’s content because
•
Are typically classified as positive or
she is distracted or perceives the message
negative and are made up of various
as personally irrelevant. Instead, she is
emotions. Moods typically last longer
persuaded
than emotions and don’t have a
by
persuader
characteristics
such
of
as
the
expertise,
trustworthiness,
and
attractiveness.
individual
may
also
be
statistics,
the
The
•
Moods are feeling states that are
by
more enduring than emotions and
arguments
have no clear cause. Moods are one
presented, or the method of presentation—
level above emotions since they are
none of which relate to the actual content of
made up of a variety of emotions.
number
persuaded
specific cause.
of
•
the message.
Moods may be particularly important
in the workplace because they last
EMOTIONS AND MOODS AT WORK
longer than emotions. Positive moods
at
Emotions
•
lead
better
work
OCBs
and
counterproductive
work
performance
Emotions are discrete and fairly
decrease
short-lived
behavior.
feelings
that
have
a
specific, known cause. An emotion
like anger, for example, may arise
•
work
to
and
Emotional Contagion at Work
•
Emotions have far-reaching influence
because a colleague was rude to you.
on workplace behavior. They drive
Or you may feel happy because you
employee decision making and are
got a promotion.
even used as a manipulative tool to
Emotions (e.g., anger, joy, pride,
ensure
hostility)
conflicts or negotiations.
are
short-lived,
intense
reactions to an event. Employees
•
desired
outcomes
from
The influence of emotion at work is
have to cope with both positive and
extended by emotional contagion,
negative events at work on a daily
which is the dynamic process through
basis, and these events, in turn, lead
which emotions are transferred from
to emotions. When events at work are
one
positive and goals are being met,
consciously
employees
through nonverbal channels.
experience
positive
emotions. But when events at work
•
person
to
or
another,
either
unconsciously,
Emotions need to be managed at
work because they spread easily.
labor used to meet these display rules: deep
Emotional contagion occurs primarily
acting and surface acting.
through nonverbal cues and the basic
Deep Acting - Involves attempting to feel the
human
emotion one is displaying.
tendency
to
mimic
each
other’s facial expressions.
Emotional
Intelligence
-
Picturing
a
beautiful mountain vista or thinking about a
Emotional
pleasant memory are examples of deep
intelligence (EI) is the ability to recognize and
acting.
manage emotion in oneself and in others. EI
Surface acting - is faking an emotion to
is made up of several types of abilities:
meet the display rules. Surface acting
perceiving, understanding, facilitating, and
causes
regulating
of
discrepancy between one’s felt emotion and
intelligence is thought to be an important
one’s expressed emotion. Surface acting can
ability for many types of jobs and to be a
result in negative outcomes such as burnout,
fundamental aspect of leadership.
negative mood, and work withdrawal.
Emotional Labor
Deep acting, in general, seems to have
•
emotion.69
This
type
emotional
dissonance
-
A
Emotional labor is the work that
positive consequences and has been related
employees do to control their feelings
to positive mood at work as well as high-
and expression of emotions in the
quality customer service performance and
workplace and is a type of emotion
reduced burnout.
regulation.
•
It is clear that moods and emotions
ETHICAL BEHAVIOR
impact employees and organizations
Ethics - is the study of moral values and
a great deal. Positive moods and
moral behavior.
emotions
Ethical behavior
bring
about
positive
•
outcomes.
•
Involves acting in ways consistent
This can be particularly true for highly
with one’s personal values and the
interpersonal
commonly
jobs
like
customer
held
values
of
the
flight
organization and society. In the early
oftentimes,
1990s, James Burke, then CEO of
professors, who are expected to
Johnson & Johnson, put together a
express
list of companies committed to ethics.
service
representatives,
attendants,
and,
positive
emotions
and
suppress any anger or hostility they
The
may be feeling.
Johnson, Coca-Cola, Gerber, Kodak,
included
Johnson
&
3M, and Pitney Bowes.
Display Rules - Often organizations have
specific rules regarding emotional expression
group
•
Ethical behavior in firms can also lead
called display rules.
to practical benefits, particularly by
There are two primary types of emotional
attracting new talent. Firms with
better
reputations
attract
more
applicants, creating a larger hiring
pool, and evidence suggests that
•
Ethical decision making requires three
qualities of individuals
1. The competence to identify ethical
respected firms can choose higher-
issues
quality applicants.
consequences of alternative courses
Failure to handle situations ethically
of action.
can hurt companies. Employees who
•
evaluate
2. The self-confidence to
seek
the
out
are laid off or terminated are very
different opinions about the issue and
concerned
decide what is right in terms of a
about
the
quality
of
particular situation.
treatment they receive.
•
and
Honestly explaining the reasons for
3. Tough-mindedness—the
willingness
the dismissal and preserving the
to make decisions when all that
dignity of the employee will reduce
needs to be known cannot be known
the likelihood of employees initiating
and when the ethical issue has no
a claim against the company.
established, unambiguous solution.
Unethical behavior by employees can
Values
affect individuals, work teams, and
•
ethical behaviors.
even the organization. Organizations
thus depend on individuals to act
Different values generate different
•
Values are enduring beliefs that a
ethically. For this reason, more and
specific mode of conduct or end state
more firms are starting to monitor
of existence is personally or socially
their employees’ Internet usage.
preferable to an opposite or converse
mode of conduct or end state of
existence.
•
This definition was proposed by
Rokeach, an early scholar of human
values.
As individuals grow and
mature, they learn values, although
these may change as an individual
develops a sense of self.
FACTORS
THAT
AFFECT
ETHICAL
BEHAVIOR
There are two sets of factors – Individual
Two Types of Values (Rokeach)
•
that
characteristics (Individual influences) and
Organizational
influences)
factors
which
behavior of an individual.
the
ethical
shape
the
acceptable
behaviors that can be used to
(Organizational
influence
Instrumental values - Values
achieve some goal or end state.
•
Terminal values - Values that
influence the goals to be achieved
•
or the end states of existence.
Work Values
•
Work values influence individuals'
perceptions of right and wrong on the
job.
Four
work
achievement,
values
concern
for
are
others,
honesty, and fairness.
•
Achievement - is a concern for the
advancement
of
one's career;
it
drives people to work hard and seek
opportunities to develop new skills.
•
Concern for others - is shown in
caring,
such
compassionate
as
encouraging
behaviors
others
or
helping them with difficult tasks.
These
behaviors
also
constitute
organizational citizenship.
•
•
Cultural Differences in Values
•
Cultures
differ
in
the
individual
Honesty - is providing accurate
contributions they value at work. It
information and refusing to mislead
affects individuals' views of what
others for personal gain.
constitutes
Fairness - means remaining impartial
systems of other nations are not
while recognizing different points of
necessarily wrong; they are merely
view.
different.
•
authority.
The
value
Different cultures have norms that
vary from place to place in the
business world. For example, you
might have to face a request to
conduct business in certain countries.
This might be unethical to you but
considered an acceptable norm in
their workplace. Culture refers to the
social norms, customs, and beliefs of
a society or group. Culture influences
ethical behavior because it affects
how people perceive and do things.
Where people come from forms a
part of their identity and personality.
men he has around him.” — Niccolo
LOCUS OF CONTROL
•
It refers to individuals' perceptions
about whether the consequences of
their behaviors are within (internal) or
COGNITIVE MORAL DEVELOPMENT
•
moral development also affects
control which can impact their ethical
ethical behavior.
Internals
externals
•
are
more
to
likely
take
than
personal
regard
•
•
•
•
making
Cognitive
moral
Externals are more apt to believe that
occurs
three
external forces caused their ethical or
consisting of two stages.
ethical
at
development
levels,
each
unethical behavior.
Level I (Premoral Level) - A person’s ethical
Research has shown that internals
decisions
make more ethical decisions than
punishments, and self-interest. In Stage 1,
externals. Internals also are more
people obey rules to avoid punishment. In
resistant to social pressure and are
Stage 2, people obey rules only if it is in their
less willing to hurt another person
immediate interest to do so.
even if ordered to do so by an
Level II (Conventional) - At Level II, the
authority figure.
conventional level, people focus on the
expectations
MACHIAVELLIANISM
•
to
decisions. (Lawrence Kohlberg)
•
their ethical or unethical behavior.
It is the process of moving
through stages of maturity with
responsibility for the consequences of
•
An individual's level of cognitive
beyond (external) their own personal
behavior.
•
Machiavelli
are
of
based
others.
on
In
rewards,
Stage
3,
A personality characteristic involving
individuals try to live up to the expectations
one's willingness to do whatever it
of people close to them. In Stage 4, they
takes to get one's own way.
broaden their perspective to include the laws
They might also use manipulative
and norms of the larger society. They fulfill
behaviors to get what they want, as
duties and obligations to contribute to
well as deception or exploitation.
society.
They often come off as unemotional.
Level III (Principled) - At Level III, the
Moreover, they cynical disregard for
principled level, universal values determine
morality,
in
what is right. The individual sees beyond
manipulating or deceiving others, and
laws, rules, and the expectations of other
a focus on one's own self-interest and
people. In Stage 5, individuals are aware that
personal
people have diverse value systems. They
taking
gain
pleasure
which
affect
their
ethical behavior.
uphold their own values even if others
The first method for estimating the
disagree. Individuals in Stage 5 make
intelligence of a ruler is to look at the
decisions. A person who arrives at the same
decision through a complex decision process
based on justice and rights may be a Stage 5
individual. The key is the process rather than
the decision itself. In Stage 6, the individual
follows self-selected ethical principles. Stage
6 individuals act according to their own selfselected ethical principles, even when these
principles conflict with a law.