RADT 4011: Chapter 2
Anatomy – The term applied to the science of the structure of the body
Physiology – The study of the function of the body organs
Osteology – The detailed study of the body of knowledge relating to the bones of the body
Body Planes
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Imaginary planes that subdivide the body in
reference to anatomic position
Planes “slice” the body in all directions at
designated levels
Fundamental planes
o Sagittal
o Coronal
o Horizontal
o Oblique
Sagittal Planes
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Pass through vertically from front to back
Divide the body into right and left segments
Midsagittal plane (MSP) is a specific sagittal plane
that passes through midline and divides the body
into equal right and left halves
Coronal Planes
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Pass through the body vertically from side to side, dividing the body into anterior and posterior
parts
Midcoronal plane (MCP), also called midaxillary plane, is the specific plane that passes through
midline and divides the body into equal anterior and posterior halves
Horizonal Planes
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Horizontal planes pass crosswise through the body or body part at right angels to the
longitudinal axis
o Positioned at right angle to sagittal and coronal planes
o Divides the body into superior and inferior portions
o Also called transverse, axial, or cross-sectional planes
Oblique Planes
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Oblique planes pass through a body part at any angle between the previous three planes
Planes are used in radiographic positioning to center a body part to the IR or CR
Special Body Planes
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Special planes are localized to specific parts or areas of the body
Interiliac plane transects the body at the pelvis at the top of the iliac crests (level L4)
Occlusal plane formed by the biting surfaces of the upper and lower teeth with jaws closed
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Body Cavities
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Two great cavities
o Thoracic cavity
o Abdominal cavity
 Abdominal cavity has no lower partition, but the lower portion is called the
pelvic cavity
 Often referred to as the abdominopelvic cavity
Thoracic Cavity
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Contains
o Pleural membranes
o Lungs
o Trachea
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Esophagus
Pericardium
Heart and great vessels
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Stomach
Intestines
Kidneys
Ureters
Major blood vessels
Abdominal Cavity
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Contains
o Peritoneum
o Liver
o Gallbladder
o Pancreas
o Spleen
Pelvic Cavity
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Contains
o Rectum
o Urinary bladder
o Part of the reproductive system
Divisions of the Abdomen
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Bordered superiorly by diaphragm
Bordered inferiorly by superior pelvic
aperture (pelvic inlet)
Abdomen divided in two methods
o Quadrants
o Regions
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Quadrants of the Abdomen
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Four quadrants
o Right upper quadrant (RUQ)
o Left upper quadrant (LUQ)
o Right lower quadrant (RLQ)
o Left lower quadrant (LLQ)
Quadrants are useful for describing the location of various abdominal organs
Regions of the Abdomen
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Abdomen divided into nine regions by four planes, two horizontal and two vertical
Not used as often as quadrants
Superior regions
o Right hypochondrium
o Epigastrium
o Left hypochondrium
Middle regions
o Right lateral
o Umbilical
o Left lateral
Inferior regions
o Right inguinal
o Hypogastrium
o Left inguinal
Review Questions
Which body plane passes through the body from anterior to
posterior and divides the body into equal right and left
halves? Midsagittal
In which quadrant of the abdomen is the largest portion of the liver located? RUQ
The detailed study of the body of knowledge relating to the bones of the body defines? Osteology
Surface Landmarks
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Most anatomic structures cannot be seen or palpated
To accurately position, radiographers rely on palpable external landmarks to locate unseen
anatomy
Table 3-1 summarizes these external landmarks
Practice is needed to use surface landmarks accurately
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Body Habitus
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Defined as the common variations in the shape of the human body
Important in radiography because habitus determines size, shape, and position of organs of the
thoracic and abdominal cavities
Organs affected by body habitus
o Heart
o Lungs
o Diaphragm
o Stomach
o Colon
o Gallbladder
Four major types of body habitus
o Sthenic
o Hyposthenic
o Asthenic
o Hypersthenic
Sthenic and hyposthenic are considered average
Hypersthenic and asthenic are the extremes
Box 3-1 defines and illustrates the differences in body habitus
Osteology
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Skeletal divisions
General bone features
Bone development
Classification of bones
Bone Functions
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Attachment for muscles
Mechanical basis for movement
Protection of internal organs
Support frame for body
Storage for calcium, phosphorus, and other salts
Production of red and white blood cells
Skeletal Divisions
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Total of 206 bones in the body
Divided into two main groups
o Axial skeleton (80 bones)
 Supports and protects the head and trunk
o Appendicular skeleton (126 bones)
 Provides means for movement
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General Bone Features
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Compact bone
o Strong, dense outer layer
Spongy bone
o Inner, less dense layer
o Contains a spiculated network called trabeculae
Trabeculae filled with red and yellow marrow
Red marrow produces red and white blood cells
Yellow marrow stores fat cells
Medullary cavity
o Central cavity of long bones
o Contains trabeculae filled with yellow marrow
o Red marrow found in ends of long bones
Periosteum
o Tough, fibrous connective tissue that covers bone, except at articular ends
Endosteum
o Lines marrow cavity
Bone Development
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Ossification is the term that applies to the development and formation of bones
Begins in the second month of embryonic life
Two processes
o Intermembranous
o Endochondral
Flat bones are formed by intramembranous ossification
Short, irregular, and long bones are created by endochondral ossification
Endochondral ossification occurs from two distinct centers of development
o Primary
o Secondary
Primary ossification begins before birth and forms long central shaft in long bones
Secondary ossification occurs after birth when separate bones begin to develop at both ends of
the long bones
o Ends are called epiphyses
Classification of Bones
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Classified by Shape
o Long
o Irregular
o Short
o Sesamoid
o Flat
Long bones found only in limbs
o Consist of body and two enlarged articular ends
o Examples: femur and humerus
Short bones
o Consist mainly of cancellous bone with a thin outer layer of compact bone
o Example: carpal bones
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Flat bones consist of two plates of compact bones
o Middle layer of cancellous bone called diploë
o Examples: sternum and cranium
Irregular bones are peculiarly shaped
o Examples: vertebrae and facial bones
Sesamoid bones
o Very small and oval
o Develop inside and beside tendons
o Protect the tendon from excessive wear
o Largest is patella
Review Questions
Which of the following is an example of a flat bone? Scapula
All of the following are functions of the skeleton except:
A. Attachment for muscles
B. Storage for calcium, phosphorus, and other salts
C. Production of minerals
D. Production of red and white blood cells
Which of the following can be palpated to locate T7?
A. Jugular notch
B. Sternal angle
C. Inferior angle of the scapula
D. Xiphoid process
Arthrology
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Defined as the study of joints, or articulations, between bones
Classified two ways
o Functional
o Structural
Functional Classification
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Three subdivisions based on mobility of joint
o Synarthroses = immovable
o Amphiarthroses = slightly moveable
o Diarthroses = freely moveable
Structural Classification
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Three distinct groups based on connective tissues
o Fibrous
o Cartilaginous
o Synovial
11 specific types of joints fall within the above broad categories
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Fibrous Joints
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Do not have a joint cavity
United by various fibrous and connective tissues and ligaments
Strongest joints in the body
Three types
o Syndesmosis
 Immovable or very slightly moveable
 United by fibrous sheets
 Example: inferior tibiofibular joint
o Suture
 Immovable joint only in the skull
o Gomphosis
 Immovable joint only in roots of teeth
Cartilaginous Joints
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Do not have a joint cavity
Virtually immovable
Two types
o Symphysis
 Slightly movable joint
 Separated by a pad of fibrocartilage
 Designed for strength and shock absorbency
 Example: pubic symphysis
o Synchondrosis
 Immovable joint
 United by rigid cartilage
 Example: epiphyseal plate
Synovial Joints
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Permit wide range of motion; freely movable
Complex joints
Enclosed by articular capsule
Many have accessory soft tissues
o Meniscus
o Bursae
Six types
o Gliding
 Simples synovial joint
 Examples: intercarpal and intertarsal joints
o Hinge
 Permits flexion and extension only
 Examples: elbow and knee
o Pivot
 Allows rotation around a single axis
 Example: atlantoaxial joint (C1-C2 joint)
o Ellipsoid
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Saddle
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Allows flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction
Example: radiocarpal (wrist) joint
Allows movement similar to ellipsoid
Difference is in the shape of the articular surfaces
Example: carpometacarpal joint between trapezium and first metacarpal
(thumb)
Ball and socket
 Permits widest range of motion
 Examples: hip and shoulder
Review Questions
Which of the following joint classifications is slightly moveable? Amphiarthroses
All of the following are types of synovial joints except: Syndesmosis
Bone Markings and Features
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Processes or projections
o Extend beyond or project out from the main body of a bone
Depressions
o Hollow or depressed areas
Fractures
o A break in bone
Processes and Projections
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Condyle – rounded process at an articular end
Coracoid or coronoid – beaklike or crownlike process
Crest – ridgelike process
Epicondyle – projection above a condyle
Facet – small, smooth-surfaced articular process
Hamulus – hook-shaped process
Head – expanded end of a long bone
Horn – hornlike process
Line – linear elevation; not as prominent as a crest
Malleolus – club-shaped process
Protuberance – projecting prominence
Spine – sharp process
Styloid – long, pointed process
Trochanter – either of the two large, rounded, and elevated processes of the proximal femur
Tubercle – small, rounded, and elevated process
Tuberosity – large, rounded and elevated process
Depressions
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Fissure – cleft or deep grove
Foramen – hole in a bone for transmission of vessels and nerves
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Fossa – pit, fovea, or hollow space
Groove – shallow linear channel
Meatus – tubelike passageway
Notch – indentation in the border of a bone
Sinus – recess, groove, cavity, or hollow space
Sulcus – furrow or trench
Fractures
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Closed
Open
Nondisplaced
Displaced
Common Classifications
o Compression
o Compound (open)
o Comminuted
o Greenstick
o Impacted
o Transverse
o Spiral or oblique
o Simple
Many fractures fall into more than one category
Review Questions
Which of the following is defined as a beaklike or crownlike process? Coronoid or coracoid
Which of the following is defined as a hole in a bone for transmission or blood vessels and nerves?
Foramen
Anatomic Relationship Terms
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Anterior (ventral) – Forward or front part of the body or of a part
Posterior (dorsal) – back part of body or part
Caudad – parts away from the head of the body
Cephalad – parts towards the head
Superior – nearer the head or situated above
Inferior – nearer the feet or situated below
Central – mid area or main part of an organ
Peripheral – at or near the surface, edge, or outside of another body part
Medial – toward the median plane of the body or toward the middle of a body part
Lateral – away from the median plane or away from the middle of a part
Superficial – near the skin or surface
Deep – far from the surface
Distal – farthest from the point of attachment or origin
Proximal – nearer to the point of attachment or origin
External – outside the body or part
Internal – inside the body or part
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Anatomic Relationship Terms
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Parietal – the wall or lining of a body cavity
Visceral – the covering of an organ
Ipsilateral – parts on the same side of the body
Contralateral – parts on the opposite side of the body
Palmar – palm of the hand
Plantar – sole of the foot
Dorsum – anterior, or top, of the foot or the back of the hand
Radiographic Positioning Terminology
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Projection
o Defined as the path of the CR as it exits the tube, passing through the patient to the IR
o Identified by the entrance and exit points of the body
Position
o Overall posture of the patient or general body position
o Also refers to the specific placement of the body or part in relation to the table or IR
View
o Used to describe the body part as seen by the IR
o Exact opposite of projection, the preferred term in the US
Method
o Refers to a specific radiographic projection developed by an individual
Essential Projections
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AP – CR enters the anterior surface and exits the posterior
PA – CR enters the posterior surface and exists the anterior
Axial – Longitudinal angle of the CR of 10 degrees or more
Tangential – CR directed along the outer margin of a curved body surface
Lateral – CR enters one side of the body, passing transversely along the coronal plane
Oblique – CR enters from side angle; Entrance and exit surfaces still specified (AP oblique)
Positions
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General body positions
o Upright – erect or vertical
o Seated – upright, but sitting on a stool
o Recumbent – lying down in any position
o Supine – lying on the back
o Prone – lying face down
o Trendelenburg position – supine with the head lower than the feet
o Fowler position – supine with the head elevated
o Sims’ position – recumbent with patient lying on left anterior side with left leg extended
and right knee and thigh partially flexed
o Lithotomy position – supine with knees and hips flexed and thighs abducted and
rotated externally, supported by ankle supports
o Lateral position – named according to the side of the patient that is placed closer to the
IR
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Oblique position
 Body is rotated so that the coronal plane is not parallel with the table or IR
 Angle of rotation is specific for anatomy of interest
 Named according to side and surface of body closer to table or IR
 Abbreviations: RPO, LPO, RAO, and LAO
Decubitus position
 Recumbent position with a horizontal CR
 Named according to the body surface on which the patient is lying
Lordotic position
 Upright position in which the patient is leaning backward
Body Movement Terminology
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Abduct or abduction – movement of a part away from the central axis of the body
Adduct or adduction – movement of a part toward the central axis of the body
Extension – straightening of a joint
Flexion – bending of a joint
Hyperextension – forced or excessive extension
Hyperflexion – forced overflexion
Evert/eversion – outward turning of the foot at the ankle
Invert/inversion – inward turning of the foot at the ankle
Pronate/pronation – rotation of forearm so that the palm is down
Supinate/supination – rotation of forearm so that the palm is up
Rotate/rotation – turning of the body or part around its axis; rotation of a limb is either medial
(toward midline) or lateral (away from midline)
Circumduction – circular movement of a limb
Tilt – tipping or slanting a body part slightly
Deviation – a turning away from the regular or standard course
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