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TMAE 315
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT
MANAGEMENT
Phạm Thị Mai Khanh (Ph.D.)
phamthimaikhanh.cs2@ftu.edu.vn
1
References
1. Meredith J., Mantel S. and Shafer S. (2017), Project Management
A managerial approach, 10th edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2. Lientz B. and Rea K. (2003), International project management,
Academic Press
3. Project Management Institute (2016), A Guide to the project
management body of knowledge, 6th edition.
4. JISC Project Management Toolkit,
https://www.jisc.ac.uk/guides/project-management#
5. CDC Project Management Templates:
https://www2a.cdc.gov/cdcup/library/templates/default.htm
2
1
Chapter 1: Overview of
International Project Management
Unit Name: International Project Management
Main Contents
1. Interna3onal Project: concepts,
characteris3cs and life cycle
2. Interna3onal Project Management: concepts,
evolvement and content
3. Stakeholder Management
2
1. PROJECT
5
1.1. What is a project?
• Projects are unique, transient endeavours undertaken to achieve a desired
outcome. [Association for Project Management, 2004]
• A unique set of coordinated activities, with definite starting and finishing
points, undertaken by an individual or organisation to meet specific
performance objectives with defined schedule, cost and performance
parameters. [British Standard 6079, 2000]
• A management environment that is created for the purpose of delivering one
or more business products according to a specified business case. [Prince2,
2009]
• A temporary organisation that is needed to produce a unique and predefined
outcome or result at a given time using predetermined resources. [Prince2,
2009]
• A project refers to a value creation undertaking based on a specific mission,
which is completed in a given or agreed timeframe and under constraints,
including resources and external circumstances. [Project Management
Association of Japan, 2005]
3
Project - Definition
In the broadest sense, a project is a specific, finite task to be accomplished.
(Meredith and Mantel, 2009, p. 9)
A project is a temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product or
service. (PMBOK 2016)
To solve a problem???
hLps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rBSCvPYGnTc&t=10s
7
A project is...
‘…an endeavor in which human material and financial resources are
organized in a novel way to deliver a unique scope of work of given
specifica3on oWen within constraints of cost and Cme to achieve
beneficial changes defined by quan3ta3ve and qualita3ve
objec3ves.’ (UK Associa3on for Project Management - APM)
… a progressive elaboraCon to achieve specific objec3ves within
budget and 3me constraints (Lientz and Rea, 2003)
… a human acCvity that achieves a clear objec3ve against a 3me
scale. (Reiss, 2007)
8
4
9
Theme
• Unique
– Or aspects of uniqueness (management by exception!)
• Temporary (one-time occurrence)
– Organisation, finances
• Focused
– Delivering a defined result (product or service)
• Emergence
– High level benefits known
– Exact objective and means to achieve them evolve after a certain amount
of work has been done
• Uncertainty
– The future is unpredictable
– Unknowns : achievable objective, costs, durations
5
Theme
• Change
– Any new system (deliverable) will impact on the way people work
• Social construction
– People and systems of people have complex and dynamic
interactions
• Integration
– People (staff and end users; training and media coverage), systems,
technology, knowledge
• Constraints
– PCTS (Performance – Cost – Time and Scope)
Project Characteristics
Project Constraints - PCTS
The fourth indent for project success:
the client satisfaction
12
6
PROJECT VS. PROCESS
13
Project vs. Process
Projects
Functional Work (Processes)
• Human activities
• Resource-limited
• 3 main phases: planning, execution, control and
monitoring
• Unique and temporary
Once the end-point is
reach, the project is over
(one-time events)
• Routine
• Tasks that are performed
over and over again
14
7
Project vs. Process
Projects
Functional Work (Processes)
• Human activities
• Resource-limited
• 3 main phases: planning, execution, control and
monitoring
• Unique and temporary
Once the end-point is
reach, the project is over
(one-time events)
• Routine
• Tasks that are performed
over and over again
Source: Maylor 2010, p. 11
15
Phân biệt dự án và hoạt động
STT
Mô tả
1
Xây dựng nhà máy sản xuất ô tô
2
Vận hành hoạt động của nhà máy sản xuất ô tô
3
Thiết kế một mẫu xe mới
4
Chiến dịch marketing để quảng cáo một mẫu xe mới
5
Thiết kế một phần mềm để quản lý thông tin khách
hàng
6
Sử dụng phần mềm để quản lý thông tin khách hàng
7
Xây dựng một nhà máy điện
8
Vận hành một nhà máy điện
9
Lắp đặt thêm một tổ máy mới cho nhà máy điện
10
Sửa chữa, bảo dưỡng các tổ máy đang hoạt động
DA
HĐ
16
8
Project vs. Process
Projects
Functional Work (Processes)
• Human activities
• Resource-limited
• 3 main phases: planning, execution, control and
monitoring
• Unique and temporary
Once the end-point is
reach, the project is over
(one-time events)
• Routine
• Tasks that are performed
over and over again
Source: Maylor 2010, p. 12
17
Project vs. Process
Projects
Functional Work (Processes)
• Human activities
• Resource-limited
• 3 main phases: planning, execution, control and
monitoring
• Unique and temporary
Once the end-point is
reach, the project is over
(one-time events)
• Routine
• Tasks that are performed
over and over again
Source: Maylor 2010, p. 8
18
9
Volume and Characteris3cs Variety
Other related terms
• Program (encompasses a group of similar projects
oriented toward a specific goals)
– Sub-project
– Project – Tasks – Work Packages
• PorJolio
• InternaConal Investment Project
20
10
A project is a temporary endeavour undertaken to
create a unique product or service. (PMBOK 2004)
It is
• performed by people
• constrained by limited resources
• planned, executed and controlled
1.2. The Life Cycle of Projects
• All organisms have a life cycle, they are born, grow,
wane, and die
– So do projects
• Some projects follow an S-shaped curve
– They start slowly, develop momentum, and then finish
slowly
• Other project follow a J-shaped curve
– They start slowly , proceed slowly, and then finish rapidly
11
The Project Life Cycle
Figure 1-2
An Alternate Project Life Cycle
Figure 1-3
12
Project Life Cycle
1. Conception
1. Initiation
2. Planning
2. Execution
3. Termination 3. Execution,
Control and
Monitoring
4. Termination
1. Conception
2. Planning
3. Execution
4. Control and
Monitoring
5. Termination
25
Project Life Cycle
26
13
Project Life Cycle
Cost and
Staffing
level
Intermediate
Phases (one
or more)
Initial
Phase
Final
Phase
Time
Finish
Start
Milestones :
• defined state of the project
• decision point
Potential for chages vs. cost of change in a Project Life Cycle
Pham Thi Mai Khanh-Foreign Trade University
Concept
Design
Implement
Comm
Operation
Level of influence
Potential to add values
Cost of change
Concept
Design
Implement
Commission
Cost of change -i
IT
$1
$10
$100
$1000
14
4-D Project Cycle
Maylor (2010), Project Management, Prentice Hall, p. 32
29
4-D Project Cycle
E.g. Supply of a Information Management System to a Hospital
Maylor (2010), Project Management, Prentice Hall
30
15
4-D Project Cycle
E.g. Supply of a Information Management System to a Hospital
Maylor (2010), Project Management, Prentice Hall
31
Projects vs. Enterprises
(A)
(C)
(B)
(D)
Enterprise/Firm
Project
16
Projects and Organiza3onal Strategy
Strategic management – the science of formulating,
implementing and evaluating cross-functional decisions
that enable an organization to achieve its objectives.
Consists of:
– Developing vision and mission statements
– Formulating, implementing, and evaluating
– Making cross-functional decisions
– Achieving objectives
Copyright ©2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
2-5
OrganiSATIONAL STRATEGY PROCESS
2-34
Copyright ©2016 Pearson Education,
Inc.
17
Project and Organiza3on strategy
Maylor, 2010
2-35
Copyright ©2016 Pearson Education,
Inc.
Projects Reflect Strategy
(Table 2.1)
2-6
Copyright
©2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
18
TOWS matrix
(Figure 2.2)
2-7
TRADITIONAL VS. STRATEGIC APPROACHES
Maylor, 2010
2-38
Copyright ©2016 Pearson Education,
Inc.
19
2. Project Management
What is project management?
Project Management-Concepts (1)
•
…. a combina3on of management and planning and the management of change.
(Reiss, 1993 )
•
… to plan, co-ordinate and control the complex and diverse ac3vi3es of modern
industrial and commercial projects (Lock, 1994)
•
…a specialised management technique, to plan and control projects under a strong
single point of responsibility. (Burke, 1993)
40
20
Project Management – Concept (2)
•
… the applica3on of a collec3on of tools and techniques (such as the CPM and
matrix organisa3on) to direct the use of diverse resources toward the
accomplishment of a unique, complex, one-Cme task within Cme, cost and
quality constraints. Each task requires a par3cular mix of theses tools and
techniques structured to fit the task environment and life cycle (from concep3on
to comple3on) of the task. (Oisen, 1971 – reflected the 1950’s view)
•
… the planning, organisa3on, monitoring and control of all aspects of a project
and the mo3va3on of all involved to achieve the project objec3ves safely and
within agreed 3me, cost and performance criteria. The project manager is the
single point of responsibility for achieving this. (UK APM)
•
… the applica3on of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project ac3vi3es
to meet the project requirements. (PMI)
41
Project Management – Concept (3)
Project management is
the art and science of
converting vision into
reality.
(Turner, 1996)
42
21
Project Management – concept (4)
“The applicaCon of knowledge, skills, tools, and
techniques to meet project requirements.”
Project Management Ins3tute, 2013
Project Management-Concept (5)
The applica3on of
Knowledge
Skills
Tools
Techniques
to
Planning
Organiza3on/Coordina3on
Monitoring and Control
to achieve project objec3ves
Time
Cost
Required
Performance
Efficiency
Ancillary
Objec3ves
44
22
45
Project Management Philosophy
• The “Golden Rule” of Project Management is
three words:
– Plan
– Organize
– Control
23
Why the Emphasis on Project
Management?
• Many tasks do not fit neatly into business-asusual
• Organiza3ons need to assign responsibility
and authority for the achievement of their
goals
Importance of successful project management to an
organisation
Figure 1.4 Innovation and maintenance activities in project and line management
24
Comparison of Project Management and
General Management
Table 1-1
Why Project Management? -Forces
The characteris3cs of our contemporary society demand the development of
new methods of management:
(1) the exponen3al expansion of human knowledge;
(2) the growing demand for a broad range of complex, sophis3cated,
customized goods and services; and
(3) the evolu3on of worldwide compe33ve markets for the produc3on and
consump3on of goods and services.
All three forces combine to mandate the use of teams to solve problems
that used to be solvable by individuals. These three forces combine to
increase greatly the complexity of goods and services produced plus the
complexity of the processes used to produce them. This, in turn, leads to the
need for more sophisCcated systems to control both outcomes and
processes.
1-50
25
Why Project Management? - efficiency
• The main purpose for initiating a project is to
accomplish some goal
• Project management increases the likelihood of
accomplishing that goal
• Project management gives us someone (the
project manager) to spearhead the project and
to hold accountable for its completion
1-51
Negative Side to Project Management
• Greater organizational complexity
• Higher probability organizational policy will
be violated
• Says managers cannot accomplish the
desired outcome
• Conflict
1-52
26
The Evolution of Project Management
• Historical projects
– Tower of Babel
– Egyptian pyramids
– Great Wall of China
• The Manhattan Project
• Modern credit for the development of project
management goes to the military
– Navy’s Polaris program
– NASA’s Apollo space program
– Development of “smart bombs” and “missiles”
1-53
The evolution of PM
•
The grandfather of management science– Frederick Winslow Taylor (an
American engineer) – end of 19th century – beginning of 20th century.
•
The grandfathers of PM: beginning of 20th century
– Henry Gantt (US): Gantt Chart (1910).
– Henri Fayol (French): the introduction of the
5 functions of project management.
•
Widely used during 1950 – 1960: PERT – Program Evaluation and Review
Technique) and CPM – Critical Path Method)
54
27
The Evolution of Project Management
• 1969: The formation of Project Management Institution (PMI) in
the USA, grew from 7,500 members in 1990 to over 440,000 in 190
countries by mid-2013
• 1981: PMI published “A Guide to the Project Management Body of
Knowledge” (PMBOK® Guide) , which is recognized throughout
the world as a standard for managing projects in today’s
marketplace. The PMBOK® Guide is approved as an American
National Standard (ANS) by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI).
• Other organizations
– Association for Project Management (APM – UK)
– International Project Management Association (IPMA)
1-55
The Evolution of Project Management
• Since 1990s, project management has found
wide acceptance in industry
• It has many applications outside of construction
– Managing legal cases
– Managing new product releases
1-56
28
Project management past and present
Historical development of project management
3. Knowledge Areas of PM
58
29
Knowledge Areas of PM
1. Project Integration Management
2. Project Scope Management
3. Project Time Management
4. Project Cost Management
5. Project Quality Management
6. Project Human Resource Management
7. Project Communications Management
8. Project Risk Management
9. Project Procurement Management
10.Stakeholders’ Management
59
PM 5 Process Groups and 9 Knowledge Management
Areas
Stakeholders’
Management
60
30
OVERVIEW OF THE PMI’S PMBOK
KNOWLEDGE AREAS
1-30
31
PM and other areas of knowlege
Management
Professional
Knowledge
Project
Management
Complement
Knowledge
63
The 7 S of Project Management
32
4. STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT
Stakeholder Analysis
• Stakeholders are individuals, work groups and
organizations that are actively involved in the project, or
whose interests can be positively or negatively affected
as the result of project execution or project completion.
• Stakeholder analysis serves two purposes:
– to determine the information needs of the
various stakeholders.
– to devise a communication strategy that will
best serve the project.
33
Typical Roles and Responsibilities
of Stakeholders
• Project Sponsor
– the one with the money
• Senior Management
– e.g. priorities between projects, project charter
• Team
– Does Planning and Execution
• Functional Manager:
– “owns” resources (IT, marketing, etc.)
• Project Manager
– The individual responsible for the project
• Other Stakeholders
– Customer, external experts, …
34
STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT
PROCESSES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Iden3fy stakeholders
Plan Stakeholder Management
Manage Stakeholder Engagement
Control Stakeholder Engagement
4.1. IDENTIFY STAKEHOLDERS
•
•
The process of identifying the people, groups, or organizations that
could impact or be impacted by a decision, activity, or outcome of
the project, analyzing and documenting relevant information
regarding their interests, involvement, interdependencies, influence,
and potential impact on project success.
Key benefit: it allows the project manager to identify the appropriate
focus for each stakeholder or group of stakeholders.
35
The stakeholder register should be consulted and updated on a
regular basis, as stakeholders may change—or new ones
identified—throughout the life cycle of the project.
72
36
Stakeholder Analysis
Stakeholders
Stake in
PotenCal
the project Impact on/
Interest in
the Project
ExpectaCons
Perceived
AOtude
Stakeholder
Management
Strategy
Responsibility
Supporter
/Neutral
/Resister
73
Iden3fy Stakeholders
• Stakeholder engagement levels
– Unaware: unaware of the project and its poten3al
impacts on them
– Resistant: aware of the project yet resistant to change
– Neutral: aware of the project yet neither suppor3ve
nor resistant
– Suppor3ve: aware of the project and suppor3ve of
change
– Leading: aware of the project and its potential
impacts and actively engaged in helping it
succeed
37
Stakeholder Management Strategy Grid
75
Stakeholder Analysis
Stakeholders
Stake in
PotenCal
the project Impact on/
Interest in
the Project
H/L
H/H
L/H
L/L
ExpectaCons
Perceived
AOtude
Stakeholder
Management
Strategy
Responsibility
Supporter Keep Sa3sfied
/Neutral
Managed Closely
/Resister Keep informed
Monitor
76
38
4.2. PLAN STAKEHOLDER
MANAGEMENT
•
The process of developing appropriate management strategies to
effectively engage stakeholders throughout the project life cycle,
based on the analysis of their needs, interests, and potential impact
on project success.
•
Key benefit: it provides a clear, actionable plan to interact with project
stakeholders to support the project’s interests
39
Plan Stakeholder Management
• AWer iden3fying and analyzing stakeholders, project
teams should develop a plan for management them
– May be formal or informal, based on the needs of the
project
• The stakeholder management plan can include:
–
–
–
–
–
Current and desired engagement levels
Interrela3onships between stakeholders
Communica3on requirements
Poten3al management strategies for each stakeholders
Methods for upda3ng the stakeholder management plan
Plan Stakeholder Management
• Because a stakeholder management plan oWen
includes sensi3ve informa3on, it should not be
part of the official project documents, which are
normally available for all stakeholders to review
– In many cases, only project managers and a few other
team members should prepare the stakeholder
management plan
– Parts of the stakeholder management plan are not
wriLen down, and if they are, distribu3on is strictly
limited
40
4.3. MANAGE STAKEHOLER
ENGAGEMENT
•
The process of communicating and working with stakeholders to
meet their needs/expectations, address issues as they occur,
and foster appropriate stakeholder engagement in project
activities throughout the project life cycle.
•
Key benefit: it allows the project manager to increase support
and minimize resistance from stakeholders, significantly
increasing the chances to achieve project success
41
Communica3on Management Plan
Provides guidance and informa3on on managing
stakeholder expecta3ons, a communica3on
management plan includes (but is not limited to):
• Stakeholder communica3ons requirements;
• Informa3on to be communicated, including
language, format, content, and level of detail;
• Reason for distribu3on of informa3on;
• Person or groups who will receive informa3on; and
• Escala3on process.
Stakeholder Communica3on Plan
Stakeholders
Interest/Power
Mgt Strategy
Key
Interests/
Issues
Desired
Impact/
Roles
Message
Needed
AcCons
Desired
CommunicaCon
Vehicles/Channel
84
42
Manage Stakeholder Engagement
• Project success is oWen measured in terms of
customer/sponsor sa3sfac3on
– Project sponsors oWen rank scope, 3me, and cost
goals in order of importance and provide
guidelines on how to balance the triple constraint
• This ranking can be shown in an expecta3ons
management matrix to help clarify expecta3ons
e.
Manage Stakeholder Engagement
• Understanding the stakeholders’ expecta3ons
can help in managing issues
– Issues should be documented in an issue log, a
tool used to document, monitor, and track issues
that need resolu3on
– Unresolved issues can be a major source of
conflict and result in stakeholder expecta3ons not
being met
– Issue logs can address other knowledge areas as
well
Information Technology Project
Management, Ninth Edition. © 2019
Cengage. May not be copied, scanned, or
duplicated, in whole or in part, except for
use as permitted in a license distributed with
a certain product or service or otherwise on
a password-protected website for classroom
use.
43
Manage Stakeholder Engagement
Issue #
DescripCon
Impact
Date
Reported
Reported
By
Assigned
to
Priority (H/
M/L)
Due Date
Status
Comments
1
Need
requirements
categorized
as mandatory
and
op3onal
Cannot
do much
without it
Feb. 4
Ryan
Stephen
H
Feb. 8
Closed
Requirements
clearly
labeled
2
Need shorter
list of
poten3al
suppliers
—no more
than 10
Will delay
evalua3on
without it
Feb. 6
Debra
Ryan
H
Feb. 12
Open
Almost finished;
needed
requirements
categorized
first
Etc.
Table 13-4 Sample issue log
4.4. CONTROL STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT
•
The process of monitoring overall project stakeholder relationships
and adjusting strategies and plans for engaging stakeholders.
•
Key benefit: it will maintain or increase the efficiency and
effectiveness of stakeholder engagement activities as the project
evolves and its environment changes.
44
Khởi công dự án lọc hóa dầu lớn nhất
Việt Nam
Với tổng vốn đầu tư hơn 9 tỷ USD, dự án lọc hóa dầu Nghi Sơn là một trong những dự án đầu tư nước ngoài
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quốc.
Sáng 23/10, Tập đoàn Dầu khí Quốc gia Việt Nam (PetroVietnam) cùng các đối tác liên doanh đã tổ chức khởi công tổ
hợp lọc hoá dầu Nghi Sơn. Với tổng vốn đầu tư trên 9 tỷ USD, đây là một trong những dự án đầu tư nước ngoài lớn
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kinh tế Nghi Sơn và vùng phụ cận.
Chủ đầu tư của dự án là Công ty TNHH Lọc hóa dầu Nghi Sơn (NSRP) được thành lập, góp vốn bởi Tập đoàn Dầu khí
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phẩm bao gồm khí hóa lỏng LPG, xăng (RON 92, 95), dầu diesel (cao cấp, thường), dầu hoả/nhiên liệu phản lực, nhựa
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Phát biểu tại lễ khởi công, Thủ tướng Nguyễn Tấn Dũng đánh giá cao nỗ lực của Tập đoàn Dầu khí Việt Nam, các nhà
đầu tư nước ngoài, Công ty Lọc hóa dầu Nghi Sơn, các nhà tài trợ vốn và các nhà thầu EPC trong một thời gian ngắn
đã hoàn thành khối lượng lớn các công việc, thu xếp nguồn vốn và hoàn tất thủ tục đầu tư để hôm nay chúng ta có đủ
điều kiện khởi công dự án. Người đứng đấu Chính phủ cũng nhấn mạnh việc khởi công xây dựng hợp đồng EPC hôm
nay mới chỉ là bước khởi đầu, khối lượng công việc phía trước còn rất lớn với nhiều khó khăn, thách thức.
Lê Hoàng
http://kinhdoanh.vnexpress.net/tin-tuc/doanh-nghiep/khoi-cong-du-an-loc-hoa-dau-lon-nhat-vietnam-2899665.html
90
45
•
•
•
Chủ đầu tư của dự án là Công ty TNHH Lọc hóa dầu Nghi Sơn (NSRP) được thành lập theo Hợp
đồng liên doanh ký ngày 7/4/2008 và Giấy chứng nhận đầu tư cấp ngày 14/4/2008.
Nhà thầu EPC của dự án gồm: Liên danh nhà thầu do Công ty JGC Corporation (Nhật Bản) đứng
đầu và các nhà thầu: Chiyoda Corporation (Nhật Bản), GS Engineering & Construction
Corporation (Hàn Quốc); SK Engineering & Construction Co., Ltd (Hàn Quốc); Technip France
(Pháp) và Technip Geoproduction (Malaysia).
http://baodientu.chinhphu.vn/Tin-noi-bat/Thu-tuong-phat-lenh-khoi-cong-Lien-hop-Loc-hoa-dauNghi-Son/183678.vgp
Phạm vi công việc của Nhà thầu EPC bao gồm toàn bộ công việc thiết kế, mua sắm, xây lắp và hỗ
trợ chạy thử cho toàn bộ nhà máy, ngoại trừ công tác nạo nét ban đầu và san lấp mặt bằng được
thực hiện bởi các đơn vị thành viên của Tập đoàn Dầu khí Việt Nam. Liên hợp Lọc hóa dầu Nghi
Sơn là tổ hợp lọc hóa dầu chế biến sâu, tầm cỡ thế giới ở công suất, nguyên liệu và sản phẩm.
Ông Hussain Esmaiel, Chủ tịch KPI kiêm Chủ tịch Hội đồng Thành viên Công ty TNHH Lọc hóa
dầu Nghi Sơn cho biết: Liên hợp Lọc hóa dầu Nghi Sơn có sông suất 200 nghìn thùng/ngày,
tương đương 10 triệu tấn dầu thô/năm; sẽ cung cấp các sản phẩm lọc, hóa dầu đảm bảo an ninh
năng lượng cho Việt Nam trong thời gian tới.
Dự án có tổng mức đầu tư 9 tỉ USD, gồm có 3 cổ đông chính: Tập đoàn Dầu khí Việt Nam
(25,1%); Công ty Dầu khí Quốc tế Kuwait (KPI/KPE) 35,1%; Công ty Idemitsu Kosan Nhật Bản
(IKC) 35,1%. Các cổ đông chính sẽ đóng góp số vốn khoảng 4 tỉ USD, 5 tỉ USD còn lại sẽ ký với
các liên doanh, ngân hàng, tổ chức tài chính quốc tế.
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Tên dự án (vấn đề mà dự án giải quyết)
Mục tiêu dự án
Tổng vốn đầu tư và nguồn vốn (nhà tài trợ)
Thời gian tiến hành
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Các hoạt động cơ bản của dự án, trình tự các hoạt động
Các công cụ được sử dụng để thiết kế và quản trị dự án (tuỳ
chọn)
Cơ cấu tổ chức của dự án (tuỳ chọn)
Cơ chế báo cáo, kiểm soát, quản trị rủi ro của dự án (tuỳ chọn)
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