Chapter 19 – notes
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equity and social justice, sustainability, freedom, and
safety
emphasis on positive and desirable aspects of life rather
than just identifying deficiencies
Wellbeing: a good or satisfactory condition of existence;
a state characterised by health, happiness, prosperity
and welfare (what is needed for a good life)
indicators include: social, technological, environmental,
economic (quantitative e.g., distribution of wealth),
political
Standard of living: level of material comfort in terms of
goods and services available to someone or some group;
continuum, for example a ‘high’ or ‘excellent’ standard
of living compared to a ‘low’ or ‘poor’ standard of
living
Geographers use the spatial dimension, which helps us to
identify patterns of where things are located over
Earth’s space and attempt to explain why these patterns
exist.
Factors that affect equality across areas in a positive
way may include the availability of natural resources or
an educated workforce, whereas susceptibility to natural
disasters or corruption may create more inequality.
Inequalities may exist between individuals, but also
within and between countries, regions and continents
(often referred to as ‘spatial inequality’). Just as each
person has their own unique strengths and weaknesses,
places are either endowed with or lack various
resources.
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Political indicators look at how effective governments
are in helping to improve people’s standard of living by
ensuring access to essential services.
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Economic indicators:
o gross domestic product (GDP): measures economic
activity in country
o measurement of the value of all goods and services
bought and sold within a country’s borders
o profits made by business may not stay in the country
where it was made, but the headquarters (e.g., Nike
sold in Australia but headquarters In USA))
o A GDP-led development model focuses solely on
boundless economic growth on a planet with limited
resources — and this is not a balanced equation.
o gross national income (GNI): economic activity of
residents and businesses of a country
o e.g., if golfer Jason Day wins a tournament in
Scotland, the prize money would be counted towards
Scotland’s GDP (it was produced in that country);
however, as he is an Australian citizen, it would
count as part of Australia’s GNI
o these measures make no distinction between
transactions that add to wellbeing and those that
detract from it (do not recognise environmental,
social and humanitarian issues such as pollution and
stress levels)
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the human development index
(HDI) is a combination of
indicators which give insights
on a country’s wellbeing
Each of the four component
measures — life expectancy,
experienced wellbeing,
inequality of outcomes and
ecological footprint — is
given a traffic-light score
based on thresholds for good
(green), middling (amber) and
bad (red) performance results.
These scores are combined into
an expanded six-colour traffic light for the overall HPI
score. To achieve bright green (the best of the six
colours), a country would have to perform well on all
three individual components.
ecological footprint the amount of productive land needed
on average by each person in a selected area for food,
water, transport, housing and waste management
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The imaginary Brandt Line divided the rich and poor
countries, roughly following the line of the equator
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The North included the United States, Canada, Europe, the
USSR, Australia, and Japan. The South represented the
rest of Asia, Central and South America, and all of
Africa
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Terms first world and third world, over time, became more
commonly used to describe the category of poorer
countries that generally had lower standards of living
Poverty, although involving many factors, is often
measured using solely economic indicators
Stewardship (an ethic that embodies the responsible
planning and management of resources) benefits the
environment and aids wellbeing by ensuring we better
manage the benefits we receive from nature.
Sustainability is measured by the SSI, which maps social,
political, economic and environmental factors.
Malnutrition or hunger affect about 1 in 8 people across
the world.
Food and water insecurity can also lead to other
illnesses and diseases, such as cholera or typhoid.
Rates of obesity are increasing due to rising calorie
intake and decreased physical activity.
BMI is a simple index of weight-for-height that is
commonly used to classify persons as overweight or obese
(weight/height ≥ 25 as overweight and ≥ 30 as obese)
The primary cause of overweight/obesity is an imbalance
between calories consumed and calories expended (energy
burned)
Malaria is a blood disease spread by mosquitoes; risk
factors include poverty (especially when it stops
prevention strategies). Stopping mosquitoes from breeding
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or biting people are the most effective prevention
strategies, but the most effective insecticide (DDT) is
harmful to people, and many people at risk cannot afford
prevention.
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria. It is a
preventable and treatable disease, but over 10 million
people a year become ill from it.
Chapter 20 - notes
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Factors influencing variations in wellbeing between
countries are multifaceted, including historical
legacies, colonialism, natural resource endowments,
political stability, infrastructure, and access to global
markets.
Life expectancy is the length of time we can expect to
live from birth. The average global figure has been
steadily rising (due to birth and death rates)
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Wellbeing disparities within a country can be significant
due to regional, cultural, and economic factors.
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Internal reasons for variation: good governance,
effective public policies, and low levels of corruption
can contribute to equitable wellbeing. These factors
ensure that resources are allocated efficiently and
fairly.
o Population growth: access to better education,
healthcare and family planning leads to improved
wellbeing.
o Geographical location: coastlines improve transport
and trade; infectious diseases thrive in tropical
climates.
o Political instability: reduces access to
food/healthcare/personal safety; can divert funds
from essential services and destroy infrastructure;
some persecuted people may need to flee for their
safety.
o Environmental degradation: reduces access to food
and arable land; increases erosion, pollution,
salinity.
o Resources: determine the amount of food available;
provide economic benefits from export.
Education, healthcare, income inequality and poverty
greatly affect internal reasons for variation in
wellbeing
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External factors: outside the control of a country.
o Colonisation: drained resources (natural and human);
created oppression and disadvantage.
o Trade: covering a shortfall in production of
essentials (such as food) leads to national debt;
some products are more lucrative than others,
leading to inequalities.
o Transnational corporations: use cheap labour in
developing countries; most profits go to developed
countries.
o Aid: can help to redress imbalance, but is
vulnerable to corruption and may be ineffectual in
the long term without building local expertise and
training.
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Middle class – variation in wellbeing:
o Significant variations in wellbeing. These
variations are primarily due to factors such as
education, employment, and social status.
o Factors affecting wellbeing are usually related to
growth/decline such as income, consumer culture,
employment rates and government services.
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The sizes of families and populations impact wellbeing
and have a significant impact on age distribution, which
affects key wellbeing indicators
Kenya has a large, young population due to high birth
rates and low life expectancy, which places stress on the
country’s environmental resources, arable land, health
and education services, and economy.
Japan has an ageing population because of low fertility
rates and high life expectancy, which leads to increased
healthcare costs, lower income tax revenue and fewer
workers.
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Factors affecting levels of wellbeing for women include
complications of pregnancy and childbirth.
Maternal mortality rates are connected to poverty,
healthcare and education.
In some cultures, male children are more prized than
female children, creating gender imbalance and a greater
likelihood of women having multiple pregnancies, which
increases their risk of complications.
Chapter 21 – notes
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urban concentration within Australia affects access to
services, transportation, and employment opportunities.
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Our current population growth is due to immigration
rather than natural increase
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Indigenous Australians make up a significant portion of
the population.
Their wellbeing indicators, including life expectancy and
access to education and healthcare, are often lower than
the national average.
This reflects historical and ongoing disparities stemming
from colonization and dispossession.
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Australia also faces demographic challenges, including an
ageing population. With a growing number of elderly
citizens, there is increasing demand for healthcare, aged
care services, and considerations regarding the workforce
and pensions.