and specify the number of
" It is difficult to count
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
IN HUMAN FUNCTIONING
psychological attributes that can be assessed.
eIndividual variations are common across all species.
They add colour and beauty to nature.
"Just like objects, people too possess a different
combination of traits. Thus, variability is afact of nature.
Individuals are no exception to this principle of
variations.
" Apart from physical variation, they also vary
psychologically.
"They may be intelligent or dull, dominant or submissive,
creative or not so creative, outgoing or withdrawn, etc.
"The list of variations can be endless. Different traits can
exist in varying degrees in an individual.
Viewed in this sense, all individuals are unique as they
exemplify a typical combination of various traits.
The question thus, which arises is how and why people
differ. This, in fact, is the subject matter of the study of
individual differences.
differences refer to
For psychologists, individual
distinctiveness and variations among people's
understanding a
Assessment is the first step in
measurement
psychological attribute. It refers to the
individuals and their
of the psychological attributes of multiple methods
evaluation,often through the use of
in terms of certain standards of comparison.
person only if itcan
Any attribute is be said to exist in a
be measured by using scientific procedures.
that an individual is
" For example, when it is said
degree of
dominant, a reference is made to the
'dominance' in them.
the assessor's assessment
" This statement is based on
about whom the
of 'dominance' in the individual
formal
statement was made. This assessment may be
or informal.
standardised, and
Formal assessment is objective,
organised.
varies from
" On the other hand, informal assessment
another and,
case to case and from one assessor to
therefore, isopen to subjective interpretations.
Psychologists are trained in making a formal assessment
characteristics and behaviour patterns.
behaviour of the
Many psychologists believe that
of psychological attributes.
Once the assessment is done, the information generated
can be used to predict the future behaviour of the
behaviour of
On the other hand, some hold the view
factors. This
the individuals is influenced by situational
that situations
is known as situationism, which states
"Thus, psychological assessment uses systematic testing
procedures to evaluate the abilities, behaviours, and
personal qualities of individuals.
individuals is influenced by their personality traits.
and circumstances in which one is placed
influence one's
behaviour.
human behaviour
" The situationist perspective views
relatively more as a result of the influence of external
factors.
ASSESSMENT OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES
"Psychological attributes are involved in very simple
phenomena like in time taken to react to a stimulus,
i.e., reaction time, and also in highly global concepts
like happiness.
individual under observation.
Some Domains of Psychological Attributes
Psychological attributes are not linear or unidimensional.
They are complex and expressed in terms of dimensions
and are usually multi-dimensional.
" If acomplete assessment of a person is sought, their
way of functioning and response in various domains or
areas, such as cognitive, emotional, social, etc. needs
to be assessed.
These psychological attributes can be classified on the
basis of the varieties of tests used in psychological
literature.
CUET (UG) Psychology
assessment, and
In value
Intelligence
world, think
" It is the global capacity to understand the
rationally and use available resources effectively when
faced with challenges.
" Intelligence tests provide a global measure of a person's
general cognitive competence including the ability to
profit from schooling.
" Generally, students having low intelligence are not likely
to do so well in school-related examinations, but their
success in life is not associated only with their
intelligence and test scores.
attempt is made at
values in a
dominant
determinanation of
political, religious, social or
person
economic).
the
(e.
Assessment Methods
Psychological Test
It is an objective and standardised measure of ar
individual's mental and/or behavioural |
" Objectivetests have been developedto measure all the
characteristics
dimensions of psychological attributes(e.g.,,intelligence
aptitude, etc.)
"These tests are widely used for
the purposes of clinie
diagnosis, guidance, personnel selection, placement
Aptitude
" It refers to an individual's underlying potential for
acquiring skills.
" Aptitude tests are used to predict what an individual
will be able to do if given the proper environment and
training.
Aperson with high mechanical aptitude can profit from
appropriate training and can do wellas an engineer.
"Similarly, a person having high language aptitude can
be trained to be a good writer.
Interest
" It is an individual's preference for engaging in one or
more specific activities relative to others.
" Assessment of students' interests may help decide what
subjects or courses they can pursue comfortably and
with pleasure.
Knowledge of interests helps in making choices that
promote life satisfaction and performance in jobs.
Personality
" It refers to the enduring characteristics of a person that
her/him distinct from others.
" Personality tests try to assess an individual's unique
characteristics, e.g., whether one is dominant or
submissive, outgoing or withdrawn, moody or
emotionally stable, etc.
individual's
" Personality assessment helps to explain an
behaviour and predict how she/he will behave in the
future.
Values
They are the enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of
behaviour.
her/
" Aperson having a value sets a standard for guiding
his actions in life and also for judging others.
ATIOG
and training.
Besides objective tests, psychologists have alsn
developed certain projective tests, especially for the
assessment of personality.
Interview
" It involves seeking information from a person on a one.
to-one basis.
interaction
" This process can be observed during the
between a counsellor and a client, a salesperson
conducting a door-to-door survey regarding the
usefulness of a particular product.
Case Studies
" Case Study is an in-depth study of the individual in terms
of their psychological attributes, and psychological
history in the context of their psychosocial and physical
environment.
They are widely used by clinical psychologists. Case
analyses of the lives of great people can also be highly
illuminating for those willing to learn from the life
experiences of such people.
Case studies are based on data generated by
different
methods, for example, interviews,
questionnaires, psychological tests, etc. observation,
Observation
Involves employing systematic, organised, and
procedures to record behavioural phenomena objective
naturally in real-time.
occurring
Certain phenomena such as
can be easily studied throughmother-child interactions
observation.
" The major problems with
that the observer has little
control over the
and the reports
may suffer
observational
interpretations of the observer.
methods are
from situation
subjective
Self-Report
. It is a
method
in which a person
factual
information about themselves and/orprovides
opinions, beliefs,
etc. that they holds.
"Such
information may be obtained by using an interview
schedule or a questionnaire,
psychological test, or a
personal diary.
INTELLIGENCE
e
Intelligence is a key construct employed to know how
individuals differ from one another.
It also provides an
of how people adapt
understanding
their behaviour according
to the environment they live
in.
"
Psychological notion of intelligence is quite different
from the common-sensical
notion of intelligence.
The Oxford Dictionary explains
intelligence as the power
of perceiving, learning,
understanding, and knowing.
Early intelligence theorists also used these attributes to
define intelligence.
Views of Prominent Psychologists
Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists who
worked on intelligence.
He defined intelligence as the ability to judge well,
understand well, and reason well.
Wechsle, whose intelligence tests are most widely
used, understood intelligence in terms of its functionality,
i.e.,its value for adaptation to the environment.
" He defined it as the global and aggregate capacity of an
individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal
effectively with their environment.
"Other psychologists, such as Gardner and Sternberg
have suggested that an intelligent individual not only
adapts to the environment, but also actively modifies
or shapes it.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
"Several theories of intelligence have been proposed by
psychologists.
" Theories can be broadly classified as either representing
a psychometric/structural approach or an information
processing approach.
* Psychometric Approach: It considers intelligence as
an aggregate of abilities.
It expresses the individual's performance in terms
of a single index of cognitive abilities.
* Information Processing Approach: It describes the
processes people use in intellectual reasoning and
problem-solving.
The major focus of this approach is on how an
intelligent person acts.
Rather than focusing on the structure of
intelligence or its underlying dimensions, the
information-processing approach emphasises
studying cognitive functions underlying intelligent
behaviour.
Alfred Binet: Uni or One
Factor Theory of Intelligence
" Alfred Binet was the first psychologist who tried to
formalise the concept of intelligence in terms of mental
operations.
His theory was rather simple as it arose from his interest
in differentiating more intelligent individuals from the
less intelligent individuals.
He conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one
similar set of abilities that could be used for solving any
or every problem in an individual's environment.
" His theory of intelligence is called Uni or the One-Factor
Theory of Intelligence.
This theory came to be disputed when psychologists
started analysing data of individuals, which was
collected using Binet's test.
Charles Spearman:Two Factor Theory
" It was
introduced by Spearman in 1927.
" Spearman employed a statistical method called factor
analysis.
He showed that intelligence consisted of a general factor
(g-factors) and some specific factors (s-factors).
" The g-factor includes mental operations which were
primary and common to all performances.
" In addition to theg-factor, he stated, that there are also
many specific abilities. These are contained in what he
called the s-factors.
" Excellent singers, architects, scientists, and athletes may
be high on the g-factor, but in addition to this, they have
specific abilities which allow them to excel in their
respective domains.
Spearman's theory was followed by Louis Thurstone's
theory.
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS
3
CUET (UG) Psychology
Products are classified into units,
Louis Thurstone: Theory
of Primary Mental Abilities
Since this classification (Guilford, 1988)
6x5x6 categories, therefore, the model
cells.
to have at least one
Each cellisexpected
e
others.
These primary abilities are:
* Verbal Comprehension: Grasping the meaning of
words, concepts and ideas.
Numerical Abilities: Speed and accuracy in numerical
and computational skills.
Spatial Relations: Visualising patterns and forms.
Perceptual Speed: Speed in perceiving details.
Word Fluency: Using words fluently and flexibly.
Memory: Accuracy in recalling information.
o Inductive Reasoning: Deriving general rules
Hierarchical Model of Intelligence
This model consisted of abilities operating at two
Level l and Level lI.
" Level I: Level l is associative learning in which output is
and
more or less similar to the input (e.g., rote learning
memory).
Level Il: It is also called cognitive competence and
involves higher-order skills as they transform the input
to produce an effective output.
Model
J.P. Guilford: Structure of Intellect
" J.P. Guilford proposed this model.
traits among three
This model classifies intellectual
dimensions:
respondent
Operations: Operations are what the
does.
recording,
These include cOgnition, memory
production,
memory retention, divergent
convergent production, and
evaluation.
materials
refer to the nature of
o Contents: Contents
are
intellectual operations
performed.
symbolic (e.g.,
These include visual, auditory,
(e.g., words) and
letters, numbers), semantic
people's
behavioural (e.g., information about
behaviour, attitudes, needs, etc.).
in which
Products refer to the form
Products:
*
processed by the respondent.
information is
inhaschude,180
factor
ability; some cells may have more than one factoor
Each factor is described in terms of all
dimensions.
three
Howard Gardner:
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
theory of multipla
"Howard Gardner proposed the
intelligences.
is not a single entity
" According to him, intelligence
exist.
rather distinct types of intelligences
independent of each
Each of these "intelligences" are
other.
Arthur Jensen:
or information on which
relations
systems, transtormations, and implications.
It states that intelligence consists of seven primary
abilities, each of which is relatively independent of the
levels
classes,,
B
type of
one
exhibits
person
This means that, if a
high
being
intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate
intelligences.
or low on other types of
these different types of
" Gardner also put forth that
to finda
intelligences interact and work together
solution to a problem.
who had
respective areas,
shown exXceptional abilities in their
and described eight types of intelligence.
Gardner studied extremely talented persons,
Linguistic
language fluently and flexibly
" It is the capacity to use the understand others.
to express one's thinking and
'word-smart', i.e.
" Persons high on this intelligence are
meanings.
they are sensitive to different shades of word
their
are articulate, and can create linguistic images in
minds.
" Poets and writers are very strong in this component of n
intelligence.
Logical-Mathematical
" It is the ability to think logically and critically and solve
problems.
Persons high on this type of intelligence can think
logically and critically.
They engage in abstract reasoning, and can manipulate
symbols to solve mathematical problems.
Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likely to be strong
in this component.
Variations in PSych
Spatial
Itreferstothe ability to form
trefers to the abilities
visual images and patterns.
involved in forming, using and
transforming mental images.
The person high on this i
intelligence
Naturalistic
OIt refers to the ability to identify the features of the
natural world.
This involves complete awareness of our relationship
can easily
represent
the spatial world in the mind.
Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, architects, interior
decorators and surgeons are likely to
have
developed spatial intelligence.
highly
Musical
capacity to produce, create and manipulate
musical patterns.
It is the
with the natural world.
species
TiS useful in recognising thebeauty of different
of flora and fauna and making subtle discriminations in
the natural world.
" Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists, zoologists, and
bird watchers possess more naturalistic inteligence.
Robert Sternberg:
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Robert Sternberg (1985)proposed the Triarchic Theory
ePersons high on this intelligence are very sensitive to
counds and vibrations, and to creating new patterns of
of Intelligence.
He viewed intelligence as "the ability to adapt, to shape
sounds.
and select environment to accomplish one's goals and
Bodily-Kinaesthetic
those of one's society and culture".
According to this theory, there are three basic types of
intelligence - Componential, Experiential and
t refers to the ability to use while or portions of the
body flexibly and creatively.
Contextual.
This consists of the use of the whole body or portions
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence represents
of it for display or construction of products and
the information processing approach to understanding
intelligence.
problem-solving.
Athletes, dancers, actors, sportspersons, gymnasts, and
Surgeons are likely to have such kind of intelligence.
Componential Intelligence
Componential or Analytical Intelligence is the analysis
Interpersonal
of information to solve problems.
" This is the ability to understand the motives, feelings
Persons high on this ability think analytically and
critically and succeed in schools. This intelligence has
three components, each serving a different function.
3 First is the knowledge acquisition component, which
and behaviours of other people so as to bond into a
comfortable relationship with others.
Psychologists, counsellors, politicians, social workers,
and religious leaders are likely to possess high
is responsible for learning and acquisition of the ways
interpersonal intelligence.
of doing things.
The second is the meta or a higher-order component,
Intrapersonal
which involves planning concerning what to do and
how to do it.
Itrefers to the abilityto understand one's own feelings,
motives, and desires.
o The third is the
"Thisrefersto the knowledge of one's internal strengths
and limitations and using that knowledge to effectively
relate to others.
Persons high on this ability have finer sensibilities
regarding their identity, human existence, and meaning
of life.
Philosophers and spiritual leaders present examples of
this type of intelligence.
performance component, which
involves actually doing things.
Experiential intelligence
"
Experiential or Creative Intelligence is involved in using
past experiences creatively to solve novel problems. it
is reflected in creative performance.
" Persons high on this aspect integrate
different
experiences in an original way to make new discoveries
and inventions.
CUET (UG)Psychology
They quickly find
out
is crucial in
which information
e Too much or too little arousal
attention.
a
givensituation.
ContextualIntelligence
involves the ability
Intelligence
Practical
" Contextual orenvironmental demands encountered on
Simultaneous and.| Súccessive
w
Chil
Pr
o
c
e
s
i
n
g
sinmultaneously divid
fam
into an indiv
larg
knowledge system either
Or
Simultaneous processínggtakes place
among various concepts are perceived
and integrated into a
comprehension.
easily adapt to their present
aspect
this
on
high
Persons
"
environment
environment or select amore favourable
the environment to fit
than the existing one, or modify
The
inte
whebynthansuec esrSeNlaEb,
and
meaningful pattienrdinvd,
The
inte
For example, in Raven's Progressive
her
whiMactrhaices
(R
Test, a design is presented from
is
been removed. An individual
part
required
to
one of the six optionsthat bestt
their needs.
successful in life.
"Therefore, they turn out to be
the cho,
compl
e
t
e
s
desig
Simultaneous processing helps the
grasping the meaning and relationshipindividual
between th
Planning, Attention-arousal and
Simultaneous-Successive (PASS) Model
given abstract figures.
"This model has been developed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri,
Her
ran
act
env
Asse-
Successive processing takes place all the informak.
is remembered serially so that the recall of one
lea
to the recall of another.
and Kirby (1994).
According to this model, intellectual activity involves
the interdependent functioning of three neurological
systems, called the functional units of the brain.
" These units are responsible for arousal/attention,
$Learning of digits, alphabets,
multiplication table:
etc., are examples of successive processing.
This is an essential feature of intelligence. After th
information is attended to and processed, planningi
activated.
Das and Naglieri have also developeda battery oftests,
" Itallows the development of possible courses of atior
their implementation to reach a target and evaluat
known as the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS).
" It consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that
" If aplan does not work, it is modified to suit th:
" The battery of tests is meant for individuals between 5
and 18 years of age.
" The results of the assessment can be used to
remedy
the cognitive deficits of children with learning problems.
This model represents the information processing
approach to intelligence.
Arousal/Attention
" State of arousal is basic to any
behaviour as it helps us
in attending to stimuli.
"
Arousal and attention enable a person to
process
information.
" An optimal level of arousal
focuses our attention on the
relevant aspects ofa problem.
Suc
19
In
Co
pe
an
le
Ch
their effectiveness.
requirements of the task or situation.
measure basic cognitive functions presumed to be
independent of schooling.
Alt
the
Planning
developed either formally (by reading, writing, and
experimenting) or informally through the environment.
These processes are interactive and dynamic in nature,
yet each has its own distinctive functions.
intertere
" Information can be integrated in
todeal with
a daily basis.
smartness' or 'business sense'
'street
called
be
may
"It
coding or processing, and planning respectively.
"These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base
would
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
IN INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and Nurture
" The studies on twins and adopted children have
provided evidence for the hereditary influences on
intelligence.
"
Another line
of
evidence comes from the studies o'
adopted children, which show that children's inteligencé
is more similar to their
biological rather than adoptivé
parents.
" With respect to the
role of the
studie
have reported that as
environment,
grow in age, thei
intelligence level tends tochildren
move closer to that of the
adoptive parents.
Inte
Variations in Psychological
e
Children from disadvantaged
homes adopted into
Emilies with higher socio-economic status exhibit a
iarge increase in their intelligence sCores.
There is evidence that environmental deprivation lowers
inteligence while rich nutrition, good family background,
andquality schooling increases intelligence.
There is a generalconsensus among psychologists that
intelligence is a product of complex interaction of
heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
e Heredity can best be viewed as something that sets a
within which an individual's development is
actually shaped by the support and opportunities of the
range
environment.
Assessment of Intelligence
e Aifred Binet and Theodore Simon and made the first
successful attempt to formally measure intelligence in
1905.
In 1908, when the scale was revised, they gave the
concept of Mental Age (MA), which is a measure of a
person's intellectual development relative to people of
their age group.
Amental age of 5means that a child's performance on
an intelligence test equals the average performance
level of a group of 5-year-olds.
" Chronological
4 Age (CA) is the biological age from birth. A bright
child's MA is more than her/his CA; for a dull child,
MA is below the CA.
* Retardation was defined by Binet and Simon as being
two mental age years below
* the chronological age.
Intelligence Quotient
" In 1912, William Stern, aGerman psychologist, devised
the concept of Intelligence Quotient (10).
" IQ refers to mental age divided by chronological age
and multiplied by 100.
* IQ = MA/CA x 100
"The number 100 is used as a multiplier to avoid the
decimal point. When the MA equals the CA, the iQ
equals 100.
If MA is more than the CA, IQ is more than 100. IQ
becomes less than 100 when the MA is less than
the CA.
Attributes
Normal Curve
population in such a way
the
in
distributed
are
" 1Q scores
tend to fall in the middle
people
most
of
scores
that the
range of the distribution.
Only a few people have either
very high or very low
distribution for the IQ scores
SCores. The frequency
bell-shaped curve, called the
tends to approximate a
normal curve.
symmetrical around the
" This type of distribution is
central value, caled the mean.
" Not everyone has the same
intellectual capacity.
the
the intelligence test is
of
use
practical
One
"
intellectual
identification of persons at the extremes of
functioning.
Variations of Intelligence
Intellectual Deficiency
enormous
" There are a lot of children who face
difficulty
in learning even very simple skills.
Children who display intellectual deficiency are termed
as "intellectually disabled".
There is, however, a wide variation among the
intellectually disabled.
The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD)
views intellectual disability as "significantly sub-average
general intellectual functioning existing concurrently
with deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested
during the developmental period".
This definition points to three basic features.
<3 First, aperson must show significantly sub-average
intellectual functioning to be judged as intellectually
disabled.
* The second is concerned with adaptive behaviour. It
refers to a person's capacity to be independent and
deal effectively with one's environment.
The third feature is that the deficits must be observed
during the developmental period, that is between 0
and 18 years of age.
Individuals categorised as having intellectual disabilities
display significant variations in their abilities.
" The development of people with mild disabilities is
typically slower as comparedtotheir peers, nevertheless,
they can function quite independently.
" With the increase in the level of disability, the difficulties
faced by such people become even more prominent.
The people with moderate disability lag behind their
peers in language and motor skills.
CUET
IG PSychologY
simple social
They can be trained in self-care skills, and
and communication skills.
They need to have a moderate degree of supervision in
everyday tasks.
"Individuals with profound and severe disabilities are
incapable of managing life and need constant care for
their entire lives.
Intellectual Giftedness
" Intellectually gifted individuals show enhanced
performance because of their outstanding personalities.
" Aithough the terms 'talent' and 'giftedness' are often
used interchangeably, they mean different things.
"Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in
superior performance in a wide variety of areas.
Talent is a narrower term and refers to the remarkable
ability in aspecific field (e.g., spiritual, social, aesthetic,
etc.).
The highly talented individuals are sometimes called
prodigies. It has been suggested by psychologists that
giftedness from the teachers' point of view depends on
a combination of high ability, high creativity, and high
commitment.
Gifted children show early signs of intellectual superiority.
"Even during infancy and early childhood, they show a
larger attention span, good recognition memory,
preference for novelty, sensitivity to environmental
changes, and early appearance of language skills.
" Toequate giftedness with brilliant academic performance
is not correct.
" Athletes who show superior psychomotor ability are
also gifted.
"Each gifted student possesses different strengths,
personalities and characteristics.
" Performance on intelligence tests is not the only
measure for identifying gifted students.
" Other methods such as teachers' feedback, school
achievement records, etc. can also be used for this
purpose.
Types of Intelligence Tests
" Intelligence tests are of several types and can be
categorised as individual or group tests based on their
procedure of administration.
They can aiso be classified as either verbal or
performance tests on the basis of the nature of items
used.
biasness or the lack
" Depending on the
inteligencetest, it can be judged as either
thereof
or culture-biased.
culture-4a
Individual or Group Tests
is
" An individual inteligence test
one
that
administered to one person at a time.
can beeadministeredtto
" Agroupintelligencetest
persons simultaneously.
canb
o
sever
"Individual tests require the test administrator t,
establish arapport withthe subject and|be sensitive to
their feelings, moods and expressions during the
etesting
session.
Group tests, however, do not allow an opportunity t,
be familiar with the subjects' feelings.
Individual tests allow people to answer orally or in:
written form or manipulate objects as per the tester' Int
instructions.
S
"Group tests generally seek written answers usually in a
multiple-choice format.
Verbal, Non-Verbal, or Performance Tests
An intelligence test may be fully verbal, fully non-verba
or fully performance-based, or it may consist of
mixture of items from each category.
Verbal tests require subjects to give verbal responses
either orally or in a written form.
Therefore, verbal tests can be administered only to
R
literate people.
The non-verbal tests use pictures or
illustrations as test
items.
"Raven's
Progressive
of a non-verbal test. Matrices (RPM) Test is an
" In this test, the
examines an
and chooses asubject
figure from the
example
incomplete pattern
that will
complete the pattern.
alternatives
"
tests require subjects to
Performance
objects and other
manipulate
materials toperforma task.
Written
is
items. language not necessary for
answering the
&For
example, Kohs Block Design Test
number of wooden
a
contains
arrange the
bl
o
cks.
The
is
asked to
a given design.blocks within atime subject
period to produce
" Amajor advantage of
can be easily
cultures.
administerperedfotormancepersonstestsfrom thatdifferentthey
is
CUF
Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests
e
Intelligence testscan be cultürefair or
e Many
intelligence
tests show a bias toculture-biased.
the culture in
which they are developed.
eIt is nearly
impossible to design a test that can be
applied equally
in all cultures.
meaningfully
e
Psychologistsor have tried to develop tests that are
culture-fair
culturally appropriate, i.e., one that does
not
discriminate
different
cultures. against individuals belonging to
For example, in less technologically developed societies,
social and emotional skills in relating to peopie are
valued, while in technologically advanced societies,
personal achievement founded on abilities of reasoning
and judgment is considered to represent intelligence.
" A person's intelligence is likely to be tuned by
these
cultural parameters.
Many theorists have regarded intelligence as attributes
constructing
specific to the person without paying much regard to
their cultural background.
The unique features of culture now find
some
representation in theories of intelligence.
Sternberg's notion of contextual or practical intelligence
implies that intelligence is a product of culture.
"Vygotsky also believed that cultures, like
individuals,
have a life of their own, they grow and change, and in
the process specify what will be the end-product of
Binet's test in Urdu and Punjabi.
Mahalanobis attempted to standardise Binet's test in
Bengali.
universal, the manner in which higher mental
functions such as problem-solving and thinking operate
are largely culture-produced.
e Insuch
tests, items are
in a manner that
constructed
they assess
experiences
common to all cultures or have
in which
questions
language
is not
e
required.
Non-verbal and performanceusage
tests
help
the
cultural bias usually
associated with verbal reduce
tests.
Intelligence Testing in India
S.M.
Mohsin made a pioneering
attempt in
an intelligence test in
Hindi in the 1930s.
An attempt was made by
C.H. Rice to standardise the
e
Variations in Psychological Attributes
Attempts were also made
by
Indian researchers to
develop Indian norms for some western
RPM, WAIS, Alexander's Passalong, Cubetests including
Construction,
and Kohs' Block Design.
" Long and Mehta
prepared aMental Measurement
Handbook listing out 103 tests of intelligence
in. India
that were available in various
languages.
successfulintellectual development.
According to him, while elementary mental functions
are
Technological Intelligence
Technologically advanced societies adopt child-rearing
practices that foster skills of generalisation and
abstraction, speed, minimal moves, and mental
manipulation among children.
" Since
then, a number of tests have either been
developed or adapted from western cultures.
" The National Library of
Educational and
Tests (NLEPT) at the National Council ofPsychological
Educational
Research and Training (NCERT) has documented Indian
tests.
Critical reviews of Indian tests are published in the form
of handbooks.
NLEPT has brought out the handbooks in the areas of
intelligence, aptitude, personality, attitudes, and
interests.
CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE
The cultural environment provides a context for
intelligence to develop. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist,
has argued that
culture provides a social context in
which people live, grow, and understand the world
around them.
"
These societies promote a type of behaviour,
which can
be called technological
intelligence.
In these societies, persons are
well-versed in skills of
attention, observation, analysis, performance, speed,
and achievement orientation.
Intelligence tests developed in western cultures look
precisely for these skills in an individual.
Technological intelligence is not so valued in many Asian
and African societies.
" The
qualities and skills regarded as intelligent actions
non-western cultures are sharply different, though
the boundaries are gradually
influence of western cultures. vanishing under the
in
In addition to cognitive
competence that is very specific
to the individual, the
non-Western cultures look for
skills to relate to others in the society.
Some non-western societies value self-reflection and
collectivistic orientation
as opposed to personal
achievement and individualistic orientation.
CUET(UG)Psychology
Tradition
Intelligencein Indian
intelligence, intelligence in
technological
to
contrast
" In
be termed as integral
the Indian tradition can
intelligence.
The Indian approach emphasizes
connectivity with the
social and world environment.
holistic
Indian thinkers view intelligence from a
perspective where equal attention is paid to cognitive
and non-cognitive processes as their integration.
Buddhi
The Sanskrit word 'buddhi' which is often used to
represent intelligence far more pervasive in scope
than the western concept of intelligence.
" According to J.P. Das, it includes such skills as mental
effort, determined action, feelings, and opinions along
with cognitive competence such as knowledge,
discrimination, etc.
" Buddhi is also the knowledge of one's self based on
conscience, will and desire.
" The notion of buddhi has affective and motivational
components besides a strong cognitive component.
" The Indian tradition focuses on the following capacities
as the facets of intelligence:
own and other'semotions, to discriminate:
and to use the information to guide one's
etahminokninggIhe ar,
actions".
" Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express
intelligence in the same way as IQ is used
intelligence.
" In simple terms, emotional intelligence
ability to process emotionalinformation
emotora
to expres
refers to the
accurately
ang
efficiently:
" Emotional intelligence is receiving increasing attens.
from educators for dealing with students who .
affected by the stresses and challenges of the outeia
world.
" Programmes aimed at improving students' emotiona
intelligence have beneficial effects on their academ
achievement.
"They encourage cooperative behaviour and reduce thei
antisocial activities.
" These programmes are very useful in preparing student
toface the challenges of life outside the classroom.
SPECIAL ABILITIES
Aptitude
* Cognitive Capacity: Sensitivity to context,
" Aptitude refers to special abilities in a particular field
understanding, discrimination, problem solving, and
of activity.
" It is a combination of characteristics that indicates an
effective communication.
* Social Competence: Respect for social order,
commitment to elders, the young and the needy,
concern about others, and recognising others'
perspectives.
* Emotional Competence: Self-regulation and self
monitoring of emotions, honesty, politeness, good
conduct, and self-evaluation.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Emotional intelligence broadens the scope of intelligence
by not only including the intellectual prowess of an
individual but also emotions.
Emotional intelligence builds upon the Indian concept
of intelligence.
that underlie
" Emotional inteligence is a set of skills
accurate appraisal, expression, and regulation of
emotions.
first
" The concept of emotional intelligence was
introduced by Salovey and Mayer who considered
emotional intelligence as "the ability to monitor one's
individual's capacity to acquire some specific knowledge
or skill after training'
" Aptitude is assessed with the help of selected tests. The
knowledge of aptitude can help to predict an individual's
future performance.
" While assessing intelligence, psychologists often found
that people with similar intelligence differed widely in
acquiring certain knowledge or skills.
Interest
" Along with aptitude, interest is also required to be
successful in any particular field.
Interest is a preference for a particular activity; aptitude
is the potentiality to perform that activity.
Aperson may be interested in a particular job or activity
but may not have the aptitude for it.
" Similarly, a person may have the potential for performing
a job,but may not be interested in doing that.
In both cases, the outcome will not be
satisfactory.
Variations in Psychological Attributes
AptitudeTests
o Aptitudetests are availableein two forms independent
(specialised)aptitude tests : and
aptitude tests,
OThere is no disagreement that creativity is determined
by both heredity and environment.
multiple (generalised)
Limits of creative potential are set by heredity;
environmental factors stimulate the development of
e Clerical Aptitude, Mechanical Aptitude, Numerical
Aptitude,, and Typing Aptitude are independent
creativity.
taptitude
The realisation of thecreative potentialof an individual
e Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in the form of test
batteries, which measure aptitude in
several
Is largely determined byenvironmental factors such as
motivation, commitment, family support, peer
tests.
but homogeneous areas.
Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), the General Aptitude
Tests Battery (GATB), and the Armed Services
Aptitude Battery (ASVAB). are
batteries.
Vocational
well-known aptitudeetest
Among these, DAT is most
commonly usedin educational
settings. It consists of 8 independent subtests:
Verbal Reasoning
Numerical Reasoning
* Abstract
Reasoning
* Clerical Speed
* Accuracy
Mechanical Reasoning
Space relations
4 Spelling
4 Language usage
JM. Ojha has developed an Indian adaptation of DAT.
CREATIVITY
Manifestations of creativitycan be observed in a novel
solution to a problem such as an invention, or even the
composition of a poem, a breakthrough in preventing
a disease etc.
" One common element among these, despite differences,
is the production of something new and unique.
" Creativity is not just limited to a selected few - the
artist, the scientist, the poet or the inventor.
" An ordinary individual who is engaged in simple
occupations like pottery, carperntry, cooking, etc. can
also be creative.
" It can be said that individuals vary in
terms of the level
and the areas in which they exhibit creativity and that
all may not be operating at the same
level.
"The variations in the
potential for creativity can be
atributed to the complex interaction of heredity and
environment.
influences,training opportunities, etc.
separate
Creativity and intelligence
e Terman, in the 1920s, found that persons with high lQ
were not necessarily creative.
" At the same time, creative ideas could come from
persons who did not have a very high IQ.
e Other researches have shown that not even one of those
identified as gifted, followed up throughout their adult
life, had become well-known for creativity in some field.
" Researchers have also found that both high and low
levels of creativity can be found in highly intelligent
children and children of average intelligence.
" The same person, thus, can be creative and intelligent,
but it is not necessary that intelligent ones, in the
conventional sense, must be creative.
" Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not ensure
creativity.
"
Researchers have found that the relationship between
creativity and intelligence is positive with all the creative
acts requiring some minimum ability to acquire
knowledge and capacity to comprehend, retain
and retrieve.
" However,
beyondacertain level, intelligence does not
correlate well with creativity.
" It can be concluded that
creativitycan take many forms
and blends. Some may have more of
intellectual
attributes, others may have more of attributes
associated with creativity.
Creativity Tests
" Creativity tests came into
existence to assess variations
in terms of the potential for
creativity in contrast to
intelligence.
" Ageneral feature of most of the
creativity tests is that
they are open-ended.
" They permit the people to think of
different
to
the questions or problems in terms of their answers
experiences,
whatever these may have been.
" These help the individual to go in
different directions.
CUET (UG)Psychology
toquestions or
There are no specified answers
in creativity tests.
problems
imagination
Therefore, there is the freedom to use one's
and express it in original ways.
Creativity tests involve divergent thinking and assess
such abilities as the ability to produce a variety of ideas,
i.e., ideas which areoff-the-beaten-track, ability to see
new relationships between seemingly unrelated things,
ability to guess causes and consequences, ability to put
things in a newW Context, etc.
Since expressions of creativity are varied, tests have
been developed using different stimuli like words,
figures, actions, and sounds.
These tests measure generalcreative thinking abilities
like the ability to think of a variety of ideas on a given
topic/situation, alternative ways of
looking at
things,
of unusual ideascauses
to and
proble ms or situations, to
consequences, to think
guess
and to use common objects, ask unusual
SO on.
"A few investigators have also
improveand
questions:
developed tests o
creativity in different areas such as
literary creativity
scientific creativity, mathematical creativity, etc.
Some of the famous psychologists who have develoned
creativity tests are Guilford, Torrance, Khatena, Wallac
and Kogan, Paramesh, Baqer Mehdi, and Passi.
" Each test hasa standardised procedure, a complete se
of manuals, and interpretation guide.
These can be used only after extensive training in
administration and interpretation of test scores.