tys
IGCSE HISTORY SUMMARY
CONTENTS:
Core Topics
1) Were
the
peace
treaties
of
1919-23
fair?......................................................................2
2) To what extent was the League of Nations a success? (SOLO UNA PARTE) ....7
5) How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism?.......................12
6) How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe,1948-c.1989?...........20
Depth Study
1) Germany,191845............................................................................................................... 30
Were the peace treaties of 1919-23
fair?
 Introduction
The First World War was described by Lloyd George (British’s Prime Minister) as “the Cruelest
and most terrible war that has ever scourged mankind”. In its simplest form it was a bid by the
Central Power (Germany assisted by Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) to achieve
supremacy or domination in Europe. When this bid failed in the autumn of 1918, the initiative lay
to the Allies (principally Britain, France and United States) to bring about a new peace in Europe.
As soon as the First World War came to an end in November 1918, plans were immediately made
for a peace conference to take place in Paris during 1919.
What were the motives and aims of the Big Three at Versailles?
France, United States and Britain. These countries were represented by Prime Minister
Clemenceau, President Wilson and Prime Minister Lloyd George respectively. The aims and
motives of these three statesmen, the “Big Three”, were to determine the nature of the peace
settlement.
FRANCE
Clemenceau’s primary concern at Paris was to achieve a peace that would ensure the future
security of France. He thought that if Germany was sufficiently weakened it would be unable to
threaten the peace of Europe again. This was because...
o
France shared a common border with Germany.
o
An invasion carried out in August 1914 was the second time in 50 years that France had
been invaded by Germany. On the first occasion in 1870 France lost the province of
Alsace-Lorraine.
As a result of his desire to increase the security of his country, Clemenceau demand...
o
Permanent disarmament, disbanding most of Germany’s army, navy, and air force.
o
High level of reparations.
o
The return of Alsace-Lorraine to France
o
Significant portion of Germany’s colonies handed over to France.
o
Rhineland area as an independent state so that France no longer shared a common
border with Germany.
o
Saar Basin transference to France.
UNITED STATES
President Woodrow Wilson’s hopes and expectations from the peace settlement were very
different from the French. But USA’s experience of the war was also very different.
o
USA had not declared war on Germany until April 1917 and was not fully involved in the
war until more than a year later.
o
At no point was USA territory invaded and relatively few USA lives were lost.
o
The war provided trading and business opportunities for USA manufacturers, merchants
and financiers.
He wanted a fair and lasting peace. He created what he hoped the basis of the peace settlement,
Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Some of the points were...
o
No more secret treaties
o
Reduction of armaments for all countries
o
Return of Alsace-Lorraine to France
o
Self-determination for peoples of Austria-Hungary
o
Self-determination for peoples in the Turkish Empire
o
Establishment of a general association of nations
BRITAIN
Lloyd George’s views in Nov\Dec 1918
Before the Paris Peace Conference began, it looked as if Britain shared the French desire for a
harsh peace settlement to be imposed on Germany. Because…
o
Britain suffered direct attacks on her mainland both in 1914.
o
Britain’s economy had been severely disrupted, especially the export sectors.
o
Britain was concerned about the security of France’s eastern frontier because if that were
to be crossed by hostile troops Britain would be threatened also.
Lloyd George’s views from January 1919
He soon changed his outlook and decided that a more moderate peace settlement was in British
interests. This was due to…
o
George came to realise that the future economic well-being of Britain depended largely
upon the economic revival of the German economy. Germany was Britain’s most important
European customer prior to 1914.
o
A weak Germany would provide an inadequate barrier against the spread of communism
from the east. Communist was a much greater threat to Europe than the revival of German
military power.
Lloyd George’s impact on Clemenceau
Because of those factors George managed to persuade Clemenceau to change some of their
decisions. This added advantage for Britain that German domination in Europe would not be
replaced by French domination. It was in Britain’s interest to maintain a balance of power in
Europe for this would help preserve Britain’s position as a world power.
What were the main terms of the Treaty of Versailles?
1) War Guilt Clause
2) Reparations
3) Disarmament
 The Rhineland was to become a demilitarized zone
4) Territory
 Germany was to lose all her colonies in Africa and the Far East.
 Alsace-Lorraine was to be returned to France.
 The Saar Basin was to be administered by the League od Nations for 15 years when a
plebiscite would decide whether it should belong to.
5) Germany had to accept the constitution of the League of Nations.
Why did all the victors not get everything they wanted?
Clemenceau wanted a harsh peace, Wilson a lenient peace and Lloyd George a relatively
moderate peace.
FRANCE
Some Clemenceau’s specific demands regarding Alsace-Lorraine and the transfer of some of
Germany’s former colonies were satisfied. France was also likely to become the major recipient
of German reparations. But his main concern was the defense and security of France which
fortunately the treaty went some way towards it. France would be secure on her eastern frontier
providing Germany kept to, the military terms of the treaty.
The Anglo\American Treaty of Guarantee for France
As Clemenceau was still worried, he wanted a Treaty of Guarantee with his Allied partners. This
would mean that Britain and US would be coming to France’s assistance in the event of future
German aggression. But the treaty failed to materialize.
UNITED STATES

President Wilson was pleased that the constitution of the League of Nations was accepted.

He was also partly satisfied that the defeated powers should disarm. This represented at
least some of his objective concerning the disarmament for all countries.

Wilson was relieved that the Rhineland was going to remain part of Germany. This made
much likely that Germany would remain a major economic power able to do business with
the United States.

And was also pleased that Germany was not going to be burdened with a very high
reparations figure.
But overall Wilson thought that the Versailles Treaty was too harsh on Germany and was less
than happy about some elements of the Versailles settlement such as the abandoned free
navigation of the seas.
BRITAIN
Lloyd George was probably the most satisfied of the major peacemakers. He had wanted a
moderate peace which would allow the European economy to revive. He did not like the fact that
German-speaking peoples were placed under French or Polish rule, but overall, he got his way.
This was good for British business and reassuring for those who feared the westward spread of
communism.
What was the impact of the peace treaty on Germany up to 1923?
Germany´s general objection to the treaty was that it was too harsh.

They had to pay reparations

They were deprived of the very resources (coal, iron ore) that were needed to pay these
reparations
DIKTAT
Germany objected that the treaty was a “diktat”. They were simply handed a draft copy and invited
to express comments and criticisms in writing. This led to minor changes. The German had little
choice but to sign the treaty.
WAR GUILTY CLAUSE
This was included in the treaty. They wanted to establish a legal basis for reparations: If you
cause damage and its all your fault then you must pay compensation.
POLITICAL IMPACT
The treaty was symbol of Germany´s dishonor and humiliation and now the government had
agreed to it.

Right wing politicians and activists expressed their disapproval by supporting attempts
and assassinations to overthrow the government, such as the Munich Putsch

Left extremist groups promoted rebellions

Many members of the army joined the Freikorps, an unofficial anti-communist vigilante
group and declared a new national government. The Weimar government was on the point
of collapse.
ECONOMIC IMPACT
Germany claimed that the price of reparations was more than it could afford to pay. The Treaty of
Versailles undoubtedly caused major economic problems for Germany and the Weimar Republic.
The immediate post war period was characterized by inflation, rising unemployment and the
attendant problems of poverty on homelessness.

The French felt that Germany was simply trying to escape from its Treaty obligations and
together with Belgium they decided to occupy the Ruhr in 1923 which was Germany’s
most valuable industrial area. The intention was to seize coal on other resources to the
value of their missed payments.

The German government was not able to order armed resistance and so he instead
ordered The German population of the Ruhr to offer passive resistance or peaceful strike
action.

French expelled more than 100,000 Germans from the region and killing over 130.

The German government expenditure increased, due to the need to rehouse and feed the
displaced Ruhr population, yet its income had declined due to the ending of world taxation
receipts.

To make up for the lost revenue the German government began to print money. This lead
the existing high inflation into hyperinflation. Bartering became increasingly popular and
hence eggs, cigarettes or bags of sugar were use as currency.
Then Gustav Stressman became chancellor ending the passive resistance in the Ruhr and
introducing a temporary knew currency, the Rentenmark. After this, he agreed to resume
reparations payments. German finances stabilized and the reparations problem was partly
solved, because in 1924 a more flexible reparations schedule was introduced.
What were the terms of the other peace treaties?
The treaties affecting Germany’s allies had number of features in common with the Treaty of
Versailles

A war guilt clause

An obligation to pay reparations

Reduction in armaments
The Treaty of Saint Germain with Austria,1919

The new Republic of Austria had to accept the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian empire

Austria must recognize the independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and
Poland

Territory from the former empire was transferred

Union between Austria and Germany was forbidden
Austria was now a small land located nation surrounded by hostile states.
The Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, 1920
•
Hungary had to accept the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian empire
•
Hungary must recognize the independence of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia
•
Territory from the former empire was transferred
Hungary was now, like Austria, a landlocked nation
The Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria,1919
•
Bulgaria had to recognize the independence of Yugoslavia
•
Bulgaria lost territory
With the loss of land and a blow to its national pride Bulgaria faced an uncertain future.
The Treaty of Sevres with Turkey, 1920
•
Turkey had to recognize the independence of the Kingdom of Hejaz and Armenia
•
Turkey lost territory and provinces in the Middle East
•
The Dardanelles Strait was to become an international waterway
A national movement took place, this was led by Mustapha Kemal. He objected the terms of
Sevres and challenged the peace treaty by force, driving the Greeks out of Smyrna. This led to
renegotiated treaty.
The Treaty of Lausanne with Turkey,1923
•
Turkey confirmed the loss of its province in the Middle East
•
Turkey received back most of its European territory
•
The Dardanelles Strait was to return to Turkish sovereignty
•
Restrictions on armed forces were removed
•
Turkey was no longer to pay reparations
Chapter 2: To what extent what's the League of
Nations a success?
How was the league organized?
The organs of the League were the Secretariat...

The civil service of the league

This performed all the administrative or financial work
Then the Assembly…

Met once a year

Every member has 1 vote

Considered matters of general policy
Next the Council...

This was the executive body of the League

Met 4 or 5 times a year and in times of crisis

Had permanent and nonpermanent members

In 1920, permanent members were Britain, France, Italy and Japan

And in 1926, Germany.
Two largely independent organizations that were also closely associated with the League were
the Permanent Court of International Justice…

Based in the Hague

Offered an arbitration service to countries in dispute

Provided legal advice to the council
International labor organization…

Based in Geneva

Included representatives of governments, employers and workers

The purpose of this was to promote good working practices regarding issues such as
working hours, woman's rights, child labor, etc.
During the early years of its existence The League established a number of agencies, committees
and commissions to deal with issues.
How far did weaknesses in the League´s organizations make failure
inevitable?
MEMBERSHIP
The League´s organization would have been more effective if they had represented all the major
countries of the world, but this wasn't like that.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
America refused to join the League. This was because they thought that the league would drug
their country into future wars and disputes. America´s absence was a body blow to the prospects
of the league as the new organization was deprived of the world's most powerful, influential and
wealthy country, This means that the ability of the League to take action against aggressive
countries would be much reduced and the general prestige of the League would be significantly
affected.
GERMANY
Germany was not and allowed to join the League until it had demonstrated its peaceful intentions.
Germany was allowed to join in 1926 and became a permanent member of the council, but its
membership was short lived on one of Hitler´s first significant foreign policy actions was to take
Germany out of the League in 1933.
SOVIET RUSSIA
Russia was not invited to join the League mainly because it was communist, but then they joined
the league in 1934. But it was expelled in December 1939 following the invasion of Finland.
JAPAN
Japan was one of the original members of the League but left in 1933 when it received criticisms
for invading Manchuria.
ITALY
Italy was also one of the original members of the League but left in 1937 following its invasion of
Abyssinia and the imposition of sanctions.
BRITAIN AND FRANCE
Britain and France were the only major countries that were members of the League throughout
its existence. Yet Britain was also concerned with trying to maintain its empire why France was
primarily concerned with increasing security against Germany.
Collective security
Collective security was the intended means by which the League was to maintain peace. There
were 3 stages that could be followed to stop an aggressive power.
Moral disapproval…

The council would meet and vote to condemn the action

The aggressive country, knowing that had the weight of the world opinion directed against
it might drop its aggressive action
Economic sanctions…

If moral disapproval failed, then the council could impose economic sanctions on the
aggressor
Military sanctions…

If economic sanctions failed, then as a last resort, the council could impose military
sanctions

This might involve sending an army to assist the victim of the aggression
The absence of the USA would reduce the effectiveness of both moral disapproval and
sanctions.
 All decisions taking by the assembly or council had to be unanimous
 The League did not have an army of its own. If military sanctions were to be imposed the
member states would be asked to contribute towards a military force. These will take time
and there was no guarantee that an appropriate army would be assembled.
How successful were the League of Nations in the 1920s?
Aaland islands,1921
Rival claims between Sweden and Finland to the Aaland islands. The League investigated the
matter islands to Finland but with safeguards for the islanders including the demilitarization.
Upper Silsesia;1921
Upper Silesia, which contains a valuable industrial area was originally granted to Poland by the
draft Treaty of Versailles. The Germans protested an it was agreed to hold a plebiscite in the
region. The results suggested it should be awarded to Germany but in some rural parts of the
Silesian territory there was a clear majority in favor of Poland. Following riots and protests the
League suggested a partition. Eastern Upper Silesia went to Poland while Western Upper Silesia
went to Germany.
Mosul;1924
In 1924 Turkey claimed Mosul which was part of British-mandated territory of Iraq- The League
investigated the problem and made aware in favor of Iraq.
Bulgaria,1925
Greece was ordered to pay £45,000 compensation to Bulgaria after its invasion of Bulgarian
territory. This was judged, because on the shared border a Greek sentry was killed in an exchange
of fire.
How successful was the work of the League agencies?
The League was not simply concerned with the resolution of disputes. It also attempted to identify
those social, economic and military issues that directly or indirectly affected the peace and wellbeing of the world.
Refugee organization
The Refugee organization faced the problem of former World War One prisoner of war stranded
principally in Soviet Russia, Poland, France, Germany and Turkey. The organization helped 425
thousand displaced persons either return to their homes or find new homes between 1920 and
1922. Nansen did this by finding suitable transport, setting up camps, creating new settlements,
teaching new trades and skills, etc.
Health organization
Under the director Ludwig Rajchman. The organization established links with several countries to
provide information service, technical assistance and advice on public health matters. He started
campaigns to prevent or reduce some diseases such as typhus epidemic, leprosy, yellow fever
and set up a number of research institutions to develop vaccines. This then became the World
Health Organization.
Economic and financial organization
Following the end of the First World War, a number of countries faced economic crisis. Austria,
for example, was in danger of financial collapse. The League devised a rescue plan to stabilize
the currency by controlling the level of interest rates, the circulation of bank notes, etc. Austria
was also given a substantial loan. This rescue plan was repeated in other countries as similar
economic situation.
International Labor Organization
The French socialist Albert Thomas achieved some improvement in working conditions. He did
this by collecting data and publishing it to persuade people, doing recommendations. These
included the 8-hour working day and 48 hour working week, annual Holidays with pay, the right
to join a trade union and a minimum employment age.
Slavery Commission
The principal objective of the Slavery Commission was to stamp out slavery and other exploitative
practices, such as forcing young woman and children into prostitution. He succeeds with this by
persuading the government publishing reports and he finally could succeed in the freeing of 2000
slaves in Sierra Leone and the reduction of the death rate for African workers. However, the
existence of slave trading was acknowledged in the commission's report for 1937 while the waite
slave traffic remains a serious social problem, even developed countries, in the 21st century.
Disarmament Commission
The idea of this organisation was to all the nations to disarm to the lowest point consistent with
National Safety yet by the end of 1920s only the defeated powers had disarm and this is because
they had been forced to by the terms of the peace treaties imposed on them. It was easy for
Germany to think that there was not really desire among the former Allies to bring about a state
of general disarmament and this suspicion forms part of the background to the failure of the world
disarmament conference of 1932-1934.
HISTORY SUMMARY DECEMBER
CHAPTER 5: HOW EFFECTIVELY DID THE USA CONTAIN THE SPREAD OF
COMMUNISM?
THE KOREAN WAR

The division of Korea in 1948

North Korea was communist while South Korea was capitalist

The 38 parallel is a dividing line between South and North Korea

South Korea leader was Syngman Rhee while in North Korea was Kim ll-Sung
Why did North Korea invade South Korea in June 1950?
Kim Il Sung wanted to unite Korea under Communist rule. So, he then thought in June 1950 that
an invasion of South Korea would be successful.

Kim had the support of Soviet and Chinese leaders.

North´ Korea armed forces were much stronger than those of South Korea.

Kim thought than an USA response was unlikely now that China was communist and
Soviet Russia had the atom bomb.

USA politician statements seemed to suggest that Korea was not a major USA defense
priority.
The UNO involvement in the Korean War
The UNO had been closely associated with the establishment of the new anti-communist
government of south Korea and when North Korean troops crossed the border into South Korea
the Security Council met that day.
Then when it became clear that North Korea had no intention of withdrawing its troops, the
security council met again and passed a resolution. 10 days later, troops from USA and 15 other
countries were sent to assist South Korea.
USA view towards the invasion of South Korea

The USA was determined to halt any further communist expansion under their policy of
containment.

The fall of South Korea into communism would encourage a Chinese attack on Formosa
and then the position of Japan could also be threatened. Japan was USA´s key interest in
the Far east.

The fall of South Korea, Formosa and Japan to the Communists would represent a major
shift in the power balance between the communist and the capitalist world.

A firm response to the first sign of communist aggression would be the best option. This
means opposing the North Korean invasion of South Korea.
Results of the Korean war for the UNO

Military sanctions had been used to reverse an act of aggression supported by two major
powers

The UNO failed to achieve its objective of a ´´unified, independent and democratic
government´´ for Korea.

Four million Koreans died, and countless other were made homeless and destitute.

The Soviets claimed that the UNO had been used as a capitalist tool against communism.
Why did USA become involved in Cuba?
Cuba served an economic purpose for USA:

Forced the Cubans to sell raw materials for low prices

USA also made sure that Cuba bought USA manufactured goods
The USA also invested heavily in the Cuban economy:

The railway industry

The telephone system

Tobacco plantations
The USA took control of Guantanamo Bay and made it an important base for the US NAVY
Cuba in the 1950s

Cuba became a holiday island for rich Americans

American mafia controlled much of the gambling, horse racing and hotels in Cuba.

After 50 years of independence but under a heavy USA influence, discontent was
spreading in Cuba.
How did tensions develop between Cuba and America?
Cuba underwent a revolution. The unpopular regime of Batista who support US interests on the
island was overthrow by the revolutionary Fidel Castro.
At the end, in 1959 Castro formed a liberal nationalist government. He wanted Cuba to be free
from US influence.
Area
Batista’s Cuba
Castro’s Cuba
Industry
Land
Education
Company were nationalised.
75% of Cuba’s best farming land was
Land redistributed among the
owned by foreign companies.
peasants.
61% of children did not go to school.
Free education was made available to
all.
Health
Cuba only had 6 000 doctors, most of
Care
them in La Havana
Politics
Repression
Free healthcare.
No free elections.
Batista’s regime murder over 20 000
Opposition could be arrested.
Cubans.
Links with
USA dominated Cuban industry and
Castro negotiated trade agreements
other
politics.
with Russia for importing weapons.
countries
How did the USA react to the Cuban revolution?

America resented it loss of control over the country but was also concerned about the
spread of communist ideas so close to America.

Eisenhower began economic sanctions and then the USA stopped trading with Cuba
and buying Cuban raw materials and sugar

Then, they wanted to remove Castro...
The Bay of Pigs invasion
The CIA set up training camps in Guatemala and by November the operation had trained a
small army for an assault landing and guerrilla warfare. A leading exile politician, Jose Miro
Cardona, was lined up to become a new president of Cuba if the plan succeeded.
INVASION:

Invasion:

Two air strikes would attack Cuban airbases to protect landing troops

1,400 troops would land at night in a remote area known as “The Bay of Pigs”

At the same time paratroopers would be dropped to disrupt transportation and
occupy Cuban forces

A smaller force would land on the East cost of Cuba to create confusion in a
second attack

The 1,400 troops would march on Havana
The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a disaster. America failed in both objectives: Castro was not
removed, and the USA had to admit responsibility for the attacks.
Why did it fail?
 Poor secrecy: Castro learned of the guerrilla training camps in Guatemala and was therefore
prepared for an attack
 Failure to control the air: The plan started to unravel from the very first action. Air strikes
missed many of their targets. Also, photos of the repainted American planes became public
 Failure to gain support: When the invasion forces landed on the beaches along the Bay of Pigs,
they immediately came under heavy fire
 Response: Castro ordered roughly 20,000 troops to advance toward the beach and the Cuban
air force continued control the skies
The Cuban Missile Crisis
The attempted American invasion in Cuba showed how vulnerable Castro’s new regime was to
America. Also, the Americans made it clear that they wanted to removed Castro from power and
Castro’s country wasn’t capable of a long-term defense against American aggression, however
with support from USSR they would be more likely to survive.

February 1962: The USA impose an embargo to Cuba

April 1962: America placed nuclear weapons in Turkey

July 1962: Soviet advisers tell Castro that USA is planning another attempted invasion to
Cuba

July 1962: America begins military training exercises in the Caribbean

September 1962: First nuclear missiles arrive secretly in Cuba

October 1962: Secret U2 spy planes take photographs of the missiles in Cuba
Why were there nuclear missiles in Cuba?
Political reasons:
Cuba felt that they wear weak and, in the past, had appeased the Americans. A message
needed to be sent out that they were strong. As Cuba was an ally of the Soviet Union. Missiles
there would act as a deterrent against another attack like the one in the previous years.
Military reasons:
The Soviet Union did not have a close enough base from which to strike America. As Cuba was
90 miles away missiles placed in the island would be able to reach America very quickly. Also,
because USA recently placed missiles in turkey which was near the Soviet Union.
What options did Kennedy had?
Once nuclear weapons were confirmed in Cuba, Kennedy faced pressure to take action. He had
a range of options to choose.

No action

Used diplomatic measure

Threaten Castro

Naval blockade

Air strike

Full ground invasion
Why did USA become involved in Vietnam?
In 1945 Vietnam was a country with a long history of being ruled by others and then it was once
more subjected to attempts at colonization. The French hoped to regain control, but they were
opposed by a Vietnamese army called the Vietminh led by Ho Chi Minh. The Vietminh
successfully defeated the French with the battle of Dien Bien Phu marking the end of French
involvement in Vietnam. And at the Geneva Conference independence was granted to Vietnam
and was partitioned into two parts, the north and the south. The Vietminh became the government
of North Vietnam while anti-communist Vietnamese, especially Catholics, ´´regrouped´´ in the
south under the leadership of Bao Dai. Vietnam would be allowed to rule itself. However, USA
saw Vietnam as a key battleground in the fight against communism. After the fall of China to
communism in 1949 and Korea shortly after, USA thought Vietnam was next. The USA backed
the anti-communist government in South Vietnam, fearing that if they didn´t, the whole of Vietnam
would become communist.
Why did USA involvement in Vietnam increase?
Under Eisenhower
After French war effort failed, Eisenhower started supporting the South and began offering military
and economic aid to the new nation of South Vietnam. His ´´Eisenhower Doctrine´´ recommended
the use of USA forces to protect states in the Middle East against aggression from nations
´´controlled by international communism´´.
Under President Kennedy
Kennedy had been advised by Eisenhower that a greater military presence in Vietnam was
needed to prevent the spread of communism. So, in 1961 Kennedy arranged for the South
Vietnamese to receive the money necessary to increase the size of their army and sent military
advisors to Vietnam to help train the South Vietnamese army.
In 1962, the Strategic Hamlet Program was introduced. The USA wanted to limit the influence of
the Vietcong on peasants in the South. Peasants were moved to new villages built in areas
controlled by the South Vietnamese army.
Why didn´t this work?
1) The peasants did not want to move therefore the South Vietnamese army often had to
force them.
2) They were angry at having to travel longer distances and simply moved back.
3) Some were upset for religious reason as they believed that it was important to live where
their ancestors were buried.
On 11 June 1963, a monk set himself on fire in protest at the South Vietnamese government
calling to show ´´charity and compassion´´ to all religions. The government´s response to this
suicide was to arrest thousands of Buddhist monks. Another five monks committed suicide and
the response of one member of the South Vietnamese government was: ´´Let them burn, and we
shall clap our hands´´.
In November 1963, President Diem was overthrown by a military coup and was assassinated by
the generals.
Under President Johnson
After Kennedy´s assassination Vice President Lyndon Johnson took over.
In August 1964 a confrontation known as ´´The Gulf of Tonkin Incident´´ resulted in the start of
real warfare between USA and North Vietnam. American senate gave Johnson the power to
give armed support to South Vietnam.
Under Johnson the USA commitment was at its strongest. The number of men conscripted into
the army was increased through ´´the draft´, a lottery kind of system where young men
physically capable of fighting were called up to the army as needed.
Support for the war
In January 1968 North Vietnamese troops attacked nearly 30 USA targets and dozens of cities in
South Vietnam, this was called ´´the Tet offensive´´. USA media coverage characterized the
conflict as a defeat, and public support of the war plummeted. In response to this, a small handful
of rogue American soldiers hilled hundreds of unarmed Vietnamese civilians in a small village
called My Lai, this was known as the My Lai Massacre.
In 1968. After all what happen Johnson decided not to run again for president.
The end of the war
President Richard Nixon mark the beginning of the process of withdrawing USA troops from
Vietnam and giving a peaceful end to the conflict. He persuaded a policy called ´´Vietnamisation´´
whereby the South Vietnamese would be supported with materials and money by the Americans,
but the fighting will be done by the South Vietnamese army.
In 1970, Nixon tried to force the end of the war by bombing Vietnam troop bases in Cambodia.
This was carried out in secret to avoid international attention. The bombing failed but in April 1970
Nixon decided to send troops in to complete the mission.
In the end a peace treaty was signed in 1973 in Paris. Once American support ended, North
Vietnam conquered South Vietnam in 1975.
Why did the USA withdraw from the war?

Public Opinion: As the mood changed in America, largely influenced by the media, the
support for the war declined.

The USA failed because the North Vietnamese had better tactics: The USA went into the
conflict better armed, better trained and with more sophisticated weaponry than their
opponents but the guerilla- style warfare of the North Vietnamese meant that the war was
not fought with large set piece battles where American military strength would triumph, but
with surprise attacks at irregular times. Therefore, there was never any progress for
America.

The North Vietnamese were also better at winning the hearts and minds of the Vietnamese
people and they retained the support of the ordinary people in Vietnam who resisted the
influence of the Americans.
CHAPTER 6:
HOW SECURE WAS THE USSR´S CONTROL OVER
EASTERN EUROPE,1948-C. 1989?
Why was there opposition to Soviet control in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in
1968, and how did the USSR react to this opposition?
HUNGARY
In 1941, when Germany launched its invasion of Russia. Hungarian troops had formed part of the
attack and since then Hungary was under Soviet control and now there was long-term anger
about the influence of Soviet rule.

Politics: The Smallholders Party were a group working for the rights of ordinary
Hungarians. The Russians refused to allow the party to form a government, and instead
allowed the Hungarian Communist Party to form a government despite the people´s
wishes.

Repression: Russian control included censorship, secret police, and control over what
schools taught. An estimated 2000 people were executed and over 100000 were
imprisoned.

Religion: Under the Communist Party religion was banned and dismissed as ´´dangerous
propaganda´´. A Hungarian catholic was arrested, tortured and put in prison.

Economics: Hungary was very poor after the war and needed rebuilding after years of
bombing and damage. Much of the food and industrial goods were sent to Russia, this
meant that the standards of living for ordinary people dropped.
In 1956 things reached a critical point; the Hungarian people thought change might be possible
for the following reasons.
 Hungarians thought the United Nations or Eisenhower would help them after he made
supportive comments in speeches.
 Stalin had died in 1953. With his death, Russia had tried to move away some of his polices,
including the more brutal aspects.
 In June 1956 workers in Poland had risen against Soviet rule and demanded change. After
a tense few weeks, Russia had given in to some of their demands. This gave people hope
in Hungary.
The uprising begins
 23 October: Students in Budapest demanded an end to Soviet occupation and the
implementation of ´´true socialism´´. The police made arrests and opened fire in
the crowd.
 24 October: Overnight Russian troops had been sent in to stop the protests.
Despite this, Hungarian soldiers and workers joined the students on the streets of
Budapest. The new prime minister, Nagy asked Khrushchev to remove Russian
troops from Hungary and promised the people free elections.
 28 October: Khrushchev agreed to the demands of Nagy.
 29 October-3 November: The new Hungarian government introduced democracy,
freedom of speech, and freedom of religion. Nagy also announced that Hungary
was going to leave the Warsaw Pact and appealed to the UN for help in resolving
the conflict.
 4 November: One thousand Russian tanks moved into Budapest. They captured
Hungary´s airfields, highway junctions and bridges. Fierce fighting took place, but
Russian force was too strong for the Hungarian army and protestors.
 The new leader of Hungary, Kadar promised Nagy and his followers that they
would be allowed to leave the county safely. But then 3 week later, they were
kidnapped, tried and eventually executed for treason.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
In 1968 the ´´Prague spring´´ began with the government of Czechoslovakia attempting to make
reforms, improve the country, and lessen the ties to Soviet Russia. Czechoslovakia had fallen
under Soviet rule after the end of the Second World war.
What caused the demand for reform?
In the 1960s the Czechoslovakian economy struggled. Struggled to produce goods to sell and
the standard of living dropped. There were political changes, the leader of the ruling Communist
Party was replaced after protests by students against his rule. Dubcek made a list of complaints
against Novotny (the old leader of the party) and promised change.
Proposed reforms included the following...
 The abolition of censorship, the press could now print what they wanted.
 Freedom of speech
 Members of the party were not to be unconditionally loyal to the party.
 Increased rights for trade unions.
 Rights for farmers
 Freedom of movement for all people
Dubcek fear a situation like the one in Hungary were troops had entered the country. So, publicly
he declared that Czechoslovakia had no intention of changing its foreign policy, leaving the
Warsaw Pact or ending its alliance with the Soviet Union.
Soviet Response
In July 1968 the Soviet leadership announced that it had evidence that West Germany was
planning an invasion on the Sudetenland and asked permission to send in the Red Army to protect
Czechoslovakia. Dubcek refused. However, a month later troops from countries across the
Warsaw pact, led by the Soviets, invaded Czechoslovakia. The government order its armed forces
not to resist invasion. Now, the culture of reform known as the ´´Prague spring´´ was crushed.
The leader of the USSR was worried that new ideas coming out of Czechoslovakia would spread.
In order to stop similar events to happen, the Brezhnev doctrine was introduced. This Soviet
foreign policy stated that communist countries should be mindful of how their actions impacted on
other communist states. So, there were 2 conditions:
 A one-party system in each country
 All countries were to remain members of the Warsaw Pact
If these conditions were not achieved the USSR could use military force to reestablish the control.
In April 1969 Dubcek was replaced as party secretary and expelled from the party. A process of
´´normalization´´ started and during this time whatever happened in Czechoslovakia was
coordinated with Moscow and closely monitored by Soviet army generals, KGB officers and
Czechoslovak collaborators loyal to the Soviet regime.
Why was the Berlin Wall built in 1961?
Berlin, the center of the Cold War since the division of Germany in 1945, was now a city of two
halves, divided by a wall 87 miles long that separated East from West. The erection of the wall by
the East was to prevent the mass movement of people from East to West.
Why were people living?
The quality of life in the West was much better than that in the East after 1948. While West
Germany had received financial help through the Marshall Plan from the USA to rebuild after the
devastation of the Second World war, East Germany has suffered under a communist system
after the control of the Soviet Union has been established.
The impact of this mass movement on East Germany were the followings...
 Socially: Those leaving tended to be young and well-educated. The Communist Party in
East Germany feared a ´´brain drain´´ as the more intelligent left East Germany.
 Economically: East Germany lost too many skilled workers. (Engineers, technicians,
physicians, teachers, lawyers, etc.)
 Politically: The mass numbers leaving made the communist regime look unpopular. This
was negative propaganda as they competed with the capitalist West.
As all these continued, the East German government saw no other way to prevent people from
escaping to the West via Berlin than to close the border between East and West Berlin.
Reaction of the West
The reaction of the western allies was muted. Their own interests were not affected, and the
wall made an attempt by invasion from the East less likely. Crucially, it was also great
propaganda for the Cold War, The West could claim to be the side allowing people freedom
while the communist states had to erect a wall to keep people in!
What was the significance of ´´Solidarity´´ in Poland for the decline of
Soviet influence in Eastern Europe?
In July 1980, the Polish government was facing an economic crisis and extreme poverty. A
moment of workers developed strikes which is seen by some as being part of the downfall of the
control of Soviet Union.
What happened?
On 14 August 1980, workers went on strike, angry at the recently announced price rises and the
dismissal of several workers who had complained about poor conditions. The strikers led by Lech
Walesa, an electrician, demanded the right to form a trade union. Despite the best attempts of
the communist government to isolate the strikers, the workers received support from across the
country. By the time the negotiations began the workers had a list of 21 demands...
 Acceptance of free trade unions
 Right to strike and security of the strikers and those aiding them
 Availability to the mass media of information
 Increase in the base pay for each worker as compensation for the recent rise in prices.
 A full supply of food products for the domestic market
 Privileges of the secret policy are to be eliminated
 A decrease in the waiting period for apartments
 A day of rest on Saturday
On 31 August an agreement was signed which basically it gave workers the right to form trade
unions independent from government control. Two weeks later a nationwide independent trade
union called ´´Solidarity´´ was established. On 13 December 1981 the government declared a
state of war and suspended Solidarity.
How did Solidarity succeed where others have failed?
 Organization: The movement had a committee, spokespeople, and even a newspaper,
the Solidarnosc. It enabled them to spread their message.
 Demands: Their 21 demands were national issues, not just local ones. By doing this, they
secured the support from a range of the population.
 Methods: The movement was careful never to use violence for fear of encouraging harsh
punishments from the government.
 Support: 10 million people from all aspects of Polish life joined the trade union.
The government now sensed that public mood had calmed and took action to reassert control.
The new Prime Minister of Poland, Jaruzelski, invited Walesa to meet to discuss his role in the
new government. This was a cover up though, as Jaruzelski had no intention of working with
Walesa. Instead on 13 December, he claimed to have recordings of Solidarity leaders planning a
coup. So, Solidarity was outlawed. It appeared that reform in Poland was over.
The return of Solidarity
In 1985 Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet Union. He introduced a series of reforms
aimed at changing the worsening economic situation across the Eastern bloc.
However, Gorbachev´s reforms did not improve Poland´s economic situation.IN 1980, strikes
swept the country after food costs were increased by 40%. The government negotiated with
Solidarity and met with Walesa to find a way to end the strikes.
On 17 April 1989, Solidarity was again legalized, and the union was allowed to field candidates
in upcoming elections. The union won every seat in the parliament. Under Mazowiecki (the first
non-communist Prime Minister in Poland since 1945) a Solidarity-led government was formed,
and only Jaruzelski remained of the old regime.
How far was Gorbachev personally responsible for the collapse of Soviet
control over Eastern Europe?
The role of Gorbachev
Gorbachev was elected ruler of the Soviet Union. His major changes included attempting to
modernize the Soviet Union´s economy as well as attempting to tackle corruption and alcoholism.
There were two key policies:
GLASNOT
These were the social and political reforms that Gorbachev introduced. These included more
freedom for the media, allowing news to be transmitted of government corruption and criticism
of government officials. The aim was to introduce an ´´openness´´ to society in the Soviet Union,
allowing more people to be involved in the political process through freedom of expression. He
tried to do this by revealing parts of Russia´s past that had previously been hidden, such as
brutal parts of Stalin´s rule.
PERESTROIKA
Meaning ´´restructuring´´. This policy led to a series of economic, political and cultural reforms
that aimed to make the Soviet economy a more modern and efficient system.
 Encouraging the private ownership of Soviet industry and agriculture
 Reducing state control over imports and exports
 Allowing trade with non- Eastern bloc countries
 Allowing foreign investments in Russian businesses
 An increase in the production and trade in consumer goods
Actions in Eastern Europe
Gorbachev realized that Eastern Europe must be allowed to choose its own destiny. He would
not stand in the way of attempts of democracy in Warsaw Pact countries, and that, unlike in the
past, troops would not be used to keep counties tied to the Soviet Union.
There were reasons for this change...
 Gorbachev was a reformer. He believed the Soviet Union was out of date in controlling
others and that people should be allowed a say in who ruled them.
 Economically, the union was crumbling. Food shortages were so common that by the end
of the 1980s the wartime system of food cards had been introduced.
 Gorbachev had as main priority to reform Russia. He couldn’t be focused on maintaining
control of Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union could no longer afford to maintain the military
presence needed to control its European satellite states.
The role of other countries
The independence movement in some Eastern European countries was growing.
 Poland: This Solidarity movement had shown that a unified and largely peaceful
movement which wanted reform could succeed.
 Hungary: Parliament adopted a ´´democracy package´´ which included trade union rights,
personal freedoms, a less restrictive press, more voting rights and an acknowledgement
that the uprising of 1956 was a popular moment, not a foreign insurgency.
 East Germany: One night by accident, an official declared an end to restrictions on travel.
With this crowds gathered, and the Berlin wall was turned down. Germany unified a year
later.
 Romania: The leader, Nicolae stated he intended to see of any of any anti-communist
protesters, but when he was out of the country his people began to protest. He ordered
the protestors to be fired upon. The military refused and he was forced to flee. Free
Democratic elections were held in 1990.
Between the spring of 1989 and the spring of 1991 every communist Eastern European country
held Democratic parliamentary elections for the first time in years. Soviet Union control was over.
External Factors
It wasn't just the actions of Gorbachev though that lead to the collapse of Soviet control; there
were also wider issues...
THE WAR IN AFGHANISTAN
It was originally an attempt to take control of the country. The leader, Mujahideen, managed to
engage the Soviets in what became a guerrilla-style war in 1979. The war badly overstretched
their economy and demoralise their military. The war led to widespread condemnation by other
countries and pressure to withdraw,
THE ROLE OF THE USA
President Ronald Regan also sought to encourage an end to the Cold War. Together, Reagan
and Gorbachev signed treaties to limit nuclear weapons and also encouraged people-led
movements in Eastern Europe. By increasing military spending by a third in the USA the Soviet
Union felt they could not respond in the ´´arms race´´. This meant the Soviet needed to find
another way of securing peace, this time through diplomacy.
Who was responsible for the collapse of Soviet power?
To see Gorbachev as the only responsible is perhaps too simplistic. What Gorbachev did do was
to create a climate in which people could make changes for themselves. He allowed the freedoms
and the rights in Russia first and then elsewhere. The rest was done by popular movements.
Chapter 9: Germany, 1918-45
Was the Weimar Republic doomed from the start?
How did Germany emerge from defeat at the end of the First World
War?
The events of October to November 1918 are referred to as ´´The German Revolution´´. Following
a naval mutiny and soldiers and workers rebellions the German Kaiser was persuaded to
abdicate. Political power was assumed by Ebert, leader of the Social Democratic Party. There
was violence and chaos in the streets. So, a German Republic was declared with Ebert as
Chancellor, the Weimar Republic.
Restoring law and order was not easy for the new government of the Weimar Republic as there
was an extremist political group which wanted to overthrow it. This communist party was known
as the Spartacist League. The attempted revolution of January 1919 is known as ´´The Spartacist
Uprising´´ led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg.
Objective:
 They wanted a communist government with soldiers and workers councils.
 Without parliament
Reasons for failure:
 Defeated by the army and the Freikorps
 The leaders were murdered
Significance:
 It showed the weakness of the new government as it had to rely upon the services of an
independent group, The Freikorps, to beat the rebellions.
Main features of the Weimar Constitution
This system of election had proportional representation (the proportion of votes was similar to
the proportion of seats in the Reichstag) This was considered fair but there were some
disadvantages:
 Small extremist parties were able to gain seats and have publicity for their cause.
 There were too many parties, none of these had 50 % or more of the vote.
 All governments were ´´coalitions governments´´.
Article 48
This article gave the president too much power. In time of national emergency, the president
could suspend the constitution and rule by decree. This didn’t respect democracy.
What was the impact of the Treaty of Versailles on the Republic?
The army
The Treaty of Versailles was unpopular with most Germans. In particular, the army resented the
disarmament clauses that limited their number to 100 000 troops. Many discharged soldiers joined
the Freikorps as a way of continuing their military life.
Who were the Freikorps?
 A group of ex-soldiers who shared strong anti-communist views and a taste for violence.
 They were a volunteer force initially formed by Ebert on the eve of the Spartacist Uprising.
 They were armed and well equipped.
The economy
The Treaty of Versailles stripped Germany of European territory, resources. colonies and its
merchant navy. It also imposed reparations, but with the war debts and deprived of the means to
create wealth. In 1922 the government failed to pay its second installment of reparations. The
French thought that the Germans were simply trying to avoid their treaty obligations and together
with Belgians, they decided to occupy the Ruhr in January 1923. The intention was to seize coal
to the value of money owed. But the action led to a serious economic and financial crisis.
 German population refused to work in the mines or accept orders from the occupiers in
the Ruhr.
 Amid violence and shootings, the French responded by expelling Germans from the Ruhr.
 Since the Ruhr was one of the main wealth producing area the revenue of the government
fell. The expelled Germans also had to be rehoused.
 During the second half of 1923, the government decided to print money. This action led
quickly to hyperinflation. The currency collapsed and many Germans resorted to
bartering—exchanging goods for others good or services.
The Weimar government response
In 1923 the economy and political system of the Weimar Republic was in danger of collapse.
Germany was saved from this outcome by Gustav Stresemann. The key features of his rescue
plan were as follows:
 Passive resistance in the Ruhr was ended
 The currency was stabilized with the introduction of the Retenmark
 Reparation payments to the allies were resumed
These initiatives laid to a period of economic and political recovery between 1924 and 1929.
To what extent did the Republic recover after 1923?
The next 6 years were characterized by economic recovery and political stability. Stresemann
continued to use his influence to bring about a full return to normality.
Dawes plan
This linked reparations payment to economic performance and provided an American loan of 800
million gold marks to help kick-start the economy. A permanent currency, the Reichmark replaced
the Rentenmark. Inflation fell, industry expanded, and exports increased.
Renewed and economic crisis
Despite all, unemployment remained stubbornly high, the farming sector never recovered and
much of the economic revival was based on American loans. Shortly after the Wall Street crash
of October 1929, the American economy went into recession triggering a worldwide economic
downtown. American business failure put pressure on the banking system and many of the loans
offered to Germany in the period since 1924 were recalled. Now, German economy suffered a
double blow not only did it have to cope with the onset of the word expression and the consequent
reduction of orders for expert items, but it had to repay substantial amount of money to the USA.
Investment projects were cancelled, and unemployment began to rise to alarming levels.
What were the achievements of the Weimar period?
Political
Stresemann’s Main achievement was to improve Germany's profile within the international
community. France was reassured and agreed to leave the Ruhr by July 1925. In 1926,
Germany was admitted in the League of Nations. When the Young plan of 1929 came the
reparations of Germany were reduced from 6.6 billion to 2 billion. At this point, Germany was
regarded as a responsible member of the international community.
Cultural
In the 1920s, the new Democratic Republic encouraged activities of artists, writers, film, theater
directors and designers. Expressionism and critical interpretations of the new political and social
order became the key features of the new art. At popular levels there was an expansion in the
number of nightclubs, dancehalls, cafes and restaurants. Under the Nazi regime, many of the
artists, writers and thinkers were forced to take refuge abroad, especially if they Jewish or leftwing connections.
Why was Hitler able to dominate Germany by
1934?
What did the Nazi Party stand for in the 1920s?
The early objectives of the Nazi party were announced in February 1920. The 25-point program
include the following policy aims:
 The union of all Germans in a greater Germany
 The destruction of the treaty of Versailles and Saint Germain
 Additional territory for food supplies and settlement of surplus population
 German citizenship to be reserved for those of German blood
 No more immigration of non-Germans
 All citizens to have equal rights and obligations
 Nationalization of public industries
 Profit sharing in Heavy Industries
 Improved welfare provision for elderly
 Encouragement of physical fitness for the young
The Munich Putsch
The Nazis hoped to win power through a violent overthrow of the Weimar Republic led by Adolf
Hitler.
Objective
 The violent overthrow of the Weimar Republic and its replacement with a Nazi
government.
Reasons why Hitler thought he would be successful
 The Weimar government was particularly unpopular, and hyperinflation was ai its height
 Hitler thought that his collaborator, General Ludendorff, would be able to use his
influence to persuade the army to support his putsch.
Events
 On 8th November, Hitler and troops forced their way into a meeting between the
Bavarian prime minister, Gustav Kahr and some local businessmen.
 At gunpoint, Kahr was persuaded to announce that he supported revolution and the next
day he went back to accomplish his promise.
 Hitler staged a march through the streets of Munich in order to gain public support
 Armed police brought the march to an end, 16 Nazis were killed, and Hitler and
Ludendorff were arrested.
Reasons for failure
 The army remained loyal to the Weimar government
 The Nazi party was still small
Although the Munich Putsch was a humiliating failure, leading to Hitler's trial and imprisonment
and the banning of the Nazi party, the event gave Hitler considerable publicity. He now decided
to achieve power by constitutional means, by developing and expanding the organization of the
Nazi party.
Mein Kampf
When Hitler was in prison, he may use his time by writing a book. It emphasized the superiority
of the German or Aryan race, the dangers of communism and Germany’s destiny as the dominant
state in Europe.
Nazi tactics
Nazi policies changed. While the two Keystone principles of nationalism and antisemitism
remained, the Nazis were prepared to revise any of their policies to achieve maximum popularity.
Propaganda, in the form of posters, pamphlets and slogans was used. For example, when the
Nazis discovered that they were picking up support among farmers, they began to devise policies
that address their fears and needs. By 1929 the Nazi party was well prepared to take advantage
of any change in circumstances that might favor their cause for example the Wall Street crash
and the advent of world depression.
Why did the Nazis have little success before 1930?
While the Nazi party made considerable progress in terms of its organization. It made little impact
in elections. It was too small contest the 1919 or 1920 elections and had to wait until May 1924
before it could test its national popularity. It had an initial success that may have been due to the
publicity enjoyed by Hitler during his trial in March 1924. Therefore, in the election of December
1924 it was impossible to build on support and the situation continued to decline for the May 1928
election. The reason for these can be found in the improvement that was taking place at the same
time in the Weimar Republic, with Stresemann in power, he steered the Republic away from the
economic crisis of 1923 and pointed Germany along the way to recovery.
Why was Hitler able to become Chancellor by 1933?
The Nazis and world economic depression
The world depression transformed the prospects of the Nazi party. In Germany there were wage
cuts, short time working, unemployment, homelessness and poverty on a scale never seen
before. In desperation, voters changed support to the parties that have been the most critical of
the Weimar coalitions, the communists and the Nazis. In the general election of September 1930,
the Nazis became the 2nd largest party in the Reichstag. Over the next 18 months. the economy
continued to deteriorate, and the Nazis used every opportunity to attack the coalition government.
Because the Nazis were the Masters of spectacle and offered hopes of a brighter future to people.
Political maneuverings
In the general election of July 1932, The Nazis became the largest party in the Reichstag.
Normally, the leader of the largest party would be expected to become chancellor, but Hindenburg
had no intention of appointing a man he had previously described as ´´the vulgar little corporal´´.
Instead, Franz Von Papen, a member of the central party, was invited to form a government.
However, without Nazi Cooperation Von Papen was unable to device a stable coalition that would
be supported in the Reichstag. A second general was held, and the Nazis remained the largest
party in the Reichstag. Von Papen found that it was still impossible to form a stable coalition and
von Schleicher, a former army general, became Chancellor in early December. But without Nazi
cooperation Schleicher later experienced similar problems to Von Papen. Towards the end of
January 1933, von Papen managed to persuade Hindenburg to agree to a political deal whereby
Hitler would become Chancellor with von Papen as vice-chancellor.
How did Hitler consolidate his power in 1933-4?
Reichstag Fire
On 27 February the Reichstag building burnt down. A Dutch movement, van der Lubbe, was
arrested in the Reichstag grounds and charged with starting the fire. He also used the opportunity
to whip up public fear against the supposed communist threat.
The general election of 5 March 1933
With control of the police and extensive influence over the newspapers and radio stations in the
following elections Nazis received 43.9% of the vote. This was a much higher level of support
than any other party had achieved during the years of the Weimar Republic, but it meant that
Hitler still needed support of the nationalists.
The enabling act, 23 March 1933
In order to increase his powers and be able to govern without the Reichstag, Hitler introduced an
act which would establish his directorship.
A legal dictatorship
Hitler was now a legal dictator. He now had the powers to act as he pleased. There were a variety
of organisations that could have frustrated his will or even overthrown him.
 The unions could have organised a general strike
 The opposition parties could have regrouped and challenged the Hitler´s recent actions
 The civil service could have stalled procedures and made it difficult to introduce Nazi laws
 The state governments could have pursued non-Nazi policies
 The army could have organized a coup
The consolidation of power
Trade unions
 In May 1933, the trade unions were abolished
 Strike action became illegal
v
Political parties
 All political parties apart from the Nazi party had beam banned and Germany became a
one-party state.
The Night of the Long Knives
Reasons
 There was the danger that the army would launch a coup against him
 Hitler started to see Rohm as a threat because he was expressing disappointment with
Nazi achievements and arguing in favour of a ´´second revolution´´
 Hitler needed to reassure the army and the SA leadership who was in control
Events
 On 30 June 1934, Rohm and other leaders were arrested and shot just with other rivals
and potential enemies.